An Essay on Comets, and an Account of Their Luminous Appearance; Together with Some Conjectures concerning the Origin of Heat

Author(s): Hugh Williamson Source: Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 1 (Jan. 1, 1769 - Jan. 1, 1771), pp. 27-36 Published by: American Philosophical Society Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1005014 . Accessed: 18/11/2013 06:10
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time tomean improvement fome ago mentioned ofa fimfilar nature, " ,hichhe had made,and I believe he has engaged a workman to "finzjh a -uadrant for him,ontheplan he has projefed. lre
"

of toMIr.Grant ment Quadrant, and,(poke as follows: Godfrey's I amforr, I amobliged! to go out of town tomo-row, as I could wzj/h tohave fome further onthis fubjeg7; lInt converfJalion is a gentleman there of thiscity,theRev Mr. Ewing, who

g-ether, for I wculdwi youto compare fchemes, and to your with each other. Air. Grant exprefed " have a conerence his withMr. Ewing, and I according, defreto be acquainted ly into eachother,before them " trcduced I wenton my journey -WILLIAMlISMITH." 7'o the Rev. Mr. Ewing. not froma folicitude THESE about thingsI have mentioned beenfuppofed theinvention,but to fbew,that, whathas often of thisnature, ihasad:uallvtaken place in probable in affairs of many the prefent thoufand inftance;thatmenat theditiance or acquaintfame time, withouit any previouscorrefpondence J. E. ance witheach other.
miles might fall nearly upon the fam-.einventions, about the

"you acquaintedwith AMi Ewing?

If not, I will bring you to-

An ESSAY ontheUfeof COME T'S, and an Account of their LUMINOUS APPEARANCE; with fome Conjetures together concerning theOrigin of HE,AT'.

By HUGH

WILLIAMSON,

M.D

Read before theSociety, Nov. i.6th, 1770. lightand heatfromtheSun. 'LA in flatedperiods, receiving Comnets revolve as otherplanetsdo in an ellipfis,one partof is muchfarther wlhich from theSun thananother; fotme of them are very eccentric; thatwhichappearedAnno i 68o was twelve thoufand millions of mriles from the Sun in aphelio, it was not half a million in perihelio. The periodof the Comiet Nvhicl o d 2 appeared

COMET

is a folid darkbodyrevolving round theSun

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to the
120

in the difficulty part thatfallsunderour obfervation, finall hlie &c. we or velocity, dittance the Comet's abfolute determining theperiodofanyComet concerning have obtainedno certainty
except the three I have mentioned, nor fhall we ever determine periods in all probability, except by a feriesof obfervathieir tions on the return.of eachl )articular Comet, which may require feveral thoulands of years.

And that of i68o is 575 years. Though Cbtnets doubtlefs of theirpatlh, length in an ellipfis,yet fromthe extremne imiove

appearedAnno ) 75S is 75?years. That of I 66 is

years.

COMETS receive their light and heat from tlje Sun, for they appear to have no light of their own, anidare thence invifiblie, except on their near approach to the Sun. In the year 1723, an Aftronomer had the fortune to difcovera Cormetby means enouglh to becomnevifibie of his telefcope before it was briaght by the nakedi eye. The great Conjet wlhich ;appeared Anlno magnitude when no larger than a ftarof tlie fouLlth 1743 feenmed Sun it acqulired tl-he towards down. canme it as fit tl difcoveredl; till it obtained and ce luff fize in gradually increafed and a tail, world. As thehalf it te.rified whlich withl formramazing that this Comet departed from the Sun, i:s tail decreafed, it lolt ; this has its brightnefs,till in a ftort time it became invil-ible Comet; lhenceit is plain that alfo been the fate of every othler

theSun, is borrowed fromi their plainets, light,like thatof othier

HAVING

y in anotherplanetor fta.r. It I fliouldbe (ingcular ever-y fr-om inbe fhall I I this fjK oin prel;Unie part of my opjinionf of miiere hypothfis. dulged, finceit is matter

Comets evi,dentlyagre- with other plancts, I fhall now try to account for that uluminoustraiin wllich. attends them-ion their lwhich thev are gellrally deno approach to the Sun, I+or;m to du"eer dffcntially fuppofed are and minated Blazing Stars,

juft mentioned tlhofe gene-t1 propeq-tieF in which

to the world itielf. The Comet ot 1743 hlad acquired a tail he fome thoufands of miles long above two months befborc affed p

at all, nor do not burin COMETS are not Blazing Stars, they is there any remarkablehieatin that tail which has fo often difolution to portenfd the nations, an(i betn tlhough-it terrified

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paffedthe Suin, while he was yet threelundred millionsof of fire SLin. Surely thiscould not be a flame fromii thle mniles Comets take firein a place wlhere kindled by thleSuIn, elWe every drop of water on this globe would inliantlyfreeze. to thinkthatComets burn by their reafon is no greater TIhlere own heat, fincetheirtail, whateverit be, as well as their light, evidentlydepends on the Sun, as we hIave already explained. to acin theiraLtem.pts greatly PHILOSOPHERs have dirfered are counit forthetail of a Coimet. One imagines thatComnets or atiofphiere, vapour-, on all tidesby a lucid fiery fturrounided in lighlt, is oinlyvifible fuperior wlich on accountof theSuLn's we feeno partof it buc thatwhich is in the the dark, wthcence ointhefideoppoilte to theSun. Accordof theComnet fhiadow or feventy exteds in all dircEtions their ing to himi atmuoplhere nillions of miifs, forfoineComets lhaveappearedwith eighlity the near approachofCotnets fothatfironm a tail of tlhat lengthl, have becen envelopedin that to the eatthwe rnmt frequently lucid fame atmolphlre.
Coiniets frem to endure, FROM the extremiieviciffitudes w,,rhich tilmie coid, at another w1ithiintolerablc have irreverently conblazing withcll eliru&4-ivc hieat, IbCmiiie je6tured that they werej defigned as a place of future refidence in this (late, and thILIsvainly for the unhap)py trarfogreflors

at one time penetrated

or an hundred worlds were createdforthez that fiftv fuppofe inhabitantsof thislittleglobe. It is fake of puniinlng thle tO hlavementioned conje6tures. fufficient fuclh

of opinion, thatComets 1IEIE great Sir II.aac Newton w%Fas and refrefh weredetigrned, amongother purpoles, to niourifl all earth and the lHe that imagi.ned neighbouring sthis platnets. a greatdeal of radicalmiioillure and putreta6lion, by vegetation or chang,ed intoearth; thatthetail of a Comiiet is is confurmed of theSun, iet by thLe a thickvapour exhaled from theCom lhcat
tlhrouglhthe planetary regions, and wlhichvapour is fcattc-red occafionally part of it being receivecd within our atLuiofh)here,

fuppliesour lofsof LfloiIIure.

WHATEYVER

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to heat, it (ems WHATEVER propterties have been afcribed clear tclat evapor-ation ver-y cannot be performed by uinlefs means of an atmiiofphere wherebythe fluidis attracted, fufpendedand carried if we fuppofe thattheearth off. T-herefore and all tie Planets are l'ipplied witlhradical moifture from the Comets, we muftalfo fuppofe,that the folar fyitem is for aEtraWing filled withl an atmoofphere fiufficient univerfally and fufpcndinig fluid., wh,chi hypothefiswvouldcertainly ouirprtfentfyftem of AUtronomiy.Befides this we deftroy the moftacCurate cliymical analyfis, may obferve,thatfromi th-ereltems great reafon to believe, that all the apparent alone. on combination and folution changes in marter de.pend with earlh and again feparated That water may be combinied it; but, that fincethe Creation, LhisGlobe has not fromii
fuftained the abibOlule los of one ounce of water, or gained one ouLnce of carthl. Therefore we do not requlire any nourifhthe vapoLr or Comets. ment fromtn

thatComets werecreatedlike this to doLibt I SEE no reafon fome of intelligent of them world,to be therefidence beingrs; no dioubt which travel to inimenfedittancesthrough the Heavens, maybe inhabited by an orderof beings,grcatly fupeto thisfhortlivedraceof mortals,and muclh better rnor fitted the works of theirdivine and a(dmiiiiring for comprehending original,whichtheybehold in greater perfe&ion. One of the of the Supirenme ideas we forml primary Being is, thathleis the and happinefs, and delightsto comoflife, intelligence fource them; tle earthwe tread,the water we drink, and mtunicate we b-eathe,fwarm witlh the veryair in whichi living-creatures, to theirfeveral lhabitations.Are we to lfuppofe all fitted that animated part of the Creation, this little globe is theornly are largerworlds,and ruLn a whiletheComets, manyof which forth-c folepurpofe an idle formned of nob!ercourfe, chaos, are
being frozen and burnt in turns.

inhabited. The great vitllought; theCometsare doubtlefs of climate,is theonly piaufible obiedfionthat has ciffitudes been madeto thisopitilon. The Comet of i 68o came within milesof the Sun; but the Sun's whole one hundredthoufand thoufandmiles. Thlie cliameteris more tihan leven hiundred was then fuppotedto nave been two thoufand Comet's hieat
tinles

We. cannot admit the

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tines hotter thanredhot iron; but the fanme Comet was about twelvethoufandmfnillions the Sun, at lis greateft of milesfrom dfltance,whenit is fuppofed, thathe perceived ten thoufand timeslefsheat thanwe ufually enjoy. Hence it is fuppofed, thatfuch a Planetcould never afford. a comfortable refidence forrational creatures.
BUT herephilofophers have takenforgrantedthatthe heat as thefquareof itsdiftance of everybody is inverfely the fromn whichI greatlyfufpea; forI apprehend Sun, a propofition thatit is contrary to experiment. WERE heat a certainbodyproceeding fromthe immediately of heatin anyfpace Sun, thequantity be inwoulddoubtlefs verfely as thefquare of itsdiftance fromthie Sun. But I feeno reafonto believethat Heat comes fromthe Sun, whilethere is much reafon to thinkthat it does not. We perceivethat Light comes fromthe Suin. We alfo perceive thatHeat is producedin the bodies on which the raysof liglht fall, hence we are apt to confound l.ight anidHeat together, tholugh it be demonftrable that Light is not Heat and that Heat is not is our knowle(dge of the primary Light. So contra6ted con-

D)oes Hemt ttherefore in nothingelfe thlan conflft the rapid vibrationsot the mrinute particlesof any body ? or Is thiere an of fire elemnentary throughall bodies, which principle (diffdifed is

produces

any particuLlar caufefhouldnot cxcite Heat wvith equalfacility in all bodies. But we are taughtby experience thatdifferent quantitiesare producedby the fame caufe, accotding to tlh-e mediumon wlich it operates. It alfoappearsthatthe partiof any body to be heated is nearly as the cular aptitucde of thatbody, or the cohefion elafticity of itsparts. Whatever produces a tremulous motion in tiheparticles of any body, excitesHeat in thatbody, and viceverfa e-xcites whatever Heat
a tremtuloLus motion in the particles of the body.

flitlent

parts of bodies, that we cannot readily determine why

pothefis there is no difference whether Heat depends on the fimplevibration of the particlesof nmatter, or whetlier it depends

onlyexcitedor brought into a&ion by any caufe which produces a tremuilous motion in the particles of thofebodies ? Thle latterfeeinsmoStprobable, thoujghin folvingthie prefent hy-

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pendson thefire whichwas onlybrought intoaction by the HIeat in every body is uniformly as thevibratory motion ot theparticles ofthat body.---This I apprehend is thecafe,and fhall beg leaveto nmention fuchevidence as feemsto render
the matter at leaftveryprobable.
PHILOSOPHERS

of thofe vibration particles,providedit Ihould appear thatthe

is generated, viz. i, byartrition, 2, chymical mixture, 3, fer4, inflammation, and 5, by theSun. In all theik mentation, cafesit appearsthattheHeat dependson a vibratory motion which byone mneans in the oranother is excited particles of the body. of one bodyagainfi rubbing another. In thiscafetherecan theHleat on thevibratory be nodoubtthat of motion depends where hence bodiesareloonefi heated theparticles, thefri&fion is confiderable, thebodieshavealfoa proper provicded degree of elafticity. For the inotion oncecotmmunicated to theparticles of an claftic body-, are retained a co-nfiderable time, of the caule whichput and increafed byevery fucceeding lifroke of Heat producedin anybody themintomotion.The quantity on the body being fit to prelerve by friaion, dependsgreatly the motiononce communicated. TIhusa fawfixedin a lhandlong retain its trem-ulous vice fo that it mnay motion, will loon

fivemethods have enumiiierated by which Heat

Y. IIEAT

is produced by attrition,or by the ftriking or

vibratory mnot-ionof its particles are itnmediatelydeftlroyed. T he facility Nvhkch withl f-nome bodies are heatedbeforeothers,

which it is rubbedis not foon be lheated,whilItthe filewitlh unelaftichand, wherebythe being hieldin the foft h-ieated,

withwhichthe fame body may be heatedin one pofition nrid than in another,abundantly of rather prove thatthe quantity will not be as the moHeat producedin any Dodyby friElion but as thefirokes tioncommutinicated, commtlnicated, together of vibrations withthe ntunmber retainedand communicated in of each ftroke. confequence
2. THE Heat which is producedby chymicalmixturehas are fundry been thefubje(tofmiuchfpeculation.---There bodlies whilch joined togetlher produce confiderable H-lear,as water

with oil of vitriol ; others produLce cold, as faltof nitre witlh

water,

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water. Why fhould one union proddceheattheotheroold ? It appearsin generalthatall mixtures, lo called,produce properly hleat, all folutions produce cold. But in every mixture the bo bodies undergoa certainchangein their qualities,whlercea dies un4dergo no changeby folurion. This may pointo0utto us the tru)eorigin of hearin one cafe, anwcold in theother. to one another,and the two bodits have an attradtion WVihen pores o11 he one body are to conititutedas tihat the_ minu.te or atomsof theC otherbody mnay particles into them-n, penetrate being rentalunderby theattracenfuLe, the miniute parcicle.s of the conitituent tiveforce of the parts; fuLch difbolution parts altersthequLalities of thatbody. We may of a body ne effArily bodies by w,hich eafilyperceivethatin the rapidunionof fluch the minuteft particlesare rentafLnder,the vibratory motion of thofepartsnmu(t be greatly increafed. 1-lencethe generationof heat by mixtulres. Hence too the heat in fLuch mixto the nuirberof particles, tures, feems to be in proportion whichin anybodyof a determined bulk, rufh inito unionwith and deltroy thetexture of one another. no change is prod or coolingcombinations folutions 1N nced of nitre in the.qualities of the bodies. Th Ius by a folution be clepofited in watercold is produced, and the faltmnay fiom of the bothe water,or the waterbe evaporated,and neitlher dies undergo the leaft change, In thiscafe it appears, that there is no diffolution of theconifituentpartsof eithler b0dy, forceof the other,or by thle by the attra&tive conftrudion of theirparts; but thatthe globulesof one bodv adlere fluperof the other, and the particles of the flLid ficially to thofe are fimplv chargedwith thofeof the fAlid,bv which imieans motion of the particlesis diminifhed, the vibratory whence cold is necelfarily produced. IT has been obfervedthit fpiritof nitremixedwithwater whilethefamefpirit mixedwitlh fnow produceshieat, produces cold. T his maybe probablyurged as an tue moftintenfe of heatingand coolinig above theory combinaobjeaion to thle that fnow being nothingelfe tions, under the apprehenfion thanfrozenwater,lhouldon thtefe principles produce the fame
a general diflcluLrionof the conftituentparts of the body mBull

o e

effeCs,

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on combination effe6ts, withany thirdbody. But it muftbe thatone is a mixtuLre, the othera folution. Water obferved, of nitieproducesa mnixture, joined withfpirit the bodies una clange of qualities, anidheat is generated. Pour the clergo fpirits of nitreinto lnow and nothing *villfollow,at leaftno-of the fnowin the fpirit. thinghas followed but a folution have alwaysbeen made whenthe temFor thefeexperiments of theipirits was much below the freezing perature point of water, fothat the fnowcould not be mnelted by fuchcomlbiniation.Hence therebeing no intimate union of the parts, elfethana proper folLution, nor any thling cold was generated as in all finilarcafes. 3. HEAT prodcuced or ptutrefa6ion, by fermentation maybe manner accountedforin thefami-ie as thatproducedbychymical there no doubtthatnewmixtures are conftantly mixture, being, in everyputrefcentor fermenting forming body.4. IHIEATwhichis produced, by inflammation -f--ems alfo to cdepend on the chyn-ical mixture of bodies. In a1l bodies wh-lich blaze thereis found an acid andc mephytic air, wlhich bodiesin proportion to theirdi1ferent feemto abound in tlhofe The feparation of thefe deareesof inflammability. two bodies a flame; thiswe obfervecan onilybe effeed- by conftitutes of a thirdbody, viz. commonair. T he unionof the mneans acid withthewaterthatis fufpended in the air, and the union, with the commonair, prodduces of the inephytic two heating miXtuLres. Hence-Heat is excited by fiame. 5. HEAT iS producedby the Sun: Does that Heat profromthefun, as is generally ceed immediately or is fuppofed, excited by the adion of the rays of lighit? it mechanically The latteris moftpiobable. \e lhavefeena variety of meHeat is produced. TIhey appear in different thodsby w1hich all term-inate in the famie forms,but they, thing; theyare metho's of exciting a tremulous motionin the pardifferent of thebody. ByIoe1' of them the meftticles intenfe Heat is produced,and )et in no cafeis thereany at-uLal additionof fire. 'When Heat is excited by the Sun, thereis allo a trein theparticles of the body,theyare mulousmotionexcited expanded,

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thofeof Heat exexpanded, &c. The phenomenarefemble cited by other means, whence it feemsunphilofophic to foppofe thattherefhouldbe an acceffion of firein thiscafemore than in theothers. I therefore fuppofethatall theheatwhich ona tremulous is caufed by theSun, depends mo/ion excited bythe wbichis heated. Hence of thebody raysof light,in theParticles it willfollowthattheheatof anybody will notbe according to its tothefitnef-s theSun, butaccording from to diftance of that body, andpropagate thefeveral retain vibrations whichare communicated to itsparticles bytherays of light.Hence it is thatthe air-which is very elaftic, whenwell comlpreffed by the weightof the will receive a great degree of Heat incumbentatmofphere, of the earth, whilethe light thinair whofe near the furface particles are removedto a confiderable diftance, as on the top of a high mountain,is alwaysin a freezing ftate within the torrid zone. of the generation LET US fee how thistheory of Heat may to the inhabitants be fubfervient of the Cometary worlds. is evident withan atmofphere thatCometsare fuLrrounded fromthat of our globe; the heigrhtlh very different of our is hardly to exceed 6o or 70 mniles, atmofphere while fuppofed is frequently 8 or io,ooo miles. Why fhould thatof a Conmet a weight of atmofphere more thanus ? This they have f-uch to fomevery extraordinary is doubtlefsfubfervient purpofe. We mayalfofuppofe withgreatprobability, thattheatmofphei-e ofaCometdiffers ours.T-he fromn greatly particles maybe fmaller, nmore ftibrile, elattic,and much more eafilyheated, whence be enabled to warmfuchan atnofplhcre the Sun's rays mnay compreffed togethier by the weiglt of eightor ten thoufand the Sun, in whichwe Ihould perceive miles, at a diftance from the moft cold. This will explain the manner inrenife in which of a Comet may be fuLfficiently the inhabitants at their warnm fromthe Sun ; but if theywvere diftance greateft proportionably heatedon their neareft approach to the Sun, theirfurnbe intolerable; but thismuft certainly mer heatswotuld be the cafeit theiratmofpliiere were in a permanent ftate,and conof equal denfity tinuedin all feafons and weight. We are certain howeverfromn thatthis is not the cafe; for obfervation, as theComet approaclhes theSuin,we can eafily perceiveits ato e2 n ofpliere
IT

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rendered lefs fitforgeneand thence rarify'd, greatly mofphere relief heat. Butthisis nottheprincipal which or retaining rating thefumnmer's Heat. The aLmolphere receivefrom Cometarians a changewhich is peculiar to to tundergo of a Cometfeems oflight, and thrown off to a itfeIf. It is removedby the rays confidierable diflance behind the planet. It is demonitrable thatthe ravs of lightpafswithamazingve ocity, they travel of miles in a minute; fuch amazing millions above thirteeni into theirweight, howeverfmalltheybe, velocitymultiplied or impellingforce, momentum muft give them a confiderale torce they be greatin regionsnear theSun; by this whichmuft of air, and drive tubtilcand lighLparticles repel theextremely a ditlancebehindthe Comet thattheirweight themn offto fuch beingtlhus on its furtace. The atmofphere is hardlyperceived were into a as it thrown and repelled by the Sun's rays, (helterbehind the planet, will be there extended longiuof a fha(iow, being very raretowardsthe dinallyin the form top. Every particleneartheturfaceof this immenfeftream and refle6tion of be illuminated of airmnuft by the refra6tion theywill exhibit the faintappearance the Sun's rays, wlhence of a blazc. rhus we are apt to imnaginethlat a Comet is proceeds from intenfely hot, andithat a prodigiousflam-e. it, whilewe feenothing elfetllanitsenlightened atmofphere. of Cometsare not preffed by day, when As theinhabitants the near come partot the atmofun, with a thoulandth they whichufuallyfurrounds thtm, and which is doubtlefs fphere Heat, we the mediateand principalcaufe of theirperceiving cool at nioon feehow theymaybc tolerably day, on mayeafily to the Sun. theirneareft approachthe life of a formany conje6lure concerning IF we mniglht wlich he the annual periods of the world Cometarian,from we ffiould inhabits, apprehendthathe farexceeds the yearsof the conpt to meafure an antedeluvian. Or migh we atteml the lengthof timewhichwill be of thiis tinuLance globe, from-] of Comets, as well as every neceffary to bringtheaftronomny at to othericience thatperfe6lion wlhichthey nmuf dotubtlefs arrive} we Iliouldinterthata fmallpottion of thattimt is yet ever of thefe fubje6tsthe mind is f-uffered elapfcd. On which of fora few minutes,it will find fufficient fIubjcct to itray A pleafing fpeculation.

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