EC1254 LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

(Fourth semester ECE)

UNIT-I CIRCUIT CONFIGURATION FOR LINEAR ICs
2 mr!s "uest#o$s
1%&e$t#o$ the '($t)es o* #$te)rte' +#r+u#ts%
*Mnatursaton and hence ncreased equpment densty.
*Cost reducton due to batch processng.
*Increased system reabty due to the emnaton of sodered
|onts.
*Improved functona performance.
*Matched devces.
*Increased operatng speeds.
*Reducton n power consumpton.
2%,r#te 'o-$ the (r#ous .ro+esses use' to */r#+te IC0s
us#$) s#1#+o$ .1$r
te+h$o1o)2%
*Scon wafer preparaton.
* Eptaxa growth
*Oxdaton.
*Photothography.
*Dffuson.
*Ion mpantaton.
Isoaton.
*Metasaton.
*Assemby processng and packagng.
3%,ht #s the .ur.ose o* o4#'t#o$5
*SO2 s an extremey hard protectve coatng and s unaffected
by amost a
reagents.
*By seectve etchng of SO2, dffuson of mpurtes through
carefuy defned
wndows can be accompshed to fabrcate varous components.
4%,h2 1um#$#um #s .re*erre' *or met11#6t#o$5
*It s a good conductor.
*t s easy to depost aumnum fms usng vacuum deposton.
*It makes good mechanca bonds wth scon.
*It forms a ow resstance contact.
5% ,ht re the .o.u1r IC .+!)es (#1/1e5
Meta can package.
Dua-n-ne package.
Ceramc fat package.
7% De*#$e $ o.ert#o$1 m.1#*#er%
An operatona ampfer s a drect-couped, hgh gan ampfer
consstng of
one or more dfferenta ampfer. By propery seectng the externa
components, t can
be used to perform a varety of mathematca operatons.
8%&e$t#o$ the +hr+ter#st#+s o* $ #'e1 o.-m.%
* Open oop votage gan s nfnty.
*Input mpedance s nfnty.
*Output mpedance s zero.
*Bandwdth s nfnty.
*Zero offset.
9%,ht h..e$s -he$ the +ommo$ term#$1 o* :; $' :-
sour+es #s $ot )rou$'e'5
If the common pont of the two suppes s not grounded, twce
the suppy votage
w get apped and t may damage the op-amp.
<%De*#$e #$.ut o**set (o1t)e%
A sma votage apped to the nput termnas to make the output
votage as zero
when the two nput termnas are grounded s caed nput offset
votage.
1=% De*#$e #$.ut o**set +urre$t% Stte the reso$s *or the o**set
+urre$ts t the #$.ut
o* the o.-m.%
The dfference between the bas currents at the nput termnas
of the op-amp s
caed as nput offset current. The nput termnas conduct a sma
vaue of dc current
to bas the nput transstors.Snce the nput transstors cannot be made
dentca,there
exsts a dfference n bas currents.
11% De*#$e C&RR o* $ o.-m.%
The reatve senstvty of an op-amp to a dfference sgna as
compared to a
common -mode sgna s caed the common -mode re|ecton rato. It s
expressed
n decbes.
CMRR= Ad/Ac
12%,ht re the ..1#+t#o$s o* +urre$t sour+es5
Transstor current sources are wdey used n anaog ICs both as
basng
eements and as oad devces for ampfer stages.
13% >ust#*2 the reso$s *or us#$) +urre$t sour+es #$ #$te)rte'
+#r+u#ts%
*superor nsenstvty of crcut performance to power suppy
varatons and
temperature.
*more economca than resstors n terms of de area requred to
provde bas
currents of sma vaue.
*When used as oad eement, the hgh ncrementa resstance of
current source
resuts n hgh votage gan at ow suppy votages.
14% ,ht #s the '($t)e o* -#'1r +urre$t sour+e o(er
+o$st$t +urre$t sour+e5
Usng constant current source output current of sma
magntude(mcroamp
range) s not attanabe due to the mtatons n chp area. Wdar
current source
s usefu for obtanng sma output currents.Senstvty of wdar
current source s
ess compared to constant current source.
15%&e$t#o$ the '($t)es o* ,#1so$ +urre$t sour+e%
*provdes hgh output resstance.
*offers ow senstvty to transstor base currents.
17%De*#$e se$s#t#(#t2%
Senstvty s defned as the percentage or fractona change n
output current
per percentage or fractona change n power-suppy votage.
18%,ht re the 1#m#tt#o$s #$ tem.erture +om.e$ste'
6e$er-re*ere$+e sour+e5
A power suppy votage of ateast 7 to 10 V s requred to pace
the dode n the
breakdown regon and that substanta nose s ntroduced n the crcut
by the
avaanchng dode.
19%,ht 'o 2ou me$ /2 /$'-). re*ere$+e' /#s#$)
+#r+u#t5
The basng sources referenced to VBE has a negatve
temperature co-effcent
and VT has a postve temperature co-effcent. Band gap reference
crcut s one n
whch the output current s referenced to a composte votage that s a
weghted sum
of VBE and VT so that by proper weghtng, zero temperature co-effcent
can be
acheved.
1<%I$ .r+t#+1 o.-m.s? -ht #s the e**e+t o* h#)h *re"ue$+2
o$ #ts .er*orm$+e5
The open-oop gan of op-amp decreases at hgher frequences
due to the
presence of parastc capactance. The cosed-oop gan ncreases at
hgher frequences
and eads to nstabty.
2=% ,ht #s the $ee' *or *re"ue$+2 +om.e$st#o$ #$ .r+t#+1
o.-m.s5
Frequency compensaton s needed when arge bandwdth and
ower cosed oop
gan s desred. Compensatng networks are used to contro the phase
shft and hence
to mprove the stabty.
21%&e$t#o$ the *re"ue$+2 +om.e$st#o$ metho's%
*Domnant-poe compensaton
*Poe-zero compensaton.
22%,ht re the mer#ts $' 'emer#ts o* Dom#$$t-.o1e
+om.e$st#o$5
*nose mmunty of the system s mproved.
*Open-oop bandwdth s reduced.
23%De*#$e s1e- rte%
The sew rate s defned as the maxmum rate of change of
output votage caused
by a step nput votage.An dea sew rate s nfnte whch means that
op-amps output
votage shoud change nstantaneousy n response to nput step
votage.
24%,h2 IC 841 #s $ot use' *or h#)h *re"ue$+2 ..1#+t#o$s5
IC741 has a ow sew rate because of the predomnance of
capactance present
n the crcut at hgher frequences. As frequency ncreases the output
gets dstorted
due to mted sew rate.
25%,ht +uses s1e- rte5
There s a capactor wth-n or outsde of an op-amp to prevent
oscaton.It s
ths capactor whch prevents the output votage from respondng
mmedatey to a
fast changng nput.
17 mr!s "uest#o$s
1%E4.1#$ #$ 'et#1 the */r#+t#o$ o* ICs us#$) s#1#+o$ .1$r
te+h$o1o)2%
A$s@
*Scon wafer preparaton.
* Eptaxa growth
*Oxdaton.
*Photothography.
*Dffuson.
*Ion mpantaton.
*Isoaton.
*Metasaton.
*Assemby processng and packagng.
2%Des#)$ $ +t#(e 1o' *or $ em#tter-+ou.1e' .#r('#**ere$t#1
m.1#*#er) $'
.er*orm 'et#1e' $12s#s to *#$' #ts '#**ere$t#1 mo'e )#$
$' the out.ut
res#st$+e%
A$s@
? :oA:++ :BE(o$) ; 2:A(e**) t$h(:#' C 2:T)
G#$ ? A(' A 1 C ( :TC:AN ; :TC:AD )
Out.ut res#st$+e?Ro A ro$.$ EE ro.$.
3%Des#)$ ,#'1r +urre$t sour+e $' o/t#$ the e4.ress#o$ *or
out.ut +urre$t%A1so
.ro(e tht -#'1r +urre$t sour+e hs /etter se$s#t#(#t2 th$
+o$st$t +urre$t
sour+e%
A$s@
For Wdar current source, :T 1$( I+1C I+2 ) A I+2 R2
Se$s#t#(#t2 s defned as the percentage or fractona change n
output current
per percentage or fractona change n power-suppy votage.
For constant current source senstvty s unty because the
output current s drectyproportona to suppy votage. The
senstvty of a wdar current source s bettercompared to
constant current source because the output current has a
ogarthmcdependence on power suppy votage.
4% E4.1#$ the su..12 #$'e.e$'e$t /#s#$) te+h$#"ue us#$) :BE
s the re*ere$+e
(o1t)e%A1so? *#$' the 'e.e$'e$+e o* #ts out.ut +urre$t o$
tem.erture%
A$s@
The output current s gven by, Iout A :BE1 C R2 A (:T CR2) 1$ ( Ire*
C Is1 )
(Crcut dagram, sef-basng VBE reference crcut, start-up crcut
to avod zerocurrentstate)
Temperature co-effcent, TCF A %<BE1C :BE1 %8FFF-- %5FF5F%8
5%E4.1#$ su..12 #$'e.e$'e$t /#s#$) us#$) 6e$er-re*ere$+e'
/#s +#r+u#t%
A1so?'es#)$ tem.erture +om.e$ste' 6e$er-re*ere$+e
sour+e%
A$s@
The output current s gven by, Iout A :G C R2
(Crcut dagram, sef-basng zener bas reference crcut,
temperature compensated zener reference source )
7%O/t#$ the *re"ue$+2 res.o$se o* $ o.e$-1oo. o.-m. $'
'#s+uss /out the
metho's o* *re"ue$+2 +om.e$st#o$ %
A$s@
The open-oop gan of op-amp decreases at hgher frequences
due to the presence ofparastc capactance. The cosed-oop
gan ncreases at hgher frequences and eadsFrequency
compensaton s needed when arge bandwdth and ower
cosed oop gan s desred. Compensatng networks are used to
contro the phase shftand hence to mprove the stabty.
Fre"ue$+2 +om.e$st#o$ metho's@
*Domnant-poe compensaton
*Poe-zero compensaton.
UNIT II @ ADDLICATIONS OF OD A&DS
2 &r!s Huest#o$s@
1%&e$t#o$ some o* the 1#$er ..1#+t#o$s o* o. m.s @
Adder, subtractor, votage -to- current converter, current -to-
votage converters,
nstrumentaton ampfer, anaog computaton ,power ampfer,
etc are some of thenear op-amp crcuts.
2%&e$t#o$ some o* the $o$ 1#$er ..1#+t#o$s o* o.-m.s@-
Rectfer, peak detector, cpper, camper, sampe and hod
crcut, og ampfer,
ant -og ampfer, mutper are some of the non - near op-amp
crcuts.
3%,ht re the res o* ..1#+t#o$ o* $o$-1#$er o.- m.
+#r+u#ts5
. ndustra nstrumentaton
. Communcaton
. Sgna processng
4%,ht #s the $ee' *or $ #$strume$tt#o$ m.1#*#er5
In a number of ndustra and consumer appcatons, the
measurement of
physca quanttes s usuay done wth the hep of transducers.
The output of transducerhas to be ampfed So that t can drve
the ndcator or dspay system. Ths functon sperformed by an
nstrumentaton ampfer.
5%L#st the *etures o* #$strume$tt#o$ m.1#*#er@
. hgh gan accuracy
. hgh CMRR
. hgh gan stabty wth ow temperature co-effcent
. ow dc offset
._ ow output mpedance
7%,ht re the ..1#+t#o$s o* :-I +o$(erter5
. Low votage dc and ac votmeter
. L E D
. Zener dode tester
8%,ht 'o 2ou me$ /2 .re+#s#o$ '#o'e5
The ma|or mtaton of ordnary dode s that t cannot rectfy
votages
beow the cut - n votage of the dode. A crcut desgned by
pacng a dode n thefeedback oop of an op - amp s caed the
precson dode and t s capabe of rectfyng nput sgnas of the
order of mvot.
9%,r#te 'o-$ the ..1#+t#o$s o* .re+#s#o$ '#o'e%
. Haf - wave rectfer
. Fu - Wave rectfer
. Peak - vaue detector
. Cpper
. Camper
<%L#st the ..1#+t#o$s o* Lo) m.1#*#ers@
. Anaog computaton may requre functons such as nx, og x,
sn hx
etc. These functons can be performed by og ampfers
. Log ampfer can perform drect dB dspay on dgta votmeter
and
spectrum anayzer
. Log ampfer can be used to compress the dynamc range of a
sgna
1=%,ht re the 1#m#tt#o$s o* the /s#+ '#**ere$t#tor +#r+u#t5
. At hgh frequency, a dfferentator may become unstabe and
break
nto oscatons
. The nput mpedance decreases wth ncrease n frequency ,
thereby
makng the crcut senstve to hgh frequency nose.
11%,r#te 'o-$ the +o$'#t#o$ *or )oo' '#**ere$t#t#o$ @-
For good dfferentaton, the tme perod of the nput sgna must
be
greater than or equa to Rf C1
T I R f C1
Where, Rf s the feedback resstance
Cf s the nput capactance
12%,ht #s +om.rtor5
A comparator s a crcut whch compares a sgna votage
apped at one
nput of an op-amp wth a known reference votage at the other
nput. It s an open oopop - amp wth output ; Vsat .
13%,ht re the ..1#+t#o$s o* +om.rtor5
. Zero crossng detector
. Wndow detector
. Tme marker generator
. _ Phase detector
14%,ht #s S+hm#tt tr#))er5
Schmtt trgger s a regeneratve comparator. It converts
snusoda nput
nto a square wave output. The output of Schmtt trgger swngs
between upper and owerthreshod votages, whch are the
reference votages of the nput waveform.
15%,ht #s mu1t#(#/rtor5
Mutvbrators are a group of regeneratve crcuts that are used
extensvey n tmng appcatons. It s a wave shapng crcut
whch gves symmetrc orasymmetrc square output. It has two
states ether stabe or quas- stabe dependng onthe type of
mutvbrator.
17%,ht 'o 2ou me$ /2 mo$ost/1e mu1t#(#/rtor5
Monostabe mutvbrator s one whch generates a snge puse of
specfed duraton n response to each externa trgger sgna. It
has ony one
stabe state. Appcaton of a trgger causes a change to the
quas-stabe state.An externatrgger sgna generated due to
chargng and dschargng of the capactor produces thetranston
to the orgna stabe state.
18%,ht #s $ st/1e mu1t#(#/rtor5
Astabe mutvbrator s a free runnng oscator havng two
quas-stabe
states. Thus, there s oscatons between these two states and
no externa sgna are requred to produce the change n state.
19%,ht #s /#st/1e mu1t#(#/rtor5
Bstabe mutvbrator s one that mantans a gven output
votage eve
uness an externa trgger s apped . Appcaton of an externa
trgger sgna causes a change of state, and ths output eve s
mantaned ndefntey unt an second trgger s
apped . Thus, t requres two externa trggers before t returns
to ts nta state
1<%,ht re the re"u#reme$ts *or .ro'u+#$) sust#$e'
os+#11t#o$s #$ *ee'/+!
+#r+u#ts5
For sustaned oscatons,
. The tota phase shft around the oop must be zero at the
desred
frequency of oscaton, fo. e, $%_ ____RU______
. At fo, the magntude of the oop gan | A | shoud be equa to
unty
2=%&e$t#o$ $2 t-o u'#o *re"ue$+2 os+#11tors @
. RC phase shft oscator
. Wen brdge oscator
21%,ht re the +hr+ter#st#+s o* +om.rtor5
. Speed of operaton
. Accuracy
. Compatbty of the output
22%,ht #s *#1ter5
Fter s a frequency seectve crcut that passes sgna of
specfed band
of frequences and attenuates the sgnas of frequences outsde
the band
23%,ht re the 'emer#ts o* .ss#(e *#1ters5
Passve fters works we for hgh frequences. But at audo
frequences,
the nductors become probematc, as they become arge, heavy
and expensve.For ow frequency appcatons, more number of
turns of wre must be used whch n turn adds to the seres
resstance degradng nductors performance e, ow O, resutng
n hgh power dsspaton.
24%,ht re the '($t)es o* +t#(e *#1ters5
Actve fters used op- amp as the actve eement and resstors
and
capactors as passve eements.
. By encosng a capactor n the feed back oop , nductor ess
actve
futers can be obtaned
. Op-amp used n non - nvertng confguraton offers hgh nput
mpedance and ow output mpedance, thus mprovng the oad
drve
capacty.
25%&e$t#o$ some +ommo$12 use' +t#(e *#1ters @
. Low pass fter
. Hgh pass fter
. Band pass fter
. Band re|ect fter.
17 mr!s "uest#o$s@
1%D#s+uss the $ee' *or $ #$strume$tt#o$ m.1#*#er5 G#(e
'et#1e' $12s#s *or the
sme%
A$s@
In a number of ndustra and consumer appcatons, the
measurement of
physca quanttes s usuay done wth the hep of transducers.
The output of transducer has to be ampfed So that t can drve
the ndcator or dspay system. Ths functon s performed by an
nstrumentaton ampfer.
Crcut dagram, nstrumentaton ampfer wth transducer
brdge,
Anayss, Expresson for out put votage.
2%E4.1#$ the o.ert#o$ o* the S+hm#tt tr#))er%
A$s@
Schmtt trgger s a regeneratve comparator. It converts
snusoda nput nto a
square wave output. The output of Schmtt trgger swngs
between upper and ower threshod votages, whch are the
reference votages of the nput waveform.
Crcut dagram, Anayss.
Expresson for upper and ower threshod votages wth and
wthout Vref.
Hysterss wdth.
Waveforms.
3%D#s+uss #$ 'et#1 the o.ert#o$ o* Ast/1e mu1t#(#/rtor%
A$s@
Astabe mutvbrator s a free runnng oscator havng two
quas-stabe states.
Thus, there s oscatons between these two states and no
externa sgna are requred toproduce the change n state.
Crcut dagram, Anayss.
Expresson for tme perod , 8F FF5JFOHFFFFFFF FFFFFFFFFF FF
Waveforms.
Crcut for asymmetrc square wave generator.
4. D#s+uss #$ 'et#1 the o.ert#o$ o* &o$ost/1e mu1t#(#/rtor%
A$s@
Monostabe mutvbrator s one whch generates a snge puse of
specfed
duraton n response to each externa trgger sgna. It has ony
one stabe state.
Appcaton of a trgger causes a change to the quas-stabe
state.An externa trgger sgna generated due to chargng and
dschargng of the capactor produces the transton to the
orgna stabe state.
Crcut dagram, Anayss.
Expresson for tme perod , T A RC 1$ ( 1 ; :D C :st ) C ( 1 F
FF
Waveforms.
5% ,ht re the re"u#reme$ts *or .ro'u+#$) sust#$e'
os+#11t#o$s #$ *ee'/+!
+#r+u#ts5D#s+uss $2 t-o u'#o *re"ue$+2 os+#11tors%
A$s@
For sustaned oscatons,
. The tota phase shft around the oop must be zero at the
desred
frequency of oscaton, fo. e, $%_ ____RU______
. At fo, the magntude of the oop gan | A | shoud be equa to
unty.
RC .hse sh#*t os+#11tor@ Crcut dagram,Derve the condton
for frequency of
oscaton.
Gan,A( IA - 2<
,e#$ /r#')e os+#11tor : Crcut dagram,Derve the condton
for frequency of
oscaton.
Gan, A( A 3
UNIT 3 @ANALOG &ULTIDLIER AND DLL
2 mr!s "uest#o$s
1%&e$t#o$ some res -here DLL #s -#'e12 use'@
*Radar synchronsaton
*satete communcaton systems
*ar borne navgatona systems
*FM communcaton systems
*Computers.
2%L#st the /s#+ /u#1'#$) /1o+!s o* DLL@
*Phase detector/comparator
*Low pass fter
*Error ampfer
*Votage controed oscator
3%,ht re the three st)es throu)h -h#+h DLL o.ertes5
*Free runnng
*Capture
*Locked/ trackng
4%De*#$e 1o+!-#$ r$)e o* DLL@
The range of frequences over whch the PLL can mantan ock
wth the ncomng sgna s caed the ock-n range or trackng
range.It s expressed as a percentage of the VCO free runnng
frequency.
5%De*#$e +.ture r$)e o* DLL@
The range of frequences over whch the PLL can acqure ock
wth an nput sgna s caed the capture range. It s expressed as
a percentage of the VCO free runnngfrequency.
7%De*#$e Du11-#$ t#me%
The tota tme taken by the PLL to estabsh ok s caed pu-n
tme.It depends
and frequency dfference between the two sgnas as we as on
the
and oop fter characterstcs.
8%For .er*e+t 1o+!? -ht shou1' /e the .hse re1t#o$ /et-ee$
the #$+om#$) s#)$1 $' :CO out.ut s#)$15
The VCO output shoud be 90 degrees out of phase wth respect
to the nput
sgna.
9%G#(e the +1ss#*#+t#o$ o* .hse 'ete+tor@
*Anaog phase detector
*Dgta phase detector
<%,ht #s s-#t+h t2.e .hse 'ete+tor5
An eectronc swtch s opened and cosed by sgna comng from
VCO and the
nput sgna s chopped at a repetton rate determned by the
VCO frequency.Ths type ofphase detector s caed a haf wave
detector snce the phase nformaton for ony one hafof the nput
sgna s detected and averaged.
1=%,ht re the .ro/1ems sso+#te' -#th s-#t+h t2.e .hse
'ete+tor5
*The output votage Ve s proportona to the nput sgna
amptude.Ths s
undesrabe because t makes phase detector gan and oop gan
dependent on the nput sgna amptude.
__________7KH_RXWSXW_LV_SURSRUWLRODO_WR_FRV
_PDNLO|_LW_ORO_OLOHDU_
11%,ht #s (o1t)e +o$tro11e' os+#11tor5
Votage controed oscator s a free runnng mutvbrator
operatng at a set
frequency caed the free runnng frequency.Ths frequency can
be shfted to ether sdeby appyng a dc contro votage and the
frequency devaton s proportona to the dc contro votage.
12%O$ -ht .rmeters 'oes the *ree ru$$#$) *re"ue$+2 o*
:CO 'e.e$' o$5
*Externa tmng resstor,RT
*Externa tmng capactor,CT
*The dc contro votage Vc.
13%G#(e the e4.ress#o$ *or the :CO *ree ru$$#$) *re"ue$+2%
*o A =%25 C RT CT
14%De*#$e :o1t)e to Fre"ue$+2 +o$(ers#o$ *+tor%
Votage to Frequency converson factor s defned as,
%KF F FIoFFF F<+A 9*o C:++
ZKHUH___ _9c s the moduaton votage requred to produce the
frequency shft _Io
15%,ht #s the .ur.ose o* h(#$) 1o- .ss *#1ter #$ DLL5
*It removes the hgh frequency components and nose.
*Contros the dynamc characterstcs of the PLL such as capture
range, ock-n
range,band-wdth and transent response.
*The charge on the fter capactor gves a short- tme memory to
the PLL.
17%D#s+uss the e**e+t o* h(#$) 1r)e +.ture r$)e%
The PLL cannot acqure a sgna outsde the capture range, but
once captured, t
w hod on t the frequency goes beyond the ock-n range.Thus
, to ncrease the abtyof ock range,arge capture range s
requred.But, a arge capture range w make the PLLmore
susceptbe to nose and undesrabe sgna.
18%&e$t#o$ some t2.#+1 ..1#+t#o$s o* DLL@
Frequency mutpcaton/dvson
Frequency transaton
AM detecton
FM demoduaton
FSK demoduaton.
19%,ht #s +om.$'er IC5 G#(e some e4m.1es%
The term compandng means compressng and expandng.In a
communcaton
sgna s compressed n the transmtter and expanded n the
recever.
Exampes : LM 2704- LM 2707 ; NE 570/571.
1<%,ht re the mer#ts o* +om.$'#$)5
*The compresson process reduces the dynamc range of the
sgna before t s
transmtted.
*Compandng preserves the sgna to nose rato of the orgna
sgna and avods
non near dstorton of the sgna when the nput amptude s
arge.
*It aso reduces buzz,bas and ow eve audo tones caused by
md nterference.
20.Lst the appcatons of OTA:
OTA can be used n
programmabe gan votage ampfer
sampe and hod crcuts
votage controed state varabe fter
current controed reaxaton oscator.
17 mr!s
1% Br#e*12 e4.1#$ the /1o+! '#)rm o* DLL $' 'er#(e the
e4.ress#o$ *or Lo+!
r$)e $' +.ture r$)e%
Bock dagram of PLL
Expanaton for each bock.
Dervaton for capture range and ock range.
2% ,#th $et *u$+t#o$1 '#)rm? e4.1#$ the o.ert#o$ o*
:CO% A1so 'er#(e
$ e4.ress#o$ *or *o%
Interna dagram for VCO IC.
Expanaton
Dervaton for fo.
3% A$12se the G#1/ert0s *our "u'r$t mu1t#.1#er +e11 -#th
$et +#r+u#t
'#)rm%D#s+uss #ts ..1#+t#o$s%
Crcut dagram
Anayss
Expresson for output current
Appcatons.
4% I$ 'et#1 '#+uss the ..1#+t#o$s o* DLL@
AM detecton
FM demoduaton
FSK demoduaton
Frequency mutpcaton/dvson.
UNIT I: ACD AND DCA CON:ERTERS
2 mr!s "uest#o$s
1% L#st the /ro' +1ss#*#+t#o$ o* ADCs%
1. Drect type ADC.
2. Integratng type ADC.
2% L#st out the '#re+t t2.e ADCs%
1. Fash (comparator) type converter
2. Counter type converter
3. Trackng or servo converter
4. Successve approxmaton type converter
3% L#st out some #$te)rt#$) t2.e +o$(erters%
1. Charge baancng ADC
2. Dua sope ADC
4% ,ht #s #$te)rt#$) t2.e +o$(erter5
An ADC converter that perform converson n an ndrect manner
by frst
changng the anaog I/P sgna to a near functon of tme or
frequency and then
s known as ntegratng type A/D converter.
5% E4.1#$ #$ /r#e* the .r#$+#.1e o* o.ert#o$ o* su++ess#(e
A..ro4#mt#o$ ADC%
The crcut of successve approxmaton ADC conssts of a
successve
approxmaton regster (SAR), to fnd the requred vaue of each
bt by tra &
error.Wth the arrva of START command, SAR sets the MSB bt
to 1. The O/P
s converted nto an anaog sgna & t s compared wth I/P
sgna. Ths O/P s
process contnues unt a bts are checked.
7% ,ht re the m#$ '($t)es o* #$te)rt#$) t2.e ADCs5
. The ntegratng type of ADCs do not need a sampe/Hod crcut
at the
nput.
. It s possbe to transmt frequency even n nosy envronment
or n an
soated form.
8% ,here re the su++ess#(e ..ro4#mt#o$ t2.e ADC0s use'5
The Successve approxmaton ADCs are used n appcatons
such as data
oggers & nstrumentaton where converson speed s mportant.
9% ,ht #s the m#$ 'r-/+! o* 'u1-s1o. ADC5
The dua sope ADC has ong converson tme. Ths s the man
drawback
of dua sope ADC.
<% Stte the '($t)es o* 'u1 s1o.e ADC@
It provdes exceent nose re|ecton of ac sgnas whose perods
are
ntegra mutpes of the ntegraton tme T.
1=% De*#$e +o$(ers#o$ t#me%
It s defned as the tota tme requred to convert an anaog
sgna nto ts
dgta output. It depends on the converson technque used &
the propagaton
deay of crcut components.
The converson tme of a successve approxmaton type ADC s
gven by
T($;1)
where T---cock perod
Tc---converson tme
n----no. of bts
11% De*#$e reso1ut#o$ o* 't +o$(erter%
The resouton of a converter s the smaest change n votage
whch may
be produced at the output or nput of the converter.
Reso1ut#o$ (#$ (o1ts)A :FSC2$-1A1 LSB #$+reme$t. The
resouton of an
ADC s defned as the smaest change n anaog nput for a one
bt change at the
output.
12% De*#$e ++ur+2 o* +o$(erter%
A/so1ute ++ur+2@
It s the maxmum devaton between the actua converter
output & the deaconverter output.
Re1t#(e ++ur+2@
It s the maxmum devaton after gan & offset errors have
been removed.
The accuracy of a converter s aso specfed n form of LSB
ncrements or % of
fu scae votage.
13% ,ht #s sett1#$) t#me5
It represents the tme t takes for the output to sette wthn a
specfed
band LSB of ts fna vaue foowng a code change at the
nput (usuay a fu
scae change). It depends upon the swtchng tme of the ogc
crcutry due to
nterna parastc capactance & nductances. Settng tme
ranges from 100ns.
10s dependng on word ength & type crcut used.
14% E4.1#$ #$ /r#e* st/#1#t2 o* +o$(erter@
The performance of converter changes wth temperature age &
power
suppy varaton . So a the reevant parameters such as offset,
gan, nearty
error & monotoncty must be specfed over the fu temperature
& power suppy
ranges to have better stabty performances.
15% ,ht #s me$t /2 1#$er#t25
The nearty of an ADC/DAC s an mportant measure of ts
accuracy &
tes us how cose the converter output s to ts dea transfer
characterstcs. The
nearty error s usuay expressed as a fracton of LSB ncrement
or percentage
of fu-scae votage. A good converter exhbts a nearty error of
ess than
LSB.
17% ,ht #s mo$oto$#+ DAC5
A monotonc DAC s one whose anaog output ncreases for an
ncrease n
dgta nput.
18% ,ht #s mu1t#.12#$) DAC5
A dgta to anaog converter whch uses a varyng reference
votage VR s
caed a mutpyng DAC(MDAC). If the reference votage of a
DAC, VR s a
sne wave gve by
V(t)=Vn_&RV__ IW
Then, Vo(t)=Vom&RV__ IW______)
19%,ht #s sm.1e $' ho1' +#r+u#t5 ,here #t #s use'5
A sampe and hod crcut s one whch sampes an nput sgna
and hods
on to ts ast samped vaue unt the nput s samped agan. Ths
crcut s many
used n dgta nterfacng, anaog to dgta systems, and puse
code moduaton
systems.
1<%De*#$e sm.1e .er#o' $' ho1' .er#o'%
The tme durng whch the votage across the capactor n sampe
and hod
crcut s equa to the nput votage s caed sampe perod.The
tme perod durng
whch the votage across the capactor s hed constant s caed
hod perod.
2=%,ht #s me$t /2 'e1t mo'u1t#o$5
Deta moduaton s a technque capabe of performng anaog
sgna
quantsaton wth smaer bandwdth requrements. Here, the
bnary output
representng the most recent samped amptude w be
determned on the bass of
prevous samped amptude eves.
17 mr!s
1% ,ht #s #$te)rt#$) t2.e +o$(erter5E4.1#$ the o.ert#o$ o*
'u1 s1o.e ADC@
An ADC converter that perform converson n an ndrect manner
by frst
changng the anaog I/P sgna to a near functon of tme or
frequency and then
to a dgta code s known as ntegratng type A/D converter.
Functona dagram of Dua sope ADC.
Expanaton, Dervaton.
2% E4.1#$ the .r#$+#.1e o* o.ert#o$ o* su++ess#(e
A..ro4#mt#o$ ADC%
The crcut of successve approxmaton ADC conssts of a
successve
approxmaton regster (SAR), to fnd the requred vaue of each
bt by tra &
error.Wth the arrva of START command, SAR sets the MSB bt
to 1. The O/P
s converted nto an anaog sgna & t s compared wth I/P
sgna. Ths O/P s
ow or Hgh. Ths process contnues unt a bts are checked.
Functona dagram
Operaton
Truth tabe, Output graph.
3 . E4.1#$ the o.ert#o$ o* sm.1e $' ho1' +#r+u#t .
Crcut dagram
Operaton
Output waveforms.
4. E4.1#$ the (r#ous t2.es o* '#)#t1 to $1o) +o$(erters@
Weghted resstor DAC
R-2R adder DAC
Inverted R-2R adder DAC
Crcut dagram & operaton for each
5.,ht #s 'e1t s#)m mo'u1t#o$5E4.1#$ the ACD +o$(ers#o$
us#$) De1t
mo'u1tor%
Deta moduaton s a technque capabe of performng anaog
sgna
quantsaton wth smaer bandwdth requrements. Here, the
bnary output
representng the most recent samped amptude w be
determned on the bass of
prevous samped amptude eves.
Functona daaagram
Operaton.
UNIT : SDECIAL FUNCTION ICs
2 mr! "uest#o$s
1%&e$t#o$ some ..1#+t#o$s o* 555 t#mer@
*Oscator
*puse generator
*ramp and square wave generator
*mono-shot mutvbrator
*burgar aarm
*traffc ght contro.
2%L#st the ..1#+t#o$s o* 555 t#mer #$ mo$ost/1e mo'e o*
o.ert#o$@
*mssng puse detector
*Lnear ramp generator
*Frequency dvder
*Puse wdth moduaton.
3% L#st the ..1#+t#o$s o* 555 t#mer #$ Ast/1e mo'e o*
o.ert#o$@
*FSK generator
*Puse-poston moduator
4%,ht #s (o1t)e re)u1tor5
A votage reguator s an eectronc crcut that provdes a stabe
dc votage
ndependent of the oad current, temperature, and ac ne
votage varatons.
5%G#(e the +1ss#*#+t#o$ o* (o1t)e re)u1tors@
*Seres / Lnear reguators
*Swtchng reguators.
7%,ht #s 1#$er (o1t)e re)u1tor5
Seres or near reguator uses a power transstor connected n
seres between the
unreguated dc nput and the oad and t conducts n the near
regon .The output votage s controed by the contnous votage
drop takng pace across the seres pass transstor.
8%,ht #s s-#t+h#$) re)u1tor5
Swtchng reguators are those whch operate the power
transstor as a hgh
frequency on/off swtch, so that the power transstor does not
conduct current
contnousy.Ths gves mproved effcency over seres reguators.
9%,ht re the '($t)es o* IC (o1t)e re)u1tors5
*ow cost
*hgh reabty
*reducton n sze
*exceent performance
<%G#(e some e4m.1es o* mo$o1#th#+ IC (o1t)e re)u1tors@
78XX seres fxed output, postve votage reguators
79XX seres fxed output, negatve votage reguators
723 genera purpose reguator.
1=%,ht #s the .ur.ose o* h(#$) #$.ut $' out.ut +.+#tors
#$ three term#$1 IC
re)u1tors5
A capactor connected between the nput termna and ground
cances the
nductve effects due to ong dstrbuton eads. The output
capactor mproves the
transent response.
11% De*#$e 1#$e re)u1t#o$%
Lne reguaton s defned as the percentage change n the output
votage for a
change n the nput votage.It s expressed n mvots or as a
percentage of the outputvotage.
12%De*#$e 1o' re)u1t#o$%
Load reguaton s defned as the change n output votage for a
change n oad
n mvots or as a percentage of the output votage.
13%,ht #s me$t /2 +urre$t 1#m#t#$)5
Current mtng refers to the abty of a reguator to prevent the
oad current from
ncreasng above a preset vaue.
14%G#(e the 'r-/+!s o* 1#$er re)u1tors@
*The nput step down transformer s buky and expensve
because of ow ne
frequency.
ne frequency,arge vaues of fter capactors are requred to
decrease the rppe.
due to the contnous power dsspaton by the transstor
as t operates n the near regon.
15%,ht #s the '($t)e o* s-#t+h#$) re)u1tors5
*Greater effcency s acheved as the power transstor s made to
operate as ow
mpedance swtch.Power transmtted across the transstor s n
dscrete puses
rather than as a steady current fow.
*By usng sutabe swtchng oss reducton technque, the
swtchng frequency
can be ncreased so as to reduce the sze and weght of the
nductors and
capactors.
17%,ht #s $ o.to-+ou.1er IC5 G#(e e4m.1es%
Opto-couper IC s a combned package of a photo-emttng
devce and a photosensngdevce.Exampes for opto-couper
crcut : LED and a photo dode,
LED and photo transstor,LED and Darngton.
Exampes for opto-couper IC : MCT 2F , MCT 2E .
18% &e$t#o$ the '($t)es o* o.to-+ou.1ers@
*Better soaton between the two stages.
*Impedance probem between the stages s emnated.
*Wde frequency response.
*Easy nterfaced wth dgta crcut.
*Compact and ght weght.
*Probems such as nose, transents, contact bounce,.. are
emnated.
19%,ht #s $ #so1t#o$ m.1#*#er5
An soaton ampfer s an ampfer that offers eectrca
soaton between ts
nput and output termnas.
1<%,ht #s the $ee' *or tu$e' m.1#*#er5
In rado or TV recevers , t s necessary to seect a partcuar
channe among a
other avaabe channes.Hence some sort of frequency seectve crcut
s needed that w aow us to ampfy the frequency band requred and
re|ect a the other unwanted s provded by a tuned ampfer.
2=%G#(e the +1ss#*#+t#o$ o* tu$e' m.1#*#er@
() Sma sgna tuned ampfer
*Snge tuned
*Doube tuned
*Stagger tuned
() Large sgna tuned ampfer.
17 mr!s
1%,ht #s 555 t#mer5 ,ht re the *etures o* 555 t#mer5
E4.1#$ the mo$ost/1e mo'e #$
'et#15
Features of 555
Descrpton about 555
Crcut dagram
Dervaton for frequency.
2%E4.1#$ the Ast/1e mo'e o* o.ert#o$ us#$) 555 t#mer%
Descrpton about 555
Crcut dagram
Dervaton for frequency.
3%I$ 'et#1 '#+uss the 823 IC )e$er1 .ur.ose (o1t)e re)u1tor%
Functona dagram
Low and hgh votage reguaton usng 723
Features of 723.
4%E4.1#$ the o.ert#o$ o* s-#t+h#$) re)u1tors%G#(e #ts
'($t)es%
Functona dagram
Operaton
Output waveforms.
Advantages.
5%E4.1#$ the *u$+t#o$1 '#)rm o* L& 39= .o-er m.1#*#er%
Introducton
Interna dagram
Operaton
Features.