SOIL MECHANICS BASIC CONCEPTS

Soil mechanics Basic concepts

1. Physical and index properties of soils. soils. Soil classifications 2. Stresses in soils, soils, geostatic stresses, stresses due to surface loads 3. Constitutive laws of materials 4. Water in soils 5. Soil deformability and soil strength 1. Consolidation and settlement of soils 2. Shear strength. strength. Behaviour of sandy and clayey soils. soils. Application to the case of the plane failure

1. Physical and index properties of soils. Soil classifications

Physical properties of soils

Definitions
Volumes
V or Vt : Total volume of soil Vs : Volume of solid grains Vw : Volume of soil water Va : Volume of soil air Vv : Volume of voids (partly or totally filled with water) W ou Wt : Total weight of soil Ws : Weight of solid grains Ww : Weight of soil water Wa : Weight of soil air (Wa = 0)

Weights

Schematic representation of soil, as a tree-phase medium

Volumes Va Vw air water Weights Wa = 0 Ww

Vs

Solid grains

Ws

Phase diagram illustration of a soil that exhibits a total volume V and total weight W V = V s + Vw + Va ; W = W s + W w + W a

Unit weights
Unit weight of grains: s = Ws / Vs Unit weight of water: w = W w / Vw Unit weight of natural soil: = W / V Unit weight of dry soil: d = Ws / V Unit weight of saturated soil: sat = Wsat / Vsat

Void ratio, porosity

Void ratio: e = Vv / Vs Relative density: Dr = (emax e)/(emax emin) Porosity: n = Vv / Vt Effective porosity of saturated soil: ne = Vfree water / Vt

Water content, saturation degree

Water content: w = W w / Ws Water content of saturated soil: wsat = w . Vv / Ws Saturation degree: S = Vw / Vv

Relationships between physical parameters

Volumes Va = (1 S).e Vv = e Vw = S.e air water Weights Wa = 0 Ww = w. s

Vs = 1

Solid grains

Ws = s

Phase diagram illustration with the hypothesis of Vs = 1 that allows easily establishing relationships between physical parameters

Relationships between parameters (s et w being given)

n = e / (1 + e) e = n / (1 - n) d = s / (1 + e) = s . (1 n) = s . (1 + w) / (1 + e) w . s = w . S . e In case of a saturated soil, then: e ~ 2.7 . w

Dry soil (w = 0, S = 0): one parameter among ( = d, sat, e, n) is used to calculate the other parameters; Saturated soil (S = 1): one parameter among (d, = sat, e, n, w) is used to calculate the other parameters; Unsaturated soil: two independant parameters among (d, sat, e, n) and (, w, S) are used to calculate the other parameters.

Minerals and unit weights (kN.m-3)

Quartz K-Feldspath Na-Ca-Feldspath Calcite Dolomite Muscovite Biotite Chlorite Pyrophyllite Serpentine Kaolinite Halloysite (2H2O) Illite Montmorillonite Attapulgite

26.5 25.4 25.7 26.2 27.6 27.2 28.5 27.0 31.0 28.0 32.0 26.0 29.0 28.4 26.2 26.6 25.5 25.5 26.0 28.6 27.5 27.8 23.0

Void ratios, porosities and dry unit weights of soils

Description Void ratio Porosity Dry unit weights

emax
Uniform spheres Ottawa standard sand Uniform clean sand Uniform inorganic silt Silty sand Fine to coarse sand Micaceous sand Silty sand and gravel

emin
0.35 0.50 0.40 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.40 0.14

nmax
47.6 44 50 52 47 49 55 46

nmin
26 33 29 29 23 17 29 12

dmin
14.1 15.0 13.5 12.9 14.2 13.9 12.3 14.6

dmax
20.0 18.0 19.3 19.3 20.8 22.5 19.3 23.7

0.92 0.80 1.00 1,10 0.90 0.95 1.20 0.85

Numerical values of phyisical parameters, after:

Cranularity Granulometry sedimentometry Grain size distribution curves

Definition : Granularity is given by the distribution of grain weights as a function of size (width or equivalent diameter) Granulometry uses a sieve column for particle sizes more than 40m or 80m. Sedimentometry uses an hydrometer or a sedimentometer for particle sizes less than < 40m or 80m.

Granulometric curve

100%

(100 y)% = retained on Dy diameter sieve

y%

% in weight of total soil

50%

y% = passing through the Dy diameter sieve

0%

Dy

Particle diameters decreasing (logarithmic scale)

100%

This soil contains (y y) % in weight of total soil, made up of particles with diameters between Dy and Dy .

y%

% in weight of total soil

50%

y%

0%

Dy

Dy

Particle diameters decreasing (logarithmic scale)

Well sorted soils or poorly graded soils

This soil is well sorted or poorly graded. The grain size distribution curve is uniform. This may be a sediment that has undergone a grain sorting:
100%

y%

in the marine environment Example: Fontainebleau sand, with Dy = 100m and Dy = 300m in the continental environment Example: aeolian silt or loess, with Dy = 10m and Dy = 50m

% in weight of total soil

50%

y%
0%

Dy

Dy

Particle diameters decreasing (logarithmic scale)

Poorly sorted soils or well graded soils

This soil is poorly sorted or well graded. The soil exhibits a large range of particle diameters. This may be a sediment that has undergone gravitational or fluvial transport, such as mountain screes or alluvial sands and gravels. Example: Screes, with Dy = 1mm and Dy = 50cm Example: Alluvium, with Dy = 100m and Dy = 10cm

100%

y%

% in weight of total soil

y%

0%

Dy

Dy

Particle diameters decreasing (logarithmic scale)

Granulometric indices
Fractiles: D25, D75, D50 = median value Deciles: D10, D90 Uniformity coefficient: Cu = D60/D10 Example: Cu<2: well sorted sands, uniform grain size curve Sorting coefficient: S0 = D75/D25 Example: S0<2.5: well sorted sediment (marine or aeolian sediment) S0>4.5: poorly sorted sediment (gravitational, torrential, glacial sediment) Coefficient of curvature: Cc = D302/(D60.D10)

Some of these indices are used for soil classifications

10

Sol 1: Gb, grave propre bien gradue, Cu = 30, Cc = 1,15 Sol 2: Gm, grave propre mal gradue, Cu = 50, Cc = 0,25 Sol 3: GL, grave limoneuse, WL = 45%, IP = 12% Sol 4: GA, grave argileuse, WL = 70%, IP = 40%

Sol 5: Sb, sable propre bien gradu, Cu=7,2, Cc= 1,14 Sol 6: Sm, Sable propre mal gradu, Cu=2, Cc=1,0 Sol 7: SL: sable limoneux, WL = 55%, IP = 22% Sol 8: SA, sable argileux, WL = 66%, IP = 37%

Soil 1: GW, clean well graded gravels, Cu = 30, Cc = 1,15 Soil 2: GP, clean poorly graded gravels, Cu = 50, Cc = 0,25 Soil 3: GM, silty gravels, WL = 45%, IP = 12% Soil 4: GC, clayey gravels, WL = 70%, IP = 40%

Soil 5: SW, clean well graded sands, Cu=7,2, Cc= 1,14 Soil 6: SP, clean poorly graded sands, Cu=2, Cc=1,0 Soil 7: SM: silty sands, WL = 55%, IP = 22% Soil 8: SC, clayey sands, WL = 66%, IP = 37%

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Compactability of soils Proctor curves

Normal Proctor Test and Modified Proctor Test

12

Caracterization of fine particles

Fine particles (<2m) exhibit surface properties when in contact with water. These properties are named activity and can be described as cohesion, plasticity, shrinkage, swelling. These properties result from: the small size of clayey particles (<2m, such as kaolinite, illite, smectite) and the corresponding high external specific surface; the crystal structure of phyllosilicates and the corresponding high internal specific structure, especially for smectite, sepiolite, attapulgite; the adsorption complex of clayey minerals with a general deficit of electric charges and the possibility to adsorb dipolar water molecules and cations.

Smectite
7.2 15

Kaolinite

General scheme of crystal structures of clayey minerals

13

Activity of fine soils Atterberg limits

Measurement of Liquid limit, using the Casagrande apparatus

14

Atterberg limits and indices

Plasticity index: IP = wL - wP
0 < IP < 5 5 < IP < 15 15 < IP < 40 IP > 40 Non-plastic soil Moderately plastic soil Plastic soil Very plastic soil

Consistency index: Ic = (wL w) / IP

Ic < 0 0 < Ic < 0,25 0,25 < Ic< 0,50 0,50 < Ic< 0,75 0,75 < Ic< 1 Ic > 1 Soil with liquid consistence Soil with pasty or very soft consistence Soil with soft consistence Soil with firm consistence Soil with very firm consistence Soil with stiff consistence

Skempton or activity index: A = IP / (%< 2m)

A < 0,50 0,50 < A < 0,75 0,75 < A < 1,25 1,25 < A < 2 A>2 Soil with very low activity Soil with low activity Soil with medium activity Soil with high activity Soil with very high activity

Casagrande plasticity chart

A line

15

Clayey minerals and Atterberg limits

Mineral Montmorillonite Exchangeable cations Na K Ca Mg Fe Illite Na K Ca Mg Fe Kaolinite Na K Ca Mg Fe Attapulgite H Liquid Limit (%)
710 660 510 410 290 120 120 100 95 110 53 49 38 54 59 270

Plasticity Limit (%)

54 98 81 60 75 53 60 45 46 49 32 29 27 31 37 150

Plasticity Index (%)

656 562 429 350 215 67 60 55 49 61 21 20 11 23 22 120

Shrinkage Limit (%)

9.9 9.3 10.5 14.7 10.3 15.4 17.5 16.8 14.7 15.3 26.8 25.3 24.5 28.7 29.2 7.6

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Soil classification

N200 sieve: 0.075 mm N4 sieve: 4.75 mm G: gravel, S: sand, M: silt, C: clay, O: organic soil, PT: peat, highly organic soil W: well graded, P: poorly graded L: low plasticity, H: high plasticity

17

G: gravel, S: sand, M: silt, C: clay, O: organic soil, PT: peat, highly organic soil W: well graded, P: poorly graded L: low plasticity, H: high plasticity

Engineering use chart

18

Approximate classification of cohesive soils and rocks

2. Stresses in soils, Geostatic stresses, Stresses due to surface loads, Strains in soils

19

Stress vector

Conventional notations

Stress tensor (1/2)

20

Stress tensor (2/2)

21

Mohrs circle

22

An exercise: calculation of the octaedral stresses

Stresses in soils Dry soils

23

Stresses in soils Saturated soils

Terzaghis equation

24

Geostatic stresses

Stress calculation for an hydrostatic situation

Stresses in normally consolidated sediment. and u are respectively the total stress, effective stress and pore water pressure. b is the bulk unit weight.

25

Pore water pressure forces acting on a submerged cylinder

Stresses due to surface loads

Stresses on elements due to concentrated load Q. (a) Rectangular coordinate notation. (b) Polar coordinate notation

26

Induced loads Boussinesq Formula

Bulbs of induced stresses

Distribution of vertical stresses z induced by point load Q. Dashed lines represent the z distribution for various z values at depth z. Solid lines connect points of equal stress.

27

Example of approximate

z avg

calculation on plane at depth z, using a simplified model

Geostatic stresses, stress increments, Stress path

28

Strain tensor (1/2)

Strain tensor (2/2)

29

3. Constitutive laws of materials

Three fundamental mechanical specific test: Loading test, Creep test, Stress relaxation test.

30

Perfectly elastic solid

Isotropic linear elasticity 1/2

S = .r2

F
h
1

= F/S

=0

1 = h/h

2 = 3 = r/r

31

Isotropic linear elasticity 2/2

Viscous fluid/solid

32

Perfectly plastic solid and elasto-plastic solid

Elasto-plastic solid with hardening

Failure
3

Plasticity thresholds

2 1

33

Examples of mechanical models of materials with different rheology: (a): ideal plastic ( 0 = strength); (b): Bingham visco-plastic body; (c): Maxwell visco-elastic body; (d): Kelvin visco-elastic body

Examples of stress-strain diagrams for different mechanical behaviours

Stress-strain diagram for an ideal plastic body

Stress plotted against rate of strain for a Bingham plastic body

34

Examples of strain-time diagrams for different mechanical behaviours

Strain-time diagram for a Maxwell body when the applied stress is held constant

Strain-time diagram for a Kelvin body when the applied stress is held constant

Common types of stress-strain tests in laboratory

35

Oedometers

Triaxial apparatus

36

Direct shear box

4. Water in soils

37

Water in soils 1/6

Water in soils 2/6

38

Water in soils 3/6

Water in soils 4/6

39

Water in soils 5/6

Water in soils 6/6

40

Seepage apparatus and test results illustrating Darcys law

Diagram of a typical setup for the field permeability test (after J.N. Cernica, 1995)

41

i = [(h + L + Z) (L + Z)] / L = h/L /L = b w.h/L = b i.w = 0 i = b / w

Example of calculation of the critical gradient

Example of pore water pressure calculation for an hydrodynamic case

42

Flow net for a thin cutoff wall

Flow net for steady-state flow through a homogeneous dam

43

Different top flow lines for various earth dam cross sections

5. Soil deformability and soil strength 5.1 Consolidation and settlement of soils

44

Cross-section of a typical fixed-ring consolidometer

45

Unidimensional model of consolidation

0,1,2: the cell contains air = dry soil 3, 4: the cell contains water = saturated soil 1, 2, 3, 4, 5: the force F is applied (0) 2, 4: the upper tap is open 5: the lower tap is open

Settlement curves: settlement w as a function of time t

Corresponding components used in the mechanical analogy model

46

Consolidation curve, for a given load

The consolidation curve represents the void ratio as a function of time when a given load is applied on the sample in the oedometer. It allows to determine the amount of settlement for a given load and the coefficient of consolidation Cv that accounts for the consolidation velocity

Oedometric curve

The oedometric curve results from the compilation of n (6 or 8) consolidation curves. It allows to determine: the preconsolidation pressure Pc or c and the compression index Cc.

47

Example of consolidation curves (arithmetic scale for time)

Determination of the theoretical 100% consolidation, the primary time effect and the secondary time effect

48

Determination of the coefficient C that accounts for the secondary compression

Schematic representation of the three usual components of settlement: 1: immediate settlement (different in the oedometer by comparaison to field conditions); 2: primary consolidation (or Terzaghi consolidation); 3: secondary compression (or secondary consolidation).

49

Example of experimental oedometric curves (pressure void ratio curves) of an undisturbed precompressed clay soil. (a): arithmetic scale; (b): logarithmic scale

Practical conditions for settlement calculations, using the oedometric curve

The amount of settlement

50

Principal causes of differential compaction or differential settlement

A: Difference in original thickness;

B: Difference in compactibility of mixed lithologies;

C: Differential compaction rates, in this case produced by a well, or well field located at the center of the illustration.

Original configuration is at left in each illustration, compacted configuration at right. Compaction is to scale, with sand compacting from original porosity of 40 percent to a final 20 percent, clay from 80 percent to 20 percent. C was assumed to be be precompacted, with initial sand porosity of 25 percent, initial clay porosity of 50 percent and final porosities as above.

51

Consolidation: Evolution of excess pore water pressures within a clayey layer as a function of time. Case of a compressible layer intercalated between two permeable layers

The time dependent settlement

Consolidation ratio as a function of depth and time

Average consolidation ratio: linear initial excess pore water pressure. (a) Graphical interpretation of average consolidation ratio U; (b) U versus T: time factor, U = F(T) = F(Tv) T = Tv = Cv t / H2

52

Average percent consolidation versus time factor U = F(T)

5. Soil deformability and soil strength 5.2 Shear strength. Behaviour of sandy and clayey soils. Application to the case of the plane failure

53

Examples of some elasto-plastic behaviours

a) Ideal elasto-plastic material b) Elasto-plastic material Loose sand; Normally consolidated clay. a) Elasto-plastic material with work softening Dense sand; Overconsolidated clay.

54

Other examples of elasto-plastic behaviours

p=(

2)/2;

q=(

2)/2

55

Unconfined compression test Definition of cohesion C and internal friction angle

Envelope or intrinsic curve at failure

56

Mohrs circles for various cases of stress

Results of direct shear test on sands

57

Shearing of a loose sand, with negative dilatancy or contractancy

Shearing of a dense sand, with positive dilatancy

Results of direct shear test on clays Peak shear strength and residual shear strength

58

Triaxial test CD test CD test 1) Consolidated while 3 is applied 2) Drained while ( 1 - 3) is increasing until failure

Triaxial test UU test UU test 1) Uconsolidated while 2) Undrained while ( 1 3

3)

is applied is increasing until failure

59

Triaxial test CU test CU test 1) Consolidated while 3 is applied 2) Undrained while ( 1 - 3) is increasing, with measurement of u, until failure

Triaxial test CU test Measurement of Cu as a function of

1

60