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1. Introduction
Solids Gases
Liquids
Offer permanent
resistance to a Fluids
deforming force.
Are capable of flowing and conform to the
shape of the containing vessel and offer little
resistance to change of form.
When in equilibrium, fluids cannot sustain
tangential or shear forces.
All fluids have some degree of
compressibility.
2. Properties of fluids
2.1 Density
SI unit: kg/m3.
1
Typical value: The mass density of water at 4 0C is 1000 kg/m3.
For liquids, specific weight can be taken as constant for practical changes in
pressure.
2
2.4 Viscosity
Fluids flow under the action of forces, deforming continuously for as long as
the force is applied.
B B1 C C1
x
E
θ
y
A D
The term u/y is the change of velocity with y and may be written in the
differential form du/dy. The constant of proportionality is known as the
dynamic viscosity µ of the fluid.
3
τ = µ × du/dy
This is the Newton’s Law of viscosity
Kinematic viscosity, ν
µ µ µg
ν (nu) = ρ = γ =
γ
g
When evaporation takes place within an enclosed space, the partial pressure
created by the vapour molecules is called vapour pressure.
If the force per unit area on a surface increases from p to p +δp, the
relationship between change of pressure and change of volume depend on
the bulk modulus of the material:
Surface tension
Although all molecules are in constant motion, a molecule within the body
of the liquid is on average attracted equally in all directions by the other
molecules surrounding it, but at the surface between liquid and air or
interface between one substance and another, the upward and downward
attraction are unbalanced, the surface molecules being pulled inward
towards the bulk of the liquid. This causes the liquid surface to behave as if
it were an elastic membrane under tension.
4
The surface tension, σ, is measured as the force acting across unit length of a
line drawn in the surface.
Force
p
σ
For equilibrium,
p× πr2 = 2πr×σ
p = 2σ/r
5
In many problems with which engineers are concerned, the magnitude of
surface tension forces is very small compared with the other forces acting on
the fluid and may, therefore, be neglected.
However, these forces can cause serious errors in hydraulic scale models
through capillary effects.
Capillarity
Suppose that a fine tube, open at both ends, is lowered vertically into a
liquid. If the liquid wets the tube, the level of liquid will rise in the tube.
This means that the magnitude of the cohesion of the molecules in the liquid
is lesser than the adhesion of the liquid to the walls of the tube.
For liquids that do not wet glasses, the level of the liquid would fall in the
tube, e.g. mercury in glass tubes.
6
h
Capillarity is a serious source of error in fine gauge tubes. For example, for
water in a tube of 5 mm diameter, the capillary rise will be approximately
4.5 mm, while that for mercury the corresponding figure would be – 1.4
mm.
3. Problems
Solution
2. If the density of a liquid is 835 kg/m3, find its specific weight and specific
gravity. [Ans: 8.20 kN/m3, 0.837]