Journal of Psychology and Theology 2004, Vol. 32, No.

2, 104-114

Copyright 2004 by Rosemead School of Psychology Biola University, 0091-6471/410-730

CORRELATION OF THE HOLY SPIRIT QUESTIONNAIRE WITH THE SPIRITUAL WELL-BEING SCALE AND THE SPIRITUAL ASSESSMENT INVENTORY
JENNIFER L. FEE AND JOHN A. INGRAM
Rosemead School of Psychology Biola University

The Holy Spirit Questionnaire (HSQ) is an exploratory instrument developed by Ingram and Sandvik (1994) to measure differences in perceptions regarding personal knowledge about filling of the Holy Spirit among Christians. Past examination of the HSQ asserts that the instrument is a reliable measure that examines knowledge about the Holy Spirit (Hurst, 1995). This study included 133 respondents to the HSQ and correlated their responses to results from the Spiritual Well-Being Scale (SWBS) (Ellison & Paloutzian, 1982) and the Spiritual Assessment Inventory (SAI) (Hall & Edwards, 1996). Analyses demonstrated significant correlations between the HSQ and the SWBS and SAI, indicating that certain areas of religious and existential well-being and spiritual maturity are significantly related to knowledge of the Holy Spirit.

he Trinity is a crucial and unique doctrine within Christianity. God the Father, Jesus Christ the Son, and the Holy Spirit are identified by Christian theology as three separate Persons who are also simultaneously God. While the Triune God is a mystery, the ministry of all three Persons is accepted by mainstream Christian theology, and all three Persons of God are active in some fashion during the Old and New Testament periods. Sometimes, however, the role of one Person of the Trinity is more salient than the other two. To illustrate, the presence of God the Father among humanity is most promi-

nently seen in the Old Testament period, whereas Jesus Christ the Son interacts most directly with humanity in the period described in the Gospels. The Holy Spirit, Who is the focus of this study, is considered to be the primary source through which people experience God's ministry from the time of Pentecost until the present (Erickson, 1985). While the existence of the Holy Spirit in the Christian's life is well defined, the nature of His presence (e.g. "filling") is a source of debate. A perusal of theological works will reveal a diversity of opinions, and among lay people the topic of the filling of the Holy Spirit is often a source of contentious debate, controversy, and confusion. Erickson (1985) comments that, depending on the environment, the term "charismatic" is either a "badge of prestige" or a stigma (p. 848). While many charismatics relate "sign" gifts such as tongues and healing to the filling of the Holy Spirit, many other groups do not. The controversy described above can lead to division and dissension among Christian communities. Additionally, the presence of the Holy Spirit in one's life is a salient issue for those Christians in psychotherapy who are striving to understand their spirituality. However, an exhaustive search of the literature reveals that there is an inadequate emphasis on this topic. Ingram (1992) describes the irony surrounding this deficit:
Few in the evangelical Christian camp would attempt to deny that the Holy Spirit was intended as the main manifestation of God's ministry to man after the end of Jesus' earthly ministry. It has been disappointing, however, to observe the relative paucity of Christian psychological literature in this area, particularly when one considers the central role assigned to the Holy Spirit in managing problems of daily living in the bulk of the New Testament. (p. 2)
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The authors wish to thank Jessica Hamilton for assistance in preparation of the final manuscript. Correspondence concerning this article may be sent to John A. Ingram, Rosemead School of Psychology, Biola University, 13800 Biola Avenue, La Mirada, CA, 90639. Email: john.ingram@biola.edu

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Craker (1976), a theologian writing within the psychological literature, identifies the work of the Holy Spirit and human personality as "spirit upon spirit," and claims that an understanding of such work is beyond the limitations of modern scientific inquiry. While Craker's statement of the limits of modern empirical inquiry with regard to the person of the Holy Spirit appears correct, it does not mean that such a pursuit is in vain, given that some effects of the Holy Spirit's work could potentially be evaluated through social science methodology. To explain, it seems clear within Christianity that human beings can change through the power of the Holy Spirit. For example, Jesus states that while the Spirit cannot be directly observed, effects produced by the Spirit may be seen (John 3:8; RSV). While it is unfeasible to assess the Holy Spirit in empirical terms, human variables are within the grasp of investigation. Human attitudes, perceptions, choices, experiences, and many other factors influence the concept of, and experience with, the Holy Spirit. It is from this human perspective that the social science aspects of the Holy Spirit can be investigated. In an early attempt to explain the importance of such constructs within the field of psychology, Ingram (1996) presents a model describing some of the personal and professional applications of the filling of the Holy Spirit to psychological aspects of Christian living. In this model, the role of defense mechanisms, expectancy, cognitive appraisal, and self-image are considered in relation to the work and role of the Holy Spirit. Based upon the concept of "biblical humanism," and working at a more basic level than the "gifts" of the Spirit, this model proposes resources for helping clients in counseling apply the model in the areas of faith, wisdom, and loving. Consistent application of the filling of the Holy Spirit and the attendant fruit are thought to be more central to mature Christian living than the gifts in this model. However, once Christian character and power are under the control of the Holy Spirit, the gifts become increasingly important. From Ingram's (1992) earlier theoretical work in this area, Ingram and Sandvik (1994) constructed an instrument designed to assess the relevant psychological factors related to the filling of the Holy Spirit. Dubbed as the Holy Spirit Questionnaire (HSQ), this instrument was developed as an exploratory measure of the Christian attitudes and perceptions considered important in Ingram's developing theoretical model. The HSQ stands as perhaps the only

known instrument which attempts to measure psychological factors related to the Holy Spirit. Hurst (1995) conducted the first study utilizing the HSQ for the purpose of establishing its psychometric properties. Hurst (1995) found support for the instruments reliability and purports that it is measuring a single construct, which appears to be subjects' perceived level of knowledge regarding the Holy Spirit. It is unclear from these results, however, whether one's perceived level of knowledge regarding the Holy Spirit translates to one's ability to be filled with the Spirit. A reasonable investigation then, would be to compare subjects' sense of spiritual wellbeing and spiritual maturity with their responses on the HSQ. Overall, it was hypothesized that subjects with greater reported spiritual well-being and maturity would indicate a greater perceived level of confidence about their understanding of their relationship with the Holy Spirit. While the HSQ is still considered to be an exploratory instrument, there are measures that have been established as valid indicators of spiritual wellbeing and spiritual maturity. Specifically, Ellison & Paloutzian's (1982) Spiritual Well-Being Scale (SWBS) has been established as a valid indicator of one's sense of well-being in relationship to God as well as one's overall sense of life purpose and satisfaction (Ellison, 1983). The Spiritual Assessment Inventory (SAI) is considered to be a valid indicator of one's awareness of God ("spiritual maturity") and the nature of that relationship with God ("psychological maturity") (Hall and Edwards, 1996). The purpose of this study was to establish the concurrent validity of the HSQ by correlating it with the more established SWBS and SAI, the psychometric properties of which are described below. Specifically, it was hypothesized that the predictor variables on the SAI of Awareness and Realistic Acceptance would be positively correlated with the HSQ, whereas Disappointment, Grandiosity, and Instability would be negatively correlated. In comparison with the SWBS, it was hypothesized that religious well-being (RWB) would be positively correlated with the HSQ. However, it was expected that the "existential well-being" (EWB) scale, which measures overall sense of life purpose and satisfaction, would not necessarily correlate with the exploratory instrument. Finally, it was predicted that none of the demographic variables would be correlated with the HSQ, nor were any significant group differences expected. Consistent with the pre-

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vious research, it was expected that the HSQ would measure a single construct (Hurst, 1995). METHOD
Participants

Questionnaire packets were distributed to three groups: graduate students at the Rosemead School of Psychology, Biola University (n = 24), undergraduate students at Biola University (n = 93), and graduate students in psychology (n = 16) who answered a posting on the Internet. A total of 300 packets were distributed and 133 people completed and returned packets for a 44% return rate. The sample included 38 males and 95 females, ranging in age from 17 to 58 with a mean age of 23. The ethnic composition of the sample included 74.4% Caucasian, 12% Asian, 7.5% Hispanic, 2.3% African-American, and 3.8% of other origins. The majority of the sample came from either a Protestant denomination (54.9%) or a nondenominational (36.1%) affiliation. Catholics (5.3%), Jewish Christians (1.5%), and "Others" (2.3) comprised the rest of the sample.
Instruments

ficient to be .8055. When the HSQ was submitted to a factor analysis, the first Eigenvalue was over 3; all others were less than one. As previously stated, Hurst (1995) asserts that the HSQ is measuring one underlying common factor, which he purports to be subjects' perceived knowledge regarding the Holy Spirit. However, since no additional demographic or assessment data was gathered from the subjects, construct validity for the HSQ has yet to be established.
Spiritual Well-Being Scale

The packet of questionnaires utilized in this study included Ingram and Sandvik's (1994) Holy Spirit Questionnaire (HSQ), Ellison & Paloutzian's (1982) Spiritual Well Being Scale (SWBS), and Hall & Edwards (1996) Spiritual Assessment Inventory (SAI). The SAI includes demographic questions.
The Holy Spirit Questionnaire

Ingram and Sandvik (1994) developed the HSQ as an exploratory instrument for measuring differences in attitudes and perceptions regarding the Holy Spirit. The HSQ is a seven item self-report Likert scale measure with five points, which range from "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree." The HSQ is negatively scored, meaning that its minimum total score of seven indicates highest agreement with the items, whereas its maximum score of 35 indicates the highest level of disagreement (the items and format of the HSQ are displayed in the Appendix). Hurst (1995) made the first attempt to establish the psychometric properties of the HSQ by examining data collected from 595 people from four different Christian groups in Southern California. Results showed the alpha coefficient reflecting internal consistency to be .8453 and the split-half reliability coef-

The SWBS was developed to assess the spiritual dimension of the subjective state of well-being (Ellison, 1983). Ellison (1983) follows Moberg's (1979) conceptualization of spiritual well-being by identifying vertical and horizontal dimensions of the construct. While the vertical dimension refers to one's sense of well-being in relationship to God, the horizontal dimension is concerned with the overall sense of life purpose and satisfaction. On the SWBS, Paloutzian and Ellison (1982) term the vertical dimension as "religious well-being" (RWB) and the horizontal dimension as "existential well-being" (EWB). The RWB and EWB are combined to yield a total SWB score. The SWBS is a 20 item self-report Likert scale measure with six points that range from "Strongly Agree" to "Strongly Disagree." Test-retest reliability coefficients of the SWBS (Paloutzian & Ellison, 1982) have been shown to be .93 (SWB), .96 (RWB), and .86 (EWB), whereas alpha coefficients reflecting internal consistency were .89 (SWB), .87 (RWB), and .78 (EWB). These coefficients were obtained by collecting data from 206 students at one secular and three religious universities. Also, concurrent validity is evidenced in the positive correlation of the SWBS with the Purpose in Life Test (Paloutzian & Ellison, 1982). A factor analysis was performed to establish the construct validity of the SWBS (Paloutzian & Ellison, 1982). As expected, the religious items loaded on the RWB factor, and the existential items loaded on two subfactors, one dealing with life direction and the other with life satisfaction. In contrast, Ledbetter, Smith, Fischer, Vosler-Hunter, and Chew (1991) found that neither a general one-factor model nor a two-factor model was supported by their results. Additionally, Ledbetter, Smith Vosler-Hunter, and Fischer (1991) ascertained that the SWBS has a low ceiling, which may restrict the range of possible scores. These results indicate that the usefulness of the SWBS is limited to low scores.

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Spiritual Assessment Inventory

The SAI (Hall & Edwards, 1996) was designed as a measure of spiritual maturity. The scale includes a more "spiritual" dimension of maturity (awareness) as well as a more traditional "psychological" dimension (relational maturity), which the authors argue is a fundamental component of spiritual maturity (Hall & Edwards, 1996). In addition to the two overall dimensions, the current version of the SAI has five factors: Awareness (A), Realistic Acceptance (RA), Disappointment (D), Grandiosity (G), and Instability (I). The SAI consists of 54 items, seven of which are two part items. The items are on a five point Likert scale that ranges from "Not at all true" to "Very true." The alpha coefficients reflecting internal consistency for the SAI (A, .95; D, .90; RA, .83; G, .73; and I, .84) all indicate good lower-bound estimates of scale reliability (Hall & Edwards, 1996). The SAI also appears to have good construct validity as demonstrated by the correlational study of the SAI subscales with the SWBS, the Intrinsic/Extrinsic Revised, the Bell Object Relations Inventory, Defense Styles Questionnaire, and the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (Hall & Edwards, 1996).
Procedure

utility of a set of "predictor variables," for predicting another variable, called the "criterion variable." In this study the predictor variables were the scores on the SWBS, SAI, and demographic variables such as gender, race, educational level, denominational affiliation, and number of years considered to be a Christian. The criterion variable was the overall score on the exploratory HSQ. Specifically, the "religious well being" (RWB) and "existential well-being" (EWB) scales from the SWBS were correlated with the overall scores on the HSQ. Additionally, a correlational analysis was conducted between the HSQ and each of the five scales on the SAI: Awareness (A), Realistic Acceptance (RA), Disappointment (D), Grandiosity (G), and Instability (I). The secondary evaluation conducted in this study utilized an analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the purpose of delineating significant differences between the three groups in the study with regard to the same predictor and criterion variables as noted above. Finally, a factor analysis was conducted to seek further support for the assertion that the HSQ is measuring a single construct; that is, it examines peoples reported level of knowledge regarding the Holy Spirit (Hurst, 1995).
Multiple Regression Correlations Spiritual Assessment Inventory. As stated, an MRC was conducted comparing each of the five SAI scales with the HSQ1. The multiple regression correlation analysis reveals a significant relationship between the two variables (R = .673; df = 5, 122; p =.000). The Pearson correlations for each of the scales RA (r = -.301), A (r = -.648), D (r = .257), G (r=-.199), and I (r = .245) were all significant at the .05 probability level. As predicted, RA and A were positively correlated and D and I were negatively correlated. The positive correlation of G with the HSQ did not support the hypothesis. The SAI also contained an experimental scale called the Lie (L) scale that was being developed as a validity measure for the SAI. For this reason, a hypothesis was not formulated for the relationship between the experimental HSQ and the experimental L scale. The Pearson correlation between the L scale and the total HSQ was statistically significant (r = -.486, p = .000). The meaning of this finding will be explored in the discussion section. Spiritual Well Being Scale. It was hypothesized that religious well being (RWB) would be positively

The HSQ, SWBS, SAI, and demographic questionnaires as well as a consent form were distributed to the university undergraduates during normal class meeting times. The undergraduates were informed verbally of the fact that participation is voluntary. A random sample of graduate students in the psychology department received questionnaire packets in their mailboxes with a brief cover letter explaining the purpose of the study. Those choosing to participate completed the questionnaires at their convenience and returned the packets to a box provided on campus. The other group of graduate students in the study responded to a posting on "Sagnet," which is a message board for students interested in the counseling psychology division of the American Psychological Association (APA). Packets were mailed to students who responded to the posting by email. The questionnaires were scored and analyzed according to the procedures described in the following section. RESULTS The primary analysis of the data in this study was conducted using a multiple regression correlational analysis (MRC). The MRC is used to determine the

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Table 1
Multiple Regression Correlation Analysis Between the SAI and Individual HSQ Questions Pearson Correlations R Significance RA D G I A Significant Part Correlations A A A A A A A

HSQ1 HSQ2 HSQ3 HSQ4 HSQ5 HSQ6 HSQ7 *p < .05.

.599 .499 .416 .471 .546 .536 .511

.000 .000 .006 .000 .000 .000 .000

-.345* -.255* -.138* -.195* -.169* -.257* -.194*

.192* .212* .213* .064 .229* .250* .194*

-.242* -.128 -.177* -.083 -.177* -.040 -.189*

.134 .193* .153* .203* .254* .268* .070

-.59* -.482* -.365* -.444* -.485* -.492* -.477*

correlated with the total score on the HSQ, whereas existential well being (EWB) would not. Results indicate that the two measures were correlated (R = .428; df = 2, 130; p = .000). Also, the Pearson correlations for both EWB (r = -.325) and RWB (r = -.394) were significant at the .01 alpha level. Individual Item Analyses. Since the HSQ is an exploratory instrument that probably measures a single construct, multiple regression equations were performed on each of the seven items with the predictor variables described above. As displayed in Table 1, the multiple regression correlation analysis reveals a significant relationship between the SAI and each of the individual HSQ questions. Also, only the Pearson correlations for the scales RA and A were significant with every HSQ question. Furthermore, the part correlation of A was significant with each question. Regarding the SWBS, the multiple regression correlational analysis reveals a significant relationship between the SWBS and each of the HSQ questions (see Table 2). The Pearson correlations were significant at the .05 alpha level for both EWB and RWB for each of the seven individual questions. The part correlation for RWB was significant for five of the seven HSQ (1, 4-7) questions. The part correlation for EWB was significant for the other two questions (2 & 3).
Group Differences Holy Spirit Questionnaire. In addition to the MRC, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to compare the mean total response on

the HSQ for each of the three groups in the study. The HSQ is negatively scored, meaning that its minimum total score of seven indicates highest agreement with the items, whereas its maximum score of 35 indicates the highest level of disagreement. The mean responses on the total HSQ for the Rosemead (17.29), Biola (13.12), and Internet (16.75) groups were compared using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). The results indicate that the groups are indeed different with regard to their level of response on the HSQ (F = 9.364, p = .000). Tukey's HSD test revealed that the Biola undergraduate group had a significantly higher level of agreement with the HSQ items than both the Rosemead group (p = .001) and the Internet group (p = .016). There was no significant difference, however, between the mean responses of the Rosemead and Internet groups (p =.936). Spiritual Assessment Inventory. An ANOVA was performed comparing the three groups on each of the five scales of the SAI. Significant differences were found on the A scale (F = 4.57, p = .012), the D scale (F = 24.17, p = .000), and the RA scale (F = 3.58, p = .031). Also, there was a significant difference between the groups on the Lie scale (F = 12.676, p .000). On the A scale, Tukeys HSD test revealed that the Rosemead group mean (63.71) was significantly lower than the Biola group mean (72.28, p = .032), but not the Internet group mean (63.8). The difference between the Biola group and the Internet group approaches significance (p = .09).

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Table 2
Multiple Regression Correlation Analysis Between the SWBS and Individual HSQ Questions MRC R HSQ1 HSQ2 HSQ3 HSQ4 HSQ5 HSQ6 HSQ7 .331 .316 .276 .293 .351 .394 .280 Significance .001 .001 .006 .003 .000 .000 .005 Pearson Correlations EWB -.235 -.287 -.258 -.168 -.253 -.288 -.191 RWB -.314 -.247 -.204 -.289 -.331 -.369 -.269

Note. All Pearson correlations were significant at the .05 alpha level.

With regard to the D scale, the Rosemead group mean (25.71) was significantly higher than both the Biola group mean (16.52) and the Internet group mean (14.31, p = .000). There was no significant D scale difference between the Biola group and the Internet group (p = .382). Finally, the Rosemead mean on the RA scale (27.32) was significantly lower than the Biola group mean (30.54, p = .02). There was no difference between the means of the Internet group (29.78) and either of the Rosemead or Biola group means. Finally, on the Lie scale, the Rosemead group mean (9.54) was significantly lower than the Biola group mean (13.82), but not lower than the Internet group mean (12.02, p = .104). Also, there was no significant difference between the Biola group and the Internet group (p = .182). Spiritual Well Being Scale. The mean responses on both EWB and RWB for the three groups were compared using an ANOVA. There were no significant differences between the groups on EWB. There was a significant difference, however, between the mean responses on the RWB scale (F = 3.185, p = .045). Therefore, a Tukeys HSD test was conducted comparing the Rosemead group mean (51.4), the Biola group mean (56.4), and the Internet group mean (53.4). The post hoc test revealed that the Rosemead group endorsed a significantly lower level of agreement on the RWB scale than the Biola group (p = .044). There was no significant difference, however, between the mean responses of the Biola group and the Internet group (p = .448), or the Rosemead group and the Internet group (p = .774).

Demographic Variables.

It was believed that demographic variables such as age, gender, ethnicity, level of education, and number of years as a Christian would not be significant predictor variables for total HSQ. Age, number of years Christian, and level of education all proved to be significantly correlated with each other at the .01 alpha level (Education, Age, r = .802; Years Christian, Age, r = .713; Education, Years Christian, r = .529). Since the independent variables in a multiple regression correlation should not be highly correlated, it was not appropriate to run the analysis with these three variables together. Therefore, an analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to examine the relationship of gender, denominational affiliation, and ethnicity with response on the HSQ. As expected, none of the variables was significant, as indicated by the statistics: ethnicity (F = .776; df = 22, 110, 132; p = .748) gender (F = 1.049; df = 22, 110, 132; p = .414) and denominational affiliation (F = 1.296; df = 22, 110, 132; p = .190).
Reliability and Factor Analysis of the HSQ

Results show the alpha coefficient reflecting internal consistency to be .8457 and the split-half reliability coefficient to be .8115. When the HSQ was submitted to a factor analysis, the first Eigenvalue was over 3 and all others were less than one. These results are consistent with the Hurst (1995) study of the HSQ. DISCUSSION This project is the second known study to utilize the HSQ, and the first to compare it to well established measures. In the first examination of the HSQ,

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the purpose was to establish its psychometric properties (Hurst, 1995). It appears from those results that the HSQ measures a single factor, which is subjects perceived level of knowledge regarding the Holy Spirit. Ingram (personal communication, August 15, 1997) adds to this assertion by stating that it is intended to measure ones confidence in his/her perceived level of knowledge. From these assertions the hypotheses were derived that the HSQ would be significantly correlated with measures of spiritual well being (SWBS) as well as spiritual awareness and relational maturity (SAI). No hypotheses were formed regarding differences among groups, and it was believed that demographic variables would not be correlated with responses on the HSQ. As outlined above, the second questionnaire compared with the HSQ was the Spiritual Assessment Inventory (SAI). Overall, as expected, the SAI was significantly correlated with the HSQ. Also as predicted, the A and RA scales were positively correlated with the HSQ, while the D and I scales were negatively correlated. The G scale, however, was predicted to be negatively correlated, but results indicate that it is positively correlated. The G scale is a measure of grandiosity that is present in a person's conception of their relationship with God. The positive correlation between the G scale of the SAI and the HSQ scores demands careful consideration. It may appear that this finding is contraindicative of the assertion that the HSQ is indeed measuring the level of confidence in ones understanding of the ministry and functioning of the Holy Spirit. Alternatively, it is possible that persons with a high level of agreement with HSQ items could be overly confident regarding their relationship with God or engaging in some degree of impression management, thus explaining the positive relationship of the HSQ and G scores. However, according to the MRC analysis, the part correlation of scale A accounted for most of the variance in the SAI scores. Therefore, the correlation of awareness of Gods presence with the HSQ is the finding most worthy of consideration. By definition, it would seem that having knowledge of something would require an awareness of it. As stated previously, the HSQ seeks to assess the level of confidence one has in her or his understanding of the function and ministry of the Holy Spirit. However, when considered alone, it is unclear whether the knowledge that one has regarding the Holy Spirit translates into the capacity to be filled with or

empowered by Him. The A scale on the SAI seems to address that issue somewhat by asking such questions as I have a sense of how God is working in my life and I have a strong impression of Gods presence. These SAI questions address specific experiential components of a persons relationship with God. The significant positive correlation between the A scale and the HSQ seems to reflect the subjects knowledge about the Holy Spirit, and may further suggest an experiential awareness of the Holy Spirits presence. This relationship between awareness (SAI A scale) and knowledge (HSQ) can only be seen as speculative with regard to the HSQ, however, as it goes beyond the single knowledge dimension construct on which all of the HSQ items loaded. Expanding the HSQ to include more experientially state focused (we mode) items is under consideration for future studies with the HSQ, which could also potentially provide some complement to the more spiritual trait-oriented focus of the SAI. It was unexpected that the undergraduate students at Biola University would have the highest level of agreement with the HSQ items. One factor worthy of consideration is that this group is composed of the youngest participants (ages 18-22). Typically people in this age group are at the developmental level of separating from parents and home and undergoing identity formation (Arnstein, 1984; Blos, 1946). According to Erickson (1968), some college students defend against the uncertainty and self-doubt they experience when undergoing individuation through overidentification with a person, group, or cause. Since many of the Biola students in the sample came from Christian homes, it is possible that the higher scores on the HSQ are a reflection of a strong childhood identification that has not undergone the crisis of identity formation that results from separation. It is also possible that the positive correlation of the SAI G scale scores with the HSQ reflect some degree of defensive impression management associated with the G scale. In addition to the possibility that Biola students have not completed the separation/individuation process and therefore overidentify with the faith of their childhood, the fact that Biola students are required to take a significant number of units (30) in biblical studies could be a contributing factor to the abovementioned result. Since the undergraduates are immersed in topics related to theology and faith, it is possible that they are far more knowledgeable about the Holy Spirit than the graduate students

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who may or may not have had this type of undergraduate background. It is not possible to tell for certain from the data which of these explanations accounts for the higher scores from Biola students. The undergraduate students, however, did score higher on the A scale of the SAI than either the Rosemead or Internet groups. The A scale indicates the presence of awareness of God. Again, an in depth exposure to topics pertaining to God and faith may lead to an increased awareness of God and an increased knowledge regarding the Holy Spirit. Since the A scale taps a more experiential component, however, these higher scores are more likely to result from the developmental stage of these undergraduate subjects as mentioned above. All three of these factors, any combination of two, or an unknown factor may have contributed to the higher Biola undergraduate student scores. Another unexpected finding worthy of consideration is that the Rosemead students had significantly higher scores on the D scale of the SAI than either of the other two groups. D is measure of disappointment in God and is composed of statements that indicate feelings of disappointment, frustration, anger, and betrayal. Also, the Rosemead students had a significantly lower level of "realistic acceptance" (RA) than the other two groups. The RA scale examines one's ability to maintain or restore a relationship with God despite the negative feelings identified by the D scale. Additionally, the Rosemead students experienced significantly lower levels of religious well being (RWB) than either of the other two groups. The data indicate that the Rosemead students are more disappointed in their relationship with God and experience lower levels of religious well being. This statement is further supported by the fact that the Rosemead students scored significantly lower on the Lie (L) scale of the SAI than the Biola group. The L scale, which is still considered to be experimental, purports to measure unrealistically high levels of ones abilities and behavior. The L scale has a high level of face validity because items such as, I pray for all my friends and relatives every day (item #32) are extreme in nature. Also, it is expected that most people would not have high levels of agreement with these items. It is possible that the Rosemead group had an easier time admitting that they have negative feelings toward God than the undergraduates. Indeed, some of the undergraduates skipped all of the questions on the D scale then rated the questions on the RA scale

(which immediately follow the D scale questions) at a high level. The higher age level (and assumed maturity) of Rosemead students combined with the personal self examination required in doctoral level clinical training could account for the higher D and lower A, RA, and L scores. Research exploring the responses of Rosemead alumni might provide valuable information regarding some of the developmental processes of this population. A yearly assessment could provide information on trends as well as identify points of qualitative change in spiritual development. If it is true that the undergraduate students have difficulty admitting to having negative feelings towards God, then there may be support for the explanation that this group is strongly adhering to the faith of their childhood in the midst of a developmental crisis. Similarly, the undergraduate group is not necessarily less honest than the Rosemead group; however, they may be making a more nave report of their opinions. In either case, this view does not account for the fact that there was no significant difference in the level of disappointment reported between Biola students and the Internet students. It seems that the Internet students would be more like the Rosemead students than the Biola students, given the fact that both are graduate students in psychology. Upon closer examination, the Internet students are different from the other two groups in several ways. Although all the Internet subjects indicated that they considered themselves to be Christians, only seven of the sixteen indicated that they would go to heaven because Jesus Christ died on a cross for their sins, which is the generally accepted Christian belief and was the response of all Rosemead and Biola participants. The other nine Internet subjects marked different responses, such as a loving God would not send people to hell. The seven subjects who agreed with the standard Christian belief were, on the average, seven years younger than the Rosemead students (mean age of 35), indicating that they may be engaged in a different stage or developmental crisis. The remaining nine Internet students were on average four years younger than the Rosemead students. Although speculative, there is also the possibility that Biola students and Rosemead students are more heavily immersed into Christian culture than the Internet students, the most obvious indication being that the former two groups attend a Christian university. Immersion into the culture could account for both the denial of negative feelings and an increased level of negative feelings. To explain, feelings can be

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denied if people perceive either real or imagined pressure to behave or think in a certain way. Those who do not perceive pressure, however, can more easily allow negative feelings to emerge. As outlined in the results section, the hypotheses formulated about the whole sample were generally supported. It was expected that the religious well being (RWB) scale on the SWBS would be positively correlated with the HSQ. The RWB scale reportedly measures a sense of well being in relation to God. It is believed that people who are confident in their understanding of the ministry and function of the Holy Spirit also experience a high sense of well being in relation to God. To elaborate, Ingram (1992) outlines some of the distortions that Christians can have about human anthropology which include an overemphasis on guilt, underestimating the significance of being created in the image of God or Imago Dei, and lack of understanding of the "new person" in Christ. Unresolved guilt and distortions of the meaning of the "new person" (II Corinthians 5:17) impair one's relationship with God. In contrast, however, a keen sense of the Imago Dei, and a proper understanding of justification can enhance that relationship. Results indicate that existential well-being (EWB) was also significantly correlated with the HSQ. This result was not predicted because it was not believed that overall life satisfaction is necessary for one to have confidence in his or her knowledge of the Holy Spirit. As described previously, factor analyses of the SWBS have yielded inconsistent results, which may explain the significant current correlation. However, it is not necessarily surprising that an overall sense of life purpose and satisfaction could be correlated with an effective understanding of the Spirit-filled life. To illustrate, if a person is living in the Spirit mode (the "we" mode as identified by Ingram, 1996), the fruit of the Spirit will be evident in life experience and behavior. The fruit of the Spirit, which are outlined in the passage below, are arguably characteristics of a satisfying existence. In contrast, a person living in the "sin mode" tends to be participating in personally destructive activities. This Scripture passage from Galatians 5:19-26 provides further distinction between the Spirit mode and the sin mode:
Now the works of the flesh are plain: fornication, impurity, licentiousness, idolatry, sorcery, enmity, strife, jealousy, anger, selfishness, dissension, party spirit, envy, drunkenness, carousing, and the like... but the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, self-con-

trol; against such there is no law. And those who belong to Christ Jesus have crucified the flesh with its passions and desires. If we live by the Spirit, let us also walk by the Spirit. Let us have no self-conceit, no provoking of one another, no envy of one another.1

It seems logical that a person bearing the fruit of the Spirit would also experience a sense of life purpose and satisfaction. Furthermore, Paul writes, "To set the mind on the flesh is death, but to set the mind on the Spirit is life and peace" (Romans 8:6), indicating that life and peace are results of walking with the Spirit. While the majority of the hypotheses were supported in this study, the investigation could have been improved in several ways. One difficulty encountered in analyzing the results of this study came as a result of the uneven nature of the groups. The Biola group was much larger (n = 93) than the other two groups combined (Rosemead, n = 24; Internet, n = 16). A recommendation for future studies is to seek a greater diversity among subjects, especially with regard to age. One result of this study is that the scoring of the HSQ has been reversed so that it is now positively scored. This change will ease the analysis of data utilizing the HSQ with other inventories such as the SAI and SWBS. Finally, the meanings of some findings in this study remain ambiguous. It seems that a more thorough spiritual history of subjects could address some of the issues raised. Included in this more detailed spiritual history should be an assessment of how much formal Bible and/or theological education the subject has had (such as approximate number of hours or credits). It may also be appropriate to expand the HSQ so that it contains multiple scales that address issues other than knowledge, possibly including an experiential component and its relationship to knowledge and confidence regarding the filling of the Holy Spirit. Questions that specifically address how one perceives the we mode of functioning (Ingram, 1996) could be particularly helpful. Perhaps such information could clarify why the Rosemead students reported lower levels of religious well being, greater levels of disappointment in God, and a lower reported level of confidence in their understanding of the ministry and functioning of the Holy Spirit. The present study essentially constitutes a pilot project in a new area. Due to the small sample sizes
1The

New Oxford Annotated Bible (Revised Standard Version). (1973). New York: Oxford University Press.

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113 Ingram, J.A. (1996). Psychological aspects of the filling of the Holy Spirit: a preliminary model of post-redemptive personality functioning. Journal of Psychology & Theology, 24, 104-113. Ingram, J.A. & Sandvik, E. (1994). The Holy Spirit Questionnaire. (available from Rosemead School of Psychology, Biola University, 13800 Biola Ave., La Mirada, CA, 90639). Ingram, J.A. (1992, November). Practical application of the filling of the Holy Spirit in Christian living and counseling. Paper presentation, 2 nd International Congress on Christian Counseling, Atlanta, GA. Ledbetter, M.F., Smith, L.A., Fischer, J.D., Vosler-Hunter, W.L. & Chew, G.P. (1991). An evaluation of the construct validity of the Spiritual Well-Being Scale: a confirmatory factor analytic approach. Journal of Psychology & Theology. 19, 94-102. Ledbetter, M.F., Smith, L.A., Vosler-Hunter, W.L., & Fischer, J.D., (1991). An evaluation of the research and clinical usefulness of the Spiritual Well-Being Scale. Journal of Psychology & Theology. 19, 49-55. Moberg, D.O. (1979). The development of social indicators of spiritual well-being for quality of life research. In D.O. Moberg (Ed..), Spiritual well-being: Sociological perspectives. Washington, D.C.: University Press of America. Paloutzian, R.F. & Ellison, C.W. (1982). Loneliness, spiritual wellbeing and the quality of life. In L.A. Peplau and D. Perman (Eds.), Loneliness: A sourcebook of current theory, research and therapy (pp. 224-237). New York: Wiley. 224-237.

of the Rosemead and Internet groups (n=24, 16 respectively) compared with the Biola group (n=93), as well as the modest overall return rate of 44%, the data must not be overinterpreted. These preliminary results are interesting but can be viewed as only suggestive and heuristic in nature until additional research supports or modifies the interpretations of the results reported herein for the HSQ. In any event, much more quantitative and qualitative work needs to be done to extend and clarify results in this area, as the present study clearly demonstrates. REFERENCES
Arnstein, R.L. (1984). Developmental issues for college students. Psychiatric Annuals, 14, 647-652. Blos, P. (1946). Psychological counseling of the college student. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 16, 571-580. Craker, W.D. (1976). The Holy Spirit and human personality. Journal of Psychology & Theology, 4(4), 269-279. Ellison, C.W. (1983). Spiritual well-being: Conceptualization and measurement. Journal of Psychology & Theology, 11(4), 330-340. Ellison, C.W. & Paloutzian, R.F. (1982). Spiritual Well-Being Scale. (Available from Life Advance, Inc., 81 Front St., Nyack, NY 10960). Erikson, E.H. (1968). Identity: youth and crisis. New York: Norton. Erickson, M.J. (1985). Christian Theology. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House. Hall, T.W., & Edwards, K.J. (1996). Spiritual Assessment Inventory. (available from Rosemead School of Psychology, Biola University, 13800 Biola Ave., La Mirada, CA, 90639). Hall, T.W. & Edwards, K.J. (1996, August). A factor analytic revision of the spiritual assessment inventory and further evidence of its construct validity. Paper presented at the 104th annual convention of the American Psychological Association, Toronto, Ontario. Hurst, D.B. (1995) Empirical assessment of the Holy Spirit Questionnaire. Unpublished manuscript, Rosemead School of Psychology, Biola University.

AUTHORS
FEE, JENNIFER L. Address: 13006 Philadelphia St., Suite 511, Whittier, CA 90601. Title: Licensed Psychologist; Psychology Instructor, Vanguard University. Degrees: BA, Messiah College; MS, Shippensburg University; PsyD, Rosemead School of Psychology. Specializations: Cognitive-behavioral therapy; anxiety, panic, and phobias; conflict between faith and fear; teaching cognitivebehavioral therapy to graduate students. INGRAM, JOHN A. Address: Rosemead School of Psychology, Biola University, 13800 Biola Avenue, La Mirada, CA 90639-0001. Title: Professor of Psychology. Degrees: BA, Oklahoma Baptist University; MA, East Carolina University; PhD, University of South Carolina. Specializations: Cognitive-behavioral therapy, integration of psychology, theology, and philosophy, and psychology of the Holy Spirit and spiritual warfare.

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APPENDIX
INGRAM/SANDVIK HOLY SPIRIT QUESTIONNAIRE1 Circle the appropriate number under each question, then write the number in the space at the right. 1. I feel confident in my knowledge of the application of the power of the Holy Spirit in my daily life. 1 2 3 4 5 ____________|___________|___________|___________|___________ Strongly Mildly Neutral Mildly Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Disagree 2. I feel I effectively utilize the power of the Holy Spirit on a daily basis. 1 2 3 4 5 ____________|___________|___________|___________|___________ Strongly Mildly Neutral Mildly Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Disagree 3. I believe I clearly understand the ministry and various functions of the Holy Spirit in the life of a Christian. 1 2 3 4 5 ____________|___________|___________|___________|___________ Strongly Mildly Neutral Mildly Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Disagree 4. I understand the essential differences between the baptism, indwelling, and filling of the Holy Spirit. 1 2 3 4 5 ____________|___________|___________|___________|___________ Strongly Mildly Neutral Mildly Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Disagree 5. When I sin, I know how to confess, repent, and restore full fellowship with God. 1 2 3 4 5 ____________|___________|___________|___________|___________ Strongly Mildly Neutral Mildly Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Disagree 6. I understand the differences between operating in the power of the flesh and operating in the power of the Holy Spirit. 1 2 3 4 5 ____________|___________|___________|___________|___________ Strongly Mildly Neutral Mildly Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Disagree 7. I have clear expectations with regard to being filled with the Holy Spirit. 1 2 3 4 5 ____________|___________|___________|___________|___________ Strongly Mildly Neutral Mildly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree

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1It should be noted that since the HSQ is negatively scored, correlations with positive numbers indicate a negative relationship

and correlations with negative numbers indicate a positive relationship.