Analysis of Astronomical Spectros

Analysis and Interpretation of Astronomical Spectra 1
Analysis and Interpretation of

Astronomical Spectra

Theoretical Background and
Practical Applications for
Amateur Astronomers

Richard Walker

Version 8.7 07/2013


Table of Contents
1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 7
2 Photons Messengers from the Universe ............................................................... 8
2.1 Photons transport Information and Energy ..................................................................................... 8
2.2 The Duality of Waves and Particles ................................................................................................. 8
2.3 The Quantisation of the Electromagnetic Radiation....................................................................... 8
2.4 Properties of the Photons ................................................................................................................. 9
3 The Continuum ........................................................................................................... 10
3.1 Black Body Radiation and the Course of the Continuum Level .................................................. 10
3.2 Wien's Displacement Law ............................................................................................................. 10
3.3 The Pseudo Continuum .................................................................................................................. 11
4 Spectroscopic Wavelength Domains ....................................................................... 13
4.1 The Usable Spectral Range for Amateurs .................................................................................... 13
4.2 The Selection of the Spectral Range ............................................................................................ 13
4.3 Terminology of the Spectroscopic Wavelength Domains ........................................................... 14
5 Typology of the Spectra ............................................................................................ 15
5.1 Continuous Spectrum .................................................................................................................... 15
5.2 Absorption Spectrum ..................................................................................................................... 15
5.3 Emission Spectrum......................................................................................................................... 15
5.4 Absorption Band Spectrum............................................................................................................ 16
5.5 Band Spectrum with Inversely Running Intensity Gradient ........................................................ 16
5.6 Mixed Emission- and Absorption Spectrum ................................................................................. 17
5.7 Composite Spectrum...................................................................................................................... 17
5.8 Reflection Spectrum....................................................................................................................... 18
5.9 Cometary Spectrum ....................................................................................................................... 18
6 Form and Intensity of the Spectral Lines ................................................................ 19
6.1 The Form of the Spectral Line ....................................................................................................... 19
6.2 The Information Content of the Line Shape ................................................................................. 19
6.3 Blends .............................................................................................................................................. 19
6.4 The Saturation of Absorption Line in the Spectral Diagram ....................................................... 19
6.5 The Oversaturated Emission Line in the Spectral Diagram ........................................................ 20
7 The Measurement of the Spectral Lines ................................................................. 21
7.1 Methods and Reference Values of the Intensity Measurement ................................................. 21
7.2 Metrological Differences between Absorption and Emission Lines .......................................... 21
7.3 The Peak Intensity P ....................................................................................................................... 22
7.4 FWHM Full Width at Half Maximum Height ............................................................................... 22
7.5 EW, Equivalent Width .................................................................................................................... 23
7.6 Normalised Equivalent Width WI ................................................................................................. 24
7.7 FWZI Full Width at Zero Intensity ............................................................................................. 24
7.8 Influence of the Spectrograph Resolution on the FWHM- and EW Values ............................... 24
7.9 Practical Consequences for the FWHM and EW Measurements ............................................... 26
7.10 The Measurement of the Wavelength .......................................................................................... 26
7.11 Additional Measurement Options ................................................................................................. 26
8 Calibration and Normalisation of Spectra ............................................................... 27
8.1 The Calibration of the Wavelength ............................................................................................... 27
8.2 The Selective Attenuation of the Continuum Intensity ............................................................... 27
8.3 Relationship Between Original-Continuum Or2 and Pseudo-Continuum Px(2) ...................... 28
8.4 The Importance of the Pseudo-Continuum .................................................................................. 29
8.5 Rectification of the Pseudo-Continuum ....................................................................................... 29
8.6 The Relative Radiometric Profile Correction with a Synthetic Continuum ................................ 31
8.7 The Relative Radiometric Profile Correction with Recorded Standard Stars ............................ 33
8.8 The Absolute Flux Calibration ....................................................................................................... 35
8.9 The Intensity Comparison between Different Spectral Lines ..................................................... 35
9 Visible Effects of Quantum Mechanics.................................................................... 36
9.1 Textbook Example Hydrogen Atom and Balmer Series ............................................................... 36
9.2 The Balmer Series .......................................................................................................................... 37
9.3 Spectral Lines of Other Atoms ...................................................................................................... 38
10 Wavelength and Energy ............................................................................................ 39
10.1 Plancks Energy Equation .............................................................................................................. 39
10.2 Units for Energy and Wavelength ................................................................................................. 39
10.3 The Photon Energy of the Balmer Series ...................................................................................... 40
10.4 Balmer- Paschen- and Bracket Continuum .................................................................................. 41
11 Ionisation Stage and Degree of Ionisation .............................................................. 42
11.1 The Lyman Limit of Hydrogen ........................................................................................................ 42
11.2 Ionisation Stage versus Degree of Ionisation .............................................................................. 42
11.3 Astrophysical Form of Notation for the Ionisation Stage ............................................................ 42
12 Forbidden Lines or Transitions .............................................................................. 43
13 The Spectral Classes ................................................................................................. 44
13.1 Preliminary Remarks ...................................................................................................................... 44
13.2 The Fraunhofer Lines ..................................................................................................................... 44
13.3 Further Development Steps ........................................................................................................... 45
13.4 The Harvard System ....................................................................................................................... 46
13.5 Early and Late Spectral Types ................................................................................................. 47
13.6 The MK (Morgan Keenan) or Yerkes System ............................................................................... 47
13.7 Further Adaptations up to the Present ......................................................................................... 47
13.8 The Rough Determination of the Spectral Class ......................................................................... 49
13.9 Effect of the Luminosity Class on the Line Width ........................................................................ 53
14 The Hertzsprung - Russell Diagram (HRD) .............................................................. 54
14.1 Introduction to the Basic Version .................................................................................................. 54
14.2 The Absolute Magnitude and Photospheric Temperature of the Star ....................................... 55
14.3 The Evolution of the Sun in the HRD ............................................................................................ 56
14.4 The Evolution of Massive Stars ..................................................................................................... 57
14.5 The Relation between Stellar Mass and Life Expectancy ........................................................... 57
14.6 Age Determination of Star Clusters .............................................................................................. 58
15 The Measurement of the Radial Velocity ................................................................ 59
15.1 The Doppler Effect.......................................................................................................................... 59
15.2 The Measurement of the Doppler Shift ........................................................................................ 60
15.3 Radial Velocities of nearby Stars .................................................................................................. 60
15.4 Relative Displacement within a Spectrum caused by the Doppler Effect ................................. 60
15.5 Radial Velocities of Galaxies ......................................................................................................... 60
15.6 Short Excursus on "Hubble time" t
H
.............................................................................................. 61
15.7 Radial- and Cosmological Recess Velocities of the Messier Galaxies ...................................... 62
15.8 Recess Velocity of the Quasar 3C273 ......................................................................................... 64
16 The Measurement of the Rotation Velocity ............................................................ 65
16.1 Terms and Definitions .................................................................................................................... 65
16.2 The Rotation Velocity of the Large Planets .................................................................................. 65
16.3 The Rotation Velocity of the Sun ................................................................................................... 66
16.4 The Rotation Velocity of Galaxies ................................................................................................. 66
16.5 Calculation of the ustn| Value with the Velocity Difference Au ................................................. 66
16.6 The Rotation Velocity of the Stars ................................................................................................ 67
16.7 The Rotation Velocity of the Circumstellar Disks around Be Stars ............................................ 69
17 The Measurement of the Expansion Velocity ......................................................... 73
17.1 P Cygni Profiles .............................................................................................................................. 73
17.2 Inverse P Cygni Profiles ................................................................................................................. 73
17.3 Broadening of the Emission Lines ................................................................................................. 74
17.4 Splitting of the Emission Lines ...................................................................................................... 74
18 The Measurement of the Stellar Photosphere Temperature ................................ 75
18.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 75
18.2 Temperature Estimation of the Spectral Class ............................................................................ 75
18.3 Temperature Estimation Applying Wiens Displacement Law.................................................... 76
18.4 Temperature Determination Based on Individual Lines .............................................................. 79
18.5 The Balmer-Thermometer........................................................................................................... 79
18.6 Precision Temperature Measurements by Analysis of Individual Lines .................................... 80
19 Spectroscopic Binary Stars ....................................................................................... 81
19.1 Terms and Definitions .................................................................................................................... 81
19.2 Effects of the Binary Orbit on the Spectrum ................................................................................ 82
19.3 The Perspectivic Influence from the Spatial Orbit-Orientation .................................................. 84
19.4 The Estimation of some Orbital Parameters ................................................................................ 85
20 BalmerDecrement ................................................................................................... 87
20.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 87
20.2 Qualitative Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 87
20.3 Quantitative Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 88
20.4 Quantitative Definition of the Balmer-Decrement ....................................................................... 88
20.5 Experiments with the Balmer Decrement .................................................................................... 89
21 Spectroscopic Determination of Interstellar Extinction ........................................ 90
21.1 Spectroscopic Definition of the Interstellar Extinction ............................................................... 90
21.2 Extinction Correction with the Measured Balmer Decrement .................................................... 90
21.3 Balmer Decrement and Color Excess ........................................................................................... 91
21.4 Balmer-Decrement and Extinction Correction in the Amateur Sector ....................................... 91
22 Plasma Diagnostics for Emission Nebulae ............................................................. 92
22.1 Preliminary Remarks ...................................................................................................................... 92
22.2 Overview of the Phenomenon Emission Nebulae .................................................................... 92
22.3 Common Spectral Characteristics of Emission Nebulae ............................................................ 92
22.4 Ionisation Processes in H II Emission Nebulae ............................................................................ 92
22.5 Recombination Process ................................................................................................................. 93
22.6 Line Emission by Electron Transition ............................................................................................ 93
22.7 Line Emission by Collision Excitation ........................................................................................... 94
22.8 Line Emission by Permitted Transitions (Direct absorption) ...................................................... 94
22.9 Line Emission by Forbidden Transitions ....................................................................................... 94
22.10 Scheme of the Photon Conversion Process in Emission Nebulae ......................................... 96
22.11 Practical Aspects of Plasma Diagnostics ................................................................................. 97
22.12 Determination of the Excitation Class F .................................................................................. 97
22.13 The Excitation Class as an Indicator for Plasma Diagnostics ................................................. 98
22.14 Estimation of Te and Ne with the O III and N II Method ......................................................... 99
22.15 Estimation of the Electron Density from the S II and O II Ratio ............................................. 99
22.16 Distinguishing Characteristics in the Spectra of Emission Nebulae .................................... 100
23 Analysis of the Chemical Composition ................................................................. 101
23.1 Astrophysical Definition of Element Abundance ....................................................................... 101
23.2 Astrophysical Definition of Metal Abundance Z (Metallicity) ................................................... 101
23.3 Quantitative Determination of the Chemical Composition ....................................................... 101
23.4 Relative Abundance-Comparison at Stars of Similar Spectral Class ....................................... 102
24 Spectroscopic Parallax ........................................................................................... 103
24.1 Spectroscopic Possibilities of Distance Measurement ............................................................. 103
24.2 Term and Principle of Spectroscopic Parallax ........................................................................... 103
24.3 Spectral Class and Absolute Magnitude .................................................................................... 103
24.4 Distance Modulus......................................................................................................................... 105
24.5 Calculation of the Distance with the Distance Modulus ........................................................... 105
24.6 Examples for Main Sequence Stars (with Literature Values) ................................................... 105
25 Identification of Spectral Lines ............................................................................. 106
25.1 Task and Requirements ............................................................................................................... 106
25.2 Practical Problems and Solving Strategies ................................................................................ 106
25.3 Tools for the Identification of Spectral Lines ............................................................................. 107
26 Literature and Internet ........................................................................................... 108

Change log of the Document Versions

Version 6.0:
General: Correction of several typing errors
Sect. 4.2: Supplement of the Spectro Tool Program by Peter Schlatter
Sect. 7: General revision The Measurement of the Spectral Lines
Sect. 8: General revision Calibration and Normalisation of Spectra
Sect. 15.8: General revision Recess Velocity of the Quasar 3C273,
Sect. 16.5: Correction of errors concerning formulas {24} and {25} and related variables
Sect. 19.4: Supplement
Sect. 20: Several supplements. New: formula {54a} and {54b}

Version 7.0:
Table of content: Inserting of an additional subtitle level
Sect. 3.0: Some minor addenda
Sect. 5.4: New: Graph of the high-resolution O
2
band spectrum of the Fraunhofer A line
Sect. 5.5: New: Band spectra with inversely running intensity gradient
Sect. 6.0: Some addenda: Form and Intensity of the Spectral Lines
Sect. 7: General revision The Measurement of the Spectral Lines
Sect. 8: General revision Calibration and Normalisation of Spectra
Sect. 10: Introduction of the unit Wavenumber and Effective Temperature T
eff

Sect. 19: General revision Tests with the Balmer Decrement
Sect. 20: General revision Application of Extinction Correction in the Amateur Sector
Sect. 22: Practical Tips for Identifying Spectral Lines
Entire Document: Additional formulas, therefore partially renumbering.

Version 8.0:
Sect. 5.9: New: Cometary Spectra
Sect. 6.4: Supplement
Sect. 10.4: New: Balmer- Paschen- and Bracket Continuum
Sect. 18: New: The Measurement of the Stellar Photosphere Temperature
Sect. 23: New: Chemical Composition Analysis
Sect. 24: New: Spectroscopic Parallax
Versions 8.5 and 8.6:
Sect. 8: General revision Calibration and Normalisation of Spectra in consideration of re-
cent test results on "correction curves.
Version 8.7:
Sect. 15.7: Review and corrections in the table of Messier galaxies and appropriate ad-
justments in the text.

1 Introduction
Technological advances like CCD cameras, but also affordable spectrographs on the market
cause a significant upturn of spectroscopy within the community of amateur astronomers.
Further freeware programs and detailed instructions are available to enable the processing,
calibrating and normalising of the spectra. Several publications explain the function and
even the self-construction of spectrographs and further many papers can be found on spe-
cific monitoring projects. The numerous possibilities however for analysis and interpreta-
tion of the spectral profiles, still suffer from a considerable deficit of suitable literature.
This publication presents as a supplement practical applications and the appropriate astro-
physical backgrounds. Further the Spectroscopic Atlas for Amateur Astronomers [33] is
available, which covers all relevant spectral classes by commenting most of the lines, visi-
ble in medium resolved spectral profiles. It is primarily intended to be used as a tool for the
line identification. Each spectral class, relevant for amateurs, is presented with their main
characteristics and typical features.
Further, a detailed tutorial [30] (German only) on the processing of the spectra with the
Vspec and IRIS software is downloadable. Since all documents should remain independent,
some text and graphics are included redundantly.
Spectroscopy is the real key to astrophysics. Without them, our current picture of the uni-
verse would be unthinkable. The photons, which have been several million years on the
road to our CCD cameras, provide an amazing wealth of information about the origin ob-
ject. This may be fascinating, even without the ambition to strive for academic laurels. Fur-
ther there is no need for a degree in physics with, specialisation in mathematics, for a re-
warding deal with this matter. Required is some basic knowledge in physics, the ability to
calculate simple formulas with given numbers on a technical calculator and finally a healthy
dose of enthusiasm.
Also the necessary chemical knowledge remains very limited. In the hot stellar atmos-
pheres and excited nebulae the individual elements can hardly undergo any chemical com-
pounds. Only in the outermost layers of relatively "cool" stars, some very simple molecules
can survive. More complex chemical compounds are found only in really cold dust clouds of
the interstellar space and in planetary atmospheres a typical domain of radio astronomy.
Moreover in stellar astronomy, all elements, except hydrogen and helium, are simplistically
called as "metals".
The share of hydrogen and helium of the visible matter in the universe is still about 99%.
The most "metals", have been formed long time after the Big Bang within the first genera-
tion of massive stars, which distributed it at the end of their live in to the surrounding space
by Supernova explosions or repelled by Planetary Nebulae.
Much more complex, however, is the quantum-mechanically induced behavior of the ex-
cited atoms in stellar atmospheres. These effects are directly responsible for the formation
and shape of the spectral lines. Anyway for the practical work of the "average amateur"
some basic knowledge is sufficient.

Richard Walker, CH 8911-Rifferswil richiwalker@bluewin.ch

2 Photons Messengers from the Universe
2.1 Photons transport Information and Energy
Photons are generated in stars, carrying valuable information over immense periods of time
and unimaginable distances, and finally end in the pixel field of our CCD cameras. By their
destruction they deposit the valuable information, contributing electrons to the selective
saturation of individual pixels in fact trivial, but somehow still fascinating. By switching a
spectrograph between the telescope and camera the photons will provide a wealth of in-
formation which surpasses by far the simple photographic image of the object. It is there-
fore worthwhile to make some considerations about this absolutely most important link in
the chain of transmission.
It was on the threshold of the 20th Century, when it caused tremendous "headaches" to the
entire community of former top physicists. This intellectual "show of strength" finally cul-
minated in the development of quantum mechanics. The list of participants reads substan-
tially like the Who's Who of physics at the beginning of the 20th century: Werner Heisen-
berg, Albert Einstein, Erwin Schrdinger, Max Born, Wolfgang Pauli, Niels Bohr, just to
name a few. Quantum mechanics became, besides the theory of relativity, the second revo-
lutionary theory of the 20th Century. For the rough understanding about the formation of
the photons and finally of the spectra, the necessary knowledge is reduced to some key
points of this theory.
2.2 The Duality of Waves and Particles
Electromagnetic radiation has both wave and particle nature. This principle applies to the
entire spectrum. Starting with the long radio waves, it remains valid on the domains of in-
frared radiation, visible light, up to the extremely short-wave ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma
rays.

Source: Wikipedia
For our present technical applications, both properties are indispensable. For the entire
telecommunications, radio, TV, mobile telephony, as well as the radar and the microwave
grill it's the wave character. The CCD photography, light meter of cameras, gas discharge
lamps (eg energy saving light bulbs and street lighting), and last but not least, the spectros-
copy would not work without the particle nature.
2.3 The Quantisation of the Electromagnetic Radiation
It was one of the pioneering discoveries of quantum mechanics that electromagnetic radia-
tion is not emitted continuously but rather quantised (or quasi "clocked"). Simplified ex-
plained a minimum "dose" of electromagnetic radiation is generated, called photon, which
belongs to the Bosons within the "zoo" of elementary particles.
2.4 Properties of the Photons
Without external influence photons have an infinitely long life
Their production and destruction takes place in a variety of physical processes. Rele-
vant for the spectroscopy are electron transitions between different atomic orbital (de-
tails see later).
A photon always moves with light speed. According to the Special Relativity Theory
(SRT) it can therefore possess no rest mass.
Each photon has a specific frequency (or wavelength), which determines its energy the
higher the frequency, the higher the energy of the photon (details see sect. 10).

3 The Continuum
3.1 Black Body Radiation and the Course of the Continuum Level
The red curve, hereafter referred to as continuum level I
c
corresponds to the course of the
radiation intensity or flux density, plotted over the wavelength (increasing from left to
right). As a fit to the blue continuum it is cleaned by any existing absorption or emission
lines (blue curve). The entire area between the horizontal wavelength axis and the contin-
uum level I
c
is called continuum [5].

Most important physical basis for the origin and course of the continuum is the so-called
black body radiation. The blackbody is a theoretical working model which, in that perfec-
tion, doesnt exist in nature.
For most amateurs it is sufficient to know, that:
The blackbody is an ideal absorber which absorbs broadband electromagnetic radiation,
regardless of the wavelength, completely and uniformly.
The ideal black body represents a thermal radiation source, which emits a broad-band
electromagnetic radiation, according to the Planck's radiation law, with an exclusively
temperature-dependent intensity profile.
Stars in most cases may simplified be considered as black-body radiators.
3.2 Wien's Displacement Law
This theory has practical relevance for us because the intensity profile of the spectrum pro-
vides information about the temperature of the radiator! The radiation distribution of differ-
ent stars shows bell-shaped curves, whose peak intensity shifts to shorter wavelength, re-
spectively higher frequency with increasing temperature (Planck's radiation law).

Continuum Level I
c
C o n t i n u u m
Inten-
sity
Wavelength []
0
5000 10000 15000 20000
T=12000 K
max
=2415
T=6000 K
max
=4830
T=3000 K
max
=9660
With Wien's displacement law (German physicist Wilhelm Wien 1864-1928) and the given
wavelength z
I
mcx
[] of the maximum radiation intensity I
mux
it is theoretically possible to
calculate the atmosphere temperature I [K] of a star. This is also called Effective tempera-
ture I
c]]
or Photosphere temperature.
[]: Angstrm, 1 = 10
-10
m [K]: Kelvin K Celsius + 273

z
I
mcx
|] =
28
i
978
i
2uu
I
{1] I|K] =
28'978'2uu
z
I
mcx
{2]

Examples: Alnitak I
c]]
= ca. 25000 K z
I
mcx
= 1160 (Ultraviolet)
Sun I
c]]
= ca. 5800 K z
I
mcx
= 4996 (Green)
Betelgeuse I
c]]
= ca. 3450 K z
I
mcx
= 8400 (Infrared)

3.3 The Pseudo Continuum
By all stellar spectra, the course of the unprocessed continuum differs strongly from the
theoretical shape of reference curves, regardless if recorded with professional or amateur
equipments. The reasons are primarily interstellar, atmospheric and instrument-specific ef-
fects (telescope, spectrograph, camera), which distort the original intensity course of the
spectral profile to a so called pseudo continuum Ps(z). Therefore, the Wiens displacement
law, on the basis of the maximum profile intensity, can be observed only qualitatively. The
following chart shows the superimposed spectral profiles (pseudo continua) of all bright
Orion stars, obtained with a simple transmission grating (200L/mm), a Canon compact
camera (Powershot S 60) and processed with the Vspec software. Denoted are here the
spectral classes, as well as some identified absorption lines.

Here it is obvious, that the profile shapes and their maximum intensities of the late O- and
early B-classes (sect. 13) are nearly identical. As expected, this intensity is by Rigel, a
slightly lesser hot, late-B giant (green profile), and in stark extent by the cool M-giant Betel-
geuse (orange profile), shifted to the right towards larger wavelengths.
Theoretically and according to sect. 3.2, the maximum intensities of the O and B stars
would be located far left, outside of the diagram in the UV range, for the cold Betelgeuse far
right and also outside the diagram in the IR range. Main causes for this error are the spec-
tral selectivity of the CCD chip and the IR filter in the compact camera, pretending that all
Alnilam B0Ia
Alnitak O9.7Ib
Relative
Intensity
Wavelength [Angstrm]
H

4
8
6
1

A
H

4
3
4
0

A
H

4
1
0
2

A
Bellatrix B2III
Mintaka O9.5II
Rigel B8Ia
Saiph B0.5Ia
Beteigeuze M1-2Ia-Iab
H
e

I

4
4
7
1

A
O
I
I

4
6
3
8
/
-
4
9

A
TiO
TiO
TiO
TiO
TiO
TiO
TiO
N
a

I

5
8
9
0

A
the peaks would be located within the diagram. Here is also clearly visible, that the absorp-
tion lines (sect. 5.2) are quasi "imprinted" on the continuum profile, similar to the modula-
tion on a carrier wave. These lines carry the information about the object, the course of the
continuum reveals only the temperature of the radiator. The profile of Betelgeuse shows
impressively, that the spectra of cool stars are dominated by broad molecular titanium ox-
ide (TiO) bands (sect. 5.4). The example also shows the dramatic influence of the spectral
characteristics of the camera. In the blue wavelength range, the sensitivity of most cameras
drops quickly. Astronomical cameras usually have easy removable/upgradable IR filters, ex-
clusively used for the astrophotography and without them spectra can be recorded well in
to the IR range.

4 Spectroscopic Wavelength Domains
4.1 The Usable Spectral Range for Amateurs
The professional astronomers nowadays study the objects in nearly the entire electro-
magnetic spectrum including also radio astronomy. Also space telescopes are used,
which are increasingly optimised for the infrared region in order to record the extremely
red-shifted spectra of objects from the early days of the universe (sect.15.515.8). For the
ground-based amateur, equipped with standard telescopes and spectrographs only a mod-
est fraction of this domain is available. The usable range for us is, in addition to the specific
design features of the spectrograph, limited mainly by the spectral characteristics of the
camera including any filters. The Meade DSI III or Atik 314L+ e.g. achieves with the DADOS
spectrograph useful results in the range of approximately 3800 8000 , i.e. throughout
the visible domain and the near infrared part of the spectrum. Here also the best known and
best documented lines are located, such as the hydrogen lines of H-Balmer series and the
Fraunhofer lines (see later).
4.2 The Selection of the Spectral Range
For high-resolution spectra, the choice of the range is normally determined by a specific
monitoring project or the interest in particular lines. Perhaps also the calibration lamp
emission lines have to be considered in the planning of the recorded section.
For low-resolution, broadband spectra mostly the range of the H-Balmer series is preferred
(sect. 9). Hot O- and B- stars can be taken rather in the short-wave part, because their
maximum radiation lies in the UV range. It usually makes little sense to record the area on
the red side of H, except the emission lines of P Cygni, Be stars, as well as from emission
line nebulae (sect. 22). Between approximately 6,200 7,700 (see picture below), it lit-
erally swarms of atmospheric related (telluric) H
2
O and O
2
absorption bands.

Apart from their undeniable aesthetics they are interesting only for atmospheric physicist.
For astronomers, they are usually only a hindrance, unless the fine water vapour lines are
used to calibrate the spectra! They can partly be extracted with the Vspec software or
nearly completely with the freeware program SpectroTools by Peter Schlatter. [413].
By the late spectral types of K, and the entire M-Class (sect. 13.5), however, it makes sense
to record this range, since the radiation intensity of these stars is very strong in the IR
range and shows here particularly interesting molecular absorption bands. Also, the reflec-
tion spectra (sect. 5.7) of the large gas planets show mainly here the impressive gaps in the
continuum.
Useful guidance for setting the wavelength range of the spectrograph are eg the microme-
ter scale, the calibration lamp spectrum or the daylight (solar) spectrum, respectively. At
night the reflected solar spectrum is available from the moon and the planets. A good
marker on the blue side of the spectrum is the impressive double line of the Fraunhofer H-
and K-Absorption (sect. 13.2.).
Fraunhofer
A Band O
2
H
H
2
O Absorption Fraunhofer
B Band O
2
4.3 Terminology of the Spectroscopic Wavelength Domains
Terminology for wavelength domains is used inconsistently in astrophysics [4] and depends
on the context. Furthermore many fields of astronomy, various satellite projects etc. often
use different definitions.
Here follows a summary according to [4] and Wikipedia (Infrared Astronomy). Given are ei-
ther the center wavelength of the corresponding photometric band filters, or their ap-
proximate passband.
Optical range UBVRI 3,300 10,000 (Johnson/Bessel/Cousins)

Center wavelength Astrophysical wavelength
domain
Required instruments
[m] []
0.35 3,500 U Band (UV) Most optical telescopes
0.44 4,400 B Band (blue)
0.55 5,500 V Band (green)
0.65 6,500 R Band (red)
0.80 8,000 I Band (infrared)
Further in use is also the ZBand, some 8,000 9,000 and the YBand, some
9,500 11,000 (ASAHI Filters).
Infrared range according to Wikipedia (Infrared Astronomy)
Center wavelength Astrophysical wave-
length domain
Required instruments
[m] []
1.25 10,250 J Band Most optical- and dedicated
infrared telescopes 1.65 16,500 H Band
2.20 22,000 K Band
3.45 34,500 L Band Some optical- and dedicated
infrared telescopes 4.7 47,000 M Band
10 100,000 N Band
20 200,000 Q Band
200 2,000,000 Submilimeter Submilimeter telescopes
For ground based telescopes mostly the following terminology is in use []:
Far Ultraviolet (FUV): <3000
Near Ultra Violet (NUV): 3000 3900
Optical (VIS): 3900 7000
Near Infrared (NIR): 6563 (H) 10,000
Infrared or Mid-Infrared: 10,000 40,000 (J, H, K, L Band 1 4 m)
Thermal Infrared: 40,000 200,000 (M, N, Q Band 4 - 20m)
Submilimeter: >200,000 (200 m)
5 Typology of the Spectra
5.1 Continuous Spectrum
Incandescent solid or liquid light sources emit, similar to a black body radiator, a continu-
ous spectrum, eg Bulbs. The maximum intensity and the course of the continuum obey the
Plank's radiation law.

5.2 Absorption Spectrum
An absorption spectrum is produced when radiated broadband light has to pass a low pres-
sure and rather cool gas layer on its way to the observer. Astronomically, the radiation
source is in the majority of cases a star and the comparatively "cooler" gas layer to be trav-
ersed, its own atmosphere. Depending on the chemical composition of the gas it will ab-
sorb photons of specific wavelengths by exciting the atoms, ie single electrons are momen-
tarily lifted to a higher level. The absorbed photons are ultimately lacking at these wave-
lengths, leaving characteristic dark gaps in the spectrum, the so-called absorption lines.
This process is described in more detail in sect. 9.1. The example shows absorption lines in
the green region of the solar spectrum (DADOS 900L/mm).
H Fe Fe Fe Mg Fe

5.3 Emission Spectrum
An emission spectrum is generated when the atoms of a thin gas are heated or excited so
that photons with certain discrete wavelengths are emitted, eg neon glow lamps, energy
saving lamps, sodium vapor lamps of the street lighting, etc. Depending on the chemical
composition of the gas, the electrons are first raised to a higher level by thermal excitation
or photons of exactly matching wavelengths or even completely released, where the
atom becomes ionised. The emission takes place after the recombination or when the ex-
cited electron falls back from higher to lower levels, while a photon of specific wavelength
is emitted (sect. 9.1). Astronomically, this type of spectral line comes mostly from ionised
nebulae (sect. 22) in the vicinity of very hot stars, planetary nebulae, or extremely hot stars,
pushing off their gaseous envelops (eg, P Cygni). ). The following picture (DADOS
200L/mm) shows the emission spectrum (H, H, H, He, [O III]), of the Planetary Nebula
NGC6210, which is ionised by the very hot central star (some 58000K), [33].
H H [O III] He H

5.4 Absorption Band Spectrum
Band spectra are generated by highly complex rotational and vibrational processes, caused
by heated molecules. This takes place in the relatively cool atmospheres of red giants. The
following spectrum originates from Betelgeuse (DADOS 200L/mm). At this resolution it
shows only a few discrete lines. The majority is dominated by absorption bands, which are
here mainly caused by titanium oxide (TiO) and to a lesser extent by magnesium hydride
(MgH). In this case, these asymmetric structures reach the greatest intensity on the left,
short-wave band end (called bandhead), and then slowly weaken to the right. The wave-
length of absorption bands always refers to the point of greatest intensity ("most distinct
edge").

But also several of the prominent Fraunhofer lines in the solar spectrum are caused by mo-
lecular absorption. The following picture, taken with the SQUES echelle spectrograph
[400], shows a high-resolution O
2
band spectrum of the Fraunhofer A line (sect. 4.2 and
13.2).

5.5 Band Spectrum with Inversely Running Intensity Gradient
The following picture (DADOS 200L/mm) shows C
2
carbon molecular absorption bands in
the blue-green region of the spectrum of the carbon star Z Piscium [33]. Generally at some
carbon molecules (eg CO, C
2
), the intensity gradient of the absorption bands runs in the op-
posite direction as with titanium oxide (TiO) or O
2
.
Already in the middle of the 19th Century this effect has been recognised by Father Angelo
Secchi (Sect. 13.3). For such spectra, he introduced the Spectral type IV.

5.6 Mixed Emission- and Absorption Spectrum
There are many cases where absorption and emission lines appear together in the same
spectrum. The best known example is P Cygni, a textbook object for amateurs. To this un-
stable and variable supergiant of the spectral type B2 Ia numerous publications exist. In the
17th Century, it appeared for 6 years as a star of the third magnitude, and then "disap-
peared" again. In the 18th Century it gained again luminosity until it reached its current,
slightly variable value of approximately +4.7
m
to +4.9
m
. The distance of P Cygni is esti-
mated to ca. 5000 7000 ly (Karkoschka 5000 ly).
The picture below shows the expanding shell, taken with the Hubble Space Telescope
(HST). The star in the center is fully covered. The diagram right shows the typical formation
of the so-called P Cygni profiles, which are shown here in the violet region of the spectrum
(DADOS 900L/mm).
In the area of the blue arrow a small section of the shell, consisting of thin gas, is moving
exactly toward Earth and generating blue-shifted absorption lines (Doppler Effect). The red
arrows symbolise the light, emitted by sections of the shell, expanding sideward, producing
emission lines. In the combination results a broad emission line and a generally less intense
blue-shifted absorption line. P Cygni profiles are present in almost all spectral types and are
a reliable sign of a massive radial motion of matter ejected from the star.

Based on the wavelength difference between the absorption and emission part of the line,
the expansion velocity of the envelope can be estimated using the Doppler formula (sect.
15). This object is further described in sect. 17, where also the estimation of the expansion
velocity is demonstrated.
5.7 Composite Spectrum
Superimposed spectra of several light sources are also called composite- sometimes also
integrated spectra. The English term composite was coined in 1891 by Pickering for
composite spectra in binary systems. Today it is often used also for integrated spectra of
stellar clusters, galaxies and quasars, which consist from hundreds of thousands up to sev-
eral hundred billions superposed individual spectra.
Direction toward
earth
5.8 Reflection Spectrum
The objects of our solar system are not self-luminous, but only visible thanks to reflected
sunlight. Therefore, these spectra always contain the absorption lines of the solar spec-
trum. The continuum course is however coined, because certain molecules in the atmos-
pheres of the large gas planets, eg CH
4
(methane), absorb and/or reflect the light differ-
ently strong at specific wavelengths.
The following chart shows the reflection spectrum of Jupiter (red), recorded with the DA-
DOS spectrograph and the 200L/mm grating. Superimposed (green) is generated by dawn
light, previously captured in the daylight- (solar) spectrum. Before rectifying, both profiles
have been normalised on the same continuum section [30]. In this wavelength range, the
most striking intensity differences are observed between 6100 and 7400 .

5.9 Cometary Spectrum
Such can be considered as a special case of the reflection spectra. Comets, like all other
objects in the solar system, reflect the sunlight. However on its course into the inner solar
system core material increasingly evaporates, flowing out into the coma, and subsequently
into the mostly separated plasma- and dust tails. The increasing solar wind, containing
highly ionised particles (mainly protons and helium cores), excites the molecules of the
comet. Thus the reflected solar spectrum gets more or less strongly overprinted with mo-
lecular emission bands, chiefly due to vaporised carbon compounds of the cometarys
material. The most striking features are the C
2
Swan bands Further frequently occurring
emissions are CN (cyan), NH2 (Amidogen Radicals), and C
3
. Sometimes also Na I lines can
be detected. Only slightly modified appears the solar spectrum, recorded from sunlight,
which has exclusively been reflected by the dust tail. All these facts and the associated ef-
fects, create complex composite spectra. The influence of the possible components de-
pends primarily on the current intensity of the core eruptions, as well as on our specific
perspective, regarding the coma, as well as the plasma- and dust tail. Further details see
[33].

Wavelength
I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y
I
Core
Blue Wing
Red Wing
Continuum Level
saturated
Continuum
6 Form and Intensity of the Spectral Lines
6.1 The Form of the Spectral Line
The chart on the right shows several
absorption lines with the same wavelength,
showing an ideal Gaussian-like intensity dis-
tribution but with different width and inten-
sity. According to their degree of saturation,
they penetrate differently deep into the con-
tinuum, maximally down to the wavelength
axis. The red profiles are both unsaturated.
The green one, which just touches the deep-
est point on the wavelength axis, is saturated
and the blue one even oversaturated [5]. The
lower part of the profile is called "Core",
which passes in the upper part over the
"Wings" in to the continuum level. The short-
wavelength wing is called "Blue Wing", the
long-wave- "Red Wing" [5].
Emission line profiles, in contrast to the presented absorption lines, always rise upwards
from the continuum level.
6.2 The Information Content of the Line Shape
There hardly exists any stellar spectral line, which shows this ideal shape. But in the devia-
tion from this form a wealth of information is hidden about the object. Here are some ex-
amples of physical processes which have a characteristic influence on the profile shape
and become therefore measurable:
The rotational speed of a star, caused by the Doppler Effect, flattens and broadens the
line (rotational broadening), see sect. 16.
The temperature and density/pressure of the stellar atmosphere broaden the line (tem-
perature/pressure-/collision broadening), see sect. 13.9.
Macro turbulences in the Stellar Atmosphere, caused by the Doppler Effect, broaden the
line, see sect. 16.6.
Instrumental responses broaden the line (instrumental broadening)
In strong magnetic fields (eg sunspots) a splitting and shifting of the spectral line occurs
due to the so-called Zeeman Effect.
Electric fields produce a similar phenomenon, the so-called Stark Effect.
The combined effects of pressure- and Doppler broadening result in the so-called Voigt pro-
files.
6.3 Blends
Stellar spectral lines are usually more or less strongly deformed by closely neighbouring
lines - causing this way so-called "blends". The lower the resolutions of the spectrograph,
the more lines appearing combined into blends.
6.4 The Saturation of Absorption Line in the Spectral Diagram
The following spectral profile is generated with Vspec, based on the course of an 11-step
gray-scale chart, running parallel to the wavelength axis. The maximum possible range from
black to white, covered by Vspec, comprises 256 gray levels [411]. The Profile section in
the black area is here, as expected, saturated to 100% and runs therefore on the lowest
level, ie congruent with the wavelength axis. The saturation of the remaining gray values
decreases staircase-like upward, until on the continuum level, it finally becomes white. If an
underexposed spectral stripe was prepared in advance with IRIS [410] [30], the gray scale
is stretched, so that the highest point on the chart becomes white. Thus, a maximum con-
trast is achieved.

So far remains the theory, covering the electronic recording and the data reduction level.
According to [11] however, in astronomical spectra, an absorption line reaches already full
saturation before it touches the wavelength axis. In fact the "Wings" in the upper part of an
oversaturated line profile, appear massively broadened, without penetrating much further
into the continuum (sketch according to [11]).

6.5 The Oversaturated Emission Line in the Spectral Diagram
No tricks are required for the presentation
of an oversaturated emission line. This
just needs to overexpose the calibration
lamp spectrum. Such oversaturated Neon
lines appear flattened on the top. Such an
unsuccessful neon spectrum must never
be used for calibration purposes!

Continuum Level = white
saturated = black
Gray-scale chart
Wavelength axis = black
Gray-values
[]
I/Ic
saturated
oversaturated
7 The Measurement of the Spectral Lines
7.1 Methods and Reference Values of the Intensity Measurement
Depending on the specific task, the line intensity is determined either by simple relative
measurement, or quite complexly and time consuming, with absolutely calibrated dimen-
sions. Here we focus exclusively on the relative measurement which is sufficient for most
amateur purposes, and is supported by the analysis software (eg Vspec). As a reference or
dimension unit usually serves the local or normalised continuum level I
C
(sect. 8.5) but
possibly also values of a linear, but otherwise arbitrary scaling of the intensity axis.
7.2 Metrological Differences between Absorption and Emission Lines
For measurements of spectral lines the following differences must be noted.
The absorption lines I
A
can simplified be considered as the product of
a "filtering process". The photons of a specific wavelength , which
are mostly absorbed in the stellar photosphere, cause a gap in the
continuum of defined area, shape and penetration depth. Therefore,
the parameters of the absorption remain always relatively connected
to the continuum intensity Ic(z).

The emission lines I
L
are generated independently of the continuum
by recombination and/or electron transitions (sect. 9). Because this
process is also excited by the stellar radiation, it results a certain
strongly object-dependent, time related degree of coupling to the con-
tinuum radiation. For instance at P Cygni these lines are generated
directly in the turbulent expanding gas envelope at the Be stars
(sect. 16) mostly in the circumstellar gas disk and in the cases of
the H II regions or Planetary Nebulae PN, even some ly away, where
almost regular laboratory conditions exist!

The combination of emission lines and continuum radiation results in
a superposition I
totuI
of the two intensities:
I
totuI
= I
C
(z) +I
L
(z) {S]
Due to the physically and locally different generation, I
C
(z) as well as
I
L
(z) may fluctuate independently of each other. The continuum-level
I
C
(z) is dependent on the radiation density, which the star generates
at the wavelength z. To this level, I
L
(z) is adding up independently.

The combination of emission lines and absorption lines results also in
a superposition I
totuI
of the two intensities.
I
totuI
= I
A
(z) +I
L
(z) {So]
At Be-stars, the slim hydrogen emission line is produced in the cir-
cumstellar disk or -shell, and appears superimposed to the rotation-
and pressure-broadened H-absorption of the stellar photosphere. The
resulting spectral feature is therefore called Shell Core [4]. The H-
absorption of such a spectral feature may also originate from the pho-
tosphere of a hot O-star and the emission line from the surrounding H II region, see eg the
H line of 1Ori C / M42 [33].
I
I
C
()
I
A
()
I
I
E
()
I
I
E
()
I
C
()
I
C
(
)

+

I
E
(
I
I
E
()
I
A
()
FWHM
I
max
I
max
I = 0
7.3 The Peak Intensity P
The Line Intensity I
The intensity I offers the easiest way to measure a spectral
line. However this measure is only significant in a radiomet-
rically corrected or absolutely calibrated profile as described
in section 8.6, 8.7, 8.8.
The Peak intensity P
In a pseudo-continuum, but also in a just rectified profile ac-
cording to sect. 8.5, the intensity I gets only comparable
with other lines if related to its local continuum level I
c
. This
is expressed as the dimensionless Peak intensity P.
P = II
c
{4]
The Peak intensity P at absorption lines
P is here also called I for Line Depth. Related to the continuum level I
c
, the peak inten-
sity P of the absorption line, corresponds to the maximum intensity I or flux density F
RcI
,
which is removed from the continuum radiation by the absorption process. This further cor-
responds to the photon energy per time, area, the considered wavelength interval and re-
lated on the level I
c
(units see sect. 8.8). In addition, it qualitatively shows the degree of
absorption, or the share of photons, which is absorbed in the peak of the absorption line
with the penetration depth I.
The Peak intensity P at emission lines
If the upwards striving and independently generated emission lines are superimposed on a
continuum {3}, they are also related to the Level I
c
{4}, eg for investigations of individual
lines. Related to the continuum level I
c
, the peak intensity P of the emission line corre-
sponds to the maximum intensity I or flux density F
RcI
. This further corresponds to the pho-
ton energy per time, area, the considered wavelength interval and related on the level I
c
.
7.4 FWHM Full Width at Half Maximum Height
The FWHM value is the line width in [] at half height of
the maximum intensity. It can be correctly measured even
in non-normalised spectral profiles. The width of a spec-
tral line is inter alia depending on temperature, pressure,
density, and turbulence effects in stellar atmospheres. It
allows therefore important conclusions and is often used
as a variable in equations, eg to determine the rotational
velocity of stars (sect. 16.6).
This line width is specified in most cases as wavelength-
difference Az. For the measurement of rotational and ex-
pansion velocities FwEH is also expressed as a velocity
value according to the Doppler principle. For this purpose
FwEH [] is converted with the Doppler formula {15}
: = FwEH cz to a speed value [km/s] (sect. 15).
The FWHM value, obtained from the spectrum [30] has now to be corrected from the in-
strumental broadening.
FwEH
ko
= _FwEH
mcusucd
2
-FwEH
Instumcnt
2
|] {S]
FwEH
Instumcnt
corresponds to the theoretical maximum resolution Az
S
[] of the
spectrograph, ie the smallest dimension of a line detail, which can be resolved.
I
c
I
I
c
I
P=I/Ic
The resolution is limited on one side by the optical design of the spectrograph (dispersion
of the grating, collimator optics, slit width, etc.). It can normally be found in the manual of
the spectrograph as so-called R-Value R = zAz
S
which is valid for a defined wavelength
range (z = considered wavelength) [302].
R = zAz
S
{So] FwEH
Instumcnt
=
z
R
{Sb]
This value is determined by FwEH measurements at thinnest possible spectral lines, eg
atmospheric H
2
O absorptions or somewhat less accurate, at emission lines of calibration
light sources [11], [123], [302]. In the laboratories for example emissionlines, generated by
microwave excited mercury lamps are used, in order to minimise temperature broadening.
Such profiles are called "instrumental profile" or "-function response" [11]. The resolution
may further be limited by the pixel grid of the connected camera [/pixel], if this value is
greater than Az
S
of the spectrograph. For a wavelength-calibrated profile, this value is
shown in the head panel of the Vspec screen. Compared to monochrome-, with color CCD
cameras, a significant loss of resolution must be accepted.
7.5 EW, Equivalent Width
The EW-value or Equivalent Width is always based on the continuum level Ic and is a
relative measure for the area of a spectral line.
Definition
The profile area between the continuum level Ic and
the profile of the spectral line has the same size as
the rectangular area with the fully saturated depth
(here Ic = 1) and the equivalent width Ew [].
Ew =
Proilc orco
Ic
{6]
The Ew-value must therefore be measured in a spec-
trum, normalised to Ic = 1 ([30], sect. 10). This is the
mathematically correct expression for Ew:
Ew = _
Ic -Iz
Ic
x2
x1
Jz {6o]

In simple terms the red area above the spectral
curve is calculated by summing up an infinite
number of vertical, infinitely narrow rectangular
strips with the width Jz and the variable heights
Ic -Iz, within the entire range from z1 to z2. To get
finally the equivalent width Ew, these values are still
to divide by the entire height Ic of the continuum-,
resp. of the saturated square.
The integral sign is derived from the letter S, and
stands here for "sum". Ic is the continuum intensity,
I
x
the variable intensity of the spectral line
depending on (or a function of) the wavelength
I
x
= (z).

I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y
I
0
1 Ic = 1
Wavelength
Ic
I
Ic - I
1 2
EW
I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y
I
0
1
Continuumlevel Ic = 1
Wavelength
Profile
area
=
The EW value at absorption lines
As sketched above and related to the continuum level I
c
, Ew corresponds to the measure
of the total radiation flux F
L RcI
, which the entire absorption line removes from the
continuum radiation. This further corresponds to the photon energy per time, area and re-
lated on the level I
c
(common units see sect. 8.8).
The EW value at emission lines
Related to the continuum level I
c
, the Ew value of the upwards striving emission line corre-
sponds to the measure of their entire radiation flux F
L RcI
. This further corresponds to the
photon energy per time, area, and related on the level I
c
.
Signs and measurement of the EW values
Ew values of absorption lines are by definition always positive (+), those of emission lines
negative (-).
Since the Ew value is always measured at a continuum level, normalized to Ic = 1, it is
neither influenced by the course of the continuum, nor by the absolute radiation flux.
Should Ew be measured in a non rectified profile, the continuum must be normalised
immediately at the base of the spectral line to Ic = 1!
In scientific publications Ew is also designated with the capital w. w
u
designates the
equivalent width of the H Line.
Somewhat confusing: In some publications I have also found the FWHM value expressed in
w. The conclusion: One must always simply check which value is really meant.
7.6 Normalised Equivalent Width W
I

Rather rarely the normalised Ew value w
x
is used [128]:
w
x
=
Ew
z
{6c]
This allows the comparison of Ew -values of different lines at different wavelengths z, tak-
ing into consideration the linearly increasing photon energy towards decreasing wave-
length , according to formula {8}. Anyway, in astrophysics this is not applied for most of
the mainly empirical formulas and procedures.
7.7 FWZI Full Width at Zero Intensity
Rather rarely the FWZI value of a spectral line is applied. The Full With at Zero Intensity cor-
responds to the integration range z
2
-z
1
of the definite integral according to formula and
chart {6a}:
FwZI = z
2
-z
1
{6b]
7.8 Influence of the Spectrograph Resolution on the FWHM- and EW Values
The above outlined theories about FWHM- and EW must realistically be relativated. This
need is dramatically illustrated by the following spectral profiles of the Sun, taken with
different highly resolving spectrographs (M. Huwiler/R. Walker). The R-values are here
within a range of approximately 800 80,000.

The comparison of these graphs shows the following:
If the resolution (R) is increased it becomes clearly evident that in stellar spectra practi-
cally no "pure" lines exist. Apparent single lines almost turn out as a "blend" of several
sub lines, if considered at higher resolutions.
Sun Spectrum 5256 5287
Comparison Prototype Echelle- with Cerny Turner Spectrograph
Echelle R 20000
Cerny Turner R 80000
Sun Spectrum 5160 5270
Comparison Prototyp Echelle- with DADOS Spectrograph 900- and 200 L mm
-1
Echelle R 20000
DADOS 900L mm
-1
R 4000
DADOS 200L mm
-1
R 800
Magnesium Triplet: 5167, 5173, 5183
Richard Walker 2011/03
Striking is also the so-called "Instrumental Broadening" effect. Even relatively well-
insulated seeming lines broaden dramatically with decreasing resolution (R), due to the
instrumental influences. This affects the measured FWHM or the half-width of a line.
The EW value, related to the profile area, remains theoretically independent of the reso-
lution. At higher resolutions, the area of the slimmer line profile is compensated by a
higher peak-value P.
7.9 Practical Consequences for the FWHM and EW Measurements
FWHM values must always be corrected in respect of the "Instrumental Broadening",
applying the formulas {5} to {5b}.
The comparability of the EW values, obtained with different resolutions, remains purely
theoretical and is limited to discrete and well isolated single lines. Assuming the case of
a blended absorption line, a high-resolution spectrograph measures, in an ideal case, the
EW value of only one, well-defined single line. However, at low resolution and the same
wavelength, a substantially larger value is measured due to a blend of several insepara-
ble lines. In this case, only EW-values are seriously comparable, if they have been ob-
tained from profiles with similar resolution. This necessarily requires a declaration of the
R-value.
According to formula {6a}, the EW-value is clearly defined. However to determine this
value e.g. for strongly deformed, broad emission lines, possibly even with a double peak,
remains a serious problem. With Gaussian fits in such cases reasonably reproducible, al-
beit relatively imprecise results may result. The profile fit with Spline filter, or similar al-
gorithms is perhaps more accurate, but the result is subjectively influenced by the inves-
tigator.
For amateur monitoring projects it is important, that all participants work with similarly
high resolutions and the recording and processing of the spectra is clearly standardised.
A problem with the EW values poses the standardisation of the integration area z
2
-z
1

(FWZI) of formula {6a}, since the width of the line base may change significantly with
varying intensity. Further the section of the continuum must be specified, on which the
profile is to normalise. This is unavoidable at least for the later spectral classes, which
exhibit a rather diffuse continuum. When monitoring emission lines one must always
keep in mind that the measured EW values are related to a possibly independently fluc-
tuating continuum level (sect. 7.2).
7.10 The Measurement of the Wavelength
The wavelength of a spectral line (Nanometer [nm] or Angstrm []) can be obtained in a
wavelength calibrated spectrum directly via Gaussian fit (Vspec) or by positioning of the
cursor at the peak of the line. Which method is better, depends upon whether a strongly
asymmetric blend or an isolated single-line is present.
7.11 Additional Measurement Options
Depending on the applied analysis software, further information can be obtained from the
calibrated spectral profile. In Vspec these are, among other, e.g. the signal to noise ratio
SNR and the dispersion in /pixel, etc. For details see the respective manuals.

8 Calibration and Normalisation of Spectra
8.1 The Calibration of the Wavelength
Usually spectra are plotted as course of the radiation intensity over the wavelength. In prin-
ciple, both dimensions can be calibrated. For most applications, only the calibration of the
wavelength is required. This can be done relatively easy with lines of known wavelength
within the spectrum, or absolutely with appropriate spectral calibration lamps. These pro-
cedures are well documented in literature eg [30], [411]. For further information refer also
to sect. 15.
8.2 The Selective Attenuation of the Continuum Intensity
The intensity profile of the undisturbed stellar original spectrum 0r(z) is determined mainly
by the black body radiation characteristics of the star and its effective temperature I
c]]

(sect. 3.2). On the long way to the unprocessed raw spectrum the continuum of 0r(z) be-
comes deformed by the following damping influences into a so called pseudo-continuum
Ps(z) (sect. 3.3).
1. The Attenuation by the Interstellar Matter D
ISM
(2) is mainly caused by scattering effects
of dust grains and gas. Thereby the intensity is selectively much stronger dampened in the
blue short wave part of the spectrum. Thus the maximum of the continuum radiation is
shifted in the red long-wavelength range, which is called "Interstellar reddening" (sect. 21).
The extent of this effect depends on the object distance, the direction of the line of sight
and is, as expected, most intensive within the galactic plane. It can roughly be estimated
with a corresponding 3D model by F. Arenou et al. [209], [201].
2. The Attenuation in the Earth's Atmosphere D
ATM
(2) acts similarly. Well known effects
are the reddish sunsets. The modelling of the atmospheric transmission is mainly applied in
the professional sector. It is rather complex and depends inter alia on the zenith-distance z
(or the complementary elevation angle) of the observed object, the altitude of the observa-
tion site and the meteorological conditions [303].
3. The Attenuation by Instrumental Influences D
INST
(2) of the system telescope-
spectrograph-camera follows at the very end of the transmission chain. This could be de-
termined relatively precisely, eg by comparison with the well known continuum radiation
distribution of a halogen incandescent lamp, or by the known intensities of several emis-
sion lines [300], [313], [480]. A discussion of further possibilities and the difficulties in-
volved, see [315], [316].
The resulting dampening effect does:
D
Tut
(z) =
ISM
(z)
A1M
(z)
INS1
(z) {7]
The empirical function
1ot
(z) provides to any wavelength z the correction factor between
the continuum intensities of Ps(z) and 0r(z).
1ot
(z) = Ps(z)0r(z) {7b]
This empirical scaling or "correction function"
1ot
(z) can be determined as a rough ap-
proximation only. The intensity profile of the original stellar spectrum can be simulated just
on a theoretical basis and the individual factors can only approximately be estimated. Simi-
lar approaches with empirical functions can be found in [300] and [303]. The practical cal-
culation with profiles is enabled including all basic operations by the software of the
analysis tools. At Vspec this feature is to find under Operations/Divide-, Multiply-, Add-,
Subtract profiles by a profile.
8.3 Relationship Between Original-Continuum Or(2) and Pseudo-Continuum Px(2)
The following diagram shows two identical sections of the same spectrum: on the left the
undisturbed original profile 0r(z) and on the right the recorded raw spectrum with the
pseudo-continuum Ps(z). It shows each an absorption and an emission line. Within this fic-
tional spectral section, the course of
1ot
(z), 0r(z) and Ps(z) is assumed to run horizon-
tally.

The following relationships and its consequences can be derived:
Due to the attenuation, at a certain wavelength z, the continuum-intensity of the re-
corded profile Ps(z) appears reduced by AI
C
, compared with the original-spectrum 0r(z).
AI
C
= I
C0
-I
C
{7c]
The continuum intensity I
C0
, the superimposed emission line I
L0
and the penetration
depth of the absorption line I
A0
, are attenuated proportionally equal.
I
C
=
1ot
(z) I
C0
{7J]
I
L
=
1ot
(z) I
L0
{7c]
I
A
=
1ot
(z) I
A0
{7]
For reasons of proportionality the Peak intensity of the emission line P
L
, as well as of the
absorption line P
A
, remain unaffected by the attenuation factor
1ot
(z).
P
L
=
I
L0
I
C0
=
I
L
I
C
P
A
=
I
A0
I
C0
=
I
A
I
C
{7g]
Thus the original ratio of the absorption- and emission intensities, related to the contin-
uum level, is maintained. This is in contrast to the directly and independently of the con-
tinuum measured intensities I
A
and I
L
, which are attenuated by
1ot
(z) according to
{7c] and {7].
Since 0r(z) = Ps(z) follows
1ot
(z) = Ps(z)0r(z) = konst. Therefore, the initial in-
tensity ratio in the original profile, between any two emissions or absorptions at the
wavelengths z
1
and z
2
, is modified by the attenuation:
I
L01

1ot x
1
I
L02

1ot x
2
=
I
L1
I
L2

I
A01

1ot x
1
I
A02

1ot x
2
=
I
A1
I
A2
in wbicb
1ot x
1
=
1ot x
2
{7b]

I
C
Ps()
I
E
I
C
I
A
I
AO
Or()
I
EO
I
CO
I
Original
Profile
Recorded
Profile
Summary of the consequences:
In contrast to the independently measured intensity values I
C
, I
L
and I
A
, the peak inten-
sities P
A
and P
L
, which are related to the continuum level I
C
, are not attenuated {7g].
The original ratio of the absorption and emission intensities, related to the original-
continuum level, is maintained also in the pseudo-continuum {7g].
On the other hand, the original intensity ratio between any two emissions I
EO1
I
EO2
ap-
pears attenuated in the pseudo-continuum {7b].
The following graph of the Sirius spectrum finally demonstrates that, considered the I
C
-
related measures, not only the peak intensity P = II
c
but even the equivalent width Ew,
are not affected by the attenuating effects. This applies to both, the absorption- and emis-
sion lines (not shown here). The Ew value is always measured relative to I
c
= 1 hence the
integrated profile area, according to {6a}, always remains the same.

Anyway the example of the B line also shows that the relative line intensities I, measured
either at Ps(z) or Rc(z) and independently of the continuum-level, are very different. At
Rc(z) they correspond very roughly to those in the original profile 0r(z). Further here can
be seen that, caused by the higher local radiation intensity, the B line absorbs the greater
energy flux as H. Such considerations apply analogously to the emission lines I
L
, which
are generated independently of the continuum.
8.4 The Importance of the Pseudo-Continuum
If the damping function
1ot
(z) is approximately known, the pseudo continuum Ps(z) con-
tains the information, to enable the approximate reconstruction of the original profile 0r(z),
applying formula {7b]. Further, according to sect. 3.2 and 3.3, the wavelength of the maxi-
mum intensity is, even in the strongly dampened pseudo-continuum, a very rough indicator
at least for the order of magnitude of the effective temperature I
c]]
.
Otherwise in most other cases the course of the recorded profile, with the pseudo-
continuum Ps(z), is useless. Depending on the wavelength, Ps(z) just shows the amount of
electrons, which has been read out of the individual pixels, amplified by the camera elec-
tronics and finally averaged by the spectral processing software over a defined height of
the vertical pixel rows. Thus it reflects roughly proportional the recorded photon flux which
however is loaded with all the mentioned attenuating influences. As intensity unit for raw
profiles therefore often ADU (Analog Digital Units) is used.
8.5 Rectification of the Pseudo-Continuum
The pseudo-continuum Ps(z) can be rectified by dividing it by its own smoothed or fitted
intensity course PS
Pt
(z). This way the continuum-intensity is unified or "normalised"
I
I
c
I I
c
I / I
c
= I / I
c
EW = EW
Rc()
Ps()
H
H
H
through the entire range, and usually set to I
C
= 1. The resulting profile is called Residual
Intensity Ri(z).
Ri(z) = Ps(z)PS
Pt
(z) {7i]
Due to this division, the profile runs now horizontally and the intensity of the emissions I
L
-
and absorptions I
A
is related to the unified continuum intensity I
c
. This process proportion-
ally scales the intensities of all spectral lines from their individual I
C
-values in the pseudo-
continuum, up to the level I
c
= 1. This corresponds now to the original profile of a virtual
star which shows a horizontally running, but physically impossible radiation characteristic.
Consequences and benefits of Rectifying the Pseudo-Continuum
Useful for certain applications the profile normalisation Ri(z) allows the elimination, of
the often irrelevant, or even hindering, wavelength-dependent distribution, of the stellar
radiation intensity. It generates a "quasi neutralisation", but not a real correction of the
attenuating effects. Thus Ri(z) enables the direct comparison of the peak intensities be-
tween individual absorption lines, according to P = II
c
.
At Ri(z) also the original ratio I
L0
I
C0
of the individual emission lines is maintained {7g}.
This allows the intensity comparison of individual lines, eg of H in different profiles. It
also enables the comparison of any emission intensities, relative to a unified radiation
course I
c
= const (possible application see sect. 20, Balmer-Decrement).
However at Ri(z), the intensities of the lines I
A
and I
L
, independently measured of the
continuum, appear attenuated to different extents, depending on the wavelength {7h}.
The rectified profile, normalised to I
c
= 1, allows the quick determination of the EW val-
ues and facilitates the measurement of the FWHM at arbitrary lines.
By the rectification of the profile, the information gets lost, which allows, by means of
the known damping function
1ot
(z), to approximately reconstruct the original
file 0r(z).
Anyway for most amateur applications, the profile normalisation Ri(z) is clearly the best
option [11].

The scaling effect of a rectified profile is impressively demonstrated at the absorptions in
the solar spectrum by the two Fraunhofer H- and K- lines of ionised calcium (Ca II). The blue
profile of the pseudo-continuum shows these lines only stunted at the short wavelength
end of the spectrum (blue arrow). After rectifying of the continuum (red profile), the H- and
K- lines appear now obviously as the strongest absorptions, which the sun generates itself
(red arrow).

8.6 The Relative Radiometric Profile Correction with a Synthetic Continuum
The goal of this procedure is a rough approximation of the recorded profile with the
pseudo-continuum Ps(z), to the original- and therefore not reddened continuum 0r(z). This
procedure is described in the manual of the Vspec software. With dividing by correction
curves, the spectral lines of the pseudo-continuum Ps(z) are directly transferred to the syn-
thetically produced and fitted continuum course Hs
Pt
(z) of a mostly virtual model star with
the same spectral class and unreddened by interstellar dust. Similar to sect. 8.5, this proc-
ess proportionally scales the intensities of all spectral lines from their individual I
C
-values in
the pseudo-continuum, up to the level of Hs
Pt
(z). For specific applications this procedure
is also applied in the professional field [301].
In the following chart the blue spectrum is the recorded profile with the pseudo-continuum
Ps(z) of Sirius. The red profile is the aimed, fitted continuum course Hs
Pt
(z) of the syn-
thetic model star of the same spectral type, from the Vspec library (CDS Database). It ap-
pears cleaned from all spectral lines and thus roughly corresponds to the black body radia-
tion characteristics of this star Hs
Pt
(z) = B
1c]]
(z).

On the following graph, the green correction curve Ir(z) is generated by the division of the
fitted blue pseudo-continuum Ps
Pt
(z) with the red synthetic reference profile Hs
Pt
(z). It
is called by Vspec Instrumental Response and is here denoted hereinafter with correction
function Ir(z).
Ir(z) = Ps
Pt
(z)Hs
Pt
(z) {7m]

Ir(z) approximately corresponds here to the damping-function
1ot
(z), according to {7].
Ir(z) =
1ot
(z) {7n]
Pseudo-continuum Ps()
Smoothed reference profile of
the model star
Ms
Fit
()
Radiometrically corrected
profile
Rc()
Instrumental response
Ir()
Ps()
Finally the division of the blue recorded raw profile Ps(z), by the green correction function
Ir(z), results in the radiometrically corrected profile Rc(z) (black). It shows now the same
continuum course like the red smoothed reference profile Hs
Pt
(z), but now overprinted
with the accordingly scaled lines of the recorded profile.
Rc(z) = Ps(z)Ir(z) {7p]
Remarks to the Instrumental Response
For a correction function Ir(z), obtained according to {7m], the term "instrumental re-
sponse" is misleading. In professional fields, this term is used as "Instrumental System Re-
sponse", which is clearly restricted to the erroneous recording characteristic of
INS1
(z),
considering just the system telescope spectrograph camera [305]. In contrast, the cor-
rection curve Ir(z), generated according to {7m], is additionally loaded by the wavelength
dependent damping effects of the Interstellar Matter
ISM
(z) and of the earth's
atmosphere
A1M
(z).
Experiments have shown that such correction curves Ir(z), which are generated just with
an unreddened virtual model spectrum of the same spectral class, are not universally appli-
cable. They cannot generally be applied to any raw profiles, which have been recorded at
different atmospheric conditions and zenith distances.
Deviation between Ps(z) and Hs(z)
The following figure shows for the spectral classes B, A, D, G, the ranges of the smallest
deviation between Ps(z) (pink) and Hs(z) (blue), valid for the setup C8/DADOS/Atik
314L+. This information may be useful to estimate the rough size of error, when intensity
ratios, as described in sect. 20 22, are measured approximately, ie without any radiomet-
ric corrections. This applies also for the detailed analysis of the H line!

I
I / I
c
= I / I
c
Kr()
Ps()
H
H
H
H
Ori, Alnilam B0 Iab
Cma, Sirius A1V
Leo, Adhafera F0 III
Sun G2V
Consequences and benefits of a radiometric profile correction with a synthetic continuum
This procedure provides not a true correction of the attenuation influences
INS1
(z),
A1M
(z),
ISM
(z). With the direct transformation of the intensity profile from
Ps(z) to Hs(z), the pseudo continuum is just scaled up to the level of the synthetic and
therefore not reddened model star, and not to the original profile of the observed
ject 0r(z). Thus, the attenuating effects are simply bypassed and a synthetic, rough
approximation to the original profile 0r(z) is reached this way. Therefore fluctuations of
the continuum radiation cannot be measured in such a profile.
Since Hs(z) complies now very roughly to the original profile 0r(z), also the relative line
intensities I correspond approximately with those in the original profile. This applies also
to the continuum-independent emission lines I
L
. However it must be kept in mind that
between different stars even of the very same spectral class, considerable differences in
the continuum course may occur. This effect can be significantly enhanced by a strongly
different metallicity and/or rotation velocity (: sini).
The original relative relationship between two line intensities I
A1
and I
A2
as well as I
L1

and I
L2
, which are measured directly and independently of the continuum level, can here
be estimated.
This method does not yet allow any calibration of the intensity axis in physical units!
8.7 The Relative Radiometric Profile Correction with Recorded Standard Stars
Correction methods in amateur fields
With this somewhat time consuming procedure the recorded profile Ps(z) is corrected,
similarly to section 8.6, with a correction function Ir(z). However Ir(z) is obtained here,
analogously to formula {7m], by a recorded and real existing standard star St(z), mostly of
the spectral type A0V. The continuum course of St(z) is well known and corresponds to the
profile, just reddened by interstellar dust, as it would have been recorded outside the
Earth's atmosphere and without any instrument influences [300]. Such curves can eg be
found in the ISIS software [410], in the MILES database [104], but also in the Pickles- or
Jacobi Hunter-Christians-atlas [310] [311].
Standard stars must be recorded with a minimum of time difference and as close as possi-
ble to the object under investigation. Subsequently, the obtained raw profile is divided by
the specific reference spectrum of the same star from the catalogue. Thus, the atmospheric
A1M
(z) and instrumental influences
INS1
(z) can be corrected in a good approximation.
Anyway the resulting spectrum remains here star-dependent differently strong red-
dened by the interstellar matter
ISM
(z), however in the "close range" of a few dozen light
years, just very slightly [209] [11]. In contrast to {7n] the correction function
Ir(z)
Stundudstu
is determined here only by
INS1
(z) and
A1M
(z), which corresponds also
to common practice in professional astronomy.
Ir(z)
Stundudstu
=
INS1
(z)
A1M
(z) {7r]
In contrast to sect. 8.6 such real standard star correction curves, which were recorded very
promptly and with similar elevation angle to the investigated object, can be applied to any
spectral classes. With the graphic below, Robin Leadbeater [481] shows, that for different
spectral classes, very similar correction curves are obtained this way (many thanks Robin!).


Correction methods in professional fields
Anyway the professional astronomy applies significantly higher sophisticated and more ac-
curate methods. For most of the large professional telescopes
INS1
(z) is well known.
A1M
(z) is usually determined separately by observations of standard stars with different
zenith distances z. This way not a correction curve is generated, but instead a model of the
atmospheric extinction becomes parameterised, like MODTRAN [314]. Thus, finally the pro-
file of the examined object will be corrected in function of the zenith distance z [305]. Fur-
ther methods are presented in [300] and [303].
The recording of standard stars consumes valuable telescope time. To relieve the main in-
strument of this "annoying" task, the separate determination of
A1M
(z) with smaller
Photometric Monitoring Telescopes was already proposed [314]. Further possibilities are
based on the measurement of atmospheric Cherenkov radiation as well as on LIDAR [314].
In the infrared range the spectral class A0 shows just few and very faint stellar lines. There-
fore, these more or less purely telluric influenced profiles are generally used to extract the
atmospheric H
2
0 and O
2
lines in any stellar spectra [300].
Consequences and benefits of the Radiometric Correction with Recorded Standard Stars
The achievable accuracy of this rather delicate method is highly dependent on the quality of
execution and tends to be rather overestimated. Numerous are the potential sources of er-
rors and in addition, some of the reference profiles of the various databases show signifi-
cant differences in their continuum courses. Anyway, if applied appropriately and accu-
rately, this fairly time consuming method provides a reasonable approximation to the origi-
nal theoretical spectral profile 0r(z), which appears still reddened by the interstellar
ter
ISM
(z). This effect is unavoidable and allows due to the selective elimination of the
atmospheric and instrumental effects the determination of the effective Balmer-
decrement according to sect. 20 and thus also of the true interstellar extinction, according
to sect. 21. This way, at least theoretically, also greater fluctuations in the continuum radia-
tion are detectable and the effective temperature I
c]]
according to sect. 18.3 can be esti-
mated.
8.8 The Absolute Flux Calibration
As a final step of the radiometric correction, the intensity axis
could be absolutely calibrated in physical units for the spectral
flux density F normally [erg s
-1
cm
-2

-1
]. This calibration is very
challenging, time consuming and just needed by some special
sectors of the professional astronomy. It is relatively common for
spectra, recorded by space telescopes, which of course remain
clean of any atmospheric influences [301].
For amateur applications an acceptable accuracy of the results
is usually prevented already by the inadequate quality of the ob-
servation site. Thus even in the professional sector, such abso-
lutely flux-calibrated spectra can be found rather rarely.
The total flux F
L
of an emission line, here in a simplified form di-
rectly drawn on the wavelength axis, corresponds to their area,
[302]. The unit for the total flux of the line F
L
is [erg s
-1
cm
-2
].
F
L
= _ F(z)
x
2
x
1
Jz {7s]
If the emission line is superimposed on a continuum, the continuum flux Ic (z
1
-z
2
) must
be subtracted from formula {7s].
This process is based on the comparison of the absolute calibrated radiation flux of a stan-
dard star. However, many additional data are required for this correction procedure, such
as the exposure time of the spectral recordings and even the slit width of the spectrograph.
8.9 The Intensity Comparison between Different Spectral Lines
The intensities of two different lines can be compared in normalised profiles Ri(z) with
their equivalent widths Ew. However if the widths of the lines are not too different, a rough
comparison is also feasible with the peak intensities P.
P
1
P
2
=
Ew
1
Ew
2
{7t]

For most emission nebulae (sect. 22), which dont show any evaluable continuum, formula
{7t} can per definition, no longer be applied. Here just remains to compare the directly and
independently of the continuum measured intensities I
L
, which have individually been cor-
rected, based on the values of the undisturbed Balmer-Decrement (sect. 21.4, 22.11) or
with the absolute fluxes according to {7s].
F
F()
[
e
r
g
s
-
1
c
m
-
2
-
1
]
[erg s
-1
cm
-2
]
9 Visible Effects of Quantum Mechanics
9.1 Textbook Example Hydrogen Atom and Balmer Series
The following energy level diagram shows for the simplest possible example, the hydrogen
atom, the fixed grid of the energy levels (or "terms") n, which a single electron can occupy
in its orbit around the atomic nucleus. They are identical with the shells of the famous
Bohr's atomic model and are also called principal quantum numbers. Which level the elec-
tron currently occupies depends on its state of excitation. A stay between the orbits is ex-
tremely unlikely. The lowest level is n = 1. It is closest to the nucleus and also called the
ground state.
With increasing n number (here from bottom to top):
increases the distance to the nucleus
increases the total energy difference, in relation to n = 1
the distances between the levels and thus the required energy values to reach the next
higher level, are getting smaller and smaller, and finally tend to zero on the Level
E = u cI (or n = ).
The energy level E on the level n = is physically defined as E = u cI [5] and also called
Ionisation Limit. The level number n = is to consider as "theoretical", as a limited number
of about 200 is expected, which a hydrogen atom in the interstellar space can really occupy
[6]. By definition, with decreasing n number the energy becomes increasingly negative.
Above E = u cI, ie outside of the atom, it becomes positive.

Absorption occurs only when the atom is hit by a photon whose energy matches exactly to
a level difference by which the electron is then briefly raised at the higher level (resonance
absorption).
Emission occurs when the electron falls back to a lower level and though a photon is emit-
ted, which corresponds exactly to the energy level difference.
Hydrogene Series
Lyman
(Ultra violet)
Balmer
(visible)
Paschen
(Infrared)
n = 1
n = 2
n = 3
n = 4
n = 5
n = 6
n =
E
x
c
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
L
e
v
e
l
s
E
m
i
s
s
i
o
n
A
b
s
o
r
p
t
i
o
n
I
o
n
i
z
a
t
i
o
n
R
e
c
o
m
b
i
n
a
t
i
o
n
General Transitions
E
n
e
r
g
y
L
e
v
e
l
s
E = 0 eV
E 4
E 2
E 3
E 1
H
E 5
Ionisation of an atom occurs when the excitation energy is high enough so the negative
electron is lifted over the level E = u cI and leaves the atom. This can be triggered by a
high-energy photon (photo ionisation), by heating (thermal ionisation) or a collision with ex-
ternal electrons or ions (collision ionisation).
Recombination occurs if an ionised atom recaptures a free electron from the surrounding
area and becomes "neutral again.
9.2 The Balmer Series
A group of electron transitions between a fixed energy level and all
higher levels is called Transition Series. For amateurs primarily the
Balmer series (red arrow group) is important, because only their spec-
tral lines are in the visible range of the spectrum. It contains the fa-
mous H-lines and includes all the electron transitions, which start up-
ward from the second-lowest energy level n = 2 (absorption) or end
here, falling down from an upper level (emission). The Balmer series
was discovered and described by the Swiss mathematician and archi-
tect (!) Johann Jakob Balmer (1825-1898). The lines of the adjacent
Paschen series lie in the infrared, those of the Lyman series in the ul-
traviolet range.
This sounds very theoretical, but has high practical relevance and can virtually be made
"visible" using even the simplest slitless spectrograph! For this purpose the easiest way is
to record the classical beginner object, a stellar spectrum of the class A (sect. 13.4). Most
suitable is Sirius (A1) or Vega (A0). These stars have a surface temperature of about
10,000 K, which is best suited to generate impressively strong H-Balmer absorptions. The
reason for this: Due to thermal excitation at this temperature, the portion of electrons
reaches the maximum which occupy already the basic n = 2 level of the Balmer series.
With further increasing temperature, this portion decreases again, because it is shifted to
even higher levels (Paschen series) and will finally be completely released, which results in
the ionisation of the H atoms.
In the following Sirius spectrum six of the H-Balmer lines appear, labelled with the relevant
electron transitions. These absorption lines are labelled consecutively with lowercase
Greek letters, starting with H in the red region of the spectrum, which is generated by the
lowest transition n2 -nS. From H upwards often the respective level number n is used, eg
H = H8. Here is nice to see how the line spacing in the Blue area gets more and more
closer a direct reflection of the decreasing amounts of energy, which are required to
reach the next higher level. In my feeling this is the aesthetically most pleasing, which the
spectroscopy has optically to offer!

n
2

n
3
n
2

n
4
n
2

n
5
n
2

n
6
n
2

n
7
n
2

n
8
H
H
H H H H
Triggering electron transitions
Denotation of the lines
9.3 Spectral Lines of Other Atoms
For all other atoms, i.e. with more than one electron, the description of line formation can
be very complex. All atoms have different energy levels and are therefore distinguished by
different wavelengths of the spectral lines. Another factor is the number of valence elec-
trons on the outer shell, or how many of the inner levels are already fully occupied. Further
the main levels are subdivided in a large number of so-called Sublevels and Sub-Sublevels,
each of them with completely other implications in respect of quantum mechanics. The en-
ergy differences between such sublevels must logically be very low. This explains why
metals often appear in dense groups, a few with distances even <1! Typical examples are
the sodium lines at 5896 and 5890 , and the famous Magnesium Triplet at 5184, 5173,
5169 in the solar spectrum. By the hydrogen atoms these sublevels play no practical role,
particularly for amateurs, because they are degenerated here [5]. The stay of the electrons
within this complex level system is also subject to a set of rules. The best known is proba-
bly the so called Pauli Exclusion Principle which demands that the various sublevels may be
occupied by only one electron at the same time.
For most spectroscopic amateur activities, detailed knowledge of this complex matter is not
really necessary. For those, deeper interested in quantum mechanics, [5] is recommended
as a first reading, which provides a good overview on this matter and is relatively easy
and understandable to read.

10 Wavelength and Energy
10.1 Plancks Energy Equation
In the above wavelength-calibrated Sirius spectrum we want to calculate the
corresponding photon energies E of the hydrogen lines. This is possible with
the familiar and simple equation of Max Planck (1858 1947):
E = b v {8]
F Radiation Energy in Joule [J]
h Plancks Quantum of Action [6.626 10
-34
J s]
v (Greek: nu) Radiation frequency [s
-1
] of the spectral line.
The Radiation frequency v of the spectral line is simply related to the wave-
length 2 [m] (c = light speed 3 10
8
m/s):
v =
c
z
{9]
Insert {9} into {8}:
E =
b c
z
{1u]
The most important statement of formulas {8} and {10}: The radiation energy E is propor-
tional to the radiation frequency v and inversely proportional to the wavelength I.
10.2 Units for Energy and Wavelength
To express such extremely low amounts of energy in Joules [J] is very impractical and not
easy to interpret. Joule has been defined to be applied in traditional mechanics. In quantum
mechanics and therefore also in spectroscopy, the units of electron volts [eV] is in use [5].
1cI = 1.6u2 1u
-19
[ {11]
Further in the optical spectral domain also the wavelengths are extremely small and there-
fore in astronomy usually measured in angstroms [] or nanometres [nm]. One should be
aware that 1 corresponds about to the diameter of an atom, including its electron shells!
In the infrared range also [m] is in use:
1 = 1u
-10
m, 1 nm = 1u, 1m (micion) = 1,uuunm = 1u,uuu {11o]

Rather rarely, the frequency v is also expressed as Wavenumber k. This is the reciprocal
value of the wavelength z, usually expressed somewhat special in number of waves
within 1cm |cm
-1
].
k =
1
z
=
v
c
|cm
-1
] {11b]
In the optical spectral domain, the wavelength z is usually based on the standard atmos-
phere (atmospheric pressure 1013.25 hPa, temperature 15 C). The program SpectroTools
[413] by Peter Schlatter, enables also to convert vacuum wavelengths to this atmospheric
standard (or vice versa) and to demonstrate the temperature dependency of a z measure-
ment. So it becomes clear why the calibration spectrum should, as quick as possible, be re-
corded immediately prior to, and/or after the object spectrum!
The following simple formulas, suitable for pocket calculators, allow to convert the wave-
length 2 [] into energy E [eV] and vice versa,:
z|] =
124uS
E|ev]
{12] E|ev] =
124uS
z|]
{12o]
10.3 The Photon Energy of the Balmer Series
To the wavelengths 2 of the hydrogen lines we can now calculate with formula {1u] the
corresponding values of the photon energy Fp.

In professional publications, spectra in the UV region are often calibrated in photon energy
Ep [eV], instead of the wavelength 2.
On the left side, the so-called Balmer Edge or Balmer Jump is marked with a red bar (also
called Balmer Discontinuity). The Balmer series ends here at 3647 and the continuum
suffers a dramatic drop in intensity. This takes place due to the huge phalanx of highly con-
centrated and increasingly closer following absorption lines, acting here as a barrier to pho-
tons at corresponding wavelengths (see sect. 10.4).
The Ep Value of a spectral line corresponds to the energy difference between the initial and
final level of the causal electron transition. It fits therefore also to the arrow lengths in the
following energy level diagram. In the spectrum above e.g. 2.55eV corresponds to the tran-
sition n2 -n4 or H. This relationship enables now to calculate the energy levels E of the
H-Balmer series.

6
5
6
3

H H H H
H
Wavelength []
Photon
Energies Ep [eV]
4
8
6
1

4
3
4
0

4
1
0
2

3
9
7
0

H
3
8
8
9

1
.
8
9

e
V
2
.
5
5

e
V
3
.
0
2

e
V
2
.
8
6

e
V
3
.
1
2

e
V
3
.
1
9

e
V
3
6
4
7

3
.
4
0

e
V
Balmer
Edge
Electron
transition
n
2

n
3
n
2

n
4
n
2

n
5
n
2

n
6
n
2

n
7
n
2

n
8
n
2

B
a
l
m
e
r
-
E
d
g
e
Lyman
(Ultra violet)
Balmer
(visible)
Paschen
(Infrared)
n = 1
n = 2
n = 3
n = 4
n = 5
n = 6
n =
E
x
c
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
l
e
v
e
l
E
n
e
r
g
y
l
e
v
e
l
E

[
e
V
]
0
-3.40
-1.51
-13.6
H
-0.85
-0.54
Since by definition the energy on the level n = is set to E = u, we shift the Ep value of
the Balmer edge 3.40 eV with negative sign to the initial level of the Balmer Series n = 2.
3.40 eV corresponds also to the energy difference between the initial level n2 and the
Balmer edge, as well as to the minimum required energy to ionise a hydrogen atom from
the initial level n = 2. For the calculation of the other energy levels the Ep values of the
corresponding level differences must now be subtracted from 3.40 eV. For the energy level,
eg n = S, the subtraction 3.40 eV 1.89 eV = 1.51 eV is required (1.89 eV = Ep
H
). Per
definition the values of the energy levels have here negative signs.
10.4 Balmer- Paschen- and Bracket Continuum
Hot stars, with main radiation intensity in the UV region of the spectrum, show a steeply
rising continuum level toward shorter wavelengths. As already shown above, this tendency
is abruptly stopped by the Balmer Jump at 3646 . After a dramatic drop in intensity, the
continuum rises again in the UV range, until it reaches the final ionisation limit of hydrogen
(also called the Lyman limit) at 912 . The following graph shows the Balmer Jump at a
synthetic A0 I profile from the Vspec database.

A similar process occurs near the border to the infrared region at 8207 , the so-called
Paschen Jump. Somewhat confusing is the designation of the intermediate continuum sec-
tions which always bear the name of the preceding jumps or series. The Balmer Series
n2 -n is therefore located within the so-called Paschen Continuum. On the shortwave
(UV) side of the Balmer Jump, follows the Balmer Continuum with the Lyman Series
n1 -n. In the infrared region, the Paschen Series nS -n is located within the Bracket
Continuum. The dramatic influence of the hydrogen absorption on the continuum can be
explained by the extremely high occurrence of this element in most of stellar photospheres.

[]
I
Paschen Jump
8207
11 Ionisation Stage and Degree of Ionisation
11.1 The Lyman Limit of Hydrogen
In the second diagram of sect. 10.3 the energy for the lowest excitation level of the Lyman
Series n = 1 results to E = -1S.6 cI. Converted with formula {10}, this gives the well-
known Lyman limit or Lyman edge in the UV range with wavelength = 912 . It is func-
tionally equivalent to the Balmer edge of the Balmer Series (sect. 10.4). This value is very
important for astrophysics, because it defines the minimum required energy to ionise the H-
atom from its ground state n = 1. This level is only achievable by very hot stars of the O-
and early B-Class. [3]. The very high UV radiation of such stars ionises first the hydrogen
clouds which are shining due to emitted photons by the subsequent recombination (H II re-
gions, eg M42, Orion Nebula, sect. 22).
11.2 Ionisation Stage versus Degree of Ionisation
The term Ionisation stage refers here to the number of electrons, which an ionised atom
has lost to the space (Si IV, Fe II, H II, etc.). This must not be confused with the term De-
gree of ionisation in plasma physics. It defines for a gas mixture the ratio of atoms (of a
certain element) that are ionised into charged particles, regarding the temperature, density
and the required ionisation energy of the according element. This Degree is determined in
astrophysics with the famous Saha equation.
11.3 Astrophysical Form of Notation for the Ionisation Stage
Unfortunately, in astrophysics the chemical form of notation is not in use but instead of it
another somewhat misleading version. The neutral hydrogen is denoted by chemists with
H, and the ionised with H
+
, which is clear and unambiguous. On the other hand astrophysi-
cists, denote already the neutral hydrogen with an additional Roman numeral as H I and the
ionised with H II. The doubly ionised calcium is referred by chemists with Ca
++
, for astro-
physicists this corresponds to Ca III. Si IV is for example triply ionised silicon Si
+++
. This sys-
tem therefore works according to the (n1) principle, ie in astrophysics the ionisation
stage of an atom is always by 1 lower than the Roman numeral. A high ionisation stage of
atoms always means that very high temperatures must be involved in the process.

12 Forbidden Lines or Transitions
Based on the already presented theories this phenomenon can only roughly be explained.
For a more comprehensive understanding, further quantum mechanical knowledge would
be required. For practical amateur spectroscopy, this is anyway not really necessary.
Most amateurs certainly have an [O III] filter for the contrast enhancement of emission
nebulae. It lets pass the two green emission lines of the doubly ionised oxygen [O III] at
4959 und 5007. These lines are generated here by so-called "Forbidden Transitions" be-
tween the energy levels (sect. 22). The initial levels of such transitions are called metasta-
ble, because they are highly sensitive to impacts and an electron must remain her for a
quite long time (several seconds to minutes) until it performs the forbidden jump. These
circumstances increase drastically the likelihood that this state is destroyed before the
transition happens.
"Forbidden" therefore means that in dense gases, such as on the earth's surface or in stel-
lar atmospheres, these transitions are extremely unlikely, because they are prevented by
frequent collisions with other particles. This disturbing effect occurs very rarely within the
extremely thin gases of the interstellar space. Thus such transitions are possible here. Such
forbidden lines are denoted within square brackets eg [O III], [N II], [Fe XIV].
In addition to nitrogen bands, the forbidden airglow line [OI] (5577.35) is the main cause
for the formation of the usually greenish polar lights in the extremely thin upper layers of
the atmosphere. For the generation of higher ionisation stages such as [O III] the required
ionisation energy is missing here.

www.nww-web.at

13 The Spectral Classes
13.1 Preliminary Remarks
Basic knowledge of the spectral classes is an indispensable prerequisite for a reasonable
spectroscopic activity. Combined with appropriate skills and tools, this classification sys-
tem contains a considerable qualitative and quantitative information potential about the
classified objects. The average-equipped amateur will hardly ever come into the embar-
rassment, that he really must determine an unknown classification of a star, unless of cer-
tainly recommendable didactic reasons. The spectral classes can nowadays be obtained
from Internet sources [100], planetarium programs, etc. For a deeper understanding of the
classification system, a rough knowledge of the historical development is very useful since
from each development step something important remained until to date!
13.2 The Fraunhofer Lines
At the beginning of the 19th Century, the physicist and
optician Joseph von Fraunhofer (1787-1826) investi-
gated, based on the discovery of Wollaston, the sunlight
with his home-built prism spectroscope. He discovered
over 500 absorption lines in this very complex spectrum.
The more intensive of them he denoted with the letters
A K, at that time still unaware of the physical context.
Picture below: Original drawing by Fraunhofer from Inter-
net sources. This line names can frequently be found even
in recent papers!

Fraunhofer has been studied the brighter stars with this
spectroscope, and already recognised that in the spectrum
of Sirius broad strong lines are dominating and Pollux
shows a similar pattern as the spectrum of the sun! Further
he observed the spectrum of Betelgeuse which shows
barely discrete absorption lines but broad absorption
bands.
The table on the right and the graphics below show how
this system was expanded later on. (Source: NASA).

Line Element Wavelength
A Band O2 7594 7621
B Band O2 6867 6884
C H () 6563
a Band O2 6276 6287
D 1, 2 Na 5896 & 5890
E Fe 5270
b 1, 2 Mg 5184 & 5173
F H () 4861
D Fe 4668
E Fe 4384
F H () 4340
G Band CH 4300 - 4310
G Ca 4227
H H () 4102
H Ca II 3968
K Ca II 3934
Here are some of the identified Fraunhofer lines in the solar spectrum, obtained with the
DADOS Spectrograph in the range of 4200 6700 (200L/mm).

Below left, the H and K lines of ionised calcium. Ca II are the most intense of the sun-grown
absorption lines (3968/3934 ). Below right is the beautiful so-called A-band (7594
7621 ), caused by the O
2
molecule in the earths atmosphere (DADOS and 900L/mm grat-
ing).

13.3 Further Development Steps
In the further course of the 19th to the early 20th Century, the
astronomy, and particularly the spectroscopy benefited from im-
pressive advances in chemistry and physics. So it became in-
creasingly possible to assign the spectral lines to chemical ele-
ments - primarily the merit of Robert Bunsen (1811 - 1899) and
Gustav Kirchhoff (1824 - 1887)
Father Angelo Secchi (1818 - 1878) from the Vatican Observa-
tory decisively influenced the future path of the stellar spectral
classification. He is therefore referred by many sources as the
father of the modern astrophysics. He subdivided the stellar
spectra into five groups according to specific characteristics (I-V Secchi Classes).
Type I Bluish-white stars with relatively simple spectra, which are dominated by small but
very bold lines. These are distributed like thick rungs over the spectral stripe and turned out
later as the hydrogen lines of the famous Balmer series. This simple characteristic allows
even beginners, to roughly classify such stars into the currently used A- or late B-Class (Sir-
ius, Vega, Castor).

Type II Yellow shining stars with complex spectra, dominated by numerous metal lines,
like they exhibit the Sun, Capella, Arcturus, Pollux (now Classes F, G, K).

Type III Reddish-orange stars with complex band spectra and a few discrete lines. The ab-
sorption bands get darker (more intense) towards the shortwave (blue) side. Such features
show, e.g. Betelgeuse, Antares, and Mira. Not until 1904, it became clear that these ab-
sorption bands are mainly caused by the titanium oxide molecule TiO (today's Class M).

Type IV Very rare reddish stars with absorptions bands getting darker (more intense) to
the longwave (red) side. Angelo Secchi already recognised that it is generated by carbon
(sect. 5.4)!
Type V Finally, stars with "bright lines" emission lines as we know today.

13.4 The Harvard System
It soon became clear that the classification system of Secchi was too
rudimentary. Based on a large number of spectra and preliminary work
by Henry Draper, Edward Pickering (1846-1919) refined Secchis sys-
tem by capital letters from A Q. The letter A corresponded to the
Secchi class type I for stars with dominant hydrogen lines. Finally this
classification solely survived up to the present time! As director of the
Harvard Observatory, he employed many women, for its time a truly
avant-garde attitude. Three women of his staff took care of the classi-
fication problem until after many detours and meanders the system
of Annie J. Cannon (1863 - 1941) became widely accepted around the
end of the World War I.
Its basic structure has survived until today and is essentially based on
the letters O, B, A, F, G, K, M. The well-known and certainly later cre-
ated mnemonic: Oh Be A Fine Girl Kiss Me. With this system, even
today still over 99% of the stars can be classified. This sequence of
letters follows the decreasing atmospheric temperature of the classi-
fied stars, starting from the very hot O-types with several 10,000 K up
to the cool M-types with about 2,400 3,500 K. This reflects the abso-
lutely ground-breaking recognition that the spectra depend mainly on
the photospheric temperature of the star and secondarily only on other
parameters such as chemical composition, density, rotation speed etc.
This may not be really surprising from today's perspective, since the shares of hydrogen
and helium with 75% and 24%, even about 13.7 billion years after the Big Bang still
comprise about 99% of the elements in the universe. This systematic also forms the hori-
zontal axis of the almost simultaneously developed Hertzsprung Russell Diagram (sect. 14).
It was later complemented by the classes:
R for Cyan (CN) and Carbon Monoxide (CO)
N for Carbon
S for very rare stars, whose absorption bands are generated, instead of TiO, by zirconium
oxide (ZrO), yttrium oxide (YO) or lanthanum oxide (LaO). Moreover, the entire class system
was further subdivided with additional decimal numbers from 010. Examples: Sun G2,
Pollux K0, Vega A0, Sirius A2, Procyon F5.
13.5 Early and Late Spectral Types
One of the faulty hypotheses on the long road to this classification system postulated that
the spectral sequence from O to M represents the chronological stages of a star. Unaware
at that time of nuclear fusion as a "sustainable" energy source, also the hypothesis was dis-
cussed, that the stars could generate their energy only by contraction, ie starting very hot
and finally ending cool. This error has subsequently influenced the terminology until today.
Thus the O, B, A classes are called "early", the F and G classes "medium" and K and M as
"late" types. This systematic is also applied within a class. So M0 is called an early and
M8 a late M-type. Logically is for example M1 "earlier" than M7.
13.6 The MK (Morgan Keenan) or Yerkes System
Later on, the progress in nuclear physics and the increasing knowledge of the stellar evolu-
tion required a further adaptation and extension of the system. It was eg recognised, that
within the same spectral class, stars can show totally different absolute luminosities,
mainly caused by different stages of stellar development.1943, as another milestone, the
classification system was extended with an additional Roman numeral by Morgan, Keenan
and Kellmann from the Mt Wilson Observatory. This second dimension of the classification
specifies the so called six luminosity classes.
Luminosity class Star type
I Luminous Super Giants
Ia-0, Ia, Iab, Ib Subdivision of the Super Giants according to decreasing lu-
minosity
II Bright Giants
III Normal Giants
IV Sub Giants
V Dwarfs or Main Sequence Stars
VI Sub Dwarfs (rarely used, as specified by prefix)
VII White Dwarfs (rarely used, as specified by prefix)
This system classifies the Sun as a G2V star, an ordinary Dwarf on the main sequence of
the Hertzsprung Russel Diagram. Sirius, classified as A1Vm, is also a Dwarf on the main se-
quence. Betelgeuse, as a Super Giant and rated with M12 IaIab, moves as a variable be-
tween M1 and M2 and fluctuates between the luminosity class Ia and Iab. It has given up
the Dwarf stage on the main sequence long ago and expanded into a Super Giant.
13.7 Further Adaptations up to the Present
Up to the presence, this classification system has been adapted to the constantly growing
knowledge. Thus, new classifications for rare, stellar "exotics" have emerged, which today
even amateurs successfully deal with. Furthermore with additional lower-case letters at-
tached as a prefix or suffix, unusual phenomena, such as a higher than average metal con-
tent or "metallicity" are referred. Some of these supplements are, however, over determin-
ing, eg because White Dwarfs, Sub Dwarfs and Giants are already specified by the luminos-
ity class. Caveat: Dwarf or main sequence stars must not be confused with the White
Dwarfs. The latter are extremely dense, burned-out "stellar corpses" (sect. 14.3).
Examples: Sirius A: A1Vm, metal rich main sequence star (Dwarf), spectral class A1
Sirius B: DA2, White Dwarf (or Degenerate) spectral class A2
Omikron Andromedae: B6IIIep, Omikron Ceti (Mira): M7IIIe
Kapteyns star: sdM1V

Nowadays the special classes P (Planetary Nebulae) and Q (Novae) are barely in use!
The suffixes are not always applied consistently. We often see other versions. In the case of
shell stars e.g. pe, or shell is in use.

Suffix
S Sharp lines
c Extraordinary sharp lines

B Broad lines
A Normal lines
comp Composite spectrum

e H- emission lines by B-
and O Stars
F He- and N- emission lines
by O-stars
Em Metallic emission lines
K Interstellar absorption
lines
M Strong metal lines
n / nn Diffuse lines/strongly dif-
fuse lines
Wk weak lines
p, pec peculiar spectrum

Sh Shell
V variation in spectrum
Fe, Mg Excess or deficiency () of
the spec. element
Prefixes
d Dwarf
sd Sub Dwarf
g Giant
Special classes
Q Nova
P Planetary Nebulae
D Dwarf, +additional letter for O, B,
A spectral class
W Wolf-Rayet Star + additional let-
ter for C-, N- or O- lines
S Stars with zirconium oxide ab-
sorption bands
C Carbon stars
L,
T,
Brown dwarfs
Y Theoretical class for brown
dwarfs <600 K
13.8 The Rough Determination of the Spectral Class
The rough, one-dimensional determination of the spectral classes O, B, A, F, G, K, M, is easy
and even feasible for slightly advanced amateurs. The distinctive criteria are striking fea-
tures such as line- or band spectra, as well as absorption- or emission lines, which appear
prominently in certain spectral classes and vice versa are very weak or even completely ab-
sent in others. But the determination of the decimal subclasses and even more, the addi-
tional determination of the luminosity class (second dimension), require well-resolved spec-
tra with a large number of identified lines, as well as deeper theoretical knowledge. Possi-
ble distinctive criterions are eg the intensity ratio or the FWHM values of certain spectral
lines. On this topic exists an extensive literature eg [4]. Here follows just a brief introduc-
tion into the rough, one dimensional determination of the spectral class. A further support
is the Spectroscopic Atlas for Amateur Astronomers [33]. The following figure shows super-
imposed and lowly-resolved the entire sequence of the spectral classes O - M, as it can be
found in [33].

TAFEL 01
bersicht Spektralklassen
O9.5
B1
B7
A1
A7
F0
F5
G2
G8
K1.5
K5
T
e
l
l
u
r
i
c
O
2
H
e

I

6
6
7
8
H
6
5
6
2
H
e

I

5
8
7
6
N
a

I

5
8
9
0
/
9
5
H
e

I
I

5
4
1
1
H
e

I

5
0
4
8
6
H
e

I

5
0
1
6
H
e

I

4
9
2
2
H
4
8
6
1
C

I
I
I

4
6
4
7
/
5
1
H
4
3
4
0
H
e

I

4
4
7
1
H
e

I

4
3
8
8
H
4
1
0
1
H
3
9
7
0
C
H

4
3
0
0
C
a

l
l
H
M
g

l

5
1
6
7
-
8
3
M
g

T
r
i
p
l
e
t
C
a

I

4
2
2
7
T
i
O
T
i
O
T
i
O
T
i
O
T
i
O
M1.5
M5
K
Vindemiatrix
4990K
Spica
22000K
Adhafera
7030K
Procyon
6330K
Sonne
5700K
Sirius
10000K
Altair
7550K
Arcturus
4290K
Alterf
3950K
Alnitak
25000K
Regulus
15000K
Antares
3600K
Rasalgethi
3300K
T
i
O
R
i
c
h
a
r
d

W
a
l
k
e
r

2
0
1
0
/
0
5
What is already clearly noticeable here?
In the upper third of the table (B2-A5), the strong lines of the H-Balmer series, i.e. H,
H, H, etc. They appear most pronounced in the class A2 and are weakening from here
towards earlier and later spectral classes.
In the lower quarter of the table (K5-M5) the eye-catching shaded bands of molecular
absorption spectra, mainly due to titanium oxide (TiO).
Just underneath the half of the table some spectra (F5-K0), showing only few prominent
features, but charged with a large number of fine metal lines. Striking features here are
only the Na I double line (Fraunhofer D1, 2) and in the blue part the impressive Fraun-
hofer lines of Ca II (K + H), gaining strength towards later spectral classes. Fraunhofer H
at 3968 starts around the early F-class to overprint the weakening H hydrogen line at
3970. In addition, the H-Balmer series is further weakening towards later classes.
Finally on the top of the table the extremely hot O-class with very few fine lines, mostly
ionised helium (He II) and multiply ionised metals. The H-Balmer series appears here
quite weak, as a result of the extremely high temperatures. The telluric H
2
O and O
2
ab-
sorption bands are reaching high intensities here, because the strongest radiation of the
star takes place in the ultraviolet whereas the telluric absorption bands are located in
the undisturbed domain near the infrared part of the spectrum. By contrast the maximum
radiation of the late spectral classes takes place in the infrared part, enabling the stellar
TiO absorption bands to overprint here the telluric lines.
In the spectra of hot stars (~ classes from early A O) the double line of neutral sodium
Na I (Fraunhofer D
1,2
) must imperatively be of interstellar origin. Neutral sodium Na I has
a very low ionisation energy of just 5.1 eV and can therefore exist only in the atmos-
pheres of relatively cool stars. The wavelengths of the ionised Na II lie already in the ul-
traviolet range and are therefore not detectable by amateur equipment.

Here follow two different flow diagrams, for the rough one-dimensional determination of
the spectral class: Sources: Lectures from University of Freiburg i.B. [56] and University of
Jena.

Version 1
Applied lines:
Fraunhofer K (Ca II K 3934)
Fraunhofer H (Ca II H 3968)
Fraunhofer G Band (CH molecular
43004310)
Balmer line H, 4340
Mangan Mn 4031/4036
Titanoxide Bandhead: TiO 5168
The intensity I of the compared lines (eg
Ca II K/H) is calculated by the Peak in-
tensities (sect. 7.1).
P =
I
I
c
{4]

__________________________________________________________________________________
Version 2

Applied lines:
Fraunhofer K (Ca II K 3934)
Fraunhofer H (Ca II H 3968)
Balmer line H, 4340
Fe I, 4325

Balmerlines
visible?
H and K
visible?
Spectral
type O
Spectral
type K, M
Spectral
type B
H and K
visible?
Spectral
type A0-A5
Spectral
type A5
Spectral type
later A5
K/H<1? K/H=1?
H/Fe I=1?
(4325)
H/Fe I<1?
(4325)
Spectral
type A6-F
Spectral
type G0-G4
Spectral type
later G5
no no
no
no no
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
no
Ca II and K?
O, B
A5A9 Ca II K/H A0A5
Ca II K/H
F0F3
G-Band
G
Mn 4031, 4036 F3F9
M K GBand/TiO 5168
<1
>1
>1
>1 <1
~1
yes
yes
no
~1
no
no
Here some additional classification criteria (see also [3], [4], [33] and [80]).
Course of the Continuum curve:
Already by comparing of non-normalised raw spectra, eg an early B- star against a late K-
star, one can observe that the intensity maximum of the pseudo continuum is significantly
blue-shifted (Wien's Displacement Law). Extremely hot O- and early B- stars radiate mainly
in the ultraviolet (UV), cold M- stars chiefly in the infrared range (IR).
O- Class: singly ionised helium He II, also as emission line. Neutral He I, doubly ionised C III,
N III, O III, triply ionised Si IV. H- Balmer series only very weak. Maximum intensity of the
continuum is in the UV range.
Examples: Alnitak (Zeta Orionis): O9 Ib, Mintaka (Delta Orionis): O9.5 II,

B- Class: Neutral He I in absorption strongest at B2, Fraunhofer K- Line of Ca II becomes
faintly visible, further singly ionised OII, Si II, Mg II. H- Balmer series becomes stronger.
Examples: Spica: B1 III-IV, Regulus B7V, Alpheratz (Alpha Andromedae): B8 IVp Mn Hg Al-
gol (Beta Persei): B8V, as well as all bright stars of the Pleiades.

A- Klasse: H- Balmer lines are strongest at A2, Fraunhofer H+K lines Ca II become stronger,
neutral metal lines become visible, helium lines (He I) disappear.
Examples: Wega: A0 V, Sirius: A1 V m Castor A2 V m,
Deneb: A2 Ia Denebola: A3 V, Altair: A7V,

F- Class: H- Balmer lines become weaker, H+K lines Ca II, neutral and singly ionised metal
lines become stronger (Fe I, Fe II, Cr II, Ti II). The striking line double of G-Band (CH mo-
lecular) and H line can only be seen here and forms the unmistakable "Brand" of the
middle F-class [33]!
Examples: Caph (Beta Cassiopeiae): F2III-IV, Mirphak (Alpha Persei): F5 Ib,
Polaris: F7 Ib-II, Sadr (Gamma Cygni): F8 Ib, Procyon: F5 IV-V

G- Class: Fraunhofer H+K lines Ca II very strong, H- Balmer lines get further weaker, Fraun-
hofer G- Band becomes stronger as well as many neutral metal lines eg Fe I, Fraunhofer D-
line (Na I).
Examples: Sun: G2V, the brighter component of Alpha Centauri G2V, Mufrid (Eta Bootis):
G0 IV, Capella G5IIIe + G0III (binary star composite spectrum).

K- Class: Is dominated by metal lines, H- Balmer lines get very weak,
Fraunhofer H+K Ca II are still strong, Ca I becomes strong now as well as the molecular
lines CH,CN. By the late K- types first appearance of TiO bands.
Examples: Pollux: K0IIIb, Arcturus: K1.5 III Fe, Hamal (Alpha Arietis): K2 III Ca,
Aldebaran: K5 III

M- Class: Molecular TiO- bands get increasingly dominant, many strong neutral metal lines,
eg Ca I. Maximum intensity of the continuum is in the IR range.
Examples: Mirach (Beta Andromedae): M0 IIIa, Betelgeuse: M1-2 Ia-Iab, Antares:
M1.5Iab-b, Menkar (Alpha Ceti): M 1.5 IIIa, Scheat, (Beta Pegasi): M3 III Tejat Posterior
(m Gemini): M3 III Ras Algheti: (Alpha Herculis): M5III,

The following chart shows the relative change in the line intensity of characteristic spectral
lines as a function of the spectral type or the temperature. It was developed 1925 in a dis-
sertation by Cecilia Payne Gaposhkin (1900 1979).
This chart is not only of great value for determining the spectral class, but also prevents by
the line identification from large interpretation errors. Thus becomes immediately clear that
the photosphere of the Sun (spectral type G2V) is a few thousand degrees too cold to show
helium He l in a normal (photospheric) solar spectrum. He I is visible only during solar
eclipses as an emission line in the so called flash spectrum, which is produced mainly in
the much hotter solar chromosphere.

13.9 Effect of the Luminosity Class on the Line Width
Here we see within the same spectral class how the line width increases with decreasing
luminosity. This happens primarily due to the so-called "pressure broadening", ie the broad-
ening of spectral lines due to increasing gas pressure. The main reason is the increasing
density of the stellar atmosphere with decreasing luminosity, ie the star becomes smaller,
less luminous and denser.
Most densely are the atmospheres of the white dwarfs, class VII, least densely among the
Super Giants of class I. This effect is strongest by the H-Balmer series of class A (below
left). Already by the F-class (same wavelength domain, below right), this effect is barely no-
ticeable. This trend continues towards the later spectral classes (excerpts from [33]).

O5 B0 A0 F0 G0 K0 M0 M7
Spectral Type
Temperature of the Photosphere (K)
50000 25000
10000 8000 6000 5000 4000 3000
L
i
n
e

I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y
E
W
He II
He I
H
Ca II
TiO
Ca I
Fe I Fe II
Mg II
Si II
Si III
Si IV
T
A
F
E
L

3
1
H
4
1
0
1
.
7
4
H
4
3
4
0
.
4
7
Porrima Vir
F0 V
Mirphak Per
F2 lb
C
a

I
I

3
9
3
3
.
6
6

C
a

I

4
2
2
6
.
7
3
T
i

l
l
4
3
9
5
.
0
4
F
e

l
/
l
l
/
T
i

l
l
4
4
1
5
-
1
8
M
g

l
l
4
4
8
1
F
e

l
l
4
5
8
3
.
8
3
F
e

l
l
4
6
2
9
.
3
4
C
r

l
l
4
6
3
4
.
1
Y

l l/
V

l l/
F
e

l l
4
1
7
7
-
7
9
F
e

l
l
/
T
i

l
l
4
1
7
2
-
7
3
F
e

l

4
2
7
1
-
7
2
F
e

l

4
0
4
5
S
i

l
l
4
1
2
8
/
3
0
Auswirkung der Leuchtkraftklasse (Luminosity Effect) auf Spektraltyp F
F
e

l
/
l
l
4
3
8
4
-
8
5
T
i

l
l
4
4
4
4
T
i

l
l
4
4
7
0
F
e

l
l
4
5
5
0
/
5
6
F
e

l
l
/
C
r

l
l
4
5
8
5
/
8
8
C
H
/
F
e

l
l
4
2
9
9
-
1
3
S
c

l
l
/
T
i

l
l
4
3
1
4
S
r

l
l
4
0
7
7
.
7
1
F
e

l

4
0
6
4
T
i

l
l
4
3
6
8
F
e

l
l
/
S
c

l
l
4
6
6
6
/
7
0
Caph Cas
F2lll-lV
Caph
Porrima
C
a

I
I

3
9
6
8
.
7
4

F
e

l

4
0
0
2
/
0
5
Z
r

l
l
4
0
2
4
F
e

l
/
Y
l
l
3
9
8
3
F
e

l

3
9
9
7
M
n

l

4
0
3
1
-
3
6
M
n

l

4
0
5
5
F
e

l

4
0
8
4
F
e

l
/
l
l
4
1
1
8
/
2
2
F
e

l

4
1
4
3
Z
r

l
l
4
1
4
9
T
i

l
l
4
1
5
4
F
e

l
/
V

l
l
4
2
0
2
S
r

l
l
4
2
1
5
.
5
2
F
e

l
l
4
2
3
1
-
3
3
S
c

l
l
4
2
4
7
Z
r

l
l
4
2
5
8
C
r

l
/
T
i

l
l
4
2
9
0
Mirphak
F
e

l

4
3
2
6
F
e

l
l
/
C
r

l

4
3
5
2
T
i

l
l
4
4
0
0
C
a

l

4
4
3
5
F
e

l
l
4
4
9
0
T
i

l
l
4
5
0
1
F
e

l
l
4
5
0
8
T
i

l
l
4
5
3
4
T
i

l
l
4
5
6
4
T
i

l
l
4
5
7
2
C
r

l
l
/
F
e

l
l
4
6
1
8
-
2
0
T
i

l
l
4
7
0
8
C
a

I

4
4
5
4
.
7
8
T
A
F
E
L

2
2
H
3
9
7
0
.
0
7
H
4
1
0
1
.
7
4
H
4
3
4
0
.
4
7
Vega Lyr
A0 V
Deneb Cyg
A2 la
C
a

I
I

3
9
3
3
.
6
6

C
a

I

4
2
2
6
.
7
3
T
i

l
l
4
3
9
5
.
0
4
F
e

l
l
4
4
1
6
.
8
M
g

l
l
4
4
8
1
T
i

l
l
4
5
0
1
.
2
7

F
e

l
l
4
5
8
3
.
8
F
e

l
l
4
6
2
9
.
9
F
e

l
l
4
6
3
4
.
6

F
e

l
l
4
1
7
8
.
9
F
e

l

4
1
7
3
.
1
F
e

l

4
2
7
1
-
7
2
F
e

l

4
0
4
5
.
8
2
S
i

l
l
4
1
2
8
/
3
0
Auswirkung der Leuchtkraftklassen (Luminosity effect) auf Spektraltyp A
Deneb
Vega
F
e

l
l
4
3
8
4
-
8
5
T
i

l
l
4
4
4
4
T
i

l
l
4
4
7
0
F
e

l
l
4
5
5
0
C
r

l
l
4
6
1
7
/
1
9
C
r

l
l
4
5
8
8
F
e

l
l
4
5
2
0
/
2
3
F
e

l
l
4
3
0
3
.
2
S
c

l
l
/
T
i

l
l
4
3
1
4
S
r

l
l
4
0
7
7
.
7
1
F
e

l

4
0
6
7
.
6
F
e

l
l
4
3
6
6
.
1
7
F
e

l
l
/
C
r

l

4
6
6
6
Ruchbah Cas
A5III-IV
Deneb
Ruchbah
Vega
F
e

l

4
0
0
2
/
0
5
Z
r

l
l
/
T
i

l
l
4
0
2
4
/
2
8
F
e

l
l
4
3
5
2
F
e

l
l
4
2
3
3
.
1
7
Deneb Cyg
A2 Ia
Ruchbah Cas
A5 III IV
Vega Lyr
A0 V
Mirphak Per
F2 Ib
Caph Cas
F2 III IV
Porrima Vir
F0 V
14 The Hertzsprung - Russell Diagram (HRD)
14.1 Introduction to the Basic Version
The HRD was developed in 1913 by Henry Russell, based on the work by Ejnar
Hertzsprung. It is probably the most fundamental and powerful illustrating tool in astro-
physics. On the topic of stellar evolution and HRD an extensive literature exists, which must
be studied anyway by the ambitious amateur. Here it is illustrated, how a wealth of informa-
tion can be gained about a star just with the help of the spectral class and the HRD. The fol-
lowing figure shows the basic version of the HRD with the luminosity (compared to the
sun), plotted against the spectral type. The luminosity classes Ia VII are marked by lines
within the diagram. Further visible is the Main Sequence, identical to the line for luminosity
class V, and the two branches, where the Red Giants and White Dwarfs are gathering.

The spectral class unambiguously determines the position of a star inside the diagram and
vice versa. The position of the sun, with the classification G2V is already marked (yellow
disk). With this diagram the luminosity of the spectral class, in comparison to the sun, can
already be determined in the case of the sun 1u
0
= 1.
In the following it will be demonstrated, how further parameters of the star can be deter-
mined, just by modification of the HRD-scales.

Red
Giant Branch Main
Sequence
Sun
VI
V
IV
III
II
Ib
Iab
IIab
Spectral Type
L
u
m
i
n
o
s
i
t
y
c
o
m
p
a
r
e
d
t
o

t
h
e
S
u
n
10
6
10
5
10
4
10
3
10
2
10
1
10
0
10
-1
10
-2
O5 B0 B5 A0 A5 F0 F5 G0 G5 K0 K5 M0 M5
White Dwarfs
VII
14.2 The Absolute Magnitude and Photospheric Temperature of the Star
The following version of the HRD shows on the horizontal axis at the upper edge of the dia-
gram, the corresponding temperature of the stellar atmosphere, ie the photosphere of the
star, where the visible light is produced. The position of the Sun (G2V) is here also marked
with a yellow disc. At the top of the chart the temperature of about 5,500 K can be read,
on the left the absolute brightness (Absolute Magnitude) with ca. 4
M
5. This corresponds to
the apparent brightness, which a star generates in a normalised distance of 10 parsecs, or
some 32.6 light-years.

Redrawn and supplemented following a graphics from: www.bdaugherty.tripod.com
The chart is further populated with a variety of common stars. The sun, along with Sirius,
Vega, Regulus, Spica, etc. is still a Dwarf star on the Main Sequence. Arcturus, Aldebaran,
Capella, Pollux, etc. have already left the main sequence and shining now on the Giant
Branch with the Luminosity Class III, Betelgeuse, Polaris, Rigel, Deneb, in the range of the
giants, with their respective classes Ia-Ib. On the branch of the White Dwarfs we see the
companion stars of Sirius and Procyon.

STELLAR TEMPERATURE
50,000K 25,000K 10,000K 7,500K 6,000K 4,900K 3,500K 2,400K
SPECTRAL CLASS
O B A
F G K M
3 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5
A
B
S
O
L
U
T
E

M
A
G
N
I
T
U
D
E
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Alnitak
Rigel
Saiph Deneb
Betelgeuse
68 Cygni
Spica
Achernar
Mirfak
Antares
Gacrux
Mira
Aldebaran
Pollux
Arcturus
Regulus
Algol
Vega
Sirius A
Castor
Altair
Procyon A
Sun
Centauri B
61 Cygni A
61 Cygni B
Sirius B
Procyon B
Proxima Centauri
Super Giants - Ia
Adhara
Polaris
Capella
Subgiants - IV
Giants - III
Bright Giants - II
Super Giants - Ib
14.3 The Evolution of the Sun in the HRD
The following simplified short description is based on [1]. It demonstrates how the spectral
class allows the determination of the stellar state of development. In the diagram below,
the evolutionary path of the sun is shown. By the contraction of a gas and dust cloud, at
first a protostar is formed, which subsequently moves within some million years on the
Main Sequence. Here, it stabilises at first the luminosity by about 70% of the today's value.
Within the next 9-10 billion years the luminosity increases to over 180%, whereby the
spectral class G2, eg the photospheric temperature, remains more of less constant [1]. Dur-
ing this period as a Dwarf- or Main Sequence star, hydrogen is fused into helium.
Towards the end of this stage the hydrogen is burning in a growing shell around the helium
core. The sun becomes now unstable and expands to a Red Giant of the M-class (luminosity
class ca. II). It moves now on the Red Giant Branch (RGB) to the top right of the HRD, where
after 12 billion years it comes to the ignition of the helium nucleus, the so called Helium
Flash. The photosphere of the Red Giant expands now almost to the Earth's orbit. By this
huge expansion the gravity acceleration within the stellar photosphere is reduced dramati-
cally and the star loses therefore at this stage about 30% of its mass [1].
Subsequently the giant moves with merging helium core on the Horizontal Branch (HB) to
the intermediate stage of a Yellow Giant of the K-class (lasting about 110M years) and then
via the reverse loop of the Asymptotic Giant Branch (AGB) to the upper left edge of the HRD
(details see [33]). The experts seem still be divided whether the sun is big enough to push
off at this stage the remaining shell as a visible Planetary Nebula [1], [2]. Assured however
is the final shrinkage process to an extremely dense White Dwarf of about Earth's size. Af-
ter further cooling, down on the branch of the White Dwarfs, the sun will finally get invisi-
ble as a Black Dwarf, and disappear from the HRD. During its live the Sun will pass through
a large part of the spectral classes, but with very different luminosities.

White Dwarf
Giant Branch
Sun
today
III
II
Ib
Iab
Ia
Spectral Type
L
u
m
i
n
o
s
i
t
y
c
o
m
p
a
r
e
d
t
o

t
h
e
S
u
n
10
6
10
5
10
4
10
3
10
2
10
1
10
0
10
-1
10
-2
O5 B0 B5 A0 A5 F0 F5 G0 G5 K0 K5 M0 M5
AGB
Planetary Nebula
Proto Star
14.4 The Evolution of Massive Stars
In the next subsection it will be shown how the length of stay on the main sequence is
dramatically reduced with increasing stellar mass. Highly complex nuclear processes cause
complex pendulum like movements in the upper part of the HRD, showing various stages of
variables (more details see [33]). During this period also many of the heavy elements in the
periodic table are generated. Massive Stars about >810 solar masses, will not end as
White Dwarfs, but explode as Supernovae [2]. Depending on the mass of the star it finally
remains a Neutron Star, if the rest of the stellar mass is not greater than about 1.53 solar
masses (TOV limit: Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff). Above this limit, eg stars with initial
>1520 solar masses, it ends in a Black Hole.
14.5 The Relation between Stellar Mass and Life Expectancy
The effect of the initial stellar mass is crucial for its further life. First, it decides which place
it occupies on the Main Sequence. The larger the mass the more left in the HRD or "earlier"
in respect of the spectral classification. Second, it has a dramatic impact on his entire life
expectancy, and the somewhat shorter period of time that he will spend on the Main Se-
quence. This ranges from roughly some million years for the early O- types up to >100 bil-
lion years for Red Dwarf stars of the M class. This is due to the fact that with increasing
mass the stars consume their "fuel" over proportionally faster. This relationship becomes
evident in the following table for Dwarf Stars on the Main Sequence (luminosity class V),
together with other parameters of interest. The values are taken from [53]. Mass, radius
and luminosity are given in relation to the values of the Sun ().

Spectral
class, Main
Sequence
Mass
MM

Stay on Main
Sequence [Y]
Temperature
stellar atmos-
phere
Radius
RR

Luminosity LL

O 20 60 10 1M >25 30000 K 9-15 90000 800000
B 3 18 400 10M 1050030000 K 3.08.4 95 52000
A 2 3 3bn 440M 7500 10000 K 1.72.7 8 55
F 1.1 1.6 7bn 3M 6000 7200 K 1.21.6 2.0 6.5
G 0.91.05 15bn 8bn 5500 6000 K 0.851.1 0.66 1.5
K 0.60.8 >20bn 4000 5250 K 0.650.80 0.10 0.42
M 0.080.5 2600 3850 K 0.170.63 0.001 0.08

The length of stay of the K- and M-class Dwarf Stars differs, considerably depending on the
source. It has anyway more theoretical importance, since these stars have a significantly
longer life expectancy than the current age of the universe from estimated 13.7bn years!

14.6 Age Determination of Star Clusters
The relationship between the spectral class and the according time, spent on the Main Se-
quence, allows the age estimation of star clusters this under the assumption that such
clusters are formed within approximately the same period from a gas and dust cloud. If the
spectral classes of the cluster stars are transferred to the HRD, it gives the following inter-
esting picture: The older the cluster, the more right in the diagram (ie, "later") the distribu-
tion of stars turns off from the Main Sequence up to the realm of giants and Super Giants
(so called Turn off Point). M67 belongs with more than 3 billion years to the oldest open
clusters, ie the O-, B- and A-, as well as the early F-types have already left the Main Se-
quence, as shown on the chart. However all the bright stars of the Pleiades (M45), still be-
long to the middle to late part of the B-class. This cluster must therefore necessarily be
younger than M67 (about 100M years). One can also say that the Main Sequence "burns
off" with increasing age of the cluster like a candle from top to down.

Source: [50] Lecture astrophysics, MPI
The horizontal axis of the HRD is divided instead of spectral types with the equivalent val-
ues of the Color-Magnitude Diagram (CMD). This photometrically determined B V color
index is the brightness difference of the object spectrum (magnitudes) between the blue
range (at 4,400 ) and the "visual" range at 5,500 (green). The difference = 0 corre-
sponds to the spectral class A0 (standard star Vega). Earlier classes O, B have negative val-
ues, later classes are positive. For the Sun (G2), this value is + 0.62, for Betelgeuse (M1)
+1.85.

Alter eines Sternhaufens
15 The Measurement of the Radial Velocity
15.1 The Doppler Effect
The Doppler principle, named after the Austrian physicist Christian Doppler 1803 1853,
enables the determination of the radial velocity. One of the classic explanation models is
the changing pitch, emitted by the siren of a passing emergency vehicle. The same effect
can be observed in the entire range of electromagnetic waves, including of course the
visual light. Observed from B this effect is caused by the radial velocity component Fr of a
radiation source S (eg a star), moving with the velocity F.

If Fr is directed away from the observer, the observed wavelength appears stretched and
the spectrum therefore redshifted. In the opposite case it appears compressed and the
spectrum blue shifted.

Source: Wikipedia
In the spectrum of S, we can measure the wavelength shift Az. The radial velocity Fr can
then simply be calculated with the Doppler formula:
:
=
Az
z
0
c {1S]

Az =
:
z
0
c
{16]
Az = Measured shift in wavelength of a given spectral line
z
0
= Wavelength of the considered spectral line in a stationary system
c = Speed of light 300000 km/s
If the spectrum is blue shifted, the object is approaching us and :
becomes negative
If the spectrum is red shifted, the object is receding and :
becomes positive.
Vr
S
B
V
Vr
V
V
S
S
Vr = 0
15.2 The Measurement of the Doppler Shift
For radial velocity measurements (:
) in most cases, the Doppler shift is determined by the

difference between a specific spectral line (eg H) and their well-known "nominal wave-
length" z
0
in a stationary laboratory spectrum. For this purpose with the unchanged spec-
trograph setup a calibration lamp spectrum is recorded, immediately before and/or after
the object spectrum. The calculation of :
is finally enabled by formula {15}. A rudimentary

and less accurate alternative to the calibration lamp is to record a spectrum of a star with
intensive, well known lines and a very low radial velocity.
15.3 Radial Velocities of nearby Stars
The radial velocities of stars in the vicinity of the solar system reach for the most part only
one-or two-digit values in [km/s]. Examples: Aldebaran +54 km/s, Sirius 8.6 km/s, Betel-
geuse +21 km/ s, Capella +22 km/s [100].
The corresponding shifts Az are therefore very low, usually just a fraction of a 1. For
Az = 1 and based on the H line (6563 ), :
corresponds to ~46 km/s (formula {15}).

Therefore highly-resolved and accurately calibrated spectra are necessary.
15.4 Relative Displacement within a Spectrum caused by the Doppler Effect
Textbook examples for this effect are the so-called P Cygni profiles (sect. 5.5). For the de-
termination of the expansion velocity of the stellar envelope neither an absolutely wave-
length calibrated spectrum nor a heliocentric correction [30] is required. The measurement
of the relative displacement between the absorption and the emission part of the P Cygni
profile is sufficient. For P Cygni this displacement within the H line amounts to some 4.4
, corresponding to an expansion velocity of ~200 km/s [33].
15.5 Radial Velocities of Galaxies
Even for the brightest galaxies in the Messier catalogue the re-
cording of the spectra requires large telescope apertures and expo-
sure times of dozens of minutes. In this area the famous cosmologi-
cal Red Shift by Edwin Hubble (1889-1953, usually depicted with a
pipe) has now to take into account by the interpretation of extraga-
lactic spectra. The difficulty here is the distinction between the ki-
nematic Doppler Shift, due to the relative proper motions of the gal-
axies and the cosmological Red Shift, caused by the intrinsic expan-
sion of the relativistic space-time lattice. The latter phenomenon has
nothing to do with the Doppler Effect!
Within the range of the Messier Galaxies, i.e. a radius of about 70M ly, the proper motion of
the Galaxies still dominates. Six of the 38 galaxies are moving against the "cosmological
trend", ie with blue-shifted spectra, towards our Milky Way! These include M31 (Andro-
meda) with about 300 km/s, and M33 (Triangulum) with some 179 km/s [101]. With
increasing distance, however, the cosmological share of the measured Red Shift becomes
more and more dominant. From a distance of some 100 mega-parsecs [1 Mpc = 3.26M ly],
the influence of the Doppler Effect due to the proper motion gets virtually negligible. For
such objects the distance is usually expressed as z value, which can be easily determined
by the measured and heliocentrically corrected Red Shift [30].
z =
Az
z
0
{17]
In this extreme distance range z replaces usually the absolute distance information, be-
cause this value is easy to determine from the spectrum and independent of any cosmo-
logical models. Due to the finite and constant speed of light, z is also used as a measure of
the past. In contrast to the determination of z, the "absolute" distance is dependent on
further parameters. Formula {18} allows a rough distance estimate with the so-called Hub-
ble Parameter E. This requires first, to express the cosmological Red Shift z in formula
{19}, as an apparent, heliocentric "recession velocity" :
]
= c z (using the Doppler Princi-
ple).
:
= E {18] z =
:
c
{19] =
c z
E
{2u]
E ca. 738 km s
-1
Mpc
-1
= Distance in Megaparsec Mpc
Thus the apparent "recession velocity" z and the Red Shift of the spectrum grow propor-
tionally with the distance to the galaxy {20}. Today it is known that the Hubble Parameter
E, seen over time, doesnt remain constant. This term has therefore displaced the histori-
cally used "Hubble constant" E
0
. The current value for E was determined in the so-called
E
0
Key Project, using the Hubble Space Telescope. The linear formulas {18} {20} are only
applicable up to about D 400 Mpc or z <0.1 [431]. Larger distances require the use of
cosmological models. Instead of formula {19} a "relativistic" formula must then be applied
which takes into account the effects of SRT [7]. Otherwise for z > 1, the simplified formula
{19} would yield :
]
values greater than the speed of light (c)!

Z = _
c +:
]
c -:
]
-1 {21]
For radial velocities >1000 km/s, instead of the conventional Doppler formula {15}, also
the relativistic version should be used, which takes into account the effects of SRT [7].
:
= c
(z +1)
2
-1
(z +1)
2
+1
{22]
The range of the observed z - values reaches at present (2010) up to the galaxy Abell 1835
IR 1916 with z = 1u, discovered in 2004 by a French/Swiss research team with the VLT at
ESO Southern Observatory.
Example:
Calculation of the cosmological related share of the apparent "recession velocity" for the
Whirlpool galaxy M51, based on the known distance from 27M ly:
= 27H ly = 8.S Hpc according to formula {18} follows :
]
= +6uS kms
The share of the z -value for M51, which is caused by the cosmological redshift, is calcu-
lated with formula {19} to just z
kosm
= u.uu2u, which is still very low, considering the
cosmic scale.
15.6 Short Excursus on "Hubble time" t
H

In this case, it is worthwhile to take a small excursus, since the Hubble parameter allows in
a very simple way to estimate the approximate age of the universe! With the simplified as-
sumption of a constant expansion rate of the universe after the "Big Bang", by changing
formula {18}, it can be estimated, how long ago the entire matter was concentrated at one
point. This time span is also called Hubble time t
H
and is equal to the reciprocal of the
Hubble Parameter E. This reciprocal value also corresponds to the Division of distance D by
the expansion or "recession velocity" :
]
and thus the desired period of time t
H
!
t
H
=
1
E
0
=
:
]
{2S]
To calculate the Hubble time we just need to put the units of the Hubble Parameter in to
equation {23} and to convert [s] to [ycors] and |Hpc] to [km].
1 y = S.1S 1u
7
s 1 Hpc = S.u9 1u
19
km

t
0
=
1
7Skm s
-1
Hpc
-1

=
s Hpc
7S km
=
ycors S.u9 1u
19
km
S.1S 1u
7
7S km
= 1.S4 1u
10
or 1S.4 bn ycors

15.7 Radial- and Cosmological Recession Velocities of the Messier Galaxies
The table on the following page shows, sorted by increasing distance D, the measured he-
liocentric radial velocities :
for 38 Messier galaxies, according to NED NASA Extragalactic

Database [101] and the cosmological related recession velocities :
]
, calculated according
to {18}. Positive values = Red shifted, negative values = Blue shifted.
These figures clearly indicate that in this immediate neighbourhood, the kinematic proper
motion of the galaxies still dominates. Nevertheless, the trend is already evident here that
the measured radial velocities :
tend, with increasing distance, more and more to the

cosmological "recession velocity". Anyhow in more than 50M ly distance two galaxies can
be found (M90 and M98) with relatively strong negative values (blue coloured rows). This
behaviour show 6 of 38, or about 16% of the Messier Galaxies. Most distant galaxy is
M109 with about 81M ly.
Messier Galaxy Distance D
[Mpc / M ly]
z value Radial velocity
u
r
[km/s]
Cosmologic "Recess
velocity". u
[km/s]
M31 Andromeda 0.79 / 2.6 0.0010 300 +58
M33 Triangulum 0.88 / 2.9 0.0006 179 +64
M81 3.7 / 12 0.0001 34 +270
M82 3.8 / 12 +0.0007 +203 +277
M94 5.1 / 17 +0.0010 +308 +372
M64 5.3 / 17 +0.0014 +408 +387
M101 6.9 / 22 +0.0008 +241 +503
M102 6.9 / 22 +0.0008 +241 +504
M83 7.0 / 23 +0.0017 +513 +511
M106 7.4 / 24 +0.0015 +448 +540
M51 Whirlpool 8.3 / 27 +0.0020 +600 +606
M63 8.3 / 27 +0.0016 +484 +606
M74 9.1 / 30 +0.0022 +657 +664
M66 10.0 / 32 +0.0024 +727 +730
M95 10.1 / 33 +0.0026 +778 +737
M104 Sombrero 10.4 / 34 +0.0034 +1024 +759
M105 10.4 / 34 +0.0030 +911 +759
M96 10.8 / 35 +0.0030 +897 +788
M90 12.3 / 40 0.0008 235 +898
M65 12.6 / 41 +0.0027 +807 +919
M77 13.5 / 44 +0.0038 +1137 +986
M108 14.3 / 47 +0.0023 +699 +1043
M99 15.4 / 50 +0.0080 +2407 +1124
M89 15.6 / 51 +0.0011 +340 +1138
M59 15.6 / 51 +0.0014 +410 +1138
M100 15.9 / 52 +0.0052 +1571 +1160
M98 16.0 / 52 0.0005 142 +1168
M49 16.0 / 52 +0.0033 +997 +1168
M86 16.2 / 53 0.0008 244 +1182
M91 16.2 / 53 +0.0016 +486 +1183
M60 16.3 / 53 +0.0037 +1117 +1189
M61 16.5 / 54 +0.0052 +1566 +1204
M84 16.8 / 55 +0.0035 +1060 +1226
M87 16.8 / 55 +0.0044 +1307 +1226
M85 17.0 / 55 +0.0024 +729 +1241
M88 18.9 / 62 +0.0076 +2281 +1380
M58 19.6 / 64 +0.0051 +1517 +1431
M109 24.9 / 81 +0.0035 +1048 +1917
15.8 Recess Velocity of the Quasar 3C273
The very low above listed z-values, clearly show that Messiers world of galaxies still be-
longs to our "backyard" of the universe. As a contrast we consider now the impressively red
shifted H-emission lines of the apparently brightest quasar 3C273 in the constellation
Virgo. They demonstrate that the above formulas are not just gimmicks at an academic
level. Thanks to advances in technology also amateur astronomers have nowadays the
pleasure to deal with cosmologically relevant distance ranges. We must therefore be aware
of the effects of the SRT as well as of the cosmological models, which are still under de-
bate. Until recently such faint objects were generally regarded as the domain of the (slitless
used) transmission grid [480]. Nowadays it can much better be recorded with a low resolu-
tion slit spectrograph details see [35].

The z values have been measured at Gaussian fitted lines and calculated with formula
{17}. The obtained values, for H: 0.1586, H: 0.1574 and H 0.1574, are consistent here
up to almost three decimal places with the accepted value z = u.1S8S according to [100],
[101]. The splitting of the H line is caused here by the superposition with the intense
Fraunhofer A band (O2).
With the known z value we can estimate now the apparent recess velocity :
]
of 3C273.
"Apparent" means that the object is not cinematically moving away from us, but the space
in between or the so-called "space-time lattice" is expanding [431]. This enormous distance
allows to equalise Ir with the apparent "recession velocity" :
]
, because the kinematic
proper motion of this object is no more relevant. Applying formula {19} (:
]
= c z), we ob-
tain :
]
= 47490 km s
-1
, i.e. almost 20% of the speed of light! Therefore the modified Dop-
pler formula {22} must be applied. Thereby the "recess velocity" of 3C273 is significantly
reduced now to: :
]
= 4S'8u8 km s
-1
. This is well consistent with 43751 km s
-1
, the accord-
ing value in the CDS database [100]. If despite z > u.1 the distance is estimated with
the conventional Hubble Law {20}
=
c z
E

results about 650 Mpc or 2.12 bn ly. The accepted value is slightly higher ~2.4bn ly.
Important: In addition to such considerations we should always be aware that the light
which we analyse today from 3C273, was on the road, since 2.4 bn years when our earth
was still in the Precambrian geological age! But compared with z = 1u for Abell 1835, this
is still relatively "close". This example also shows why the current and future space tele-
scopes (eg Herschel, James Webb) are optimised for the infrared range.
H 5632
H 7580
H 4748
1017
771
683
646
H 5023
Quasar 3C273, Redshift of the Hydrogen Balmer Lines
DADOS: Grating 200L mm
-1
, 50m slit, recorded may 26, 2012 with Atik 314L+ -10C, 5x1200s
The indication of the wavelength, determined with Vspec at Gaussfits, is provided red shifted on the original scale
The profile is normalised to the continuum Ic = 1, the intensity on the level of the wavelength axis is Ic = 0.6.
I
0.6
1.0
Red shifted, calibrated original scale
16 The Measurement of the Rotation Velocity
16.1 Terms and Definitions
The Doppler shift Au, caused by the different radial
velocities of the eastern and western limb of a rotating
spherical celestial body, allows the determination of
the rotational surface speed. Here we limit ourselves
to the spectroscopically direct measurable portion of
the rotation speed, the so-called ustn| value, which
is projected into the visual line to Earth.
This term, read as a formula, allows calculating this
velocity share with given effective equatorial velocity
u and the inclination angle | between the rotation axis
and the visual line to Earth. The Wikipedia graph
shows : here differently as :
c
.
If the rotation axis is perpendicular to the sight line to Earth then i = 9u and sini = 1.
Exclusively in this special case, we can exactly measure the equatorial velocity I.
If i = u, we look directly on a pole of the celestial body and thus the projected rotational
velocity becomes sini = u.
16.2 The Rotation Velocity of the Large Planets
If the slit of the spectrograph is aligned with the equator of a rotating planet, the absorption
lines of the reflected light appear slightly leaning. This is caused by the Doppler shift due to
the radial velocity difference A: between the eastern and western limb of the celestial
body. The rough alignment of the slit can be done by Jupiter with help of its moons and by
Saturn with its ring.

The radial velocity difference A: is calculated from the obliquity of the spectral lines. For
this purpose from a good quality spectrum two narrow strips, each on the lower and upper
edge are processed and calibrated in wavelength. The difference between the upper and
lower edge gives the Doppler Shift Az and with formula {15} or {22} the velocity difference
A: can be obtained (detailed procedure, see [30]).

v
sin i
-v
sin i
v
r
v
r
-v
r
-v
r
16.3 The Rotation Velocity of the Sun
This method allows also the estimation of the Suns rotational surface speed, of course
with an attached energy filter (!). This velocity however is so low (~2 km/s), that a high
resolution spectrograph is required. In this case, the picture of the Sun on the slit plate
would be too large, respectively the slit much too short to cover the entire solar equator.
Required in such cases is the recording of two separate wavelength-calibrated spectra,
each on the east- and west-limb of the Sun. This method was first practiced 1871 by
Hermann Vogel.
16.4 The Rotation Velocity of Galaxies
This method can also be applied to determine the ro-
tation velocity in the peripheral regions of galaxies.
This works only with objects, which we see nearly
edge on eg M31, M101 and M104 (Sombrero). For
Face On galaxies like M51 (Whirlpool), we can just
measure the radial velocity according to sect. 15.

16.5 Calculation of the ustn| Value with the Velocity Difference Au
Here two cases must be distinguished:
1. Light-Reflective Objects of the Solar System:
For light-reflecting objects of our solar system, eg plan-
ets or moons, the Doppler Effect seen from earth, acts
twice. A virtual observer at the western limb of the
planet sees the light of the sun (yellow arrow) as al-
ready red shifted by an amount, corresponding to the
radial velocity of this point, relative to the Sun. This ob-
server also notes that this light is reflected unchanged
towards Earth with the same red shift (red arrow).
An observer on Earth measures the Az value of this reflected light, red-shifted by an addi-
tional amount, which is equal to the radial velocity of the western limb of the planet, rela-
tive to the Earth. This total amount is too high by the share, the virtual observer on the
western limb of the planet has already found, in the incoming sunlight. When the outer
planets are close to the opposition, both red-shifted amounts are virtually equal. A halving
of the measured total amount Az therefore yields with formula {15} the velocity difference
A:
between the eastern and western limb of the planet. This velocity difference A:
must
now be halved again to obtain the desired, rotation velocity : sini. This corresponds finally
to of the originally measured red shift ( x =).
: sini
Rc]I
= Projected rotation velocity of light reflecting objects : sini =
r
4
{24]
:
= Velocity difference calculated with the measured Az shift

2. Self-Luminous Celestial Bodies
For self-luminous celestial objects, e.g. the Sun or galaxies, only a halving of the measured
velocity difference is required:
: sini
ScI]
= Projected rotation velocity of self-luminous objects : sini =
r
2
{2S]
:
= Velocity difference calculated with the measured Az shift

Ost West East
16.6 The Rotation Velocity of the Stars
Due to the huge distances, with few exceptions, even with large telescopes, stars cant be
seen as discs, but just as small Airy disks due to diffraction effects in optics. In this case the
above presented method therefore fails and remains reserved for 2-dimensional appearing
objects. Today, numerous methods exist for determining the rotational speed of stars, eg
with photometrically detected brightness variations or by means of interferometry. The idea
to gain the projected rotational velocity : sini from the spectrum is almost as old as the
spectroscopy itself.
William Abney has proposed already in 1877 to determine : sini analysing the rotationally
induced broadening of spectral lines. This phenomenon is also caused by the Doppler Ef-
fect, because the spectrum is composed of the light from the entire stellar surface, facing
us. The broadening and flattening of the lines, is created by the rotationally caused different
radial velocities of the individual surface
points. This so-called "rotational broadening"
is not the only effect that influences the
FwEH of the spectral line (sect. 7.2 and
13.9). A successful approach was to isolate
the Doppler Broadening-related share with
various methods, eg by comparison with syn-
thetically modelled spectra or slowly rotating
standard stars. The graph on the right [52]
shows this influence on the shape of a Mg II
line at 4481.2 , for a star of the spectral
class A.
The numerous measured rotational veloci-
ties of main sequence stars show a remark-
able behaviour in terms of spectral classes.
The graph shows a decrease in speed from
early to late spectral types (Slettebak).
From spectral type G and later, : sini
amounts only to a few km/s (Sun ~2 km/s).
The entire speed range extends from
0 to >400 km/s. It has also shown that
stars, after leaving the Main Sequence on
their way to the Giant Branch in the HR dia-
gram (sect. 14), as expected greatly reduce
the rotation speed.
Since the : sini values get very low, from
the spectral class G on and later (so-called slow rotators), the demand on the resolution of
the spectrograph is drastically increased. The focus of this method is therefore, particularly
for amateurs, on the early spectral classes O - B, which are dominated by the so-called fast
rotators. A typical example is Regulus, B7V, with : sini = S17 kms. The shape of this star
is thereby strongly flattened. But there are also outliers. Sirius for example, as a representa-
tive of the early A-Class (A1V), is with 16 km/s a clear slow rotator [126].
An interesting case is Vega (A0V) with : sini = 2u kms, which for a long time has also
been considered as an outlier. But various studies, e.g. Y. Takeda et al. [120], have shown
that Vega is likely a fast rotator, where we look almost exactly on a pole (i 7). This is sup-
ported by interferometrically detected, rotationally induced darkening effects (Peterson,
Aufdenberg et al. 2006). The spread of the newly estimated effective : - values for Vega is
broad and ranges in these studies of approximately 160 - 270 km/s. This example clearly
shows the difficulties, to determine the inclination i and the associated effective rotation
velocity :, this compared with the relatively simply determinable : sini value! Today the
FwEH - Method is complemented e.g. by a Fourier analysis of the line profile. The first
minimum point represents here the value for : sini with a resolution of some 2 km/s [125].
This method requires high-resolution spectra.
Various studies have shown, that the orientation of the stellar rotation axes is randomly dis-
tributed in contrast to most of the planets in our solar system axes. Since the effective
equatorial velocity can be determined only in exceptional cases, the research is here limited
almost exclusively on statistical methods, based on extensive : sini - samples. Most ama-
teurs will probably limit themselves to reproduce well known literature values with high ro-
tation velocities, typically for the earlier spectral classes.
Empirical Formulas for : sinidepending on FwEH, : sini = (FwEH)
A considerable number of astrophysical publications in the SAO/NASA database (~1920 to
the presence) deal with the calibration of the rotational speed, relative to FWHM. Some of
the numerous "protagonists" are here A. Slettebak, O. Struve, G. Shajn, F. Royer and F. Fe-
kel. Probably the most cited standard work in this respect is the so called New Slettebak
System from 1975. Anyway recent studies have shown that the provided : sini values are
systematically too low. That's why I present here more recent approaches. The variable in
most such formulas is FwEH
ko
, given in [] {3}. But in some formulas FwEH
ko
is also
expressed as a Doppler velocity [km/s]. In one case, also the Equivalent Width EW [] is in-
volved (sect. 7).
The Method according to F. Fekel
This well established method [122, 123] is based on two different calibration curves, each
one for the red and blue region of the spectrum. The two polynomial equations of the sec-
ond degree calibrate the "raw value" for : sini in [km/s], relating to the measured and ad-
justed {3} FwEH
ko
in []. Below are the two calibration polynomials {26a, 27a} according
to Fekel, for the spectral ranges at 6430 and 4500 , followed by two further formulas
{26b, 27b}, which I have transformed from equations {26a, 27a} according to the explicitly
requested X Values:
FwEH
Ko 6430
= u.u4u82 +u.u2Su9X +u.uuu14X
2
{26o]
FwEH
Ko 4500
= u.u8u16 +u.u1284X +u.uuu11X
2
{27o]
X
6430
= 714S (FwEH
Ko 6430
+1.u8) -89.6 {26b]
X
4500
= 9u91 (FwEH
Ko 4500
+u.29) -S8.1 {27b]
The procedure for the determination of : sin i is described in detail and supported by an
example in [30]. Here follows a short overview:
First, several FWHM values [] are measured and averaged by weakly to moderately in-
tense and Gaussian fitted spectral lines (no H-Balmer lines). Further these values are
cleaned from the "instrumental broadening" (FwEH
Ko
). Then the X values are calculated
by inserting the FwEH
Ko
values in the above formulas {26b} or {27b}, according to the
wavelength ranges at 4500 or 6430 . These X-values must then be cleaned from the
line broadening due to the average macro turbulence velocity :
m
in the stellar atmosphere,
using the following formula. This will finally yield the desired : sin i value [km/s]
: sin i = _X
2
-:
m
2
{28]
The variable :
m
depends on the spectral class. For the B- and A- class Fekel assumed
:
m
= u. For the early F- classes :
m
= S kms, Sun like Dwarfs :
m
= S kms, K- Dwarfs
:
m
= 2 kms, early G- Giants :
m
= S kms, late G- und K- Giants :
m
= S kms and F K
Sub Giants :
m
= S -S kms.
Below, the commonly used spectral lines for determining the FWHM values are listed. The
lines, proposed by Fekel are in bold italics, such used by other authors only (eg Slettebak)
are written in italics. The supplement (B) means that the profile shape is blended with a
neighbouring line. (S) means a line deformation due to an electric field (Stark Effect):
Late F, G and K spectral classes: Analyse of lines preferably in the range at 6430:
eg Fe II 6432, Ca I 6455, Fe II 6456, Fe I 6469, Ca I 6471.

Middle AClasses and later: Analyse of moderately intense Fe I, Fe II and Ca I lines in
the range at 6430. For A3 G0Class Fe I 4071.8 (B) und 4072.5 (B).

O, B and early Aclasses: Analyse of lines in the range at 4500 :

Middle B to early Fclasses: several Fe II and Ti II lines, as well as He I 4471 and
Mg II 4481.2.

O, early B and Be classes: He I 4026 (S), Si IV 4089, He I 4388,
He I 4470/71 (S,B), He II 4200 (S), He II 4542 (S), He II 4686, Al III, N II,
As an alternative to F. Fekel, A. Moskovitz [121] in connection with K-Giants, analysed ex-
clusively the relatively isolated Fe I line at 5434.5 with formula {26a}, respectively {27a}.
16.7 The Rotation Velocity of the Circumstellar Disks around Be Stars
Be stars form a large subgroup of spectral type B.
Gamma Cassiopeiae became the first Be star discov-
ered in 1868 by Father Secchi (sect. 13.3), who
wondered about the "bright lines" in this spectrum.
The lower case letter e (Be) already states that here
appear emission lines.
In contrast to the stars, which show P Cygni profiles
due to their expanding matter (sect. 17), it is here in
most cases a just temporarily formed, rotating cir-
cumstellar disk of gas in the equatorial plane of the Be star. Their formation mechanisms
are still not fully understood. This phenomenon is accompanied by hydrogen emission, and
strong infrared- as well as X-ray radiation. Outside of such episodic phases, the star leads a
seemingly normal life in the B-class. In research and monitoring programs of these objects,
many amateurs are involved with photometric and spectroscopic monitoring of the emis-
sion lines (particularly H). That's why I've gathered some information about this exciting
class, since here also applications for the EW and FWHM values can be presented. Here
follow some parameters of these objects, based on lectures given by Miroshnichenko
[140], [141], as well as publications by K. Robinson [5] and J. Kaler [3]:
25% of the 240 brightest Be stars have been identified as binary systems.
Most Be stars are still on the Main Sequence of the HRD, spectral classes O1A1 [141].
Other sources mention the range O7F5 (F5 for shell stars).
Be stars consistently show high rotational velocities, up to >400 km/s, in some cases
even close to the so-called "Break Up" limit. The main cause for the spread of these val-
ues should be the different inclination angles of the stellar rotation axes.
University Western Ontario
The cause for the formation of the circumstellar disk and the associated mass loss is still
not fully understood. In addition to the strikingly high rotational speed [3], etc. it is also
attributed to non-radial pulsations of the star or the passage of a close binary star com-
ponent in the periastron of the orbit.
Such discs can arise within a short time but also disappear. This phenomenon may pass
through overall three stages: Common B star, Bestar and Beshell star [33].
Classic example for that behaviour is Plejone (Plejades M45), which has passed all three
phases within a few decades [147]. Due to its viscosity, the disk material moves out-
wards during the rotation [141].
With increasing distance from the star, the thickness of the disk is growing and the den-
sity is fading.
If the mass loss of the star exceeds that of the disc, the material is collected close to the
star. In the opposite case it can form a ring.
The X-ray and infrared radiation is strongly increased.
If a B star mutates within a relatively short time to a Be star (eg scorpii ), the H absorp-
tion from the stellar photosphere is changing to an emission line, now generated in the cir-
cumstellar disk. At the same time it becomes the most intense spectral feature (extensive
example see [30] sect. 22). It represents now the kinematic state of the ionised gas disk. It
is, similar to the absorption lines of ordinary stars, broadened by Doppler Effects, but here
due to the rotating disk of gas and additional, non-kinematic effects. Therefore the FWHM
value of the emission line is now a measure for the typical rotation velocity of the disc ma-
terial. For scorpii in [146] it is impressively demonstrated, that since about 2000 the
FWHM and EW values of the H emission line are subject to strong long-period fluctua-
tions. Between the first outbursts in 2000 to 2011, the Doppler velocity of the FWHM value
fluctuated between about 100350 km/s and the EW value from 5 to 25 , indicating
highly dynamic processes in the disk formation process. Furthermore the chronological pro-
file of FWHM and EW values is strikingly phase-shifted.
Formula for the Rotation Velocity of the Disk Material:
Several formulas have been published, which allow to estimate the rotation speed of the
disc material from Be stars. In most cases : sin i is calculated with FwEH
ko
values at the
H line.
Following a formula by Dachs et al which Soria used in [145]: It expresses explicitly the
: sin i value, based on the FwEH
ko
[km/s] at the H emission line, combined with the
(negative) equivalent width EW [].
: sini (_Su kms) =
FwEH
Ko Hu
2
_
Ew
Hu
-S
_
1
4
-6ukms {29]
Example: The H Linie of Sorias Bestar yields FwEH
Ko Hu
= 6.1 , corresponding to a
Doppler Velocity of 278 km/s and Ew = -16 . This results to : sin i = 1S1 kms.
In [30] sect. 22.3 this formula is applied to a DADOS spectrum of scorpii. The accuracy of
this method is limited to 30 km/s. Therefore "estimate", is here probably the better ex-
pression than "calculate".
Hanuschik [127] shows a simple linear formula, which expresses : sin i just with the
FwEH
Ko Hu
[km/s] of the H emission line. It corresponds to the median fit of a strongly
scattering sample with 115 Be stars, excluding those for which an underestimation of the
: sin i value was assumed; [127], {1b}.

: sin i =
FwEH
Ko Hu
-Su kms
1.4
{Su]
With Sorias FwEH
Ko Hu
= 6.1 (see above) results a different : sin i = 16S kms
The following formula is applicable for the FwEH
Ko
values at the emission lines H
(4861.3) and FE II (5317, 5169, 6384, 4584 ).

: sin i =
FwEH
Ko H[, PcII
-Su kms
1.2
{S1]

The Distribution of the Rotation Velocity on the Disk
Assuming that the disk rotation obeys the kinematic laws of Kepler,
the highest rotational velocity : occurs on its inner edge In many
cases, probably identical with the star equator. It decreases to-
wards the outside (formula according to Robinson [5]).
: =
_
0 H
R
{SS]
0 = 0ro:itotion constont |6.674 1u
-11
m
3
kg
-1
s
-2
]
H = Hoss o tbc stor |kg]
R = istoncc rom tbc consiJcrcJ Jisk port to tbc stor ccntcr |m]
The application of this formula is limited to high : sin i values (: sin i = :) or known inclina-
tion angle i.
The Analysis of Double Peak Profiles
The emission lines of Be stars often show a double
peak. The gap between the two peaks is explained
with the Doppler-, self-absorption- and perspective
effects. Looking at the edge of the disk in the range
of the symmetry axis the gas masses apparently
move perpendicularly to our line of sight, ie the ra-
dial velocity there is :
= u. Indicated are important

dimensions, which are used in the literature.
F = Intcnsity (II
c
) :iolct sbitcJ Pcok
R = Intcnsitt (RI
c
) rcJ sbitcJ Pcok
Ic = NormoliscJ continuum lc:cl = 1
IR = Pcok Intcnsity rotio
A:
pcuk
= istoncc bctwccn tbc Pcoks |kms]

Distance between the Peaks A:
pcuk

The chart on the right shows according to K. Robinson [5]
the modelled emission lines for different inclination angles
i (sect. 16.1). It seems obvious that the distance A:
pcuk

increases with growing inclination i. At the same time also
the : sin i values are increasing, if for all inclination an-
gles a similar effective equatorial velocity : and a fixed disc
radius Rs are assumed. A:
pcuk
is expressed as a velocity
value according to the Doppler principle: according to
{15}: .A:
pcuk
|kms] = A:
pcuk
|] cz
0

<
R
v
<
Wavelength
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
s
e
d
I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y
0
1
Continuumlevel Ic=1
V
R
Ic
H
V peak
i=82
65
30
15
0
Wavelength
H
Also according to Hanuschik [143] a rough correlation exists between the A:
pcuk
[km / s] at
the H line and : sin i.
A:
pcuk

Hu
= (u.4.u.S) : sin i {S4]
According to Miroshnichenko [141] and Hanuschik [143] a decreasing disk radius R is also
associated with, an increasing A:
pcuk

Hu
. This statement is consistent with formula {33}
and {34}.

The outer disc radius Rs
The formula by Huang [143] allows the estimation of the outer disk
radius Rs, expressed as [stellar radii r], based on A:
pcuk
and the
velocity : at the inner edge of the disc, probably touching the stars
equator in most of the cases (r = 1).
Rs = _
2 :
A:
pcuk
_
2
{SS]
The application of this formula is limited to high : sin i values
(: sin i = :) or known inclination angle i.
Peak Intensity Ratio IR (Violet/Red)
The V / R ratio is one of the main criteria for the description of the double peak emission of
Be stars. S. Stefl et al. [144] have supervised this ratio for about 10 years, at a sample of Be
stars. They have noted long-periodic variations of 5-10 years. One of the discussed hy-
potheses are oscillations in the inner part of the disk.
At scorpii the V / R ratio of the He I line (6678.15 ) shows a strong variation since the
outbreak of 2000 [146]. See also example in [30] sect. 22.3.
According to Kaler [3] the V/R ratio also reflects the mass distribution within the disc and
may show a rather irregular course.
In Be-Binary systems a pattern of variation seems to occur, which is linked to the orbital pe-
riod of the system.
According to Hanuschik [143] asymmetries of the emission lines, eg IR = 1, are related to
radial movements and darkening effects.
If no double peak is present in the emission line, according to [128] the asymmetry in the
steepness of the two edges can be analysed. V>R means the violet edge is steeper and vice
versa by R>V the red one.

<
Rs
r
17 The Measurement of the Expansion Velocity
Different types of stars repel at certain stages of evolution more or less strongly matter.
The speed range reaches from relatively slow 2030 km/s, typical for planetary nebulae,
up to several 1000 km/s for Novae and Supernovae (SNR). This process manifests itself in
different spectral symptoms, dependent mainly on the density of repelled material.
17.1 P Cygni Profiles
The P Cygni profiles have been already introduced in
sect. 5.5, as examples for mixed absorption- and
emission line spectra. They are a common spectral
phenomenon which occurs in all spectral classes,
and are a reliable sign for expanding star material.
The evaluation of this effect with the Doppler formula
is demonstrated here at the expansion velocity of the
stellar envelope of P Cygni.
:
=
Az
z
0
c {1S]
The offset Az [] is measured between the emission
and the blueshifted absorption part of P Cygni
profiles. In the example for the H line of P Cygni
itself, the measured difference yields:
Az = z
BIuc
-z
Rcd
= 6SS7.7 -6S62.2 = -4.S
(single measurement of 07.16.2009, 2200 UTC, DADOS
and 900L/mm grating)
with z
0
= 6S62.82 , c = Suu
i
uuukms, {1S] yields: :
= I
LncIopc
= -2u6 kms
The accepted values lie in the range of 185 bis 205 km/s 10km/s.The heliocentric
correction is not necessary here, since the Doppler shift is measured not absolutely but
relatively, as the Az difference, visible in the spectrum. P Cygni forms not a separate class
of stars. Such profiles are a common spectral phenomenon, which can be found in all
spectral classes and are a reliable indication for expanding stellar matter.

17.2 Inverse P Cygni Profiles
In contrast to the normal P Cygni profiles, the inverse ones are
always a reliable sign for a contraction process. The absorption
kink of this feature is here shifted to the red side of the emis-
sion line. Textbook example is the Protostar T Tauri which is
formed by accretion from a circumstellar gas and dust disk. The
forbidden [O I] and [S II] lines show here clearly inverse P Cygni
profiles, indicating large-scale contraction movements within
the accretion disk, headed towards the protostar. The Doppler
analysis showed here contraction velocities of some 600 km/s.
The excerpt of the T Tauri spectrum is from [33], Table 18.

17.3 Broadening of the Emission Lines
P Cygni profiles are not only characteristic for stars with strong expansion movements, but
also for Novae and Supernovae. Anyway such extreme events show more often just a
strong broadening of the emission lines. This applies also to Wolf Rayet stars, even though
with significantly lower FWHM values (see [33]). According to [160] the expansion velocity
can be estimated, by putting FwEH
Lmsson Hu
in to the con-
ventional Doppler formula, instead of Az:

:
=
FwEH
Lmsson Hu
z
0
c {S6]
The scheme [160] shows for the Nova V475 Scuti (2003)
four developmental phases within 38 days. Here, nearly the
tenfold expansion velocity of the P Cygni occurred, already an
order of magnitude at which the relativistic Doppler formula
should be applied {22}.

17.4 Splitting of the Emission Lines
In sect. 16.7 the determination of the rotation velocity by evaluating the double peak pro-
files in Be stars, was already presented. Split emission lines can also be observed in spectra
of relatively old, strongly expanded and thus optically transparent stellar envelops. Text-
book example is here SNR M1.
The chart at right explains the split up of the
emission lines due to the Doppler Effect.
The parts of the shell which move towards
earth cause a blue shift of the lines and the
retreating ones are red shifted. Thereby,
they are deformed to a so-called velocity el-
lipse. This effect is seen here at the noisy
[O III] lines of the M1 spectrum [33].

The chart at right shows the splitting of the H line in the central
area of the Crab Nebula M1 ([33] Table 85). Due to the transpar-
ency of the SNR, with Az the total expansion velocity is calculated,
related to the diameter of the SNR, (here about 1800 km/s). The
radial velocity is finally obtained by halving this value. It yields
therefore just below 1000km/s

SNR M1 NGC 1952
T
A
F
E
L

8
5
H
e

I

5
8
7
5
.
6

H
e

I
I

4
6
8
5
.
7
O
l
l
l
4
9
5
8
.
9
1
O
l
l
l
5
0
0
6
.
8
4
H
6
5
6
2
.
8
2
N

l
l
6
5
8
3
.
6
A
B
B
1
B
2
A
Anregungsklasse E > 5
S

l
l
6
7
1
8
.
3
S

l
l
6
7
3
2
.
7
O

I

6
3
0
0
.
2
3
N
W
31
41
28
30
50 Spalt
H
4
8
6
1
.
3
3
H
Direction
earth
O III
18 The Measurement of the Stellar Photosphere Temperature
18.1 Introduction
Depending on the spectral class, stellar spectra and their measurable features reflect to a
different extent also the physical state of the photosphere. For the spectroscopic determi-
nation of the effective temperature I
c]]
(sect. 3.2), numerous methods exist with different
degrees of accuracy but also corresponding complexity.
18.2 Temperature Estimation of the Spectral Class
The spectral class reflects directly the sequence of the corresponding photospheric tem-
peratures (sect. 14.2). It is therefore the most direct, simple, but relatively imprecise way to
estimate the effective temperature I
c]]
. For main sequence stars of intermediate and late
spectral classes, the accuracy, realistically achievable by amateurs, should lie within some
100 K. In literature numerous tables can be found, assigning the effective temperatures to
the individual spectral classes. In addition, for the luminosity class III and V, separate and
significantly different values are presented. In the region of early spectral classes, even be-
tween renowned sources, differences may arise up to >1000 K. Thus, especially for the
early types of the spectral type O, for the same star often significantly different classifica-
tions are published. This shows that this method, at least for amateurs, is limited to the
main-sequence stars, since the determination of the luminosity class is quite difficult. As an
example, follows here a table with data, taken from a lecture at the University of Northern
Iowa: http://www.uni.edu/. At the early spectral classes, some of these values significantly
differ from those, shown in the table in sect. 14.5, or in [33].
Spectral
Type
Main Sequence
(V) I
c]]
(K)
Giants (III)
I
c]]
(K)
Super Giants (I)
I
c]]
(K)
O5 54,000
O6 45,000
O7 43,300
O8 40,600
O9 37,800
B0 29,200 21,000
B1 23,000 16,000
B2 21,000 14,000
B3 17,600 12,800
B5 15,200 11,500
B6 14,300 11,000
B7 13,500 10,500
B8 12,300 10,000
B9 11,400 9,700
A0 9,600 9,400
A1 9,330 9,100
A2 9,040 8,900
A3 8,750
A4 8,480
A5 8,310 8,300
A7 7,920
F0 7,350 7,500
F2 7,050 7,200
F3 6,850
F5 6,700 6,800
F6 6,550
F7 6,400
F8 6,300 6,150
G0 6,050 5,800
G1 5,930
G2 5,800 5,500
G5 5,660 5,010 5,100
G8 5,440 4,870 5,050
K0 5,240 4,720 4,900
K1 5,110 4,580 4,700
K2 4,960 4,460 4,500
K3 4,800 4,210 4,300
K4 4,600 4,010 4,100
K5 4,400 3,780 3,750
K7 4,000
M0 3,750 3,660 3,660
M1 3,700 3,600 3,600
M2 3,600 3,500 3,500
M3 3,500 3,300 3,300
M4 3,400 3,100 3,100
M5 3,200 2,950 2,950
M6 3,100 2,800
M7 2,900
M8 2,700

18.3 Temperature Estimation Applying Wiens Displacement Law
A further approach is the estimation of I
c]]
with the principle of Wien's displacement law
(sect. 3.2). It is based on the assumption that the radiation characteristic of the star corre-
sponds approximately to that of a black body. Theoretically I
c]]
could be calculated, apply-
ing formula {2}, based on the wavelength z, which has been measured at the maximum in-
tensity of the profile. This requires, however, a radiometrically corrected profile as de-
scribed in sect. 8.7. In sect. 3.3 it has already been demonstrated that the position of the
intensity maximum in the pseudo-continuum gives only a very rough indication for the tem-
perature of the radiator.
Further, the maximum intensity must lie within the recorded range for a typical amateur
spectrograph about 3800 8000 . In the graphic below this criterion is met only by the
yellow graph for 6000 K. According to formula {2}, within this section, only profiles with
I
c]]
of about 7600 3600 K can be analysed by their maximum intensity. This corre-
sponds roughly to the spectral types M1 F0.

Therefore, the coverage of all spectral classes requires an adaptation of this method. One
possibility is enabled by the relationship between the continuum slope JIJz and I
c]]
.

This method is provided by the Vspec software, applying the function Radiometry/Planck.
Thereby the radiometrically corrected profile is iteratively fitted by displayed continuum
curves, corresponding to entered I
c]]
values. This principle is demonstrated by the follow-
ing graph with a synthetically generated solar spectrum from the Vspec Library. Displayed
in red is the continuum curve, fitting to the Suns profile with 5800 K. The maximum inten-
sity of this curve lies at about 4900 , which, for this temperature, is also in accordance
with Wiens displacement law (formula {1}). Further displayed for comparison is the black
curve for 10,000 K and the green one, belonging to 4,000 K.
Inten-
sity
Wavelength []
0
5000 10000 15000 20000
I

Of course, in practice, the temperature estimation of the investigated star is requested,
rather than the reproduction of an already known temperature of a synthetic profile. This
requests a radiometric correction of the obtained pseudo-continuum with a recorded stan-
dard star, according to sect. 8.7. Therefore, the accuracy of this measurement is also di-
rectly dependent on the quality of this relatively demanding correction procedure.
The following chart shows, in the context of the synthetic solar spectrum, the continua of
various effective temperatures according to Vspec Radiometry/Planck. In the range be-
tween 3,000 and 20,000 K, the increasingly closer following curves are displayed in 1,000
K steps. Above 20,000 K the intermediate spaces become so close, that here only the con-
tinua for 30,000 and 40,000 K are shown. It also shows that this estimation method is lim-
ited to the middle and late spectral types. In addition, with increasing temperature, the dif-
ferentiating influence of the spectral class to the radiometric correction is significantly de-
creasing (sect. 8.7).

I
Synthetic
Solar Spectrum
I
Synthetic
Solar spectrum
7000 K
18.4 Temperature Determination Based on Individual Lines
Generally these methods are based on the temperature dependency of the line intensity
I = (I). However, according to sect. 6.2, the intensity and shape of the spectral lines are
determined by many other variables, such as element abundance, pressure, turbulence,
metallicity Fe/H and the rotation speed of the star. Similar to the determination of the rota-
tion velocity (sect. 16), all such methods must therefore be able to significantly hide such
interfering side influences or analyse lines, which are specifically sensitive to temperature
[11]. If the temperature should not only be "estimated" but rather accurately "determined",
therefore relatively sophisticated methods remain, based on high-resolution spectroscopy
and detailed analysis of selected, especially temperature-sensitive metal lines.
18.5 The Balmer-Thermometer
The temperature determination, based on
the intensity of the H-Balmer lines, is often
called "Balmer-Thermometer". This method
is rather rudimentary, but it provides an in-
teresting experimental field. The H-lines are
well suited, because the stellar photo-
spheres of most spectral classes consist to
>90% of hydrogen atoms. Only this element
can exclusively be detected and evaluated
over almost the entire temperature se-
quence (class O M). In contrast, ionised
calcium Ca II appears only within the spec-
tral classes A M. The often proposed so-
dium double line D
1,2
is analysable just at
type ~F M because Na I becomes ionised
at higher temperatures and Na II absorp-
tions appear exclusively in the UV range of
the spectrum. In the earlier spectral classes,
Na I is therefore always of interstellar origin
and hence useless for this purpose.
The graphic on the right shows the intensity
profile of the H line a cutout of the over-
view to the spectral sequence in sect. 13.8
and [33]. From all Balmer lines, this absorp-
tion can be observed within the largest
wavelength range. At this low resolution, it
remains analysable, even in the long wave-
length region, down to about K5. The maxi-
mum intensity is reached at the spectral
class A1. The quantum-mechanical reasons
for this effect are discussed in sect. 9.2.
In the diagram below, the H-equivalent
widths (EW) of 24 Atlas stars [33] are plot-
ted against the effective temperatures
I
c]]
= (Ew). Due to the bell-shaped curve
an ambiguity arises, which requires a clarification by additional spectral information. A
prominent feature, indicating the profile segment on the long wavelength side of 10,000 K,
is the Fraunhofer K-line (Ca II) at 3934 further details see [33]. The average tempera-
ture range is here almost exclusively represented by main-sequence stars, the peripheral
O9
B1
B7
A1
A7
F0
F5
G2
G8
K2
K5
4990 K
22000 K
7030 K
6330 K
5700 K
10000 K
7550 K
4290 K
3950 K
25000 K
15000 K
H
4
8
6
1
H
4
8
6
1
sections also by giants of the luminosity class I III.Despite of relatively few data points
and a low resolution (DADOS 200L/mm), the curve shape can clearly be recognised and is
manually inserted here as an approximate "least square fit". It is just intended to demon-
strate the principle. For more accurate results the analysis of high-resolution spectra would
be required and further the separation between the luminosity classes.

18.6 Precision Temperature Measurements by Analysis of Individual Lines
Such methods are applied in the professional field, mainly at non ionised metal lines of the
late spectral classes K M. A representative impression provides [190], [191], [191b].
Here, ratios are calculated with the relative line depths P = IIc of differently temperature-
sensitive metal absorptions [11]. These are subsequently calibrated in respect of known
I
c]]
values (LDR Line Depth Ratio). According to the authors an accuracy of a few K can be
achieved. With a longer lasting, permanent temperature monitoring, eg the detection and
even measurement of giant dark sun spots is possible, typically observed at the late spec-
tral type K [191b].

Effective temperature T
eff
[K]
EW
H
[]
Gem
CMa
78 Vir
Aql
Vir
Leo
Cmi
Leo
Crv
Vir
68 Cyg
Sun
Boo
Ori
Ori
Ori Vir
Ori
61 Cyg Sco
19 Spectroscopic Binary Stars
19.1 Terms and Definitions
> 50% of the stars in our galaxy are gravitationally connected components of double or
multiple systems. They concentrate primarily within the spectral classes A, F and G [170].
For the astrophysics these objects are also of special interest because they allow a deter-
mination of stellar masses independently of the spectral class. Soon after the invention of
the telescope, visual double stars were also observed by amateur astronomers. Today the
spectroscopy has opened for us also the field of spectroscopic binary stars.
An in-depth study of binary star orbits is demanding and requires eg celestial mechanics
skills. Here should only be indicated, what can be achieved by spectroscopic means. Scien-
tifically relevant results are usually only possible associated with long term astrometric and
photometric measurements. Spectroscopic binary stars are orbiting in such close distances
around a common gravity center, that they cant be resolved even with the largest tele-
scopes in the world. They betray their binary nature just by the periodic change in spectral
characteristics. For such close orbits Kepler's laws require short orbital periods and high-
track velocities, significantly facilitating the spectroscopic observation of these objects.
In contrast to the complex behaviour of multiple systems, the motion of binary stars follows
the three simple Keplers laws. Its components rotate at variable velocities :
M
in elliptical
orbits around a common Barycenter B (center of gravity). The following sketch shows a fic-
tional binary star system with stars of the unequal sizes H
1
and H
2
. For simplicity their ellip-
tical orbits are running here exactly in the plane of the drawing as well as the sight line to
Earth which in addition runs parallel to the minor semi-axes. For this perspective special
case the orbital velocity :
M
at the Apastron (farthest orbital point) and Periastron (closest
orbital point) corresponds also to the observed radial velocity :
. The recorded maximum

values (amplitudes) are referred in the literature with K. The following layout corresponds
to an orbit- inclination of i = 9u (sect. 19.3).

Apastron
B
M
1
Apastron Periastron
Periastron
M
1
M
2
Vr
M1 P
= K
1
Vr
M2 A
Vr
M2 P
= K
2
Vr
M1 A
M
2
Sight line to
Earth
Vr
M1 A
= Radial velocity M
1
at Apastron
Vr
M1 P
= Radial velocity M
1
at Periastron
Vr
M2 A
= Radial velocity M
2
at Apastron
Vr
M2 P
= Radial velocity M
2
at Periastron
Major semi axis a
M
i
n
o
r
s
e
m
i
a
x
i
s
b
Both orbital ellipse:
must be in the same plane
have different sizes depending on the mass
must be similar to each other, i.e. have the same eccentricity e = Vo
2
-b
2
o
The more massive star (H
1
) always runs on the smaller elliptical orbit and with the lower
velocity :
M
around the barycenter.
The barycenter lies always in one of two focal points
H
1
und H
2
always run synchronously:
During the entire orbit the connecting line between H
1
and H
2
runs permanently
through the barycenter
H
1
and H
2
always reach the Apastron as well as the Periastron at the same time.
19.2 Effects of the Binary Orbit on the Spectrum
Due to the radial velocities the Doppler shift causes striking effects in the spectrum. The
above assumed perspective special case for the orbit orientation would maximize these
phenomena for a terrestrial observer (see below phase D). Generally, two different cases
can be distinguished [180].
1. Double stars with two components in the spectrum SB2systems
If the apparent brightness difference between the two components lies approximately at
u -1
m
, we can record the composite spectrum of both stars. The following phase diagrams
are based on the above assumptions and show these effects within one complete orbit:
Here the orbital velocities :
M
are di-
rected perpendicular to the line of sight
and thus the radial velocity with respect
to the Earth becomes :
= u. The spec-
trum remains unchanged, i.e. Az = u.

In the Apastron the orbital velocities :
M

are minimal. But they run now parallel to
the line of sight, and correspond here to
the radial velocities, so :
= :
M
. The
spectral line appears splitted:
Az
A
= (:
M1 A
+:
M2 A
) zc {S7]

Here the orbital velocities :
M
are di-
rected perpendicular to the line of sight
and thus the radial velocity with respect
to the Earth becomes :
= u. The spec-
trum remains unchanged, i.e. Az = u.

In the Periastron the orbital velocities :
M

are maximal. They run now parallel to the
line of sight, and correspond here to the
radial velocities, so :
= :
M
= K. The
spectral line appears here more splitted
compared to phase B.
Az
P
= (:
M1 P
+:
M2 P
) zc {S8]
A
B
C
D
The above introduced formulas for the Doppler shift Az allow, after a simple change, to cal-
culate the sum of the radial velocities :
M1
+:
M2
with the line splitting Az. For the general
case:
u
r
M1
+u
r
M2
= c Azz
0
{S9]

The Calculation of the Individual Radial Velocities :
M1
and :
M2

If the mass difference is large enough, the splitting of the
spectral line occurs asymmetrically with respect to the neu-
tral wavelength z
0
. With these uneven distances Az
1
and
Az
2
and by analogy to {39} the individual radial velocities
:
M
can be calculated separately [172].
As a result of the heliocentric radial movement of the entire
star system :
Sst
[100], the wavelength of the "neutral",
unsplitted spectral line is shifted by the Doppler Effect from the stationary laboratory wave-
length z
0
to z
0
[170].
z
0
= z
0
+
:
Sst
c
z
0
{4u]
This is now the adjusted reference point for the measurement of the two distances Az
1,2
.
But first the z
1,2
values must be heliocentrically corrected to z
1,2 HcI
according to [30], sect.
18, step 7. Then it follows:
Az
1,2
= z
1,2 HcI
-z
0
{41]
If no asymmetry occurs of the splitted line with respect to z
0
, H
1
and H
2
are approximately
equal and the sum of the two radial velocities :
M1
+:
M2
just needs to be halved.
2. Double stars with only one component in the spectrum SB1systems
In most cases the apparent brightness difference between the two components is signifi-
cantly > 1
m
. Here with amateur equipment, only the spectrum of the brighter star can be
recorded. Extreme cases are entirely invisible black holes as double star components, or
extrasolar planets, which shift the spectrum of the orbited star by just a few dozen me-
ters/sec! In such cases, a splitting of the line isnt recognisable, but only the shift of z
1
to
the right or left in respect of the neutral position z
0
.
The following example, recorded with
DADOS 900L/mm shows this effect,
using the spectroscopic A components
within the quintuple system Scorpii.
Impressively visible is here the H-shift
of the brighter component, within three
days. With this Vspec plot just this ef-
fect shall be demonstrated. A serious
investigation of the orbital parameters
would require the recording of multiple
orbits at least at daily intervals! The
lineshifts are plotted here with respect
to z
0
. The X-axis is scaled here in Dop-
pler velocity, according to [30], sect.
19, and allows a rough reading of the
radial velocity. The values z
1,2
have been determined by Gaussian fit on the heliocentrically
corrected profiles. Detailed procedure see [30] sect. 24.2.
r0
2
08.15.2009 2200 UTC
= +1.71 = +78 km/s
08.18.2009 2200 UTC
= 1.37 = 63 km/s
r0
Adjusted reference point
Here are some orbital parameters of Scorpii according to an earlier study by Peterson et
al. [177]. These values are based on the measured, maximum radial velocities K
1
und K
2
,
obtained from the spectra of both components. The terms "sin i" in the data list, and
"sin
3
i" for the masses, demonstrate that the inclination i is unknown and therefore the
values are uncertain by this factor (for details see sect. 18.3 and 18.4).
- Spectral class of the brighter component: B0.5V, of the weaker component: unknown
- Orbital period: I = 6.8S Iogc
- Stellar masses: H
1
sin
3
i = 12.S N
, H
2
sin
3
i = 7.7 N
|] = Solai Nass
- Mass Ratio: H
1
H
2
= 1.6S
- Max. recorded radial velocities: K
1
= 121 kms, K
2
= 198 kms
- Major semi axes of the orbital ellipse: o
M1
sini =1.u9 1u
7
km o
M2
sini =1.78 1u
7
km
These figures show that the mass and brightness difference is substantial. With the large
telescopes, involved in this study [177], the spectrum of the weaker component could still
be recognised, but analysed just with substantial difficulties.
19.3 The Perspectivic Influence from the Spatial Orbit-Orientation
The orientation of the binary star orbital planes, with respect to our line of sight, shows a
random distribution. The angle between the axis, perpendicularly standing on the orbital
plane (normal vector), and our line of sight is called inclination i [175]. Thus the definition
for the inclination of stellar and binary system rotation axes (sect. 16) is the same. Analogi-
cal, :
sini is here the spectroscopically direct measurable share of the radial velocity :
,
which is projected into the sight line to Earth. For i = 9u we see the orbital ellipse exactly
"edge on" i.e. sini = 1.
This elliptical orbit, with a given and fixed inclination i, may be rotated freely around the
axis of the sight line, without any consequences for their apparent form.
Thus for circular binary orbits the inclination i fixes the only degree of freedom, which
affects the apparent shape of the orbit.
For elliptical binary star orbits, the situation is more complex. In contrast to the circle,
the orientation of the ellipse axes in a given orbital plane forms an additional degree of
freedom, determining the apparent ellipse form.
If i remains unknown, the results can statistically only be evaluated, similar to the
: sini values of the stellar rotation (sect. 16.6).
Caveat:
There are also reputable sources that define i as the angle between the line of sight and the
orbital plane, similar to the inclination angle convention between planetary orbits and the
ecliptic. Consequence: There must always be clarified which definition is used. The two
conventions can easily convert to each other as complementary angle 9u -i.
i
v
r
v
r
sin i
Sight Line to Earth
v
r
sin i
v
r
19.4 The Estimation of some Orbital Parameters
Based on purely spectroscopic observation some of the orbital parameters of the binary
system can be estimated. First, the measured radial velocities :
M1
and :
M2
are plotted as a
function of the time t. The graph shows an orbital period of Mizar ( Ursae Majoris, A2V),
one of the showpieces for spectroscopic binaries with double lines (SB2 systems). Another
similar example is Aurigae with an orbital period of about 4 days. The more these curves
show a sinusoidal shape, the lower is the eccentricity of the orbit ellipse [179].

Source: Uni Jena [170]
The Orbital Period I
The orbital period T can directly be determined from the course of the velocity curves. As
the only variable it remains largely unaffected by perspective effects and is thus relatively
accurately determinable.
Simplifying to circular orbits
Since we are mostly confronted with randomly oriented, el-
liptical orbits, a reasonably accurate determination of orbital
parameters is very complex. For this purpose, in addition to
the spectroscopic, complementary astrometric measure-
ment data would be needed. Only for eclipsing binaries,
such as Algol, already a priori, a probable inclination of
i > 8u can be assumed. For the rough estimation of other
parameters various sources suggest the simplification of the
elliptical to circular orbits. Thus, the radii r
M
and thus the
orbital velocities :
M
become constant. The mostly unknown
inclination is expressed in the formulas with the term sin i.
The Orbital Velocity :
M

To determine the orbital velocity :
M
we need from the velocity diagram, the maximum :
M

values for both components. They correspond by definition, to the maximum amplitudes K
1

and K
2
. For the circular orbit velocity :
M
follows:
K = :
M
sini oJcr :
M
=
K
sini
{42]
Determination of the orbital radii r
M

With the orbital period I and the velocity :
M
= K sini for a circular orbit the corresponding
radius r
M
can be calculated. From geometric reasons follows generally:
I =
2 r
M
n
K
sini {4S]
K
1
K
2
B
M
1
M
2
r
M1
r
M2
V
M2
V
M1
r
M
=
K I
2 n sini
{44]
If both lines can be analysed, then with the obtained K
1
und K
2
the corresponding radii r
M1

and r
M2
can be calculated separately.
Calculation of the Stellar Masses H
1
+H
2
in SB2 Systems
If both lines can be analysed, then with the following formula the total mass of the system
H
1
+H
2
, can be determined. This is obtained if {44}, changed as a sum of radii r
M1
+r
M2
, is
used in the formula of the third Kepler's law, instead of the semi-major axis o = r
M1
+r
M2
.
H
1
+H
2
=
I (K
1
+K
2
)
3

2 n 0 sin
3
i
{4S]
0 = 0ro:itotionol constont |6.674 1u
-11
m
3
kg
-1
s
-2
].

The partial masses can then be calculated by their total mass H
1
+H
2
with the partial radii
r
M1
and r
M2
.
H
1
r
M1
= H
2
r
M2
{46]

H
1
=
r
M2
r
M1
+r
M2
(H
1
+H
2
) H
2
=
r
M1
r
M1
+r
M2
(H
1
+H
2
) {47]
For binary star systems H is often expressed in solar masses H
and the distance in AU.

To convert: 1 Solor moss H
= 1.98 1u
30
kg 1 Au = 149.6 1u
9
m

Calculation of the Stellar Masses H
1
+H
2
in SB1 Systems
The analysis of only one line has logically consequences on the information content and ac-
curacy of the system parameters to be determined. For SB1systems in the spectrum, only
the radial velocity curve of the brighter component H
1
can be analysed, and therefore just
the amplitude K
1
can be determined. So with formula {44}, only the corresponding orbital
radius r
M1
can be calculated. Unfortunately, neither their total mass nor their partial masses
H
1
, H
2
are directly determinable. Just the so called mass function (H
1
, H
2
) can be deter-
mined [51 sect. VI], [179]. This expression is not really demonstrative and means the cube
of the invisible partial mass (H
2
3
) in relation to the square of the total mass (H
1
+H
2
)
2
. For
a calculated example, see [171].

(H
1
, H
2
) =
H
2
3
sin
3
i
(H
1
+H
2
)
2
=
I K
1
3
2 n 0
{48]
It can be roughly determined eg by estimation of the visible mass H
1
by the spectral type.
For a rough guide refer to the table in sect. 14.5. Such results still remain loaded with the
"uncertainty" of sin
3
i.
20 BalmerDecrement
20.1 Introduction
In spectra where the H-Balmer series occurs in emission, the line intensity I fades with de-
creasing wavelength 2. This phenomenon is called the Balmer Decrement D. The intensity
loss is reproducible by the laws of physics and is therefore a highly important indicator for
astrophysics. The hydrogen emission lines are formed by the electron transitions, which
end, as well known, in "downward direction" on the second-lowest energy level n = 2. The
probability, from which of the higher levels an electron comes, is determined for the indi-
vidual lines by quantum mechanical laws. From this it follows that the intensity I is highest
at the Eo line and gets continuously weaker at the shorter wavelength lines, E[, Ey, Eo,
Ee, etc. The extent of this decrease (decrement) is additionally, but only moderately, de-
pendent on the density and temperature of the electrons N
c
and I
c
.
20.2 Qualitative Analysis
For most amateurs probably qualitative applications of this effect are in the focus. On a low-
resolution spectrum of P Cygni (DADOS 200L), the intensity-decrease of the dominant hy-
drogen emission lines, normalised on a unified continuum intensity, is demonstrated.

Contrary to this trend Mira (o Ceti) shows only H, and significantly, H in emission. These
impressive lines indicate what enormous intensities the H and H-Balmer emissions
should really show, according to the Balmer decrement. But these lines are covered in the
long-wave region by titanium oxide absorption bands, which are apparently generated in
higher layers of the star's atmosphere, as the H emission lines, details see [33].

Balmer Decrement P Cygni
H
H
H
H
Balmer Decrement Mira, o Ceti
H H
TiO
TiO
TiO
TiO
TiO
TiO
TiO
TiO
20.3 Quantitative Analysis
Quantitatively, the Balmer Decrement is mainly used for the spectroscopic determination of
the interstellar extinction, the so-called "interstellar reddening". The "reddening" of the light
occurs, because the blue part is absorbed or scattered stronger than the red. The steeper
the decrement runs, compared to theoretically calculated values
1h
, the stronger is the
extinction of light by dust particles. The decrement intensities are defined by convention
relatively to H = I(E)I(E[). Particularly high is the effect of the reddening in the plane
of the Milky Way, ie on the Galactic latitude of ~0 [209]. This relationship has already
been detected by A. Shajn 1934.
For the determination of the "Interstellar reddening" with the Balmer decrement, appropri-
ate objects are required, radiating the emission-lines of the H-Balmer series completely and
not selectively attenuated - for example most of the emission nebulae and LBV stars. Rep-
resentatives of the Mira Variables are unsuitable for the aforementioned reasons.
The following table shows by Brocklehurst [200] the theoretical decrement values
1h
,
quantum mechanically calculated for gases with a very low and high electron density N
c

and electron temperatures of I
c
10000K and 20000K.
Line E Case A
1h
= I(E)I(E[) for
thin gas (N
e
= 10
2
cm
-3
)
Case B
1h
= I(E)I(E[) fr
dense gas (N
e
= 10
6
cm
-3
)
T
e
=10 000 K T
e
=20 000 K T
e
=10 000 K T
e
=20 000 K
H 2.85 2.8 2.74 2.72
H 1 1 1 1
H 0.47 0.47 0.48 0.48
H 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.27
H 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16
H8 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11

In the specialist jargon the two density cases are called "Case A" and "Case B".
Case A: A very thin gas, which is permeable for Lyman photons so they are enabled to es-
cape the nebula.
Case B: A dense gas, which retains the short-wavelength (z < Iymon o) photons, which
are therefore available for self-absorption processes.
The gas densities in emission nebulae are in the range between Case A and -B, by expand-
ing stellar envelopes (Be- and LBV stars, Planetary Nebulae) Case B [33]. The electron tem-
perature I
c
has in this range apparently only little influence on the decrement. The influ-
ence of the electron density N
c
is here noticeable only at the H line. Depending on the
source, these values may differ in some cases.
Possible amateur applications are here rough decrement comparisons between different
objects, eg various planetary nebulae, as well as Be- or LBV stars, located on different ga-
lactic latitudes.
20.4 Quantitative Definition of the Balmer-Decrement
For most astrophysical analysis the measured intensity ratio of the H and H lines
obs
is
required. This corresponds to the quantitative definition of the Balmer decrement:
obs
= I(Eo)I(E[) {50}
20.5 Experiments with the Balmer Decrement
The following graph shows the Balmer-decrement of P Cygni, recorded with the DADOS
spectrograph. Once the decrements are referred to a radiometrically corrected profile (red),
which corresponds to the intensity profile of a B2 II star from the Vspec library, and once
based on a continuum with a normalised energy flow (blue). The labelled decrements are
intensity values I, directly measured in the strongly reddened P Cygni profile and subse-
quently divided by the corresponding H intensities = I(E)I(E[).

Within the intensity-normalised, blue profile, the roughly determined decrements match
pretty well to the spread of the accepted values > for I(H)/I(H) between 4.3 5. The
red profile, represents approximately the intensity course of the original- and unattenuated
spectrum. It shows however drastically different and physically even impossible decrement
values. The defined Balmer-decrement I(Eo)I(E[) is here only 1.8, ie substantially lower
than
1h
= 2.72!
Since a literature research on this phenomenon has ended unsuccessfully, here follows my
own interpretation: The theoretical Balmer-decrement
1h
is based on the probabilities for
certain electron transitions, determined by the laws of quantum physics. This statistical
regularity is overprinted in the radiometrically corrected profile by the unevenly distributed
and wavelength-dependent radiation intensity of the star I
C
= (z). The intensity of the in-
dividual emission lines depends in stellar atmospheres, inter alia on the number of the oc-
curring direct- or resonance absorptions and thus also on the photon density at the corre-
sponding wavelength z. In this respect, the blue, intensity-normalised profile behaves here
neutrally, due to I
C
= const.
If a continuum is present, even in the professional sector, the Balmer-decrement is deter-
mined with the EW value and therefore also based on an intensity-normalised profile. At the
example of extra-galactic spectra this is demonstrated in The Balmer Decrement of SDSS
Galaxies, by Brent Groves et al. [210].

H
1
H
H
H
1
5
0.3
1.8
0.5
I
rel
Flux normalised continuum
21 Spectroscopic Determination of Interstellar Extinction
21.1 Spectroscopic Definition of the Interstellar Extinction
With the Balmer decrement , the interstellar extinction c can spectroscopically be deter-
mined. The extinction parameter c characterises the entire extinction along the line of sight
between the object and the outer edge of Earth's atmosphere. It is defined as the logarith-
mic ratio between the theoretical (Th) and measured (obs) intensity of the E[ line [8]:
c(E[) = log
I(E[)
1h
I(E[)
obs
{S1]
c(E[), also called logarithmic Balmer-Decrement [201], is determined by the ratio be-
tween the measured and theoretical Balmer decrement
obs
and
1h
. The value 0.35 cor-
responds to the extinction factor (z) at z = Eo, according to the standard extinction curve
from Osterbrock (chart below) [201].
c(E[) =
1
-(z)
log _
obs
1h
_ =
1
u.SS
log _
obs
1h
_ {S2]
In the context of such calculations in the literature the value
1h
= 2.86 (Case B) has been
established for the theoretical Balmer decrement.
1h
= 2.86 inserted in {S2] yields:
c(E[) = 2.86 log
obs
-1.S1 {S2a]
21.2 Extinction Correction with the Measured Balmer Decrement
The extinction is not constant but depends on the wavelength. With the correction function
[10], the emission lines I(z) are adapted relatively to I(E[) (Dereddening).
I(z)I(E[) = I(z)
obs
I(E[)
obs
1u
C(H[)](x)
{SS]
(z) is defined as follows, where A is the extinction at A(z) and A(E[).
(z) =
A(z)
A(E[)
-1 in wbicb A(E[) = 1 {SSo]
Thus, the measured intensities I(z)
obs
are reduced for z > E[ and raised for z < E[ (note
the sign of (z))! The value of (z)is determined with an extinction curve, which exists in
different versions with slightly different values. For amateur applications intermediate val-
ues may be roughly interpolated. Bottom left is the galactic standard extinction curve from
Osterbrock (1989) with (z) values [238]. The table values to the right are from Seaton
(1960).

0.35
0.0
+0.14
f()
3500 +0.42
4000 +0.24
4500 +0.10
4861 0.00
5000 -0.04
6000 -0.26
7000 -0.45
8000 -0.60
Galactic Extinction Law from Osterbrock1989
From Seatons 1960
21.3 Balmer Decrement and Color Excess
The measured Balmer Decrement
obs
also determines the color excess E([ -o) in [mag]
for the Balmer lines [10].
E([ -o) = -1.1S7 +2.S log
obs
{S4]
If
obs
=
1h
= 2.86 follows: E([ -o) = u, in this special case, as expected, exists no
reddening.
The link to the "classical" photometry in the E(B -I) system provides the formula of C.S.
Reynolds [208]:
E(B -I) = o log
obs
1h
|mog] {S4o]
The associated parameters for:
EoE[:
1h
= 2.76 o = +2.21
EyE[:
1h
= u.474 o = -S.17
EoE[:
1h
= u.262 o = -S.S2

Logarithmically transformed and inserted
1h
= 2.76:
E(B -I) = -u.97S +2.21 log
obs
|mog] {S4b]
21.4 Balmer-Decrement and Extinction Correction in the Amateur Sector
For amateurs, neither the accurate determination of the extinction nor of the reddened
Balmer-decrement is really important. This requires the removal of the "Instrumental- and
Telluric Response"
INS1
(z)
A1M
(z) according to formula {7r] in sect. 8.7, so the result-
ing profile remains just loaded with the demanded
ISM
(z).
The most important application however is the special case of the emission nebulae, which
mostly produce an extremely weak and diffuse continuum and thus do not allow any reli-
able continuum-related measurements such as the peak intensity P = II
c
or the Ew value.
Fortunately these objects produce H-emission lines, generated chiefly far away from the
star and mainly by recombination of ionised H-atoms. In the original spectrum, those inten-
sities correspond nearly to the undisturbed Balmer decrement and in relation to the
measured decrement values they can be applied as a kind of "correction template".
This procedure is indeed intended for the partial correction of the interstellar
ing
ISM
(z). For amateur purpose formula {53} enables, within the relevant range of H
H, also for the other attenuating influences, and in a reasonable approximation, a very
rough total intensity correction of the emission lines.
A1M
(z) and
ISM
(z) show a similar
characteristic with an increasing attenuation towards shorter wavelengths. Anyway some-
what different behaves
INS1
(z) as most of the todays amateur cameras show a damping
characteristic, starting just from the green sector of the spectrum. Supplementary notes
see sect. 22.11.
In the professional sector, extinction corrections are performed with software support and
are indispensable by the analysis of extragalactic emission line objects. Even for objects
within our neighbour galaxy M31, usually does > 4 [201].

22 Plasma Diagnostics for Emission Nebulae
22.1 Preliminary Remarks
In the Spectroscopic Atlas for Amateur Astronomers [33], a classification system is pre-
sented for the excitation classes of the ionised plasma in emission nebulae. Further this
process is practically demonstrated, based on several objects. Here, as a supplement, fur-
ther diagnostic possibilities are introduced, combined with the necessary physical back-
ground.
22.2 Overview of the Phenomenon Emission Nebulae
Reflection nebulae are interstellar gas and dust clouds which passively reflect the light of
the embedded stars. Emission nebulae however are shining actively. This process requires
that the atoms are first ionised by hot radiation sources with at least 25,000K. This re-
quires UV photons, above the so-called Lyman limit of 912 and corresponding to an ioni-
sation energy of >13.6 eV. This level is only achievable by very hot stars of the O- and early
B-Class generating this way a partially ionised plasma in the wider surroundings. By recom-
bination the ions recapture free electrons which subsequently cascade down to lower lev-
els, emitting photons of discrete frequencies v, according to the energy difference
AE = b v. Thus, this nebulae produce by the fluorescence effect, similar to gas discharge
lamps, mainly "quasi monochromatic" light, i.e. a limited number of discrete emission lines,
which, with exception of the Supernova Remnants (SNR), are superimposed to a very weak
emission-continuum. The energetic requirements are mainly met by H II regions (e.g. M42),
Planetary Nebulae PN (e.g. M57) and SNR (e.g. M1). Further mentionable are the Nuclei of
Active Galaxies (AGN) and T-Tauri stars (sect. 17.2). The matter of the Nebulae consists
mainly of hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, sulphur, neon and dust (silicate,
graphite etc.). Besides the chemical composition, the energy of the UV radiation, and the
temperature I
c
as well as density N
c
of the free electrons characterise the local state of the
plasma. This manifests itself directly in the intensity of emission lines, which simply allows
a first rough estimation of important plasma -parameters.
22.3 Common Spectral Characteristics of Emission Nebulae
In all types of emission nebulae, ionisation proc-
esses are active even if with very different exci-
tation energies. This explains the very similar
appearance of such spectra. The diagram shows
an excerpt from the spectrum of M42 with the
two most striking features:
1. The intensity ratio of the brightest [O III] lines
is practically constant with I(Suu7)I(49S9) = S.
2. The Balmer decrement D. From the ratio be-
tween the measured and theoretical course the
interstellar extinction can be determined
(sect.21).
22.4 Ionisation Processes in H II Emission Nebulae
These processes are first demonstrated schematically with a hydrogen atom. The high-
energy UV photons from the central star ionise the nebula atoms and are thus completely
absorbed, at latest at the end of the so-called Strmgren Sphere. Therefore here ends the
partially ionised plasma of the emission nebula. Since the observed intensity of spectral
lines barely varies, a permanent equilibrium between newly ionised and recombined ions
must exist. Rough indicators for the strength of the radiation field are the atomic species,
H
6
5
6
2
.
8
2
O
l
l
l
5
0
0
6
.
8
4
O
l
l
l
4
9
5
8
.
9
1
H
4
8
6
1
.
3
3
the ionisation stage (sect. 11) and the abundance of the generated ions. The first two pa-
rameters can be directly read from the spectrum and compared with the required ionisation
energy (see table below and [33]).

The kinetic energy E
c
of the electrons, released by the ionisation process, heats the nebula
particles. E
c
corresponds to the surplus energy of the UV Photons, which remains after
photo ionisation and is fully transformed to kinetic energy of the free electrons. The elec-
tron temperature I
c
and -density N
c
affect the following recombination- and collision exci-
tation processes. I
c
is directly proportional to the average kinetic energy E
c
of the free elec-
trons (Boltzmann constant k
B
= 8.6 1u
-5
cIK).
E
c
= k
B
I
c
|cI] {S4]
Formula {55} yields E
c
in Joule |[] with the electron mass m
c
= 9.1 1u
-31
kg and : |ms].
The short formula {55a} gives E
c
directly in electron volts [eV].
E
c
=
1
2
m
c
:
2
|[] {SS] E
c
= 2.84 1u
-12
:
2
|cI] {SSo]
22.5 Recombination Process
If an electron hits the ion centrally, it is captured and ends up first
mostly on one of the upper excited levels (terms). The energy, gen-
erated this way is emitted as a photon E
P
. It corresponds to the
sum of the original kinetic energy of the electron E
c
and the dis-
crete energy difference AE
n
due to the distance to the Ionisation
Limit. Since the share of the kinetic energy E
c
varies widely, from
the recombination process a broadband radiation is contributed to
the anyway weak continuum emission.
E
P
=
1
2
m
c
:
2
+AE
n
{S6]
22.6 Line Emission by Electron Transition
After recombination the electron falls either directly or via sev-
eral intermediate levels n (cascade), to the lowest energy ground
state n = 1. Such transitions generate discrete line emission, ac-
cording to the energy difference AE
n
. Most of these photons
leave the nebula freely including those which end in the pixel
field of our cameras! This process cools the nebula, because the
photons remove energy, providing thereby a thermal balance to
the heating process by the free electrons. This regulates the elec-
tron temperature in the nebula in a range of ca.
5,000K < I
c
< 20,000K [237].
Ionisation by UV-
Photons <912
High-energy
Radiator T
eff
>25000K
Y
Electron gas
Star
Photon
Elektron
T
e
N
e
Recombination
Photon
Electron
+E
n
Electron Transition
n=1
Photon
E
n
22.7 Line Emission by Collision Excitation
If an electron hits an ion, then in most cases not a recombination
but much more frequently a collision excitation occurs. If the impact
energy is AE
n
the electron is briefly raised to a higher level. By
allowed transitions it will immediately fall back to ground state and
radiate a photon of the discrete frequency v = AE
n
b, according to
the energy difference.
Remark: Similarly, this process takes place in fluorescent lamps
with low gas pressure. Due to the connected high tension, the elec-
trons reach energies of several electron volts [eV], which subse-
quently excite mercury atoms to UV radiation. By contrast in dense
gases, the excitation occurs mainly by collisions between the ther-
mally excited atoms or molecules.
22.8 Line Emission by Permitted Transitions (Direct absorption)
In H II regions with O5 type central stars (eg M42) emission nebu-
lae have Strmgren spheres with diameters of several light years,
what extremely dilutes the radiation field. Thus, particularly in the
extreme outskirts of the nebula, the probability gets extremely
small, that the energy of a photon exactly fits to the excitation
level of a hydrogen atom. Therefore the direct absorption of a pho-
ton doesnt significantly contribute to the line emission. Further
the main part of the photons is radiated in the UV range. Conse-
quently many atoms are immediately ionised, once the energy of
the incident photons is above the ionisation limit. Therefore a sub-
stantial line emission of permitted transitions is only possible by
the recombination process. The high spectral intensity of Hydrogen and Helium, the main
actors of the permitted transitions, is caused by the abundance which is by several orders
of magnitude higher than the remaining elements in the nebula. The frequency of a specific
electron transition also determines the relative intensity of the corresponding spectral line.
22.9 Line Emission by Forbidden Transitions
Emission nebulae contain various kinds of metal ions, most of them with several valence
electrons on the outer shell. These cause electric and magnetic interactions, which multi-
plies the possible energy states. Such term schemes (or Grotrian diagrams) are therefore
extremely complex and contain also so-called "Forbidden Transitions" (sect. 12). But the
extremely thin nebulae provide ideal conditions, because the highly impact-sensitive and
long-lasting metastable states become here very rarely untimely destroyed by impacts.
But first of all, these metal atoms must be ionised to the corresponding stage, which re-
quires high-energy UV-photons. The required energies are listed in the following table,
compared to hydrogen and helium [eV, ]. The higher the required ionisation energy, the
closer to the star the ions are generated (so called stratification) [10] [201].
Ion [S II] [N II] [O III] [Ne III] [O II] H II He II He III
E [eV] 10.4 14.5 35.1 41.0 13.6 13.6 24.6 54.4
[] 1193 855 353 302 911 911 504 227

On the other hand The forbidden transitions of the metal ions need to populate the meta-
stable initial terms from the ground state just a few electron volts [eV]. This small amount
of energy is plentifully supplied by the frequent collision excitations of free electrons!
Collision Excitation
n=1
Photon
Electron
E
n
Direct Absorption
Photon
Photon
In comparison, for the permitted H line, at least 12.1 eV would be required from the
ground state (n1 n3). For this, the electrons in the nebula are by far too slow, i.e. by about
one order of magnitude (see diagram below). This explains the strong intensity of the for-
bidden-as compared to the allowed transitions. These metal ions are also called "cooler"
[237] in the context of model computations. Influenced by the highly effective line emission
they contribute significantly to the cooling of the nebula and therefore to the thermal equi-
librium. The following chart shows just the relevant small excerpts of the highly complex
term diagrams [10], [222]. For the most important metal ions, the required excitation ener-
gies and the wavelengths of the forbidden emissions are shown.

The following chart shows by Gieseking [222], the Maxwellian frequency distribution of
electron velocities for relatively "cool" and "hot" nebulae, calculated for T
e
10,000K and
20,000K. Mapped are the two minimum rates for the excitation of the [O III] lines. The up-
per edge of the diagram I have supplemented with the values of the kinetic electron energy.
The maximum values of the two curves correspond to the average kinetic energy according
to formula {54} (0.86eV and 1.72eV).

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
[eV]
[S II] [N II] [O III] [Ne III] [O II]
6
7
3
1
6
7
1
7
4
0
7
6
4
0
6
8
1
0
3
2
0
1
0
2
7
8
1
0
3
7
3
1
0
3
3
8
6
5
8
3
6
5
4
8
5
7
5
5
3
0
7
1
3
0
6
3
5
0
0
7
4
9
5
9
4
9
3
2
4
3
6
3
4
0
1
4
3
9
6
7
3
8
6
9
3
3
4
4
1
8
1
5
1
7
9
4
3
7
2
9
3
7
2
6
7
3
3
1
7
3
1
9
.
6
7
3
1
8
.
6
7
3
3
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Electron Velocity [km/s]
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
Kinetic Energy [eV]
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 0.5 0.25
O III 5007/4959/ 4932
O III 4363
0.86 eV
1.72 eV
2
.
5

e
V
5
.
3

e
V
22.10 Scheme of the Photon Conversion Process in Emission Nebulae
This scheme summarises the previously described processes in H II regions and PN and il-
lustrates important relationships. Not shown here are the bremsstrahlung processes, which
become typically relevant just in SNR due to the relativistic electron velocities. Processes
with photons are shown here in blue, those with electrons in red. So-called bound-bound
transitions between the electron shells are marked with black arrows. The broad, gray ar-
rows show the two fundamentally important equilibriums in the nebula:
The Thermal Equilibrium in the nebulae between the heating process by the kinetic en-
ergy of free electrons and the permanent removal of energy by the escaping photons,
regulates and determines the electron temperature Te.
The Ionisation Equilibrium between ionisation and recombination, regulates and de-
termines the electron density Ne. If this balance is disturbed, the ionisation zone of the
nebula either expands or shrinks [239].

Star
Electron
T
e
N
e
Collision
Excitation
Electron
Recombination
Direct
Absorption
Ionisation
Exactly
Fitting
Photon
Electron
UV Photon
Escaping Photons
cooling the Nebula
Fee Electrons heating
the Nebula
Thermal
Equilibrium
Ionisation-, Recombination- and Excitation Processes in Emission Nebulae
Ionisation
Equilibrium
T
eff
> 25000K
Photons
Photons
Photons
22.11 Practical Aspects of Plasma Diagnostics
The main focus for amateurs is here the determination of the excitation class of emission
nebulae. Their diagnostic lines are relatively intense and quite close together. Moreover,
some of them are located in an area, where the difference between the original and
pseudo-continuum is relatively low see early spectral classes in the last graph of sect.
8.6. This allows for galactic objects, even at the raw profile, ie without any extinction- or
other corrections, a reasonable classification with accuracy of about _1 class. Due to the
slightly greater distance of the He II diagnosis line ( 4686), at middle and high excitation
classes the classification may result up to one step to low. For more precise analyses, the
intensity of the individual lines should be corrected according to formula {53}, see com-
ments sect. 21.4.
Own tests have shown that the alternatively applied division of the pseudo continuum by
instrumental response profiles (sect. 8.6, 8.7), usually provides poor results, probably due
to the diffuse and noisy residual continuum.
Typical galactic decrement values are in the range of D 3.03.5 [10]. However, there are
stark outliers like NGC 7027 with D 7.4 [10]! Since the classification lines lie close to-
gether, for a rough determination of the excitation class even this effect can usually be ne-
glected. In such extreme cases, a substantial part of the extinction can also be caused by
massive dust clouds around the star itself. E.g. at the extremely young T-Tauri objects the
measured deviation from the Balmer-decrement is even used as a classification criterion,
see [33] sect. 13.2!
Special cases are here the faint, not two dimensional but rather star-like appearing Plane-
tary Nebulae. In contrast to M27 and M57 they generally require relatively short exposure
times. Further they cannot be recorded on a specific area within the nebula but only in the
total light, integrated within the slit of the spectrograph. Since within these tiny discs, lar-
ger intensity differences at individual emissions occur. So even the measured Balmer dec-
rement may be distorted, aggravated by possible shifts in the slit position during recording
due to bad seeing and/or poor autoguiding. However, even this influence on the determina-
tion of the excitation class has been found as low.
The determination of additional plasma parameters such as the electron temperature T
e

and the electron density N
e
specifically requires low-noise spectra with high resolution, re-
garding these faint objects, a real challenge with amateur equipments. In addition, some of
the used diagnostic lines are extremely weak and the error rate is correspondingly high.
Even between values in professional publications, often major deviations are noted!
22.12 Determination of the Excitation Class F
Since the beginning of the 20th Century numerous methods have been proposed to deter-
mine the excitation classes of emission nebulae. The 12-level revised Gurzadyan system
[10], which has been developed also by, Aller, Webster, Acker and others, is one of the cur-
rently best accepted and appropriate also for amateurs. It relies on the simple principle that
with increasing excitation class, the intensity of the forbidden [O III] lines becomes
stronger, compared with the H-Balmer series. Therefore as a classification criterion the in-
tensity sum of the two brightest [O III] lines, relative to the H emission, is used. Within the
range of the low excitation classes E: 14, this value increases strikingly. The [O III] lines at
4959 and 5007 are denoted in the formulas as N
1
and N
2
.
For low excitation classes E1 E4: I
N1+N2
I
H[

Within the transition class E4 the He II line at 4686 appears for the first time [225]. It re-
quires 24.6 eV for the ionisation. That's almost twice the energy as needed for H II with
13.6 eV. From here on, the intensity of He II increases continuously and replaces the now
stagnant H emission as a comparison value in the formula. The ratio is expressed here
logarithmically (base 10) in order to limit the range of values for the classification system:
For middle and high Excitation Classes E4 E12: log(I
N1+N2
I
Hc II (4686)
)

The 12 E-Classes are subdivided in to the groups Low (E = 1 -4), Middle (E = 4 -8) and
High (E = 8 -12). In extreme cases 12
+
is assigned.
Low Middle High
EClass I
N1+N2
I
H[
E Class log(I
N1+N2
I
4686
) E Class log(I
N1+N2
I
4686
)
E1 0 5 E4 2.6 E9 1.7
E2 5 10 E5 2.5 E10 1.5
E3 10 15 E6 2.3 E11 1.2
E4 >15 E7 2.1 E12 0.9
E8 1.9 E12
+
0.6

22.13 The Excitation Class as an Indicator for Plasma Diagnostics
Gurzadyan (among others) has shown that the excitation classes are more or less closely
linked to the evolution of the PN [10], [226]. The study with a sample of 142 PN showed
that the E-Class is a rough indicator for the following parameters; however in reality the
values may scatter considerably [8].
1. The age of the PN
Typically PN start on the lowest E- level and subsequently step up the entire scale with
increasing age. The four lowest classes are usually passed very quickly. Later on this
pace decreases dramatically. The entire process takes finally about 10,000 to >20,000
years, an extremely short period, compared with the total lifetime of a star!
2 The Temperature I
c]]
of the central star
The temperature of the central star also rises with the increasing E-Class. By pushing of
the envelope, increasingly deeper and thus hotter layers of the star become "exposed".
At about E7 in most cases an extremely hot White Dwarf remains, generating a WR-like
spectrum. For I
c]]
[K] the following, very rough estimates can be derived [33]:
E-Class E1-2 E3 E4 E5 E7 E8-12
I
c]]
|K] 35,000 50,000 70,000 80,000 90,000 100,000 200,000

3. The Expansion of the Nebula
The visibility limit of expanding PN lies at a maximum radius of about 1.6 ly (0.5parsec).
With increasing E-class, also the radius of the expanding nebula is growing. Gurzadyan
[226] provides mean values for R
n
[ly] which however may scatter considerably for the
individual nebulae.
E-Class E1 E3 E5 E7 E9 E11 E12+
R
n
|ly] 0.5 0.65 0.72 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6

22.14 Estimation of Te and Ne with the O III and N II Method
Due to the very weak diagnostic lines, these methods can be applied only to spectra with
high resolution and quality. Further J. Schmoll outlines in his dissertation [201], what influ-
ence the slit width and the method of background subtraction exert on the analysis of weak
lines! The procedure is based on the fundamental equations by Gurzadyan 1997 [10],
which uses for the O III method the lines at 5007, 4959 and 4363, and for the N II
method at 6548, 6584 and 5755.
0 III ProccJurc:
I(Suu7) +I(49S9)
I(4S6S)
= u.u7SS
1 +2.67 1u
5
I
c
N
c
1 +2.S 1u
3
I
c
N
c
c
330001
c
{S7]

N II ProccJurc:
I(6S48) +I(6S84)
I(S7SS)
= u.u162S
1 +1.94 1u
5
I
c
N
c
1.uS +S.2 1u
2
I
c
N
c
c
250001
c
{S8]
For the calculation of the electron temperature, these equations cant be explicitly con-
verted and solved by I
c
and contain additionally the variable N
c
. But for I
c
, empirical formu-
las exist, which are valid for thin gases N
c
< 1u
3
cm
-3
(typical for H II regions and SNR).
ln is the natural logarithm to base e.
0 III ProccJurc: I
c
=
SS'uuu
ln (R
1
8.74)
{S9] in wbicb R
1
=
I(Suu7) +I(49S9)
I(4S6S)

N II ProccJurc: I
c
=
2S'uuu
ln (R
2
9.8S)
{6u] in wbicb R
2
=
I(6S48) +I(6S84)
I(S7SS)

For the explicit calculation of N
c
, with known I
c
, I have converted the formulas {57} {58}
accordingly:
0 III ProccJurc: N
c
= I
c
2.67 1u
5
-
S.uS 1u
4
R
1
(c
330001
c
)
1S.S R
1
(c
330001
c
)
-1
{61]
N II ProccJurc: N
c
= I
c
1.94 1u
5
-
1.97 1u
4
R
2
(c
250001
c
)
61.S R
2
(c
250001
c
)
-1
{62]
If the recording of a spectral profile can be limited on a defined region within the nebula, in
both equations {61} and {62} the N
c
variables become identical. N
c
can then be eliminated
by equalisation of {61} and {62}. The implicitly remaining variable I
c
anway requires finally
an iteratively solving of the equation. However this requires that the values of all diagnostic
lines, for both methods, are available in good quality.
22.15 Estimation of the Electron Density from the S II and O II Ratio
The electron density N
c
can be estimated by Osterbrock from the ratio of the two sulfur
lines [S II] 6716, 6731 or the oxygen lines [O II] 3729, 3726 [201]. The big advan-
tage of this method: These lines are so close together, that the extinction and instrumental
responses cant exert any significant effect on the ratio. The disadvantage is, that the two
lines, except by SNR, are generally very weak and therefore difficult to measure.

For S II: I(6716) I(67S1)
For 0 II: I(S729) I(S726)

22.16 Distinguishing Characteristics in the Spectra of Emission Nebulae
Due to the synchrotron and bremsstrahlung SNR show, especially in the X-ray part of the
spectrum, a clear continuum see [33], Table 85. This appears especially pronounced in the
X-ray domain, so X-ray telescopes are highly valuable to distinguish SNR from the other
nebula species, particularly at very faint extragalactic objects. For all other types of Emis-
sion Nebulae the detection of a continuum radiation is difficult.
In the optical part of SNR spectra, the [S II] and [O I] lines are, relative to H, more intense
than at PN and H II regions. This effect is caused here by shock wave induced collision ioni-
sation, see [33], Table 85. The [S II] and [OI] emissions are very weak at PN and almost to-
tally absent in H II regions [201].
The electron density N
c
is very low in SNR, ie somewhat lower than in H II regions. It
amounts in the highly expanded, old Cirrus Nebula to about 300 cm
-3
:
By the still young and compact Crab Nebula it is about 1000 cm
-3
[201]. By PN, N
c
gets
highest and is usually in the order of 10
4
cm
-3
[201]. In the H II region of M42, N
c
is within
the range of 10002000 cm
-3
[224].
In H II regions, the excitation by the O- and early B-class stars is relatively low and there-
fore the excitation class in the order of E = 1-2 only modest [33].
Planetary nebulae usually pass through all 12 excitation classes, following the evolution of
the central star.
In this regard the SNR are also a highly complex special case. By very young SNR, eg the
Crab Nebula (M1), dominate higher excitation classes whose levels are not homogeneously
distributed within the nebula, according to the complex filament structure [231]. The diag-
nostic line He II at 4686 is therefore a striking feature in some spectra of M1, see [33],
Table 85.

I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y
R
a
t
i
o
Electron Density [cm
-3
]
[S II] 6716 / 6731
[O II] 3729 / 3726
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
23 Analysis of the Chemical Composition
23.1 Astrophysical Definition of Element Abundance
In astrophysics, the abundance of an element A
cI
is expressed as decadic logarithm of the
amount of particles per unit volume N
cI
, to that of the hydrogen N
H
, whose abundance is
defined according to convention to A
H
= 12 [57], [11]. The mass ratios do not matter here.
A
cI
= log
10
N
cI
N
H
+12 {64]
By transforming logarithmically we directly obtain the relationship
N
cl
N
H
:
N
cI
N
H
= 1u
(A
cl
-12)
{6S]
23.2 Astrophysical Definition of Metal Abundance Z (Metallicity)
Of great importance is the ratio of iron to hydrogen N
Pc
N
H
. This is also computed with the
relative number of atoms per unit volume and not with their individual masses. The metal-
licity Z in a stellar atmosphere, also called "|FcE]", is expressed as the decadic logarithm
in relation to the sun:
Z = |FcE] = log
10
(N
Pc
N
H
)
Stu
(N
Pc
N
H
)
Sun
{66]
Z values, smaller than found in the atmosphere of the Sun, are considered to be metal poor
and carry a negative sign ().The existing range reaches from approximately +0.5 to 5.4
(SuW 7/2010). Fe is used here as a representative of the metals because it appears quite
frequently in the spectral profile and is relatively easy to analyse.
23.3 Quantitative Determination of the Chemical Composition
The identified spectral lines (sect. 24) of the examined object inform directly:
which elements and molecules are present
which isotopes of an element are present (restricted to some cases and to high
resolution profiles)
which stages of ionisation are generated
In this context the quantitative determination of the abundance can be outlined only
roughly. It is very complex and cant be obtained directly from the spectrum. It requires ad-
ditional information, which can partly be obtained only with simulations of the stellar pho-
tosphere [11]. The intensity of a spectral line is an indicator, which provides information on
the frequency of a particular element. However this value is influenced, inter alia, by the
effective temperature I
c]]
, the pressure, the gravitational acceleration, as well as the
macro-turbulence and the rotational speed of the stellar photosphere. Furthermore I
c]]

also affects the degree of ionisation of the elements, which must be calculated with the so-
called Saha Equation [11].
These complications are impressively demonstrated in the solar spectrum. Over 90% of the
solar photosphere consists of hydrogen atoms with the defined abundance of A
H
= 12.
Nevertheless, as a result of the too low temperature of 5800 K, the intensity of the H
Balmer series remains quite modest. The dominating main features of the solar spectrum,
however, are the two Fraunhofer H and K lines of ionised calcium Ca II, although its abun-
dance is just A
Cu
= 6.S6 [Anders & Grevesse 1989]. According to {65}, this corresponds to a
ratio of N
Cu
N
H
= 2.S 1u
-6
. From Quantum-mechanical reasons, at the solar photospheric
temperature of 5800 K, Ca II is an extremely effective absorber. The optimum conditions
for the hydrogen lines, however, are reached not until nearly 10,000 K (see sect. 9.2). In
the professional area the element abundance is also determined by the iterative compari-
son of the spectrum with simulated synthetic profiles of different chemical composition
[11].
23.4 Relative Abundance-Comparison at Stars of Similar Spectral Class
A simplified special case is formed by stars with similar spectral- and luminosity class and
comparable rotational velocities. Thus the physical parameters of the photospheres are
very similar. Here the equivalent widths EW of certain lines can simply be compared and
thus the relative abundance differences at least qualitatively be seen. In the Spectroscopic
Atlas [33] this is demonstrated at the classic example of the two main-sequence stars Sir-
ius A1Vm and Vega A0V. The basic principle is the so called Curve of Growth. It shows that
within its unsaturated and somewhat linearly running part, the equivalent width EW of a
certain spectral line of an element, behaves roughly proportional to its number of atoms
within a plasma mixture.

E
q
u
i
v
a
l
e
n
t
w
i
d
t
h
E
W

[
]
Number of atoms
Linear region
Linie profile deepening
Saturated line
Curve of Growth
24 Spectroscopic Parallax
24.1 Spectroscopic Possibilities of Distance Measurement
Distances can spectroscopically be determined either with the spectroscopic parallax or in
the extragalactic range, with help of the Doppler-related Redshift, combined with the Hub-
bles Law (sect. 15.5). These methods are supplemented by radar and laser reflectance
measurements (solar system), the trigonometric parallax (closer solar neighborhood) and
the photometric parallax (Milky Way and extragalactic area). The latter is based on the
brightness, compared with precisely known, so-called "standard candles" as Cepheids and
supernovae of type Ia.
24.2 Term and Principle of Spectroscopic Parallax
The spectroscopic parallax allows the rough distance-estimation to a star, based solely on
the spectroscopically determined spectral class and photometrically measured, apparent
brightness. Therefore the term "parallax" is here a misnomer. However, it is correct for the
trigonometric parallax. This corresponds to the apparent shift of the observed celestial body
relative to the sky background, caused by the Earth's orbit around the sun. The principle of
spectroscopic parallax works similar to the photometric parallax. The absolute magnitude
of an object is generally defined for the distance of 10 parsecs [pc] or 32.6 light years [ly].
This value is first compared with the actually measured, apparent brightness, enabling the
calculation of the distance. Applying the spectroscopic parallax, the absolute brightness of
a star is determined by its spectral class.
24.3 Spectral Class and Absolute Magnitude
The following table shows the values of the absolute magnitudes for the main sequence
stars (V) from a lecture at the University of Northern Iowa http://www.uni.edu/. Their devia-
tion, in comparison with known literature values, remains, for our purpose, within accept-
able limits. For instance, the table value for the spectral class G2V does 5.0
M
, compared to
the literature value for the sun of 4.83
M
. For the giants (III) and supergiants (I), I have col-
lected some literature values of known stars from different sources in order to give an im-
pression of the magnitude and the enormous spread. At these luminosity classes no usable
conjunction with the spectral classes can be recognised. Further supergiants of early spec-
tral classes are often spectroscopic binaries. These facts also drastically demonstrate the
limitations of this method. Therefore the determination of the distance, applying the spec-
troscopic parallax is, at least for amateurs, restricted to main-sequence stars. To find In the
annex to Gray/Corballi [4] is a calibration table of the absolute magnitudes for all spectral-
and luminosity classes of the MK System.

Spectral
Class
Main Sequence (V)
Absolutc Hog
Giants (III)
Absolutc Hog
Supergiants (I)
Absolutc Hog
O5 4.5
O6 4.0
O7 3.9
O8 3.8 Meissa, Ori 4.3
O9 3.6 Iota Ori 5.3 Ori, Alnitak 5.3
B0 3.3 Alnilam, Ori 6.7
B1 2.3 Alfirk, Cep 3.5
B2 1.9 Bellatrix, Ori 2.8
B3 1.1
B5 0.4 Per 3.0 Aludra, Cma 7.5
B6 0
B7 0.3 Alcione, Tau 2.5
B8 0.7 Atlas, 27 Tau 2.0 Rigel, Ori 6.7
B9 1.1
A0 1.5
A1 1.7
A2 1.8 Deneb, Cyg 8.7
A3 2.0
A4 2.1
A5 2.2 Oph, 1.2
A7 2.4 Boo, 1.0
F0 3.0 Adhafera, Leo 1.0
F2 3.3 Caph, Cas 1.2
F3 3.5
F5 3.7 Mirfak, Per 4.5
F6 4.0
F7 4.3
F8 4.4 Wezen, CMa 6.9
G0 4.7 Sadalsuud, Aqr 3.3
G1 4.9
G2 5.0 Sadalmelik, Aqr 3.9
G5 5.2
G7 Kornephoros, Her 0.5
G8 5.6 Vindemiatrix, Vir 0.4
K0 6.0 Dubhe, Uma 1.1
K1 6.2
K2 6.4 Cebalrai, Oph 0.8
K3 6.7
K4 7.1
K5 7.4 Aldebaran, Tau 0.7
K7 8.1 Alsciaukat, Lyn 1.1
M0 8.7
M1 9.4 Scheat, Peg 1.5 Antares, Sco 5.3
M2 10.1 Betelgeuse, Ori 5.3
M3 10.7
M4 11.2
M5 12.3 Ras Algethi, Her 2.3
M6 13.4
M7 13.9
M8 14.4

24.4 Distance Modulus
The distance modulus is defined by the difference between the apparent- [m] and absolute
magnitude [M], expressed in the generally used, logarithmic system of the photometric
brightness levels [mag].
istoncc HoJulus = m-H |mog] {67]
In contrast to the Apparent Distance Modulus (m-H), the so called True Distance
Modulus (m-H)
0
applies to the simplified calculation, assuming no Interstellar Extinction,
[12].
24.5 Calculation of the Distance with the Distance Modulus
Assuming no Interstellar Extinction, the relationship between the distance r |pc] and the
True Distance Modulus (m-H)
0
can be expressed as:
(m-H)
0
= Slog r -S |mog] {68]
If the interstellar extinction is considered, A must still be added:
(y: average interstellar extinction |mog pc
-1
]).
A = y r |mog] {69]
(m-H) = Slog r -S +A |mog] {7u]
By logarithmic transforming r can be expressed explicitly:
r = 1u
0.2 (m-M+5-A)
|pc] {71]
According to [12] in worst case, ie within the galactic plane, results y u.S mog kpc
-1
. If
dark clouds are located on the line of sight, y may rise up to 1 to 2 mog kpc
-1
. Further it
becomes recognisable, that the extinction starts normally to be noticable not until about
100 pc.
Anyway [58] proposes the rule of thumb to take A 1 mog kpc
-1
for the solar neighbor-
hood. The problem here is that A depends also on the desired distance r {69}.
24.6 Examples for Main Sequence Stars (with Literature Values)
Sirius, Cma A1Vm m=1.46 M=1.43 r = 2.64 pc = 8.6 Lj
Denebola, Leo A3V m= 2.14 M=1.93 r = 11.0 pc = 36 Lj
61 Cyg A, K5 m= 5.21 M= 7.5 r = 3.5 pc = 11 Lj

25 Identification of Spectral Lines
25.1 Task and Requirements
With the line identification, to an absorption- or emission
line with the wavelength z, the responsible element or
ion is assigned. Considered purely theoretical this would
have to be relatively simple, as shown by the adjoining
excerpt of the "lineident" table, provided by the Vspec
software. In practice, however, inter alia the following
should be noted:
The spectrum must show a high S/N ratio, further be
calibrated very precisely and adjusted by possible
Doppler shifts. Only that way we can exactly deter-
mine the wavelength z of each line.
The higher the resolution of the spectrum, the more
accurate z can be determined and the fewer lines are
merging into so-called Blends.
25.2 Practical Problems and Solving Strategies
However the table shows, that in certain sections of the spectrum, the distances between
the individual positions are obviously very close. This happens from quantum mechanical
reasons for several of the metal lines, generating corresponding ambiguities, especially in
stellar spectra of the medium and later spectral classes.
Commonly concerned are also noble gases, as well as the so-called rare earth compounds
eg praseodymium, lanthanum, yttrium etc. Such we find in the spectra of gas-discharge
lamps, acting here as dopants, alloy components and fluorescent agents.
Here, in most of the cases, helps the process of elimination. Most important is the knowl-
edge of the involved process temperature. For stellar spectra it is supplied by the according
spectral class. With this parameter the graphic at the end of sect. 13.8, provides on one
hand possible proposals, but excludes a priori also certain elements or corresponding ioni-
sation stages. As there already discussed, eg for normal photospheric solar spectra, Helium
He I can be excluded.
At certain stages of stellar evolution, detailed knowledge of the involved processes are
necessary. Since e.g. stars, in the final Wolf Rayet stage, first of all repel their entire outer
hydrogen shell, this element can therefore subsequently hardly be detected in such spec-
tra. Critical is here the mostly very significant He II emission at 6560.1 , which is often
misinterpreted by amateurs as H line at 6562.82 , see [33] tables 5 and 6.
Relatively easy is the line identification for calibration lamps with known gas filling. Thus
Vspec allows the superimposing of the corresponding emission lines, with their relative in-
tensities, directly into the calibrated lamp spectrum (see below). For such "laboratory spec-
tra" in Vspec [411] the "element" database has proven (Tools/Elements/element). For stel-
lar profiles, however, the "lineident" database is to prefer (Tools/Elements/lineident).
In cases of unknown gas filling, on a trial basis, the emission lines of the individual noble
gases He, Ne, Ar, Kr and Xe can be superimposed to the calibrated Lamp spectrum. In most
cases already the pattern of these inserted lines instantly shows, if the corresponding ele-
ment is present or not. This was also the most successful tactic for the line identification in
[32] [33] [34] [35]. However some of the noble gas emissions can be located very close to
each other such as Ar 6114.92 and Xe 6115.08 , see [33] Table 102.
25.3 Tools for the Identification of Spectral Lines
For stellar spectra, a spectral atlas is probably the safest way to identify spectral lines (see
bibliography). For rare stellar types, object related publications are often very helpful.
The software solutions based on model spectra are primarily used in the professional as-
tronomy and are hardly suitable for most amateurs. For a detailed analysis of individual
elements and their ions also online databases are available, such as from the U.S. American
NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology) [103]. The following screenshot
shows the calibrated Vspec DADOS spectrum [401] of the Wolf Rayet star WR 136, with
the superimposed He II emission lines from the "lineident" database. For a commented
spectrum refer to [33], Table 6.

This Vspec screenshot shows a high-resolution Echelle SQUES spectrum [400] around the
H line from Scorpii. It is superimposed with the atmospheric water vapor absorptions
(H
2
O), displayed in red by the "lineident" database function. For a commented spectrum re-
fer to [33], Table 95A.

26 Literature and Internet
Literature:
[1] Klaus Peter Schrder, Feuriger Weltuntergang, Juli 2008, Sterne und Weltraum.
Vom Roten Riesen zum Weissen Zwerg, Januar 2009
Interstellarum Sonderheft: Planetarische Nebel
[2] Klaus Werner, Thomas Rauch, Die Wiedergeburt der Roten Riesen, Februar 2007,
Sterne und Weltraum.
[3] James Kaler, Stars and their Spectra
[4] Richard O. Gray, Christopher Corbally, Stellar Spectral Classification, Princeton Series in
Astrophysics
[5] Keith Robinson, Spectroscopy, The Key to the stars
[6] Stephen Tonkin, Practical Amateur Spectroscopy
[7] Fritz Kurt Kneubhl, Repetitorium der Physik, Teubner Studienbcher Physik, Kap.
Relativistischer Doppler-Effekt der elektromagnetischen Wellen
[8] J.-P. Rozelot, C. Neiner et al. EDP Sciences: EAS Publication Series, Astronomical Spectrography
for Amateurs, Volume 47, 2011.
[10] G.A. Gurzadyan, 1997,The Physics and Dynamics of Planetary Nebulae,
[11] David F. Gray, 2005, The Observation and Analysis of Stellar Photospheres,
[12] A. Unsld, B. Baschek, Der neue Kosmos

Articles by the Author and Reviews to the Spectroscopic Atlas:
[20] Richard Walker, Die Fingerabdrcke der Sterne Ein Spektralatlas fr Amateurastronomen, Ju-
ne/July 2012, Interstellarum No. 82
[21] Urs Flckiger, Kostenfreier Spektralatlas, April 2011, Sterne und Weltraum
[22] Thomas Eversberg, Spektralatlas fr Astroamateure von Richard Walker, VDS Journal fr Astro-
nomie, III/2011

Internet Links:
Author:
The following publications on the topic can be downloaded at this link:
http://www.ursusmajor.ch/astrospektroskopie/richard-walkers-page/index.html
[30] Das Aufbereiten und Auswerten von Spektralprofilen mit den wichtigsten IRIS und Vspec
Funktionen (German language only).
[31] Kalibrierung von Spektren mit der Xenon Stroboskoplampe (German language only)
[32] Atomic Emission Spectroscopy with Spark- or Arc Excitation, Experiments with the DADOS
Spectrograph and Simple Makeshift Tools
[33] Spectroscopic Atlas for Amateur Astronomers (Download in German and English)
[34] Kalibrierung von Spektren mit dem Glimmstarter ST 111 von OSRAM (German language only)
[35] Quasar 3C273, Optical Spectrum and Determination of the Redshift
[36] Glow Starter RELCO SC480 Atlas of Emission Lines Recorded by the Spectrographs
SQUES Echelle and DADOS
Lectures/Practica:
[50] Vorlesung Astrophysik, Max Planck Institut Mnchen:
www.mpa-garching.mpg.de/lectures/TASTRO
[51] Vorlesung Astrophysik, Astrophysikalisches Institut Potsdam
http://www.aip.de/People/MSteinmetz/classes/WiSe05/PPT/
[52] F. Royer: Rotation des toiles de type A, Lecture Ecole dAstronomie de CNRS
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996udh..conf..159R
[53] Gene Smith, University of California, San Diego, Astronomy Tutorial, Stellar Spectra
http://cass.ucsd.edu/public/tutorial/Stars.html
[54] Kiepenheuerinstitut fr Sonnenphysik, Uni Freiburg: Grobe Klassifikation von Sternspektren
http://www.kis.uni-freiburg.de/fileadmin/user_upload/kis/lehre/praktika/sternspektren.pdf
[55] Michael Richmond: Luminosity Class and HR Diagram
http://spiff.rit.edu/classes/phys440/lectures/lumclass/lumclass.html
[56] Alexander Fromm, Martin Hrner, Astrophysikalisches Praktikum, Uni Freiburg i.B.
http://www.physik.uni-freiburg.de/~fromm/uni/Protokollschauinsland.pdf
[57] University Heidelberg, Vorlesung Kapitel 3: Kosmische und Solare Elementhufigkeit
http://www.ita.uni-heidelberg.de/~gail/plvorl/Vorlesung-4.pdf
[57a ] University Heidelberg, Anhang A: Elementhufigkeiten
http://www.ita.uni-heidelberg.de/~gail/astrochem/appA.pdf
[58] Uni Karlsruhe: Spektroskopische Entfernungsbestimmung von Sternen oder Sternhaufen
http://www.lehrer.uni-karlsruhe.de/~za3832/Astronomie/Spektroskopische%20Entfernungsbestimmung.pdf

Spektroscopic atlases and commented spectra:
[80] An atlas of stellar spectra, with an outline of spectral classification, Morgan, Keenan, Kellman
(1943): http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/ASS_Atlas/frames.html
[81]Digital Spectral Classification Atlas, R.O. Gray:
http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Gray/frames.html
[82] Moderate-resolution spectral standards from lambda 5600 to lambda 9000, Allen, L. E. &
Strom, K. M: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1995AJ....109.1379A
[83] An atlas of low-resolution near-infrared spectra of normal stars
Torres Dodgen, Ana V., Bruce Weaver:
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993PASP..105..693T
[84] Christian Buil: Vega Spectrum Atlas, a fully commented spectrum
http://astrosurf.com/buil/us/vatlas/vatlas.htm
[85] Paolo Valisa, Osservatorio Astronomico Schiaparelli, Varese.
http://www.astrogeo.va.it/astronom/spettri/spettrien.htm
[86] High resolution solar spectrum Bass2000
http://bass2000.obspm.fr/download/solar_spect.pdf
[87] Lunettes Jean Roesch (Pic du Midi), High resolution solar spectrum, Jungfraujoch (Universit de
Genve):
http://ljr.bagn.obs-mip.fr/observing/spectrum/index.html
[88] Caltech: Spectral atlases (also) for extragalaktic Objects
http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/catalogs.html
[89] UCM: Librerias de espectros estelares
http://www.ucm.es/info/Astrof/invest/actividad/spectra.html
[90] various spectra of lamps:
http://ioannis.virtualcomposer2000.com/spectroscope/index.html
Databases
[100] CDS Strassbourg: SIMBAD Astonomical Database http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/
[101] NASA Extragalactic Database (NED) http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/
[102] The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System, http://adsabs.harvard.edu/index.html
[103] NIST Atomic Spectra Database: http://physics.nist.gov/PhysRefData/ASD/lines_form.html
[104] MILES Spectral Library, containing ~1000 spectra of reference stars
http://miles.iac.es/pages/stellar-libraries/miles-library.php

Publications to the Stellar Rotation Velocity:
[120] Y. Takeda et al.: Rotational feature of Vega and its impact on abundance determinations, 2007
Observat. of Japan http://www.ta3.sk/caosp/Eedition/FullTexts/vol38no2/pp157-162.pdf
[121] Nicholas A. Moskovitz et al.: Characterizing the rotational evolution of low mass stars: Implica-
tions for the Li-rich K-giants, University of Hawaii at Manoa, http://eo.nso.edu/ires/IRES08/Nick_tech.pdf
[122] F. Fekel: Rotational Velocities of B, A, and EarlyF Narrowlined Stars (2003)
NASA Astrophysics Data System or http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/376393
[123] F. Fekel: Rotational Velocities of Late Type Stars (1997)
NASA Astrophysics Data System or http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1997PASP..109..514F
[124] F. Royer: Determination of v sin i with Fourier transform techniques (2005)
http://sait.oat.ts.astro.it/MSAIS/8/PDF/124.pdf
[125] J.L. Tassoul: Stellar Rotation, 2000, Cambridge Astrophysics Series 36, book preview:
http://books.google.ch/books?q=tassoul
[126] R.L. Kurucz et al.: The Rotational Velocity and Barium Abundance of Sirius, The Astronomical
Journal, Nov. 1977 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1977ApJ...217..771K
[127] Reinhard W. Hanuschik: Stellar V sin i and Optical Emission Line Widths in Be Stars, 1989 As-
tronomisches Institut Universitt Bochum.
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1989Ap%26SS.161...61H
[128] Christian Buil: Characterization of the Line Profile
http://www.astrosurf.com/~buil/us/spe2/hresol7.htm

Publications and Presentations to Be Stars
[140] A. Miroshnichenko: Spectra of the Brightest Be stars and Objects Description, University of
North Carolina, www.astrospectroscopy.de/Heidelbergtagung/Miroshnichenko2.ppt
[141] A. Miroshnichenko: Summary of Experiences from Observations of the Be-binary Sco, Uni-
versity of North Carolina, www.astrospectroscopy.de/Heidelbergtagung/Miroshnichenko1.ppt
[142] A. Miroshnichenko et al.: Properties of the Scorpii Circumstellar Disk from Continuum Model-
ing, University of North Carolina, http://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/A_Miroshnichenko_Properties_2006.pdf
[143] Reinhard W. Hanuschik: High resolution emissionline spectroscopy of Be Stars, I. Evidence for
a two-component structure of the H emitting enveloppe, Astronomisches Institut Universitt Bo-
chum. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1986A%26A...166..185H
[144] S. Stefl et al. :V/R Variations of Binary Be Stars , ESO 2007
http://www.arc.hokkai-s-u.ac.jp/~okazaki/Meetings/sapporo/361-0274.pdf
[145] R. Soria: The Optical Counterpart of the X-ray Transient RX J0117.6-7330, Siding Spring Ob-
servatory Coonabarabran, Australia http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1999PASA...16..147S
[146] E. Pollmann: Spektroskopische Beobachtungen der H- und der HeI 6678-Emission am Dop-
pelsternsystem Scorpii, http://www.bav-astro.de/rb/rb2009-3/151.pdf
[147] D. K. Ojha & S. C. Joshi: On the Shell Star Pleione (BU Tauri), 1991, Uttar Pradesh State Obser-
vatory, Manora Peak, http://www.ias.ac.in/jarch/jaa/12/213-223.pdf

Publications to Novae
[160] Donn Starkey, Photometry, Spectroscopy, and Classification of Nova V475 Scuti, JAAVSO Vol-
ume 34, 2005 http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/2005JAVSO..34...36S

Publications/Practica to Spectroscopic Binaries
[170] Juergen Weiprecht, Beobachtungsmethoden und Klassifikation von Doppelsternen, 2002,
Praktikum Uni Jena http://www.astro.uni-jena.de/Teaching/Praktikum/pra2002/node155.html
und http://www.astro.uni-jena.de/Teaching/Praktikum/pra2002/node156.html
[171] Praktikum Uni Nrnberg-Erlangen, Die Masse eines Neutronensterns,
http://pulsar.sternwarte.uni-erlangen.de/wilms/teach/intro/haus7_solution.pdf
[172] Leifi, Uni Mnchen, Spektroskopische Doppelsterne, visuelle Doppelsterne:
http://leifi.physik.uni-muenchen.de/web_ph12/materialseiten/m12_astronomie.htm
[173] Southwest Research Institute Boulder, Eclipsing Binary Star Parameters,
http://binaries.boulder.swri.edu/atlas/
[174] Diablo Valley College, Analyzing Binary Star Data,
http://voyager.dvc.edu/faculty/kcastle/Analyzing%20Binary%20Star%20Dat4.htm#Introduction
[175] Kiepenheuer Institut fr Sonnenphysik: Einfhrung in die Astronomie und Astrophysik Kap. 2.4
Zustandsdiagramme, http://www3.kis.uni-freiburg.de/~ovdluhe/Vorlesungen/E2_2/einf_2_Pt2.html
[176] Dept. Physics & Astronomy University of Tennessee, Spectroscopic Binaries
http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr162/lect/binaries/spectroscopic.html
[177] D.M. Peterson et al. The Spectroscopic Orbit of scorpii A, 1979, Astronomical Society
of the Pacific, http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979PASP...91...87P
[178] Uni Freiburg: Einfhrung in die Astronomie und Astrophysik, 2.5 Zustandsdiagramme
http://www3.kis.uni-freiburg.de/~ovdluhe/Lehre/Einfuehrung/Einf_2_3-5.pdf
[179] Uni Heidelberg: Vorlesung Lektion 8: Doppelsterne und Binre Pulsare,
http://www.lsw.uni-heidelberg.de/users/mcamenzi/API_Lect8.pdf
[180] Vorlesung TLS Tautenburg: Einiges ber junge Sterne,
http://www.tls-tautenburg.de/research/eike/vorles/entstehung_sterneEG04.pdf
[181] Vorlesung University of Pennsylvania: Introduction to Least Squares Fit (with Excel)
http://dept.physics.upenn.edu/~uglabs/Least-squares-fitting-with-Excel.pdf
[182] Wikiversity: Least squares/Calculation using Excel:
http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Least_squares/Calculation_using_Excel

Publications to Temperature of Stellar Photospheres
[190] Measuring Starspot Temperature from Line Depth Ratios, Part I, S. Catalano et al.
http://www.aanda.org/index.php?option=com_article&access=standard&Itemid=129&url=/articles/aa/abs/20
02/42/aa2543/aa2543.html
[190b] Measuring Starspot Temperature from Line Depth Ratios, Part II,
http://www.aanda.org/index.php?option=com_article&access=standard&Itemid=129&url=/articles/aa/ref/200
5/11/aa1373/aa1373.html
[191] Effective Temperature vs Line-Depth Ratio for ELODIE Spectra, Gravity and Rotational Velocity
Effects, K. Biazzo et al. http://web.ct.astro.it/preprints/preprint/biazzo2.pdf

Publications to the Balmer Decrement and IS Extinction
[200] Calculations of level populations for the low levels of hydrogenic ions in gaseous nebulae,
1971, M. Brocklehurst, http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1971MNRAS.153..471B
[201] 3D Spektrophotometrie Extragalaktischer Emissionslinien Objekte, AIP 2001, Dissertation
Jrgen Schmoll http://www.aip.de/groups/publications/schmoll.pdf
[202] The Balmer Decrement in some Be Stars, 1953, G. and M. Burbidge
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1953ApJ...118..252B
[203] Paschen and Balmer Series in Spectra of Chi Ophiuchi and P Cygni, 1955 G. and M. Burbidge
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1955ApJ...122...89B
[204] Effects of Self-Absorption and Internal Dust on Hydrogene Line Intensities in Gaseous Nebu-
lae, 1969, P. Cox, W. Mathews http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1969ApJ...155..859C
[205] Comparison of Two Methods for Determining the Interstellar Extinction of Planetary Nebulae,
1992, G. Stasinska et al. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992A%26A...266..486S
[206] The Effect of Space Reddening on The Balmer Decrement in Planetary Naebulae, 1936, Louis
Berman, http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1936MNRAS..96..890B
[207] The Extinction Law in The Orion Nebula, R. Costero, M. Peimbert
[208] A multiwavelength study of the Seyfert 1 galaxy MCG-6-30, C. S. Reynolds et al.
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997MNRAS.291..403R
[209] A three-dimensional Galactic extinction model, F. Arenou, M. Grenon, A. Gomez
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992A%26A...258..104A
[210] The Balmer decrement of SDSS galaxies, Brent Groves, Jarle Brinchmann, Carl Jakob Walcher
http://arxiv.org/abs/1109.2597

Publications/Practica to Emission Nebula
[220] Emission Lines Identified in Planetary Nebulae, Y.P. Varshni, et al., 2006 Univ. Ottawa
http://laserstars.org/
http://laserstars.org/data/nebula/identification.html
[221] Gallery of Planetary Nebula Spectra, Williams College
http://www.williams.edu/astronomy/research/PN/nebulae/
http://www.williams.edu/astronomy/research/PN/nebulae/legend.php
[222] Planetarische Nebel, Frank Gieseking, 6-teilige Artikelserie, SUW 1983.
[223] Balmer Line Ratios in Planetary Nebulae, Osterbrock et al., Univ. Wisconsin 1963
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1963ApJ...138...62O
[224] Complex ionized structure in the theta-2 Orionis region, J. R. Walsh, Univ. Manchester, 1981
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1982MNRAS.201..561W
[225] An Evaluation of the Excitation Parameter for the Central Stars of Planetary Nebulae, W. A.
Reid et al, Univ. Sydney 2010 http://arxiv.org/PS_cache/arxiv/pdf/0911/0911.3689v2.pdf
[226] Excitation Class of Nebulae an Evolution Criterion? G. A. Gurzadyan, A.G. Egikyan, Byurakan
Astrophysical Observatory 1990 http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1991Ap%26SS.181...73G
[227] The Planetary Nebulae, J. Kaler, http://stars.astro.illinois.edu/sow/pn.html
[228] A High-Resolution Catalogue of Cometary Emission Lines, M.E. Brown et al.
http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/comet/echelle.html
[229] Optical Spectra of Supernova Remnants, Danziger, Dennefeld, Santiago de Chile 1975,
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1976PASP...88...44D
[230] Optical and Radio Studies of SNR in the Local Group Galaxy M33, Danziger et al. 1980, ESO
http://www.eso.org/sci/publications/messenger/archive/no.21-sep80/messenger-no21-7-11.pdf
[231] Emission-line spectra of condensations in the Crab Nebula, Davidson 1979
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979ApJ...228..179D
[237] bungen zur Vorlesung Stellare Astronomie und Astrophysik, Konstruktion eines einfachen
Modellprogramms fr einen Gasnebel, H.P. Gail, W.M. Tscharnuter, Univ. Heidelberg,
http://www.ita.uni-heidelberg.de/~gail/aastern/uebSS06-hii.pdf
[238] Astronomisches Praktikum, Versuchsanleitungen, Spektroskopische Diagnostik einer Emissi-
onsliniengalaxie, Univ, Hamburg
http://www.hs.uni-hamburg.de/usr/local/hssoft/prakt/doku/Anleitungen/Praktikum.pdf
[239] Astrophysics graduate course 25530-01 Lecture 6 and 7, Uni Basel
http://phys-merger.physik.unibas.ch/~cherchneff/Site_2/Teaching_at_UniBasel.html
Publications to Calibration and Normalisation of Spectral Profiles
[300] A Method of Correcting Near-Infrared Spectra for Telluric Absorption, William D. Vacca et al
http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0211255
[301] Common Methods of Stellar Spectral Analysis and their Support in VO, Petr Skoda
[302] SISD Training Lectures in Spectroscopy - Anatomy of a Spectrum, Jeff Valenti, STSCI
www.stsci.edu
http://www.stsci.edu/hst/training/events/Spectroscopy/Spec02Nov09.pdf
[303] SN Factory Spectrophotometry Requirements Document, Greg Aldering
http://snfactory.lbl.gov/snf/ps/flux_calib.ps
[304] ESO RA Ordered List of Spectrophotometric Standards
http://www.eso.org/sci/observing/tools/standards/spectra/stanlis.html
[305] Precision Determination of Atmospheric Extinction at Optical and Near Infrared Wavelengths,
David L. Burke et al. http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/720/1/811
[306] Flux Calibration Issues, A J. Pickles, Caltech, 2007
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007IAUS..241...82P
[310] A Stellar Spectral Flux Library, 1150-25000 . A. J. Pickles
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998PASP..110..863P
http://www.stsci.edu/hst/HST_overview/documents/synphot/AppA_Catalogs5.html
[311] A Library of Stellar Spectra, G.H. Jacobi et al
http://cdsarc.u-strasbg.fr/viz-bin/Cat?III/92
[312] Absolute Flux Calibrated Spectrum of Vega, L. Colina, R. Bohlin, F. Castelli
www.stsci.edu
[313] Measurement of Echelle Spectrometer Spectral Response in UV, J. Rakovsk et al.
www.mff.cuni.cz
[314] Towards More Precise Survey Photometry for PanSTARRS and LSST: Measuring Directly the
Optical Transmission Spectrum of the Atmosphere, W. Stubbs et al.
http://arxiv.org/pdf/0708.1364.pdf
[315] Addressing the Photometric Calibration Challenge: Explicit Determination of the Instrumental
Response and Atmospheric Response Functions, and Tying it All Together, W. Stubbs, J. L. Tonry
[316] Toward 1% Photometry: End-to-end Calibration of Astronomical Telescopes and Detectors,
W. Stubbs, J. L. Tonry http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0604285v1.pdf

Spectrographs and Cameras:
[400] SQUES Echelle Spektrograf, Eagleowloptics Switzerland
[401] DADOS Spektrograph, Baader Planetarium:
http://www.baader-planetarium.de/dados/download/dados_manual_english.pdf
[402] Shelyak Instruments: http://www.shelyak.com/
[403] SBIG Spectrograph DSS-7. http://ftp.sbig.com/dss7/dss7.htm
Spectroscopic Software:
[410] IRIS and ISIS, Webpage of Christian Buil
http://www.astrosurf.com/buil/
[411] Vspec: Webpage of Valerie Dsnoux
http://astrosurf.com/vdesnoux/
[412] RSpec: Webpage of Tom Field
http://www.rspec-astro.com/
[413] SpectroTools: Freeware program by Peter Schlatter for the extraction of the H
2
O Lines
http://www.peterschlatter.ch/SpectroTools/
[414] MIDAS, ESO
http://www.eso.org/sci/software/esomidas//
[415] IRAF, NOAO, http://iraf.noao.edu
General Astro-Info, Forums and Homepages:
[430] Verein Astroinfo, Service fr astronomische Informationen www.astronomie.info
[431] Lexikon Astronomie Wissen, Andreas Mller, TU Mnchen
http://www.wissenschaft-online.de/astrowissen/
[440] SAG: http://www.astronomie.info/forum/spektroskopie.php
[441] VdS: http://spektroskopie.fg-vds.de/
[480] Regulus Astronomy Education, John Blackwell
http://regulusastro.com/blog/?page_id=2
[481] Robin Leadbeater's observatory
http://www.threehillsobservatory.co.uk/

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Analysis of Astronomical Spectros

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Analysis and Interpretation of Astronomical Spectra 1

Analysis and Interpretation of

) in most cases, the Doppler shift is determined by the

is finally enabled by formula {15}. A rudimentary

corresponds to ~46 km/s (formula {15}).

for 38 Messier galaxies, according to NED NASA Extragalactic

tend, with increasing distance, more and more to the

= Velocity difference calculated with the measured Az shift

= Velocity difference calculated with the measured Az shift

= u. Indicated are important

Analysis and Interpretation of Astronomical Spectra 78

. The recorded maximum

and the distance in AU.

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