Byron Stayskal, Elements of Ancient Greek, Aug 2012

Elements of Ancient Greek
(working prototype, introduction & chapters 1-17)

by
Byron Stayskal (Ph.D.)

Byron Stayskal, 2012
(previous versions 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2009, 2010, 2011)

2012, Byron Stayskal
1
a!le of "ontents

Introu!tion p. 2

"hapter #ne$ the alphabet, vo%els & !onsonants, syllabi'i!ation, a!!ents p. (

"hapter )%o$ a!!ent pla!e*ent, three verb patterns, the pronoun ou1o p. 1+

"hapter )hree$ the !ase syste*, thir,e!lension nouns, prepositions p. 2(

"hapter -our$ verbs in .eneral, present tense o' /I, o*e.a, eponent verbs p. 01

"hapter -ive$ 'irst & se!on e!lension, relative pronouns p. 22

"hapter Si3$ verbal ste*s an prin!ipal parts, aorist tense p. (1

"hapter Seven$ i*per'e!t & 'uture tenses p. +0

"hapter 4i.ht$ a5e!tives in .eneral, 'a*ilies o' a5e!tives, use o' a5e!tives p. 12

"hapter 6ine$ per'e!t & pluper'e!t tenses, personal pronouns p. 71

"hapter )en$ parti!iples present, aorist, per'e!t & 'uture tenses p. 90

"hapter 4leven$ a!tive, *ile, an passive voi!e p. 101

"hapter )%elve$ the sub5un!tive *oo p. 110

"hapter )hirteen$ the optative *oo p. 111

"hapter -ourteen$ !onitions parti!ular, .eneral, 'uture, unreal p. 12+

"hapter -i'teen$ the i*perative *oo, ire!t an inire!t 8uestions p. 101

"hapter Si3teen$ !o*parison o' a5e!tives p. 10+

"hapter Seventeen$ the verbs I & tI, in'initives, in'initive !onstru!tions p. 122

"hapter 9eain.s p. 1(0

2
#ntroduction

#nflection

#n!e the :reek alphabet is learne, a strikin. 'eature o' the lan.ua.e is ho%
*any enin.s there are 'or nouns an verbs. )hese enin.s 'all into re!o.ni;able an
repeate patterns, so learnin. the* is not 8uite as auntin. as it 'irst appears, but even
so, there are 'ar *ore enin.s in :reek than in 4n.lish. )his .reat nu*ber o' enin.s is
!hara!teristi! o' an inflected lan.ua.e, that is, a lan.ua.e that ini!ates ho% a %or is
bein. use in a senten!e by .ivin. it a !ertain enin.. (6ot all :reek %ors, ho%ever,
take !han.eable enin.s.)
< help'ul %ay to think o' :reek %ors that inflect is to !onsier the* as *ae up
o' t%o parts, a ste* an an enin.. )he ste* is that stable part o' the %or onto %hi!h
various enin.s are ae (verbal ste*s *ay also take pre'i3es). )he ste* !arries the
basi! *eanin. o' the %or, an the enin. ini!ates ho% the %or is 'un!tionin. in the
senten!e.
< 'e% e3a*ples o' :reek %ors, transliterate into the 4n.lish alphabet, %ill
illustrate this prin!iple o' ste* = enin.. #ne o' the :reek verbs that *eans >see? uses
the ste* !lep-. < !o**on enin. to ini!ate that I a* the one oin. the a!tion is the
verbal enin. $o. )hus, the :reek verbal 'or* !lep-o *eans @I seeA. )he >ste* =
enin.? prin!iple %orks %ith nouns as %ell. )he ste* o' the %or that *eans >!hil? is
paid-. I' the noun enin. -a is atta!he to the ste* (paid), the resultin. 'or* paida
ini!ates that the !hil is re!eivin. the a!tion o' the verb, or, in .ra**ati!al ter*s, the
%or >!hil? paida is the ire!t ob5e!t o' the senten!e. )hus, the :reek senten!e !lep-o
paid-a *eans @I see a !hilA (:reek oes not nee a %or 'or the 4n.lish >a?, an the
enin. on the verb is enou.h to !onvey the sub5e!t >I?). )o take another e3a*ple, i' the
noun enin. -i is atta!he to the ste* paid-, then the noun 'or* paidi sho%s that the
!hil is the inire!t ob5e!t o' the verb. In !o*bination %ith a verb like leg-o @I sayA, a
phrase %ith an inire!t ob5e!t is possible$ @I say to a !hil...A leg-o paid-i. Bust as noun
ste*s !an take i''erent ens, so too !an verbs. In verbs, the enin. >-o? o'ten !onveys
that >I? a* the sub5e!t. )he verb enin. $o !an then be pla!e on various ste*s to
ini!ate that @I hearA akou-o, @I sayA leg-o, or @I tea!hA paideu-o. I', ho%ever, I a* not
the one oin. the a!tion, but you are, then a istin!t enin. is use that *akes it !lear
that you are the sub5e!t o' the senten!e, su!h as in @you seeA !lep-eis, @you hearA akou-
eis, @you sayA leg-eis, or @you tea!hA paideu-eis.
I' one thinks only o' su!h !o*ple3ities, it is easy to have the i*pression that
:reek is an espe!ially i''i!ult lan.ua.e. )here are, o' !ourse, a nu*ber o' etails to
keep tra!k o'. )he stuent nees to learn basi! *eanin.s o' %ors, parti!ular enin.s
that a %or *ay take, an %hat si.ni'i!an!e those *eanin.s an enin.s have in a

0
senten!e. )hese three areas, vo!abulary, 'or*s, an .ra**ati!al rules, %ill be
is!usse an e*phasi;e repeately throu.hout this book. It shoul, ho%ever, also
be borne in *in that :reek %as a livin., spoken lan.ua.e. It %as learne by !hilren
'ro* their parents, an use by nor*al people in everyay situations. It per'or*e the
'un!tion o' all lan.ua.es, !o**uni!ation, an in that %ay it oes not i''er 'ro* the
%ay !o**only spoken lan.ua.es o' our o%n ay are use.

%ord &rder

:reek is a parti!ularly 'le3ible lan.ua.e, an it so*eti*es re8uires the reaer
(even *ore so the speaker or hearer) to hol the ele*ents o' a senten!e in the *e*ory
'or a lon.er ti*e than 4n.lish speakers are use to be'ore it be!o*es !lear ho% those
ele*ents relate to one another. But asie 'ro* re8uirin. a bit *ore !on!entration, every
.ra**ati!al 'un!tion that %e 'in in :reek e3ists in our o%n lan.ua.e as %ell. )he
*eans are so*eti*es i''erent, but the 'un!tions are the sa*e. #'ten %hat 4n.lish
!o**uni!ates throu.h the order o' %ors, :reek !o**uni!ates throu.h i''erent noun
enin.s. I' in 4n.lish %e say$ >a o. bites a *an? %e kno% that the o. is oin. the
a!tion an is the sub5e!t o' the senten!e. 4n.lish %or orer also !onveys that the *an
in the senten!e is ire!tly a''e!te by the a!tion o' bitin. an is, .ra**ati!ally
speakin., the ire!t ob5e!t o' the senten!e. :reek, on the other han, !onveys these
sa*e ieas not throu.h word order but throu.h word endings. < :reek senten!e, 'or
e3a*ple, that e3presses the sa*e iea o' a o. bitin. a *an *i.ht be arran.e in the
sa*e orer as 4n.lish kuon daknei andr-a @a o. bites a *anA. )he :reek senten!e,
ho%ever, *i.ht e3press the sa*e iea %ith a very i''erent %or orer, su!h as andr-a
(*an) daknei (bites) kuon (a o.). )he avanta.e that the :reek lan.ua.e has over
4n.lish is that :reek !an arran.e the %ors o' a senten!e in a variety o' %ays an not
!han.e the *eanin. o' the senten!e. )he senten!e andr-a daknei kuon still *eans @a
o. bites a *anA, but i' the orer o' the ori.inal 4n.lish senten!e is rearran.e like the
:reek, the resultin. senten!e @a *an bites a o.A *eans so*ethin. 8uite i''erent 'ro*
%hat the ori.inal orer o' %ors intene.

he E'pectations of %ords, "lauses & (entences

Cors, !lauses, an senten!es !reate !ertain e3pe!tations. < verb like @%e seeA
be!ause o' its *eanin. !auses the reaer or hearer to e3pe!t a ire!t ob5e!t, su!h as @%e
see the !hilrenA. < %or like @anA !reates the e3pe!tation o' t%o parallel ieas linke
to.ether, an a %or su!h as @intoA see*s to %ant, even e*an, so*e kin o' ob5e!t
to !o*plete the prepositional phrase. Dar.er units o' lan.ua.e, su!h as senten!es an
!lauses, also !reate e3pe!tations. So*eti*es those e3pe!tations are inherent in the
.ra**ar o' a lan.ua.e. < !o*plete senten!e, 'or e3a*ple, *ust have a sub5e!t an

2
verb, no *atter %hat %ors are use. <t other ti*es, the e3pe!tations !reate by a
senten!e see* *ore boun up %ith the le3i!al *eanin. o' its %ors. Elti*ately, it is
not so i*portant to al%ays kno% %hether the e3pe!tations o' %ors an senten!es are
>.ra**ati!al? or >le3i!al? (they *ay, in 'a!t, have ele*ents o' both). Chat is i*portant
is to unerstan ho% su!h e3pe!tations !an help stru!ture an arti!ulate lon.,
!o*pli!ate, an elaborate e3pressions.
<t its *ost basi!, a senten!e *ust have a sub5e!t an a verb that *akes so*e
assertion about the sub5e!t. < senten!e *ay have other ele*ents besies the sub5e!t
an verb, an it *ay be built up 'ro* s*aller units (phrases an !lauses), but the
senten!e *ust e3press a !o*plete iea an be able to stan on its o%n as !o*plete. )he
%ors @)hey .oA !an stan on their o%n as !o*plete, an there'ore the %ors
!onstitute a senten!e. Su!h %or !o*binations as @I' they .o,...A or @)hey .o an...A
re8uire *ore in'or*ation 'or !o*pleteness an !annot there'ore be !onsiere
senten!es.
Senten!es !an be short or lon., si*ple, !o*poun, or !o*ple3. It is, there'ore,
use'ul to have a *ore basi! an easily e'ine unit in orer to be able to analy;e
senten!es o' various kins an len.ths. < clause is a .ra**ati!al unit that !ontains a
sub5e!t an a 'inite verb (>'inite? si*ply *eans that the >oer? o' the a!tion is in so*e
%ay spe!i'ie). Chile a !lause *ay !ontain other ele*ents, it *ust at least have a
sub5e!t an verb (o!!asionally either the sub5e!t or verb %ill be unerstoo 'ro*
!onte3t). < !lause *ay be inepenent (so*eti*es !alle a >*ain !lause?) or
epenent. <n independent !lause !onveys a !o*plete thou.ht or senten!e an *ay
stan alone, su!h as the senten!e @%e !a*e yesterayA.
< su!ordinate !lause, one the other han, !annot stan on its o%n an is
epenent on or suborinate to another !lause. )he suborinate !lause is introu!e
by a >suborinatin. %or?, either a suborinatin. !on5un!tion or a relative pronoun. <
suborinate !lause *ay pre!ee or 'ollo% another !lause an provies ba!k.roun to
the events o' the !lause or so*eho% e3pans on the !lause?s *eanin. (@be!ause the sun
set, they le'tA). <n i*portant 'eature o' a suborinate !lause is that it *ay also
interrupt another !lause (@)he three 'riens %ho arrive to.ether live in the sa*e
to%nA). Inepenent !lauses al*ost never interrupt another !lause unless they are brie'
asies or e3!la*ations.
/any suborinate !lauses esi.nate a parti!ular ti*e or !ir!u*stan!e that
provies ba!k.roun to the a!tion o' the *ain !lause. < te*poral !lause, 'or e3a*ple,
in the senten!e @Ce sa% the* %hen they !a*e into the !ity@ serves su!h a 'un!tion. <
!ausal !lause, as its na*e i*plies, e3plains a !ause or reason 'or the *ain !lause, e...
@)hey bea!he the ships be!ause the stor* %as approa!hin.A. In the !ase o' relative
pronouns, the suborinate !lause es!ribes *ore !losely so*e noun or pronoun in the
*ain !lause as in the senten!e @I *et the 'riens %ho %ere visitin.@.

(
"hapter &ne

he Alpha!et

-or the be.innin. stuent, one o' the 'irst steps in learnin. :reek is to learn the
shapes an souns o' the :reek alphabet. )he :reek alphabet !onsists o' t%enty 'our
lettersF there are seven si*ple vo%els, 'ourteen !onsonants, an three ouble
!onsonants. )here are upper an lo%er !ase 'or*s o' the alphabet, an a 8ui!k survey
o' the upper !ase letters in parti!ular %ill reveal *any si*ilarities to the 4n.lish
alphabet. ()he 4n.lish alphabet is ulti*ately inherite 'ro* the :reeks throu.h the
4trus!ans an 9o*ans.) Belo% are liste the lo%er an upper !ase 'or*s o' the :reek
alphabet alon. %ith appro3i*ations 'or the souns o' ea!h letter.

o A alphaF %hen lon., >a? as in >'ather?, %hen short, as in >uh? or a''G!t
p H betaF like the 4n.lish >b?
I .a**aF a har >.? as in >.ain? or >.ate?
^ eltaF like the 4n.lish >?, but *ae a.ainst the teeth
t I epsilonF short >e? as in >e''ort? or >ener.y?
Z ;etaF a >;? soun as in >raise?
I etaF a lon. vo%el soun as in >late? or >ate?
0 thetaF an aspirate >t? as in >hot house?
I iotaF %hen lon., as in >pie!e?, %hen short, as in >i'?
x kappaF like 4n.lish >k?
I ^ la*baF like 4n.lish >l?
N *uF like 4n.lish >*?
V nuF like 4n.lish >n?
E 3iF a >ks? soun, as in >a3e? or >%a3?
o o*i!ronF a short >o? as in >on? or >o'ten?
E piF like 4n.lish >p? but unaspirate as in >spin?
p rhoF a trille >r?
o, 2 si.*aF an unvoi!e >s? as in >hiss?
1 J tauF an unaspirate >t? soun as in >still?, *ae a.ainst the teeth
u Y upsilonF as in >hoot? (at ti*es, tenser as in -ren!h >tu? or :er*an >Hben?)
phiF an aspirate >ph? soun as in >top hat?
X !hiF an aspirate >kh? as in >ba!khoe?
y + psiF a >ps? soun as in >trips?
m L o*e.aF a lon. >o? as in >o%n? or >open?

+
)owel (ounds

Io%el souns are the phoneti!ally inispensable ele*ents o' any %or.
"onsonants !luster aroun vo%els, an a sin.le vo%el by itsel' !onstitutes a syllable.
Io%el souns in :reek !an be ivie into t%o !ate.ories$ si*ple vo%els (%hi!h have
lon. an short values) an iphthon.s, %hi!h are 'or*e by blenin. t%o si*ple
vo%els into a sin.le vo%el soun. :reek vo%els souns are i''erent than 4n.lish but
in *any %ays si*pler an *ore !onsistent. )he si*ple vo%els, 'or e3a*ple, are >pure?
vo%els an have only t%o !losely relate values, %hi!h i''er only in their 8uantity an
sli.htly in their 8uality, an :reek so*eti*es has t%o i''erent letters 'or lon. an
short values o' the sa*e basi! vo%el soun. 4n.lish, on the other han, has nu*erous
o'ten iphthon.i;e values 'or a sin.le vo%el letter, su!h as the >a? in the %ors >a''e!t?,
>apt?, >ate?, an >all?. )he 'ollo%in. table .ives the 'ive pure vo%els o' :reek in their
lon. an short values. )hree o' the si*ple vo%els use the sa*e letter 'or both the lon.
an the short 8uantities. In tea!hin.s te3ts, lon. vo%els are so*eti*es *arke %ith a
strai.ht line over the vo%el (the line is !alle a macron), %hile short vo%els are
.enerally le't un*arke. Chen short vo%els are *arke, a s*all bo%e line stans
over the vo%el.

short vo%els lon. vo%els
o as in >uh? o as in >'ather?
I as in >pit? or >in? I >ee? as in 'eet
u as in >put? u as in >hoot? but a tenser vo%el
t as in >e''ort? as in >ate?
o as in >on? or >o'ten? m as in >open? or >tone?

<lthou.h the an!ient :reeks istin.uishe lon. an short vo%els an their
poeti! *eters *ae use o' this istin!tion, it is a !o**on pra!ti!e to pronoun!e lon.
an short alpha, iota, an upsilon as i' they %ere the sa*e. )he istin!tion, ho%ever,
bet%een o oo o an m mm m an t tt t an shoul be !are'ully observe, espe!ially sin!e a spoken
istin!tion %ill assist in !orre!t spellin. %hen these letters are involve.

t as in >e''ort? as in >ate?
o as in >o''? m as in >open? or >tone?

o ah as in >'ather?
I >ee? as in 'eet
u as in >hoot?

1
*iphthongs

)here are ei.ht iphthon.s in :reek, t%o o' %hi!h, u an uI, are not as 're8uent
as other iphthon.s. )hey are$

oI as in >aisle?
ou as in >kraut?
tI as in >%ei.h?
tu as in >e%e? or >you? (or *ore a!!urately >eh,oo? run to.ether)
u as in >hey you?
oI as in >oil?
ou as in >hoot?
uI as in >%e?

In aition to the ei.ht iphthon.s above, %hi!h are so*eti*es re'erre to as
>proper? iphthon.s, there are the so,!alle >i*proper? or >lon.? iphthon.s. I*proper
iphthon.s esi.nate vo%els that have a s*all,si;e iota pla!e ire!tly beneath the*.
Be!ause the iota is %ritten uner the vo%el, it is !alle an iota subscript. #nly three
vo%els !an take an iota subs!riptF they are$ , Q, , Q, , Q, , Q, an q qq q. 4arlier in the !lassi!al perio,
these iphthon.s %ere pronoun!e i''erently than the si*ple vo%els o, , an m, but
later on, even native :reek .ra**arians state that , Q, an q %ere pronoun!e the
sa*e as o, , an m. )his te3t aopts that pra!ti!e, an so the stuent nee not try to
istin.uish , Q, an q 'ro* o, , an m in pronun!iation. )he iota subs!ript *ust,
ho%ever, al%ays be %ritten %hen it is part o' the spellin. o' a %or. )he 'ollo%in.
!hart pla!es e8uivalent souns to.ether on the sa*e line.

o ah as in >'ather?
Q tI as in >ate?
m q as in >open?

+ough and (mooth ,reathing -arks

"losely asso!iate %ith initial vo%els (vo%els at the be.innin. o' a %or) are
breathin. *arks. )here are t%o breathin. *arks, %hi!h look like raise !o**as
pointin. in opposite ire!tions. )hey are use to ini!ate the presen!e or absen!e o' an
>h? soun be'ore the initial vo%el. )he s*ooth breathin. *ark ( ) ini!ates that there is
no aspiration or >h? soun (e... opo souns like >ara?), an the rou.h breathin. *ark
( ) sho%s the presen!e o' an initial aspiration (e... opo souns like >har*a?).

7
"onsonants

/any !onsonants in :reek are si*ilar to those in 4n.lish (>b? an p or >s? an o).
)here is, ho%ever, a type or !lass o' :reek soun that *akes 'iner istin!tions than the
!orresponin. !lass in 4n.lish. )he souns that *ake up this !lass o' !onsonants are
!alle >stops? or >plosives?. )he ter* >stop? re'ers to the 'a!t that the soun is *ae by
brie'ly stoppin. the air 'lo% at so*e point in the *outh an then releasin. the pent,up
air. )he ter* >plosive? re'ers to the release o' breath %hi!h then >e3ploes? 'ro* the
point %here the air %as stoppe. In 4n.lish, the stops or stoppe !onsonants are p, !, t,
d, k, g, an %hen they !o*e 'irst in a %or, they are al*ost al%ays aspirate, that is,
they are pronoun!e %ith an >h? soun or e3tra breath. "o*pare the soun o' >p? in
>pit? an >spit?. I' one hols the han 'airly !lose in 'ront o' the *outh an pronoun!es
the t%o %ors, one %ill 'eel a sli.ht pu'' o' air %ith the 'irst >p? but not %ith the se!on.
-or an 4n.lish speaker, it is o'ten i''i!ult to tell the i''eren!e bet%een aspirate an
non,aspirate !onsonantsF they all ten to soun the sa*e.
<n!ient :reek, ho%ever, !are'ully istin.uishes bet%een unaspirate
!onsonants an their aspirate !ounterparts. )he istin!tion is so i*portant that there
are i''erent letters 'or aspirate an unaspirate values o' the sa*e soun, an
substitutin. one 'or the other o'ten !han.es the *eanin. o' a %or (Em >ho%? an
m >li.ht?, 'or e3a*ple). In the !hart belo%, relate stoppe !onsonants are liste in
.roups o' three in the orer$ 1) unvoi!e, 2) voi!e, 0) aspirate. (Voiced ini!ates that
the vo!al !hors vibrate %hile the plosive soun is *ae.) )he .roups are liste
a!!orin. to their point o' arti!ulation, that is, %here the souns are *ae in the *outh.
)he !onsonants o' the 'irst .roup are !alle labials be!ause they are *ae by stoppin.
the air %ith the lips. "onsonants o' the se!on .roup, entals, are *ae %ith the tip o'
the ton.ue a.ainst the teeth, an palatals, the thir .roup, are *ae %ith the ba!k o' the
ton.ue a.ainst the roo' o' the *outh.

E p labials, stops *ae %ith the lips
1 0 entals, stops *ae %ith the ton.ue a.ainst the ba!k o' the teeth
x palatals, stops *ae %ith the ton.ue a.ainst the palate

<s *entione earlier, three letters o' the :reek alphabet represent not one, but
t%o !onsonantal souns. )he letter is e8uivalent >;? or >s> soun, the letter to >ks?,
an the letter y to a >ps?. )he >s? soun in :reek (o, ) is an unvoi!e, or a >hissin.? >s?
soun. )he si.*a also has t%o %ritten 'or*s$ o 'or use at the be.innin. or the *ile
o' a %or, an 'inal 'or the en o' the %or.

9
)here are three letters that are so*eti*es ortho.raphi!ally !on'usin. 'or
be.inners be!ause o' their si*ilarity in 'or* (but not in soun) to !ertain letters o' the
4n.lish alphabet. )he lo%er !ase nu >V VV V?, %hi!h has an >n? soun, rese*bles the shape o'
an 4n.lish >v?. )he upper an lo%er !ase rho >p pp p an ?, %hi!h has a rou.h or rolle >r?
soun, !an be !on'use %ith the 4n.lish >p? an >P?, an the letter !hi > > an X? %hi!h
represents an aspirate >kh? soun, *ay su..est the 4n.lish letter >3?.

(ylla!les and (ylla!le *i.ision

)he syllable is the *ost basi! an natural unit 'or pronoun!in. a %or, an in
:reek, as in other lan.ua.es, a %or has as *any syllables as vo%els an iphthon.s.
)he :reek %or ImI, 'or e3a*ple, has three syllables sin!e it has the three vo%els I,
m, an I. I' the souns o' :reek vo%els an !onsonants are pronoun!e !are'ully, one
%ill ten to .roup !onsonants %ith the ri.ht vo%els an ivie %ors into syllables
instin!tively an o'ten !orre!tly. Sin!e, ho%ever, there %ill be a*bi.uous !ases, a *ore
analyti! unerstanin. o' syllable ivision %ill not only help eli*inate !on'usion but
%ill also *ake !lear a 'as!inatin. pro!ess o' lan.ua.e that o'ten .oes unnoti!e be!ause
it is usually per'or*e intuitively an taken 'or .rante.
In orer to *ore easily is!uss syllable ivision it %ill be help'ul to think o'
vo%els an !onsonants in the abstra!t. So rather than is!uss alpha?s an epsilon?s or
kappa?s an beta?s, it is easier to speak o' ho% any vo%el or !onsonant %ill behave. )o
assist %ith this pro!ess o' .enerali;ation, a sin.le sy*bol %ill represent any possible
vo%el soun an another sy*bol %ill stan 'or any possible !onsonant. )he sy*bol >I?
%ill represent vo%els an iphthon.s, the sy*bol >"? %ill represent !onsonants. Cith
these sy*bols, the *any possible !o*binations o' syllables !an be reu!e to three
basi! s!enarios. )%o !onse!utive vo%els (not vo%els that !reate a iphthon.)
!onstitute t%o syllables, an so the pattern II is ivie I , I. I' the !o*bination
I"I o!!urs, the syllable break !o*es bet%een the 'irst vo%el an the !onsonant, or I ,
"I. I' the pattern I""I o!!urs, it is ivie bet%een the t%o !onsonants (I" J "I).
)here are t%o i*portant e3!eptions to these basi! syllable ivisions. In the
pattern I""I, i' the "" !onsists o' a stop ( E, p, , 1, , 0, x, , ) 'ollo%e by
either p, I, , or V, the t%o !onsonants are pronoun!e so !losely to.ether that they
usually behave as a sin.le !onsonantal soun. )hus, I"p pp pI an I"I II II %oul ivie I
, " p pp pI an I J "I II II respe!tively. )he other e3!eption !on!erns the ouble !onsonants.
Sin!e they a!tually represent t%o !onsonants souns, the !o*binations I I, I I, an
Iy yy yI *ust be ivie Io oo o J I, Ix xx x , o oo oI, an IE EE E , o oo oI. )he basi! rules o' syllable
ivision are su**ari;e belo%.

10
II is ivie ) $ )
I"I is ivie ) $ ")
I""I is ivie )" $ ")

/I"II or I"pI is ivie ) $ "I II I) or ) $ "p pp p)
Accents

)here are three a!!ents in :reek the a!ute ( ), the !ir!u*'le3 ( ), an the
.rave ( ). )here is still ebate as to the e3a!t pronun!iation o' a!!ents in an!ient
:reek. 4vien!e ini!ates that the a!!ents ori.inally involve pit!h an ini!ate a
hi.her pit!h (a!ute), a 'allin. pit!h (!ir!u*'le3), an an a5uste lo%er pit!h (.rave).
Cithout a !onvin!in. re!onstru!tion, ho%ever, the !onvention has be!o*e to stress the
syllable that bears the a!!ent. )he pra!ti!e is aopte by this an *ost other te3tbooks.

0aradigms

< paradigm is a !onsistent, orerly listin. o' the various 'or*s in %hi!h a .iven
%or *ay o!!ur. < parai.*, there'ore, is very use'ul in learnin. the i''erent 'or*s
o' a parti!ular %or sin!e it !olle!ts the !o*binations o' ste* = enin.s into a lo.i!al
pattern. #ne e3a*ple o' a parai.* is the 'ollo%in. arran.e*ent o' the present,tense
'or*s o' the verb @.iveA. I' one observes !are'ully %hat ele*ents are e3a!tly the sa*e,
%hat ele*ents are si*ilar, an %hat ele*ents are i''erent, ea!h 'or* o' the verb 'alls
into the pattern ste* = !onne!tin. vo%el = enin..

ImI IotV I I I I = m m m m = I I I I I I I I = o o o o = tV tV tV tV
Im Io1t I I I I = m m m m = I I I I = o o o o = 1t 1t 1t 1t
ImoI IoooI I I I I = m m m m = oI oI oI oI I I I I = o o o o = ooI ooI ooI ooI

In aition, ho%ever, to listin. the 'or*s o' a single %or in an orerly %ay, a
parai.* also provies a pattern 'or other si*ilar %ors. :reek %ors that >in'le!t?
(i.e. they take *ultiple enin.s) !an be .roupe into !lasses or >'a*ilies?, an all the
%ors in a parti!ular 'a*ily .roup ten to buil up their 'or*s in the sa*e or very
si*ilar %ays. )hus, the pattern or >parai.*? o' one representative %or !an serve as a
*oel a'ter %hi!h other %ors in the sa*e 'a*ily !an be !onstru!te. )he parai.* o'
ImI, 'or e3a*ple, provies a pattern 'or a %hole !lass o' verbs !all >/I,verbs?, an
so, i' the representative parai.* ImI is learne %ell, other verbs that belon. to the
/I,verb 'a*ily are *u!h easier to learn. 4ven %hen there are variations %ithin a
parti!ular 'a*ily .roup, it is ulti*ately 'ar less %ork to learn the variations as a

11
eparture 'ro* a %ell,establishe parai.* than to treat the* as entirely ne% an
unrelate pheno*ena.
)he 'ollo%in. si3,'or* patterns o' three i*portant verbs illustrate the
use'ulness o' the parai.*. <t 'irst, these three patterns *ay see* 8uite i''erent, but
on !loser e3a*ination their !o**on prin!iples be!o*es !lear. 4a!h verb has a ste*
that re*ains the sa*e in all si3 'or*s. 4a!h verb also has si*ilar !onne!tin. vo%el
bet%een ste* an enin. that varies only in %hether it is lon. in the sin.ular !olu*n
or short in the plural. -inally, on!e the ste* an !onne!tin. vo%els are a!!ounte 'or,
%hat is le't over is a !o**on pattern o' enin.s.

ImI I I I IotV tV tV tV 1I0I I I I 1I0ttV tV tV tV
Im Io1t 1t 1t 1t 1I0 1I0t1t 1t 1t 1t
ImoI oI oI oI Io ooI ooI ooI ooI 1I0oI oI oI oI 1I0t ooI ooI ooI ooI

0ronunciation 0ractice & Grammatical 0aradigms

)he e'inite arti!le in :reek !an !o*e as so*ethin. o' a surprise sin!e 4n.lish
has essentially one 'or* (>the?) %hile :reek has t%enty,'our 'or*s. )he :reek %or
>the?, ho%ever, *ust be able to !orrespon %ith a noun a!!orin. to its .ener, %hether
the noun is sin.ular or plural, an a!!orin. to ho% the noun is use in its senten!e. <t
'irst, the arti!le *ay see* like a *ultitue o' rano* 'or*s. < !loser look, ho%ever,
reveals that a nu*ber o' *as!uline an neuter 'or*s are the sa*e, an several
*as!uline an 'e*inine 'or*s are 8uite si*ilar. In aition, the 'e*inine !olu*ns all
use *ostly >a? vo%els, %here the *as!uline an neuter !olu*ns are !hara!teri;e by
vo%els that have so*e kin o' >o? soun.
)he arti!le is one o' the *ost i*portant an *ost use %ors in :reek. Sin!e it
also e*ploys *any o' the vo%els an iphthon.s is!usse earlier in this !hapter, it
provies a use'ul pattern 'or pra!ti!in. :reek vo%el souns. Chen *e*ori;in. the
parai.* 'or the arti!le, it is e3tre*ely i*portant to re!ite the 'or*s by ro%s be.innin.
in the sin.ular an then *ovin. to the plural. In other %ors, the parai.* is re!ite
in ro%s o' three$ @o 1oA , @1ou 1 1ouA , @1q 1Q 1qA, et!.

Sin.ular Plural
* ' n * ' n

no* o 1o oI oI 1o
.en 1ou 1 1ou 1mV 1mV 1mV
at 1q 1Q 1q 1oI 1oI 1oI
a!! 1oV 1V 1o 1ou 1o 1o

12
<nother very 're8uent %or that provies .oo pra!ti!e %ith :reek vo%el souns is
the %or ou1o. < 8ui!k look reveals that the %or ou1o takes enin.s that are al*ost
e3a!tly like those o' the arti!le (o, , 1o). )he only i''eren!e is 'oun in the very 'irst 'or*
%here ou1o has the enin. ,o.

Sin.ular Plural
* ' n * ' n

no* ou1o ou1 ou1o ou1oI ou1oI ou1o
.en ou1ou ou1 ou1ou ou1mV ou1mV ou1mV
at ou1q ou1Q ou1q ou1oI ou1oI ou1oI
a!! ou1oV ou1V ou1o ou1ou ou1o ou1o

he )er!s ImI, 1I0I, II ImI, 1I0I, II ImI, 1I0I, II ImI, 1I0I, II in the 0resent ense

)he present,tense 'or*s 'or the :reek verbs ImI, 1I0I, II have alreay
been !ite as e3a*ples o' %ors that belon. to the sa*e >'a*ily? an 'ollo% the sa*e
parai.*. )hese 'or*s are liste a.ain belo% but this ti*e %ith their *eanin.s.
Sin!e all the present tense 'or*s o' ImI, 1I0I, II have *ore than one
syllable, they brin. %ith the* several !hallen.es not present in the parai.* o' o 1o.
)he 'irst !hallen.e has to o %ith a!!ent. Syllables an a!!ent %ill be is!usse
syste*ati!ally in the ne3t !hapter, but 'or no%, the stuent shoul si*ply stress, that is,
pronoun!e a little louer, the syllable over %hi!h the a!!ent is %ritten, %hether the a!!ent is
an a!ute ( ) or a !ir!u*'le3 ( ). )he ne3t !hallen.e is the pronun!iation o' !onse!utive
vo%els. Several o' the verb 'or*s have t%o vo%els that have no !onsonant bet%een the*.
Sin!e none o' these pairs o' vo%els 'or* iphthon.s, they *ust be pronoun!e as separate
syllables. In verb 'or* 1I0tooI (@they pla!eA), the epsilon an alpha are pronoun!e as t%o
separate vo%els an are not run to.ether (1I-0t-ooI). Dike%ise %ith all the 'or*s o' II
(@I thro%A), the iota %ith its rou.h breathin., *ust be pronoun!e as its o%n syllable an is
'ollo%e by the soun o' an eta in the sin.ular an an epsilon in the plural ( I--I).

Sin.ular Plural

1st @I .iveA ImI IotV @%e .iveA
2n @you .iveA Im Io1t @you .iveA
0r @he, she, it .ivesA ImoI IoooI @they .iveA

10

1st @I pla!eA 1I0I 1I0ttV @%e pla!eA
2n @you pla!eA 1I0 1I0t1t @you pla!eA
0r @he, she, it pla!esA 1I0oI 1I0tooI @they pla!eA

1st @I thro%A II IttV @%e thro%A
2n @you thro%A I It1t @you thro%A
0r @he, she, it thro%sA IoI IooI @they thro%A

)he verbs 'or*s o' ImI, 1I0I, II not only provie .oo pra!ti!e in
pronoun!in. :reek souns but also .ive a hea start on learnin. three i*portant an
!o**only o!!urrin. verbs. In learnin. the patterns o' ImI, 1I0I, II, as is true in
learnin. any parai.*, a !onsistent orer o' re!itation is essential. In the !ase o' verbs, the
stuent shoul al%ays be.in %ith the @IA 'or*, re!ite the sin.ular !olu*n in orer o'
person ('ro* top to botto*), an then re!ite the plural !olu*n in the sa*e *anner ('ro*
top to botto*).

Greek (ayings & Aphorisms

)he 'ollo%in. 8uotations, sayin.s, an aphoris*s provie opportunity to
pronoun!e :reek %ors an to pra!ti!e syllabi'i!ation. Chen learnin. to syllabi'y, it is
best to re%rite ea!h %or an to pla!e a hyphen bet%een ea!h syllable, e... tu-p-xo.
Si*ply ra%in. a line bet%een syllables is .enerally not as e''e!tive 'or learnin. to
syllabi'y an pronoun!e :reek %ors %ith ease an !on'ien!e.

tupxo
@I?ve 'oun itKA ,,<r!hi*ees

tV ooV
@6othin. too *u!h.A ,,Solon

Vm0I oou1oV
@Lno% yoursel'.A ,,8uote by Dio.enes Daertius

12

tI oVp outI oVp
@< *an alone is no *an.A ,,anony*ous

o 1I xoIoV otI
@Chat is beauti'ul is 'orever.A ,,4uripies

oItEo 1o xoIo
@:oo thin.s are i''i!ult.A ,,anony*ous

ou EoIIo oIIo EoIu
@6ot *any, but *u!h.A ,,anony*ous

tIt1 1o EoV
@Pra!ti!e is everythin..A ,,Dio.enes Daertius

1q ooq tVoV outV
@-or the %ise nothin. is 'orei.n.A ,,<ntisthenes

EoV1o ptI
@<ll thin.s 'lo%.A ,,Mera!litus

o oI Eou o1m xoI xIVm 1V V
@:ive to *e %here I *ay stan, an I %ill *ove the earth.A ,,<r!hi*ees

to pIpIIoV to xoxoV
@< lar.e book is a .reat evil.A ,,Mellenisti! sayin.

EoV1mV po1mV t1poV oV0pmEo
@/an is the *easure o' all thin.s.A ,,Prota.oras

tV ou1q m V xoI m V 1o m 1mV oV0pmEmV
@In Mi* %as li'e, an the li'e %as the li.ht o' *en.A ,,:ospel o' Bohn 1$2

1(

ooEotI 1oV EIoIoV oou m oou1oV
@Dove your nei.hbor as yoursel'.A ,,:ospel o' /atthe% 19$19

pooxm otI EoIIo IooxotVo
@<s I .ro% ol I !onstantly learn *any thin.s.A ,,Solon

1I t pIo 1I t 1tpEVoV o1tp puo ApoI1
@Chat li'e, %hat en5oy*ent is there %ithout .olen <phroiteNA ,,/i*ner*us

oVox out 0toI ooV1oI
@4ven the .os on?t 'i.ht ne!essity.A ,,Si*onies

VIyoV oVoo oVoV oyIV
@Cash your sins not 5ust your 'a!e.A ,,Ins!ription in Ma.ia Sophia

oIIoV oIxtIo0oI oIxtIV
@It is better to be %ron.e than to !o**it %ron..A ,,Plato

o oVtt1oo1o pIo ou pIm1o oV0pmEq
@)he une3a*ine li'e is 'or a hu*an bein. unlivable.A ,,Plato

o oV0pmEo uotI EoII1IxoV qoV
@)he hu*an bein. is by nature a politi!al !reature.A ,,<ristotle

oV oI 0toI IIouoIV oEo0VQoxtI Vto
@Cho* the .os love ies youn..A ,,/enaner

EoIIo 1o tIVo xoutV oV0pmEou tIVo1tpoV EtItI
@)here are *any %onrous thin.s but nothin. *ore %onrous than *an.A ,,Sopho!les

1+
"hapter wo
+ules of Accent 0lacement, hree 0atterns of )er!,
-eanings of the 0ronoun ou1o ou1o ou1o ou1o

Accents

<s *entione in the previous !hapter, there are three a!!ents in an!ient :reek,
the a!ute ( ), the !ir!u*'le3 ( ), an the .rave ( ). )hese a!!ents are only 'oun
on the last three syllables o' a :reek %or an are pla!e over the vo%el or iphthon.
o' a syllable. )he a!ute ( ) a!!ent *ay o!!ur on any one o' the three last syllables, the
!ir!u*'le3 ( ) !an only stan over either o' the last t%o syllables, an the .rave ( )
is only 'oun on the last syllable. )he !ir!u*'le3 a!!ent, *oreover, !an only be pla!e
over a lon. vo%el or a iphthon.. )he a!ute an .rave a!!ents, on the other han, *ay
stan over either a lon. or short vo%el.
/ost :reek %ors have one a!!ent *arkin.. < !ertain !lass o' %ors !alle
enclitics, ho%ever, *ay either lose their a!!ents entirely or a an aitional a!!ent to
the pre!ein. %or. <nother !lass o' %ors kno%n as proclitics have no a!!ent o' their
o%n, an unless en!liti!s are involve, pro!liti!s take no a!!ent at all. Pro!liti!s are
usually short %ors, su!h as prepositions. Both en!liti!s an pro!liti!s %ill be
is!usse in *ore etail in the se!tion on >pla!e*ent o' the a!!ent?.
)here is still ebate about the e3a!t pronun!iation o' a!!ents in an!ient :reek.
)here is evien!e that the a!!ents %ere ori.inally pit!h a!!ents. )he an!ient
.ra**arian, Dionysius )hra3, 'or e3a*ple, is!usses three pit!hes or tones an
ini!ates a hi.her pit!h (a!ute), a 'allin. pit!h (!ir!u*'le3), an an a5uste lo%er pit!h
(.rave). )he !o**on !onvention o' si*ply stressin. the a!!ente syllable is in *any
%ays isappointin. in li.ht o' tantali;in. an!ient hints about pit!h. 6evertheless stress
a!!ent allo%s 'or a !onsistent pronun!iation until a !onvin!in. an %orkable syste* o'
tonal pronun!iations is propose.

1ames of the 2ast hree (ylla!les of a %ord

)he syllables o' a :reek %or are na*e an re!kone 'ro* the en o' the
%or. )he last syllable o' a %or is !alle the ultima, the se!on to the last syllable, the
penult, an the thir 'ro* the last, the antepenult. )he %or >ulti*a? *eans lastF
>penult? literally *eans >al*ost last? an there'ore, ini!ates the syllable ne3t to the last.
><ntepenult? si*ply *eans @be'ore the ne3t to the lastA an so *eans the thir syllable
'ro* the en. )he ter*s >ulti*a?, >penult?, an >antepenult? *ay at 'irst see*
unne!essarily te!hni!al, but in 'a!t they provie an easier an *ore e''i!ient %ay to

11
esi.nate the syllables that *ust be analy;e in orer to eter*ine the kin an
pla!e*ent o' :reek a!!ents.

hree 3inds of (ylla!les

In is!ussin. the last three syllables (ulti*a, penult, antepenult) an the a!!ents
that !an be pla!e over the*, it %ill be !onvenient to represent syllables in a .eneral
%ay rather than %ith spe!i'i! :reek letters. )he sy*bol use in this te3t 'or the
abstra!tion o' a syllable is a !ir!le or an >o?. )he last three syllables o' a %or %oul,
there'ore, be represente as >ooo?, an the .eneri! syllable >o? that is a!!ente %oul
have one o' three 'or*s ( O, P, Q ) epenin. on %hi!h a!!ent it !arries. In aition to
the >o? sy*bol 'or the syllable o' a nor*al %or, the letter >e? %ill represent a syllable o'
a spe!ial kin o' %or kno%n as an >en!liti!? (en!liti!s ten to lose or ispla!e their
a!!ents). )hus, the sy*bol >e? %oul stan 'or a one,syllable en!liti! %or %here >ee?
%oul stan 'or a t%o,syllable en!liti!. -inally, the abbreviation >pro? %ill represent
another kin o' %or %hi!h oes not have an a!!ent o' its o%n. Pro!liti! %ors are
al*ost al%ays one,syllable so the sy*bol >pro? !oul represent %ors like the :reek
prepositions >in? an >into? (tV, tI) or the :reek !on5un!tion >i'? (tI).

)owel 4uantity & Accent 0lacement

Io%el 8uantity re'ers to the relative len.th or shortness o' vo%el souns an is a
istin!tion that %as a !riti!ally i*portant in an!ient :reek. )he !ontrast o' lon. an
short vo%els, 'or e3a*ple, is a key ele*ent in the poeti! *eters o' an!ient :reek an
also helps eter*ine the a!!entuation o' :reek %ors. <s is!usse in "hapter #ne,
the lon. vo%els in :reek are , m, o, I, u, an the short vo%els are t, o, o, I, u.
Diphthon.s are al*ost al%ays !onsiere lon., e3!ept 'or -oI an -oI %hen they are
the last two letters o' a %or. In the enin.s -oI an -oI , 'or e3a*ple, the -oI an
-oI are not the last t%o letters an so they are !onsiere lon. like all other iphthon.s.
(4ven 'inal -oI an -oI are so*eti*es !onsiere lon. in !ertain verb 'or*s o' the
optative *oo an in the averb oIxoI.) )he len.th o' a syllable?s vo%el o'ten
eter*ines %hi!h a!!ent *ay stan over it, an the 8uantity o' the last syllable?s vo%el
is the sin.le *ost i*portant 'a!tor in eter*inin. %here the a!!ent stans in a
parti!ular %or. <nother %ay to e3press the in'luen!e o' the last syllable?s vo%el is to
say that the position o' the a!!ent is !onitione by the vo%el 8uantity o' the ulti*a.
In :reek, only the last three syllables o' a %or *ay bear an a!!ent. )he three
a!!ents, *oreover, have i''erent li*itations as to the syllables on %hi!h they *ay be
pla!e. )he a!ute a!!ent *ay stan on any o' the three last syllables (Ooo, oOo, or ooO),
but i' an a!ute stans on the ulti*a an another %or 'ollo%s, the a!ute *ust be

17
!han.e to a .rave a!!ent (an e3!eption %ill be treate belo%). )he !ir!u*'le3 a!!ent
!an only stan on the last t%o syllables an !annot stan over a short vo%el (oPo or
ooP). )he .rave a!!ent !an only stan on the last syllable o' a %or (ooQ).
)here are traitional na*es 'or the various possible pla!e*ents o' the a!!ent.
)he na*es are reprou!e belo% an provie a !onvenient shorthan 'or es!ribin. a
%or %hen it is a!!ente in a parti!ular %ay. In this te3t, ho%ever, %hen the te!hni!al
na*es 'or a!!ent pla!e*ent are use, they %ill usually be a!!o*panie by the
appropriate syllabi! ia.ra* (e... @a properispo*enon (oPo) %orA). )he various
possible pla!e*ents o' the a!!ent are su**ari;e belo%.

oo5 o3ytone oo6 perispo*enon oo7 barytone

o5o paro3ytone o6o properispo*enon

5oo proparo3ytone

General +ules of Accent

1. Chere a!!ents *ay stan$
)he a!ute a!!ent 8 *ay stan on the last 0 syllables (Ooo, oOo, ooO).
)he !ir!u*'le3 a!!ent *ay only stan on the last 2 syllables (oPo, ooP).
)he .rave 9 *ay only stan on the last syllable (ooQ).

2. )he !ir!u*'le3 a!!ent !an only stan over a lon. vo%el or iphthon..

0. Chen an a!ute a!!ent stans on the ulti*a (ooO) an is 'ollo%e by a %or in
!ontinuous narration, it is !han.e to a .rave (ooQ).

2. Chen the ulti*a is lon.,
a. the antepenult !annot be a!!ente.
b. if the penult is a!!ente, it *ust have an a!ute a!!ent (oOo).

(. Chen the ulti*a is short,
a. if the penult the penult is lon., an
b. if the penult is a!!ente, it *ust have a !ir!u*'le3 (oPo).
6ote$ oI an oI as the last two letters o' a %or are !ounte as short

19
(pecific +ules of Accent

In aition to .eneral rules, !ertain spe!i'i! rules apply to !lasses o' %ors
(nouns, a5e!tives, verbs, et!.) an spe!i'i! !ases %ithin a !lass o' %ors. /any o' the
'ollo%in. rules !on!ern nouns an 'in their 'ull appli!ation in later !hapters. Mere the
rules o' a!!ent are introu!e to.ether 'or a better overvie% an easier re'eren!e.

1. 9e!essive verb a!!ent.
In verbs, the a!!ent *oves away 'ro* the ulti*a (to the le't) as *any syllables as
are allo%e by the .eneral rules. #!!asionally, a !ontra!tion o' vo%els prou!es an
apparent !ontrai!tion to this rule. I' the antepenult (ooo) an penult (ooo) !ontra!t
an the antepenult ha an a!ute, the result is a !ir!u*'le3 on the penult (oPo).

tIuoV, tIuotV, tIuou, tIuoV, 1Io1t (1Iot1t)
2. Persistent noun a!!ent.

In nouns an a5e!tives, the a!!ent re*ains, as *u!h as the .eneral rules allo%,
on the syllable a!!ente in the no*inative 'or*. ()he no*inative is the 'or* that %ill
be .iven 'irst in vo!abulary lists an in parai.*s.)

Ioo, Ioou oIxo, oIxou oV0pmEo, oV0pmEou

0. #ne,syllable nouns o' the thir e!lension.
I' a thir,e!lension noun is *onosyllabi! in the no*inative sin.ular, the a!!ent
is pla!e on the ulti*a in the t%o,syllable 'or*s o' the .enitive an ative.

xImy, xImEo, xImEI, xImEo

2. #3ytone nouns (ooO) o' the 'irst an se!on e!lensions
6ouns an pronouns o' the 'irst an se!on e!lension that a!!ent the ulti*a in
the no*inative !han.e that a!!ent to a !ir!u*'le3 in the .enitive an ative. Cors
su!h as the arti!le an the pronoun ou1o 'ollo% the 'irst an se!on e!lensions.

ou1o, ou1ou, ou1q, ou1oV yu, yu, yuQ, yuV

Enclitic Accent

)he ter* enclitic is erive 'ro* the :reek verb >to lean on? an is so na*e
be!ause the en!liti! %or is pronoun!e so !losely %ith the pre!ein. %or that it

20
see*s to >lean ba!k? on it. <!!entuation o' the en!liti! %or an so*eti*es the
pre!ein. %or too is a''e!te by this >leanin. ba!k?. 4n!liti! a!!ent is, there'ore,
so*e%hat *ore involve be!ause t%o %ors *ust be taken into a!!ount in orer to
pla!e the a!!ent !orre!tly.
Chen the %or pre!ein. the en!liti! is a %or %ith nor*al a!!ent (that is, it is
not a pro!liti! or another en!liti!), there are three basi! s!enarios 'or the pla!e*ent o'
en!liti! a!!ent. 1) )he en!liti! thro%s its a!!ent ba!k on the pre!ein. %or. 2) )he
en!liti! keeps its a!!ent. 0) )he en!liti! loses its a!!ent entirely. )%o .eneral points
'urther li*it a!!ent possibilities. -irst o' all, i' a nor*ally a!!ente %or pre!ees an
en!liti!, that nor*al pre!ein. %or %ill never have a .rave a!!ent (ooQ). In other
%ors, a barytone %or (ooQ) be!o*es an o3ytone (ooO). Se!only, there is only one
s!enario in %hi!h the en!liti! %or %ill have any a!!ent at all, an that is %hen the
%or pre!ein. the en!liti! a!!ents the penult (oOo) %ith an a!ute an is 'ollo%e by a
two syllable en!liti! (oOo eG). I' the en!liti! is one syllable, it has no a!!ent (oOo e). It is
also i*portant to note that these rules re'er to the en!liti! an a pre!ein. %or. I', 'or
e3a*ple, a t%o,syllable en!liti! has an a!ute a!!ent on its ulti*a (eG) an is followed by a
nor*ally a!!ente %or, the en!liti! *ust, a!!orin. to .eneral rule three, !han.e its
a!ute to a .rave (eG ooo be!o*es eR ooo).
Cith these .eneral observations in pla!e, there are t%o possibilities le't 'or
en!liti! a!!ent. I' the a!!ent on the nor*al %or pre!ein. the en!liti! stans as 'ar
a%ay 'ro* the ulti*a as possible (>e3tre*e,le't? position, Ooo or oPo), then that
pre!ein. %or re!eives an e3tra a!!ent on its ulti*a. )he en!liti! %or, o' !ourse, has
none. I', on the other han, the pre!ein. %or a!!ents the ulti*a (>e3tre*e,ri.ht?
position ooO, ooP, ooQ), the en!liti! %ill a.ain have no a!!ent an the only a5ust*ent to
*ake is i' the pre!ein. %or has a .rave a!!ent (ooQ)F the .rave a!!ent %ill be !han.e
to an a!ute (ooO ee, e). )he three basi! possibilities 'or a!!entin. the en!liti! an its
pre!ein. %or are .iven in the 'ollo%in. !hart.

1) ooo ooo tt, t ooo tt, t ooo tt, t ooo tt, t VtoVIoI 1IVt, VtoVIo 1I

2) ooo ooo tt, t ooo tt, t ooo tt, t ooo tt, t oV0pmEoI 1IVt, oV0pmEo 1I
ooo ooo tt, t ooo tt, t ooo tt, t ooo tt, t EIoIo 1IVo, EIoIoV 1I

0) ooo ooo tt, t ooo tt, t ooo tt, t ooo tt, t ooI 1IVt, oo 1I
ooo ooo tt, t ooo tt, t ooo tt, t ooo tt, t EoIoI 1IoI, EoI 1I
ooo ooo tt, t ooo tt, t ooo tt, t ooo tt, t ooI 1IVt, oo 1I

21
In all the !ases above, the en!liti! is pre!ee by a nor*ally a!!ente %or, but
an en!liti! *ay also 'ollo% %ors that o not possess their o%n a!!ent (pro!liti!s an
other en!liti!s). Chen an en!liti! is pre!ee by a pro!liti! or another en!liti!, the
en!liti! oes not itsel' have an a!!ent but lens its a!!ent to the previous %or (pr5 e or
pr5 ee). In the !ase o' !onse!utive en!liti!s an pro!liti!s, all the %ors in su!h a
se8uen!e bear an a!ute a!!ent e3!ept the last (prO G G ee).

pr5 e tI 1I
pr5 : : ee tI Eou 1I 1IVo IoI t0poV

4n!liti! %ors .enerally have ine'inite or so*e%hat >transparent? *eanin.s.
<n e3a*ple o' an ine'inite %or is >so*e? or >a !ertain? (1I 1I), an an e3a*ple o' a
>transparent? %or is the verb >to be? (tII), %hi!h si*ply links sub5e!t an prei!ate.
I', ho%ever, en!liti!s are use e*phati!ally, then they re!eive an a!!ent. In the !ase o'
the verb >to be?, i' the verb is use to e*phasi;e e3isten!e, it is o'ten pla!e 'irst in its
!lause an it has re!essive (non,en!liti!) a!!ent as any other verb. )hus, the 'or* o' >to
be? that is a!!ente to1I *eans >there is? be!ause the 'a!t o' e3isten!e is e*phasi;e
rather than a si*ple e8uivalen!e bet%een a sub5e!t an a prei!ate. )he parai.* 'or
tII, %hi!h is sli.htly irre.ular, is .iven belo%.

Present )ense o' @I a*A (en!liti! in all 'or*s e3!ept tI @you areA)

1st tII totV
2n tI to1t
0r to1I tIoI

)er! ;amilies

"hapter #ne introu!e a han'ul o' verbs that belon. to the sa*e !lass or
'a*ily kno%n as -# .er!s. In :reek, ho%ever, there is a se!on 'a*ily o' verbs kno%n
as &mega .er!s, %hi!h uses i''erent enin.s an a i''erent syste* o' !onne!tin.
vo%els. 4ven thou.h these t%o 'a*ilies look rather i''erent, they both !arry out the
sa*e kins o' 'un!tions. Both types o' verb take a basi! >a!tion? iea an then spe!i'y
the sub5e!t %ith !ertain enin.s, %hi!h ini!ate the sub5e!t or >oer? o' the a!tion.
In aition to these t%o !learly e'ine verb .roups, there are verbs !alle
deponents. Deponent verbs *i.ht, at 'irst, see* like they !onstitute a thir verbal
'a*ily be!ause their enin.s look 8uite i''erent 'ro* both /I an o*e.a verbs.
6evertheless, eponent verbs o, in 'a!t, belon. to either the /I,verb or the o*e.a,
verb 'a*ilies. )he eponent verb uVooI (I a* able), 'or e3a*ple, belon.s to the /I,

22
verb 'a*ily, an the verb tpooI (I !o*e, .o) belon.s to the o*e.a verb 'a*ily (In
!lassi!al :reek, *ost eponent verbs are o*e.a,verbs). <lthou.h there are te!hni!ally
only t%o verb 'a*ilies (/I an o*e.a verbs), as a pra!ti!al *atter, it is so*eti*es
easier to talk about /I verbs, o*e.a verbs, an eponent verbs as i' there %ere three
verbal 'a*ilies. )his te3tbook, espe!ially in the early !hapters, %ill o'ten re'er to verbs
in ter*s o' these three .roupin.s. )he !hart belo% reprou!es the pattern o' present,
tense enin.s 'or ea!h o' the >three? verbal 'a*ilies.

L LL L )er!s -# )er!s *eponent )er!s

m otV I tV oI t0o
tI t1t 1t ooI (tI) o0t
tI ouoI oI ooI 1oI V1oI

Chile it is o'ten use'ul to see patterns o' enin.s in isolation, the *ost i*portant skill is
to be able to >!on5u.ate? a!tual verbs, that is, to put the !orre!t enin.s on a .iven verb
ste*. Belo% are e3a*ples o' /I verbs be.innin. %ith ImI in a !olu*n on the le't
an o*e.a verbs be.innin. %ith oxoum in a !olu*n on the ri.ht. )he eponent verbs
tpooI, IVooI, an uVooI are liste belo% the nor*al /I an o*e.a verbs.

-# )er!s L LL L )er!s

@I .iveA (@to .iveA IoVoI) @I hearA (@to hearA oxoutIV)

ImI IotV oxoum oxouotV
Im Io1t oxoutI oxout1t
ImoI IoooI oxoutI oxououoI

@I pla!eA (@to pla!eA 1I0tVoI) @I looseA (@to looseA IutIV)

1I0I 1I0ttV Ium IuotV
1I0 1I0t1t IutI Iut1t
1I0oI 1I0tooI IutI IuouoI

@I thro%A (@to thro%A ItVoI) @I !arryA (@to !arryA tptIV)

II IttV tpm tpotV
I It1t tptI tpt1t
IoI IooI (!ontra!t 'ro* ItooI) tptI tpouoI

20
@I set upA (@to set upA Io1oVoI) @I senA (@to senA EtEtIV)

Io1I Io1otV EtEm EtEotV
Io1 Io1o1t EtEtI EtEt1t
Io1oI Io1ooI (!ontra!t 'ro* Io1oooI) EtEtI EtEouoI

@I estroyA (@to estroyA oEoIIuVoI) @I takeA (@to takeA IopoVtIV)

oEoIIuI oEoIIutV IopoVm IopoVotV
oEoIIu oEoIIu1t IopoVtI IopoVt1t
oEoIIuoI oEoIIuooI IopoVtI IopoVouoI

*eponent )er!s

@I a* ableA (@to be ableA uVoo0oI) @I !o*e, I .oA (@to !o*e, .oA tpto0oI)

uVooI uVot0o tpooI tpot0o
uVoooI uVoo0t tptI tpto0t
uVo1oI uVoV1oI tpt1oI tpoV1oI

@I be!o*eA (@to be!o*eA IVto0oI)

IVooI IVot0o
IVtI IVto0t
IVt1oI IVoV1oI

"haracteristics of the hree )er! ;amilies

"hapter -our %ill take up in *ore etail the si*ilarities an i''eren!e o' /I,
o*e.a, an eponent verbs, but in the present "hapter, a 'e% basi! !hara!teri;ations
%ill help the stuent be.in to re!o.ni;e an !onstru!t verb 'or*s 'ro* the three verb
'a*ilies. In /I verbs, there is a !onsistent ste* ele*ent to %hi!h is ae a !onne!tin.
vo%el soun an !hara!teristi! enin.s (I, , oI, tV, 1t, ooI). )he !orre!t
!onne!tin. vo%el *ust be learne %ith ea!h ne% /I verb, an that !onne!tin. vo%el is
len.thene in the sin.ular an returns to the ori.inal short vo%el in the plural.
#*e.a verbs i''er 'ro* /I verbs, 'irst o' all, in takin. a i''erent pattern o'
enin.s. <nother i*portant i''eren!e is that o*e.a,verb enin.s !o*e %ith

22
preeter*ine !onne!tin. vo%els, so that the enin.s m, tI, tI, otV, t1t, ouoI are
si*ply ae to the verb ste*. )he .reat avanta.e o' this *etho o' !on5u.ation is
that the sa*e pattern o' enin.s !an be pla!e on any present,tense verb in the o*e.a
'a*ily. )here is no nee to learn a spe!i'i! lon.Sshort pair o' vo%els 'or ea!h ne% verb.
/ost eponent verbs %ill 'ollo% the pattern o' verbs like tpooI (I !o*eS.o)
an te!hni!ally belon. to the o*e.a verb 'a*ily. )he enin.s ooI, tI, t1oI, ot0o,
to0t, oV1oI are ire!tly to the eponent ste*. < very 'e% eponents belon. to the /I
'a*ily, the *ost i*portant o' %hi!h is the verb uVooI (I a* able). )he key
i''eren!es are that the !onne!tin. vo%el %ill be the sa*e throu.hout, an the enin.
'or the @you sin.ularA 'or* %ill be enin. ooI instea o' tI.

0racticing )er! ;orms, "reating ,asic (entences

So*e sin.le verb 'or*s !an stan in isolation an yet provie a !o*plete thou.h
very basi! iea o' a sub5e!t oin. an a!tion, %hi!h re8uires no 'urther spe!i'i!ation.
#ne su!h 'or* !oul be taken 'ro* the parai.* o' the :reek verb @I !o*e, .oA,
tpot0o (%e .o), 'or e3a*ple, or tpt1oI (he, she, it .oes). )he verbs @I hearA an
@I seeA !oul !on!eivably stan on their o%n, but their *eanin.s !reate the very stron.
e3pe!tation that the sub5e!t %ill >hear? so*ethin. or >see? so*ethin.. Dike%ise the verb
@I .iveA al*ost e*ans that the sub5e!t >.ive? so*ethin. an very likely >.ive?
so*ethin. >to? so*eone. < verb like @I %ishA also e*ans another %or to 'ill out its
*eanin., but in this !ase the verb @I %ishA re8uires an in'initive, e... @I %ish to .oA.

-eanings of ou1o ou1 ou1o ou1o ou1 ou1o ou1o ou1 ou1o ou1o ou1 ou1o

In orer to pra!ti!e !reatin. the various verb 'or*s, it %ill be help'ul to have
thir,person personal pronouns. )he 'or*s o' the pronoun @he, she, it, et!.A have
alreay been introu!e 'or pronun!iation pra!ti!e. Belo%, *eanin.s are .iven 'or the
'or*s o' ou1o. 6o *eanin.s are .iven 'or the sub5e!t 'or*s sin!e :reek oes not use
these 'or*s to e3press @he, she, it, or theyAF instea, the verb alone an the !onte3t o' a
passa.e %ill i*ply the thir,person sub5e!ts.

ou1o ou1 ou1o ou1oI ou1oI ou1o
ou1ou his ou1 her ou1ou its ou1mV their ou1mV their ou1mV their
ou1q to hi* ou1Q to her ou1q to it ou1oI to the* ou1oI to the* ou1oI to the*
ou1oV hi* ou1V her ou1o it ou1ou the* ou1o the* ou1o the*

2(
"hapter hree

"ase and the "ase (ystem

)he .ra**ati!al ter* >!ase? re'ers to ho% a noun or pronoun is use in a
senten!e. < noun, 'or e3a*ple, *ay 'un!tion as the sub5e!t o' the senten!e (the oer o'
the a!tion) or as the ire!t ob5e!t (the ire!t re!ipient o' the a!tion). )he sub5e!t an
ire!t ob5e!t o' a senten!e !onstitute t%o i''erent !ase 'un!tions. By e3tension, >!ase?
*ay also *ean the form o' a noun that sho%s ho% the noun is functioning in the
senten!e. In :reek there are 'our !ases that are *arke by istin!tive noun enin.sF
they are no*inative, .enitive, ative, an a!!usative. Chile this *ay see* to be 8uite a
'e%, in the an!estor lan.ua.es to :reek there %ere ei.ht !ases istin.uishe by
i''erent enin.s. ()he ei.ht !ases are still atteste in a sister lan.ua.e o' :reek,
na*ely, Sanskrit.) )he ori.inal ei.ht !ases are liste belo% alon. %ith a brie'
es!ription o' their basi! si.ni'i!an!e.

)he nominati.e esi.nates the sub5e!t an all %ors a.reein. %ith the sub5e!t.

)he .ocati.e is the >!allin.? !ase an is use 'or ire!t aress.

)he geniti.e is the !ase o' a noun that li*its other nouns an is !o**only use
to sho% possession.

)he a!lati.e sho%s separation 'ro* another noun or pronoun.

)he dati.e ini!ates the noun or pronoun inire!tly a''e!te, an its *ost
obvious use is as the inire!t ob5e!t.

)he locati.e ini!ates the pla!e or lo!ation %here so*eone or so*ethin. is
'oun or %here the verbal a!tion takes pla!e.

)he instrumental sho%s the *eans by %hi!h an a!tion is a!!o*plishe.

)he accusati.e is the !ase that li*its the verb an is pri*arily use to sho% the
ire!t ob5e!t. It *ay also ini!ate *otion to%ar so*eone or so*ethin..

In the ori.inal syste* o' ei.ht !ases, nouns alone, si*ply by *eans o' their
enin.s, !oul ini!ate all the basi! %ays in %hi!h a noun !oul be use. #!!asionally
these uses %ere 'urther spe!i'ie by averbs. #ver ti*e !ertain averbs be!a*e so

2+
!losely ienti'ie %ith parti!ular !ases that they %ere reinterprete as >.overnin.? or
>takin.? a noun in a !ertain !ase, an in this %ay prepositions !a*e into bein.. Cith
ti*e an use, the ori.inal !ases be.an to be %orn o%n an !ertain istin!tive 'or*s
%ere lost. -or :reek, the result %as that the ori.inal ei.ht !ases %ere reu!e to 'our
(or 'ive i' the vo!ative !ase, %hi!h o!!asionally i''ers 'ro* the no*inative, is !ounte
as a istin!t !ase).
In the reu!tion 'ro* ei.ht !ases to 'our, three !ase 'or*s took over the 'un!tion
o' !ases %hose istin!tive 'or*s %ere lost. )he no*inative absorbe the vo!ative !ase,
the .enitive !ase %as also use to e3press the ablative an so*eti*es the lo!ative
'un!tions, an the ative !ase took over the 'un!tions o' the lo!ative an instru*ental.
"onse8uently, the .enitive an ative !ases in :reek have *ore istin!tive uses than
the no*inative an a!!usative.
4ven %hen !ase 'or*s isappear, !ase 'un!tion (ho% the noun is use) re*ains.
)his is true o' both :reek an 4n.lish. 4n.lish too !an be tra!e ba!k to the Ino,
4uropean parent lan.ua.e, but %hile 4n.lish has lost al*ost all its !ase 'or*s, %ith the
e3!eption o' so*e pronouns, it still e3hibits the !ase 'un!tions o' :reek an its Ino,
4uropean parent lan.ua.e as %ell. Iery o'ten, as !ase 'or*s isappear, prepositions
an then %or orer take over the 'un!tion o' ini!atin. ho% a noun is bein. use in a
senten!e. In :reek, prepositions o'ten sho% su!h relations as lo!ation an separation.
In 4n.lish prepositions ini!ate lo!ation, separation, instru*ent, possession, an *u!h
o' the ti*e the inire!t ob5e!t. )he no*inative an a!!usative !ase 'un!tions are
!onveye in 4n.lish throu.h %or orer.
)he 'ollo%in. !hart .iven belo% is not an e3haustive es!ription o' the :reek
syste* o' !ase 'or*s. It .ives only the *ost basi! !orresponen!e o' the 'our :reek
!ases to si*ilar 'un!tions in 4n.lish. )he !hart, *oreover, only re'ers to :reek nouns
%hen they 'un!tion on their o%n, that is, %hen nouns sho% their 'un!tion throu.h !ase
enin.s alone, not %hen the nouns are ob5e!ts o' prepositions.

"ase 1ame ,asic ;unction(s) ranslation <elps

Nominative Sub5e!t translate be'ore the verb
Genitive Possession @o'A
Dative Inire!t #b5e!tSInstru*ent @to, 'orA S @%ith, byA
Accusative Dire!t #b5e!t translate a'ter the verb

21

1um!er and Gender

)he .ra**ati!al ter* >nu*ber? ini!ates %hether a noun is sin.ular (one) or
plural (*ore than one). )he noun >!hil?, 'or e3a*ple, ini!ates only one !hil, %here
>!hilren? i*plies *ore than one. In aition to sin.ular an plural nu*ber, an!ient
:reek also ha a ual nu*ber that ini!ate only t%o *e*bers. )he ual nu*ber is
not nearly as !o**on as the sin.ular an plural an o!!urs *ore in the Mo*eri!
poe*s than in the :reek o' 'i'th,!entury <thens, thou.h one %ill o!!asionally see the
ual in <tti! prose as %ell as poetry.
:ener in :reek see*s at an early sta.e o' the lan.ua.e to have been base on
the biolo.i!al .ener o' !ertain %ors. Esa.e esi.nate %ors as *as!uline (*ale),
'e*inine ('e*ale), an neuter (neither *as!uline nor 'e*inine). )he .ener o' :reek
%ors, ho%ever, has evelope to su!h a state that, e3!ept 'or obvious !ases, it is best to
!onsier it !onventional or arbitrary. )he %or 'or >*other? is 'e*inine, the %or 'or
>'ather? is *as!uline, an the reasons 'or ea!h .ener are obvious. It is not, ho%ever, so
obvious %hy >'orest? (uI) shoul be 'e*inine an >'iel? (opo) *as!uline.

*eclension

:reek nouns have spe!i'i! enin.s to ini!ate their nu*ber, .ener, an !ase,
an the pro!ess o' listin. all the possible ste* = enin. !o*binations is !alle
declension. )hus, to list all the possible 'or*s o' a noun a!!orin. to !ase ('irst the
sin.ular 'or*s, then the plural 'or*s) is to e!line the noun. #n!e the 'or*s o' a noun
are e!line, they *ay also serve as a pattern or parai.* 'or the 'or*ation o' other
nouns that are e!line in a si*ilar %ay. )he ter* >e!lension? is also use to esi.nate
a !lass or 'a*ily o' nouns that share the sa*e pattern o' enin.s.
)here are three noun !lasses or 'a*ilies, an in :reek .ra**ar it is !usto*ary to
speak o' three e!lensions. )here are i''erent patterns o' enin.s that are use 'or
ea!h e!lension, an nouns that belon. to one 'a*ily o not take enin.s asso!iate
%ith another. )here *ay be variant patterns o' enin.s even %ithin a parti!ular
e!lension, but these are a *atter o' s*all i''eren!es an o not obs!ure the stron.
'a*ily rese*blan!e bet%een the nouns that belon. to a parti!ular e!lension. -inally it
shoul be sai that the enin.s use in any o' the e!lensions are arbitrary. #ne
e!lension e3presses the iea o' ative an sin.ular %ith an >I II I?, another %ith an >q qq q?,
another %ith an >Q QQ Q?. <lthou.h these enin.s are not inter!han.eable 'ro* one
e!lension to the ne3t, ea!h o' these enin.s !o**uni!ates the sa*e .ra**ati!al
in'or*ation, na*ely, that the noun is sin.ular an it is inire!tly a''e!te by the a!tion
o' the senten!e.

27

he hird *eclension

)he thir e!lension %ill be the 'irst o' the three :reek e!lensions stuie. It
!o*es in t%o variations (so*eti*es !alle re.ular an irre.ular), an its neuter 'or*s
i''er sli.htly 'ro* the 'or*s use by *as!uline an 'e*inine nouns. )he !hara!teristi!
enin.s o' this e!lension are liste belo%. )he no*inative 'or* is not reaily
prei!table, an so the ste* onto %hi!h enin.s are ae *ust be erive not 'ro*
the no*inative sin.ular (the 'irst 'or*) but 'ro* the .enitive sin.ular (e... EoI,
EoI EoI EoI EoIo). )he e!lensional enin. >-o? is roppe 'ro* the .enitive sin.ular, an then
the other enin.s !an be ae to the ste* o' the .enitive 'or*. Ener the
*as!ulineS'e*inine sin.ular a!!usative, t%o enin.s are liste -o an -V. )he enin.
>,o? is *ore 're8uent, an *as!uline an 'e*inine nouns o' the thir e!lension !an be
assu*e to take the alpha in the a!!usative sin.ular unless other%ise note.

*eclensional Endings

/as!uline & -e*inine 6euter
Sin.ular Plural Sin.ular Plural

-- t -- o
o mV o mV
I oI I oI
o (V) o -- o

Besies kno%in. the basi! enin.s, it is i*portant to have *e*ori;e !ertain
*oel nouns. )he e!lension o' spe!i'i! nouns not only *akes the parai.* *ore
vivi, it also points out phoneti! or ortho.raphi! !han.es that o!!asionally o!!ur %hen
an enin. !o*es in !onta!t %ith !ertain 'inal souns o' the ste*. In the thir
e!lension the *ost 're8uent o' su!h !han.es o!!urs in the ative plural. )he si.*a o'
>,oI? o'ten !o*bines %ith the last letter o' the ste* an so*e%hat is.uises the re.ular
prin!iple o' ste* = enin.s (e... @'or the %o*enA 1oI uVoII 'ro* uVoIx uVoIx uVoIx uVoIxoI).
It %ill also be noti!e 'ro* the list o' thir e!lension nouns that their .eners
!annot be prei!te 'ro* their 'or*. )his is true o' *any nouns in :reek but espe!ially
those o' the thir e!lension. 43!ept %hen *eanin.s are so .ener spe!i'i! as to
re*ove all oubt (*an, %o*an, *other, 'ather et!.), the .ener *ust be learne alon.
%ith the no*inative an .enitive 'or*s o' the %or. Io!abulary lists an i!tionaries
%ill, there'ore, .ive the no*inative, .enitive, an .ener o' ea!h noun.

29

>!hil? *S' >thie'? * >.uar? *
(at. pl. = oI T oI) (at. pl. E = oI T yI) (at. pl. x = oI T I)

sin. plur sin. plur sin. plur

EoI EoIt xImy xImEt uIo uIoxt
EoIo EoImV xImEo xImEmV uIoxo uIoxmV
EoII EoIoI xImEI xImyI uIoxI uIoI
EoIo EoIo xImEo xImEo uIoxo uIoxo

>boy? n >eity, .o? *S' >ol *an? *
(at. pl. 1 = oI T oI) (at. pl. V = oI T ooI) (at. pl. V1 = oI T ouoI)


omo omo1o oImV oIoVt tpmV tpoV1t
omo1o omo1mV oIoVo oIoVmV tpoV1o tpoV1mV
omo1I omooI oIoVI oIooI tpoV1I tpouoI
omo omo1o oIoVo oIoVo tpoV1o tpoV1o

)ariations within hird *eclension

In aition to the t%o basi! e!lension patterns (EoI an omo, 'or e3a*ple),
there are so*e i*portant variations 'oun %ithin the thir,e!lension 'a*ily o' nouns.
Chile so*e o' the ne% patterns *ay at 'irst see* 8uite i''erent 'ro* the parai.* o' a
noun like EoI, all still *ake use o' the basi! patterns o' enin. su**ari;e in the
!hart o' thir e!lension enin.s. Chile it is i*portant to observe an learn iniviual
i''eren!es 'ro* one variant to the other, it is even *ore i*portant to see the
unerlyin. pattern share by all thir,e!lension nouns.

#rregular Accent

So*e thir e!lension nouns only i''er 'ro* >nor*al? 'or*s in havin. a
so*e%hat une3pe!te a!!ent pattern. )he :reek %or 'or %o*an is uV, uVoIxo,
an sin!e the %or has *ore than one syllable in its 'irst 'or*, one %oul e3pe!t that
the a!!ent %oul persist on the penulti*ate syllable (e..., uVoI I I Ixo). Instea, its
a!!ent pattern 'ollo%s that o' thir e!lension nouns like xImy %hi!h have only one
syllable in the no*inative sin.ular. )he noun uV, like xImy, a!!ents the last
syllable o' the .enitive an ative both sin.ular an plural be'ore the a!!ent *oves

00
ba!k to the penult in no*inative plural an the a!!usative sin.ular an plural. )he
enin.s o' uV, ho%ever, are entirely re.ular, in!luin. the ative plural .

>%o*an, %i'e? '
sin. plur

uV uVoIxt
uVoIxo uVoIxmV
uVoIxI uVoII (uVoIx = oI T uVoII)
uVoIxo uVoIxo

Accusati.e (ingular in =V VV V>

In the table o' re.ular thir e!lension enin.s, the a!!usative sin.ular enin.
'or *as!uline an 'e*inine nouns %as .iven as o %ith a variant in V. )he alpha
enin. is by 'ar *ore !o**on, but there are thir e!lension %ors %hi!h use the nu
'or the a!!usative *S' 'or*. In so*e !ases, su!h as in the :reek %or 'or >bir? (opVI),
either a!!usative enin. *ay o!!ur.

AbirA *S' (at. pl. ,I0 = oI T IoI) A.ra!e, 'avorA ' (at. pl. ,I1 = oI T IoI)

sin. plur sin. plur

opVI opVI0t opI opI1t
opVI0o opVI0mV opI1o opI1mV
opVI0I opVIoI opI1I opIoI
opVIV (opVI0o) opVI0o opIV opI1o

In the 'ollo%in. nouns, either an >o? or >u? vo%el is the last soun o' the ste*, an these
vo%el souns o!!asionally !ontra!t %ith the vo%els o' the !ase enin. (e... a!! plur).

Ao3, !o%A *S' A'ishA *

sin. plur sin. plur

pou pot I0u I0ut
poo pomV I0uo I0umV
poI pouoI I0uI I0uoI
pouV pou I0uV I0u

01
(tems with a *isappearing (ylla!le

Several i*portant :reek nouns like >*an?, >'ather?, an >*other? have a ste* that
ens in Jtp althou.h this ele*ent is is.uise in *ost o' the e!line 'or*s. )he
!hallen.e o' this type o' noun is not the noun?s e!line enin.s, %hi!h look 5ust as
they o in nor*al %ors like EoI or xImy. Instea, the i''i!ulty !o*es in prou!in.
the !orre!t 'or*s o' the ste* sin!e an epsilon or eta so*eti*es appears in the ste* an
so*eti*es it is roppe. In aition, the ative plural as an alpha to the ste* be'ore
appenin. the re.ular enin. JoI.

>*an? * >'ather? * >*other? '


oVp oVpt Eo1p Eo1tpt 1p 1tpt
oVpo oVpmV Eo1po Eo1tpmV 1po 1tpmV
oVpI oVpooI Eo1pI Eo1pooI 1pI 1pooI
oVpo oVpo Eo1tpo Eo1tpo 1tpo 1tpo

>#rregular> hird-*eclension 1ouns

In the 'ollo%in. irre.ular nouns, the nor*al thir,e!lension enin.s are still
re!o.ni;able, but !ertain phoneti! !han.es have taken pla!e. )he .enitives pooIItm
an EoItm %ere ori.inally pooIIo an EoIo, but these 'or*s later e3perien!e
a reversal o' vo%el len.th in their last t%o syllables. (Su!h a reversal is !alle
8uantitative *etathesis, an it shoul be note that their later 'or*s are easier to
pronoun!e than their earlier 'or*s.) )he ative sin.ular in all three o' the *oel nouns
has !ontra!te, an in the neuter noun opo the .enitive sin.ular an plural, an the
no*inative an a!!usative plural have also !ontra!te. ()he 'or*s opto an optmV,
opto an opto also appear in an!ient :reek.)

>kin.? * >!ity? ' >*ountain? n


pooIItu pooIItI EoII EoItI opo opo op o pto
pooIItm pooIItmV EoItm EoItmV opto opou opmV optmV
pooIItI pooIItuoI EoItI EoItoI optI optI optoI o ptoI
pooIIto pooIIto EoIIV EoItI opo opo op o pto

02
he *eclension of =(hip> (Vou Vou Vou Vou)

<n i*portant vo!abulary ite* in *any an!ient :reek literary %orks is the %or
'or @shipA (Vou). <t 'irst .lan!e, the %or see*s to present a stran.e !olle!tion o'
i''erent 'or*s an a %iely varyin. ste*s. Its enin.s, ho%ever, still 'ollo% the basi!
pattern su**ari;e in the !hart o' thir e!lension enin.s an look, in 'a!t, as i' they
%ere borro%in. 'or*s 'ro* the parai.*s o' %ors like pou an EoII. <
!o*parison %ith !o**on 'or*s o' the %or >ship? in the Mo*eri! poe*s reveals that
the e!lension o' the %or preserve 'ro* an earlier perio is a!tually *ore re.ular.

>ship? ' >ship? ' (Mo*eri! 'or*s)

sin. plur sin. plur

Vou Vt Vu Vt
Vtm VtmV Vo VmV
VI VouoI VI VtooI
VouV Vou Vo Vo

he *efinite Article ( o 1o )

4n.lish has t%o arti!les, the e'inite arti!le >the? an the ine'inite arti!le >a, an?.
:reek, on the other han, has no ine'inite arti!le. In translatin. :reek, it %ill,
there'ore, be ne!essary to !onsier %hether a :reek noun %ithout an arti!le shoul be
translate %ith or %ithout the 4n.lish %or >a? or >an?. "onte3t an a sense o' 4n.lish
iio* %ill usually ini!ate the !orre!t translation.
<s seen at the be.innin. o' this !hapter, ea!h e!line 'or* o' a noun !onveys
three bits o' in'or*ation$ nu*ber, .ener, an !ase, an i' a parti!ular noun in a
senten!e is to be *oi'ie by an arti!le (e... >the !hil? instea o' >!hil? or >a !hil?), it is
essential that the arti!le !an be paire %ith its intene noun an not be !on'use %ith
other nouns in the senten!e. In other %ors, the arti!le *ust be keye to its noun an
*ust be able to re'er to nouns that are sin.ular or plural, *as!uline, 'e*inine, or neuter,
an in any o' the 'our !ases. )his pro!ess is a!!o*plishe by asso!iatin. %ith the noun
a parti!ular 'or* o' the arti!le that !onveys the sa*e !o*bination o' nu*ber, .ener,
an !ase as ini!ate in noun?s enin.. < noun, 'or e3a*ple, that is plural, 'e*inine,
an ative %oul be pre!ee by an arti!le %hose 'or* also ini!ates plural, 'e*inine,
an ative (i.e. >1oI?). It is i*portant to note that althou.h the arti!le al*ost al%ays
pre!ees its noun, other arti!les an nouns *ay !o*e between the arti!le an its noun.
Dinkin. an arti!le %ith a noun by *at!hin. the arti!le?s nu*ber, .ener, an
!ase %ith those o' the noun is !alle >a.ree*ent? in .ra**ati!al ter*s. )hus, the basi!

00
prin!iple o' the arti!le is that it *ust al%ays a.ree %ith the noun it *oi'ies in nu*ber,
.ener, an !ase. <.ree*ent, ho%ever, oes not *ean that arti!le?s enin.s look like
the enin.s o' the noun. )he enin.s o' the arti!le, 'or e3a*ple, i''er 'ro* those o'
thir,e!lension nouns, but i' the si.ni'i!an!e o' the arti!le?s 'or* is unerstoo, the
arti!le?s enin.s !an be thou.ht o' as spe!i'i!ally !oe to .o %ith a noun o' any
.ener, nu*ber, an !ase. Chat is i*portant is that the arti!le !onveys the sa*e
.ra**ati!al in'or*ation as the enin. o' the noun it *oi'ies. It is not ne!essary that
the enin.s o' the arti!le look like those o' its noun (e... 1ou EoIo).
Mistori!ally the arti!le %as a e*onstrative %or. Its 'un!tion %as to point out
nouns, an it *eant rou.hly >this? or >that?. #!!asionally this e*onstrative 'or!e is still
ete!table in phrases like oI tV... oI t... @So*e, on the one han, ... others, on the
other han....A or *ore literally$ @)hese, on the one han, ... those, on the other han....A.
<nother vesti.e o' the e*onstrative o!!urs in the phrases like o t ... or t ...
%hi!h !ontain arti!les at the be.innin. o' a !lause that o not *oi'y any noun. )he
'un!tion o' these phrases is to ini!ate a !han.e o' speaker. )hey *ean respe!tively
@an he sai ...A an @an she sai ...A, but the >he? an >she? involve *ust be i''erent
than the *ost re!ent sub5e!t.

no* o 1o oI oI 1o
.en 1ou 1 1ou 1mV 1mV 1mV
at 1q 1Q 1q 1oI 1oI 1oI
a!! 1oV 1V 1o 1ou 1o 1o
"ases & ?ses of ou1o, ou1, ou1oV ou1o, ou1, ou1oV ou1o, ou1, ou1oV ou1o, ou1, ou1oV

)he 'or*s o' the %or ou1o have been treate in an ad hoc *anner in previous
!hapters, but no% those 'or*s !an be es!ribe a!!orin. to the prin!iples o'
e!lension. )he *ultiple 'or*s o' the pronoun !an re'er to a previously *entione
noun by takin. the sa*e nu*ber an .ener o' that noun. )he !ase o' the pronoun is
then eter*ine by its use in its o%n !lause.

Sin.ular Plural
* ' n * ' n

no* ou1o ou1 ou1o ou1oI ou1oI ou1o
.en ou1ou ou1 ou1ou ou1mV ou1mV ou1mV
at ou1q ou1Q ou1q ou1oI ou1oI ou1oI
a!! ou1oV ou1V ou1o ou1ou ou1o ou1o

02
)he %or ou1o has three istin!t uses, %hi!h !an be esi.nate as >intensive?,
>ienti!al?, an >prono*inal?. I', 'or e3a*ple, ou1o is use in the no*inative !ase, it
intensi'ies the sub5e!t. )he sub5e!t *ay be an unerstoo sub5e!t pronoun, or it *ay be
an e3presse noun, but in either !ase, ou1o e*phasi;es the sub5e!t an is .enerally
translate as >hi*sel'?, >hersel'?, >itsel'?, >the*selves? epenin. on the nu*ber an
.ener o' the sub5e!t.
In the obli8ue !ases (all !ases but the no*inative), %hen ou1o a.rees %ith a
noun it *ay be use in one o' t%o %ays. I' ou1o is outside the arti!le nounSphrase
(prei!ate position), then it intensi'ies the noun an *ay be translate 5ust as in the
no*inative (>hi*sel'?, >hersel'?, >itsel'?, >the*selves?). I' ou1o is inside the arti!le
nounSphrase (attributive position), then it e*phasi;es the ientity o' the noun an is
translate as >the sa*e?. -inally, i' it is use in the obli8ue !ases an oes not a.ree
%ith a noun, then it 'un!tions as the thir person pronoun an !an be translate >his,
hi*, her, it, their, the*? epenin. on the !ase an nu*ber. )hus, the uses o' ou1o
*ay be su**ari;e uner three heain.s.

1) In the no*inative ou1o is intensive.

2) <.reein. %ith a noun in the obli8ue !ases, ou1o is$
intensive in prei!ate position (outsie the arti!le,noun phrase)
ienti!al in attributive position (bet%een the arti!le an its noun)

0) Ese alone in the obli8ue !ases, ou1o 'un!tions as the thir person pronoun.

It is, ho%ever, the use o' ou1o as the thir person pronoun that %ill be o' *ost
!on!ern until a5e!tives are introu!e. In the .enitive !ase, the 'or*s o' ou1o %ill
!orrespon to the 4n.lish >his? (ou1ou), >her? (ou1), >its?(ou1ou), an >their? (ou1mV).
)he ative !ase o' ou1o o'ten !orrespons to thir,person pronouns use as inire!t
ob5e!ts an !an be translate as >toS'or hi*? (ou1q), >toS'or her? (ou1Q), >toS'or it?
(ou1q), >to the*? (ou1oI, ou1oI, ou1oI). )he a!!usative !orrespons to thir,
person pronouns use as ire!t ob5e!tsF the 4n.lish e8uivalents, there'ore, are >hi*?
(ou1oV), >her? (ou1V), >it? (ou1o), >the*? (ou1ou, ou1o, ou1o).

0repositions

<s in 4n.lish, :reek prepositions are usually pla!e in 'ront o' the nouns they
.overn. Enlike 4n.lish, :reek prepositions re8uire that the noun %ith %hi!h they are
asso!iate be in a !ertain !ase, either .enitive, ative, or a!!usative. -urther*ore,
!ertain prepositions !an take *ore than one !ase, an their *eanin.s i''er epenin.

0(
on %hi!h !ase o' the noun is use. Mistori!ally, ho%ever, the i''erent !ases o' the
nouns %ere eter*ine not by the preposition, %hi!h %as ori.inally only an averb,
but by the 'un!tion o' the noun in an ei.ht,!ase syste*. #ver ti*e, the averb
.raually .aine a 'i3e asso!iation %ith a parti!ular !ase.
I' the *eanin. o' a preposition is !onsiere in relation to the ori.inal 'un!tions
o' the :reek !ase syste*, the reason %hy a parti!ular preposition takes a !ertain !ase
o'ten be!o*es !lear. )he prepositions oEo >'ro*? or tx >out o'? both sho% separation
an are !onse8uently asso!iate %ith the ol ablative !ase sin!e the ablative?s 'un!tion
is to sho% separation. In :reek, ho%ever, the ablative 'un!tion, has been taken over by
the .enitive !ase, so oEo an tx are asso!iate %ith the .enitive. )he preposition tV
>in? !onveys the iea o' lo!ation an there'ore takes the lo!ative !ase. Sin!e the lo!ative
'un!tion is usually !o**uni!ate by the :reek ative !ase (thou.h so*eti*es by the
.enitive), the preposition tV lo.i!ally takes the :reek ative. )he a!!usative !ase is,
te!hni!ally e'ine, the !ase that li*its a verbal iea an is best kno% 'or the 'un!tion
o' the ire!t ob5e!t (%hi!h li*its the s!ope o' the verb). Prepositions that sho% *otion
to%ars so*ethin. also li*it the s!ope o' a!tion an !onse8uently take the a!!usative.
< nu*ber o' prepositions take *ore than one !ase an usually sho% so*e%hat
i''erent *eanin.s epenin. on %hat !ase is use. )he preposition Eopo, 'or
e3a*ple, *eans >'ro* the sie o'? %ith the .enitive, >at or alon.sie o'? %ith the ative,
an >to%ar the sie o'? %ith the a!!usative. )he preposition tEI *eans >onto? (*otion
to%ars) %ith the a!!usative an >on? (lo!ation) %ith the .enitive and ative !ase.
(Be'ore the ative !ase e!isively took over the lo!ative !ase the .enitive !ase %as also
use to sho% lo!ation, an tEI preserves both possibilities.)
)here are, as %ell, prepositions %hose use has been !onsierably e3tene 'ro*
their ori.inal literal si.ni'i!an!e, so it is less obvious %hy they !a*e to take a !ertain
!ase an !onvey a parti!ular *eanin.. Cith this type o' preposition, it is, there'ore,
espe!ially i*portant to *e*ori;e the parti!ular !ase or !ases asso!iate %ith the
preposition an the i''erent *eanin.s asso!iate %ith i''erent !ases.
)he 'ollo%in. list o' prepositions is by no *eans e3haustive, but it oes present
so*e o' the *ost 're8uently use prepositions in :reek. )he list arran.es prepositions
a!!orin. to the nu*ber o' !ases they !an take or >.overn?. )he 'irst three .roups o'
prepositions !an only be 'ollo%e by one !ase (.enitive, ative, or a!!usative). )he ne3t
.roup o' prepositions !an take either o' t%o !ases (.enitive or a!!usative), an the last
.roup !an take any one o' three !ases (.enitive, ative, a!!usative). I' a preposition !an
take *ore than one !ase, it %ill .enerally have i''erent *eanin.s epenin. on the
parti!ular !ase o' the %or .overne by the preposition. (Di''erent *eanin.s o' the
preposition %hi!h are ue to i''erent !ases are separate %ith a ba!kslash @ S @, but
i''erent *eanin.s o' the preposition %ith the sa*e !ase are separate by !o**as.)

0+

preposition !ase(s) *eanin.s

oEo %Sgeniti.e 'ro*
tx @ out o', 'ro*

tV %Sdati.e in

oVo %Saccusati.e up
tI @ into, to
Epo @ to, to%ar

Io %Sgeniti.e, accusati.e throu.h S on a!!ount o'
uEtp @ on behal' o' S beyon

tEI %Sgeniti.e, dati.e, accusati.e on, at S on S to, a.ainst
Eopo @ 'ro* S at S to%ar the sie o'
EtpI @ about S about S aroun
uEo @ byS uner (lo!ation)Suner (*otion)

01
"hapter ;our

)er!s in General

)he verb *akes a state*ent about the sub5e!t o' the senten!e an ini!ates an
a!tion or state asso!iate %ith that sub5e!t. )hat a!tion or state, *oreover, !an be
spe!i'ie a!!orin. to tense, voi!e, *oo, nu*ber, an person.

ense,,ini!ates the ti*e o' the a!tion an o'ten ini!ates %hether the a!tion is
si*ple, !ontinuous, or !o*plete. )here are seven tenses in :reek$ present,
i*per'e!t, aorist, 'uture, per'e!t, pluper'e!t, an 'uture per'e!t (the 'uture per'e!t
is 8uite rare).

)oice,,sho%s %hether the sub5e!t is a!tin. or a!te upon, that is, %hether the
sub5e!t is oin. the a!tion or re!eivin. the a!tion o' the verb.

-ood,,ini!ates %hether the a!tion o' the verb is !onsiere as real or potential,
a!tual or possible.

1um!er,,ini!ates %hether the sub5e!t is sin.ular (one person or thin. a!tin.) or
plural (*ore than one person or thin. a!tin.).

0erson,,sho%s %hether the sub5e!t is speakin. (>I? or >%e?), is spoken to (>you? or
>you? plural), or is spoken about (>he, she, itF they?).

< verbal 'or* *ay be 'inite, that is, li*ite in person an nu*ber, or it *ay be
an in'initive, %hi!h *eans that it oes not ini!ate person an nu*ber. In 4n.lish
in'initives are usually pre!ee by the %or >to? (to .ive, to .o, et!.). In :reek, present,
aorist, 'uture, an per'e!t in'initives take the enin.s - -- -VoI VoI VoI VoI , - -- -oI oI oI oI, - -- -tVoI tVoI tVoI tVoI, - -- -o0oI o0oI o0oI o0oI, , , , or - -- -tIV tIV tIV tIV.

)er! ;amilies

In :reek there are t%o basi! !lasses or 'a*ilies into %hi!h verbs !an be ivie,
-# .er!s an omega .er!s ('or pra!ti!al reasons, as *entione in "hapter )%o, a thir
'a*ily is ae, na*ely, deponent .er!s, verbs su!h tpooI an uVooI). )he /I,
verb an o*e.a,verb 'a*ilies are na*e a'ter the enin. o' the 'irst 'or* o' the present
tense (Ium an ImI, 'or e3a*ple). <s pointe out in later !hapters, /I verbs an
o*e.a verbs are 'or*e i''erently only in three tenses (the present, i*per'e!t, an

07
aorist tenses) an even here they have si*ilarities. )he !hart belo% reprou!es the
pattern o' present,tense enin.s 'or the t%o basi! verb 'a*ilies plus eponent enin.s.

-# )er!s L LL L )er!s *eponent )er!s

I tV m otV oI t0o
1t tI t1t ooI (tI) o0t
oI ooI tI ouoI 1oI V1oI

-# .er!s

)e!hni!ally the ste* o' /I Ierbs ens in a vo%el (%hi!h is easily vie%e as a
!onne!tin. vo%el). )he /I verb?s !hara!teristi! enin.s (I, , oI, tV, 1t, ooI) are
ae ire!tly to this ste* vo%el. <s note in earlier !hapters, /I verbs len.then the
'inal vo%el o' their ste* in the sin.ular an return to the short vo%el in the plural.

>I .ive? >I pla!e? >I thro%?

ImI IotV 1I0I 1I0ttV II IttV
Im Io1t 1I0 1I0t1t I It1t
ImoI IoooI 1I0oI 1I0tooI IoI IooI (,tooI)

>I set up, stan? >I sho%?

Io1I Io1otV tIxVuI tIxVutV
Io1 Io1o1t tIxVu tIxVu1t
Io1oI Io1ooI (,oooI) tIxVuoI tIxVuooI

L LL L .er!s & thematic .owels

#*e.a verbs i''er 'ro* /I verbs in t%o i*portant %ays. -irst o' all, they take
so*e%hat i''erent enin.s (m, tI, tI, otV, t1t, ouoI in the present). 4ven *ore
i*portantly, ho%ever, o*e.a verbs o not use one !onne!tin. vo%el in lon. an short
8uantities but instea pla!e either an >o? or >t? vo%el bet%een the ste* o' the verb an
the verbal enin.. )hese >the*ati! vo%els? (oSt) so*eti*es appear is.uise be!ause
they have been len.thene, but the basi! pattern o' the the*ati! vo%els is re!o.ni;able.
)he .reat avanta.e o' o*e.a verbs is that the sa*e pattern o' enin.s !an be pla!e

09
on any present tense verb in the o*e.a,verb 'a*ily. )here is no nee to learn a spe!i'i!
lon.Sshort pair o' vo%els 'or ea!h ne% verb. Belo% are the the*ati! vo%els alone.

sin.ular plural

1st o oo o o oo o
2n t tt t t tt t
0r t tt t o oo o

In the t%o 'ollo%in. e3a*ples o' o*e.a verbs in the present tense, the 'irst, Ium,
has re.ular o*e.a,verb enin.s ae to a ste* that happens to en in a vo%el. )he
se!on verb, EtEm, takes the sa*e enin.s an as the* to a ste* that ens in t%o
!onsonants. )he ste* *akes no i''erent in the enin.s use.
>I loose? >I sen?

1st Ium IuotV EtEm EtEotV
2n IutI Iut1t EtEtI EtEt1t
0r IutI IuouoI EtEtI EtEouoI

*eponent )er!s

Deponent verbs take their o%n set o' enin.s that look 8uite i''erent 'ro*
either o*e.a or /I verbs, an !onse8uently, they %ill 'or pra!ti!al purposes be treate
as their o%n 'a*ily. /ore pre!isely, ho%ever, verbs like uVooI @I a* ableA belon.s
to the /I verb 'a*ily, an verbs like tpooI @I !o*eS.oA belon. to the o*e.a verb
'a*ily. <l*ost all eponent verbs en!ountere %ill be like tpooI.

>I a* able? >I !o*e, .o?

1st uVooI uVot0o tpooI tpot0o
2n uVoooI uVoo0t tptI tpto0t
0r uVo1oI uVoV1oI tpt1oI tpoV1oI

"ontract )er!s

"ontra!t verbs are si*ply a variety o' o*e.a verb. )he 'eature that
istin.uishes the* is that their verbal ste* ens in an - -- -o oo o, - -- -t tt t, or - -- -o oo o, an, ue to their
ste* vo%els, these verbs are kno%n as alpha, epsilon, or o*i!ron !ontra!t verbs.

20
"ontra!t verbs take e3a!tly the sa*e enin.s as re.ular o*e.a verbs, but be!ause
!ontra!t verbs en in a vo%el, that vo%el al*ost al%ays contracts %ith the vo%els o' the
personal enin.s. )his !ontra!tion o' ste* vo%els %ith the vo%els o' the enin.s
o!!urs al*ost e3!lusively in the present an in one o' the past tenses (the i*per'e!t). In
other tenses, !ontra!t verbs !on5u.ate like nor*al o*e.a verbs.

he 0resent ense of "ontract )er!s

< 8ui!k .lan!e at the !ontra!te 'or*s o' the present tense *ay leave the
i*pression o' !o*ple3ity. < !loser look, ho%ever, reveals a si*ple unerlyin. pattern,
%hi!h is base on the pattern o' the*ati! vo%els that !hara!teri;es o*e.a verbs.
43!ept 'or the 'irst person sin.ular (%hi!h al%ays has an -m), there are only t%o
possible !ontra!tions 'or ea!h type o' !ontra!t verb. In alpha !ontra!t verbs, 'or
e3a*ple, the !onne!tin. vo%el bet%een ste* an enin. is either an -o or an -m (the
alpha?s so*eti*es have a subs!ript). In epsilon !ontra!t verbs, e3!ept 'or the very 'irst
'or* (-m), only the iphthon.s -tI an -ou are possible. In o*i!ron !ontra!ts, a'ter
the initial -m, only the !ontra!tions -oI an -ou %ill be 'oun. )hus, three pairs o'
vo%els su**ari;e the !ontra!tions possible in ea!h type o' verb$

1) o oo o@m mm m 'or alpha !ontra!ts,
2) tI tI tI tI@ou ou ou ou 'or epsilon !ontra!ts an
0) oI oI oI oI@ou ou ou ou 'or o*i!ron !ontra!ts.

-urther*ore, i' a bo3 is ra%n ra%n aroun 2
n
sin.ular, 0
r
sin.ular, an 2
n
plural
'or alpha an epsilon !ontra!t verbs an aroun 2
n
an 0
r
sin.ular 'or o*i!ron
!ontra!ts, it %ill be !lear that the 'irst vo%el o' the !hara!teristi! vo%el pair is inside the
box an the se!on !hara!teristi! vo%el o' the pair is outside the box.

>I be.et, prou!e? >I love? >I 'ill, 'ul'ill?

Present tVVm tVVmtV IIm IIoutV EIpm EIpoutV
tVV tVVo1t IItI IItI1t EIpoI EIpou1t
tVV tVVmoI IItI IIouoI EIpoI EIpouoI

)ariants of "ontract )er!s

So*e alpha !ontra!t verbs (om) take an - in the se!on an thir sin.ular an
se!on plural instea o' the *ore !o**on -o. 43!ept 'or this !han.e o' -o to - the

21
verb !on5u.ates like the verb tVVom. 4psilon !ontra!t verbs %ith a sin.le syllable
ste* (EItm) only !ontra!t their enin.s %ith the ste* vo%el %hen the !ontra!tion
results in the iphthon. -tI. #ther%ise the verbal enin.s are si*ply ae to the
ste* vo%el -t, an the t%o vo%els are le't as separate, un!ontra!te syllables.

>I live? >I sail?

Present m mtV EItm EItotV
Q 1t EItI EItI1t
Q moI EItI EItouoI

"ontract *eponent )er!s

"ontra!t verbs, as pointe out in a previous !hapter, are si*ply a variety o'
o*e.a verbs. )he 'eature that istin.uishes the* is that the the*ati! vo%el o' re.ular
enin.s (,m, ,tI, ,tI, et!.) !ontra!ts %ith the 'inal vo%el o' the verbal ste*. "ontra!t
eponents uner.o the sa*e pro!ess, but it is the the*ati! vo%el o' the eponent
enin.s (,ooI, ,tI, ,t1oI, et!.) that !ontra!ts %ith the 'inal ste* vo%el. Belo% are
.iven e3a*ples o' alpha, epsilon, an o*i!ron !ontra!t eponent verbs.

EtIpoooI >I try? optooI >I 'ear? tVoV1IoooI >I oppose?

EtIpmoI EtIpmt0o opouoI opout0o tVoV1IouoI tVoV1Iout0o
EtIp EtIpoo0t optI optIo0t tVoV1IoI tVoV1Iouo0t
EtIpo1oI EtIpmV1oI optI1oI opouV1oI tVoV1Iou1oI tVoV1IouV1oI

#nfiniti.es

)he %or >in'initive? *eans not li*ite or boune. )he li*its re'erre to are
those o' person, nu*ber, an spe!i'i! ti*e. <n in'initive su!h as >to .ive? is not li*ite
by %ho is oin. the a!tion or ho% *any they are, it si*ply ini!ates the a!tion in the
abstra!t. In'initives ini!ate tense an voi!e, but they o not ini!ate a sub5e!t or oer
o' the a!tion.
In'initives, thou.h they are 'or*e 'ro* verbs, are a!tually nouns. Chile
in'initives possess verbal 8ualities, their .ra**ati!al use e*onstrates that they are a
kin o' substantive. <s nouns, in'initives are !onsiere neuter an sin.ular. )hey
also o not e!line, an so an in'initive o' a parti!ular tense an voi!e has only one

22
'or*. )he !ase o' an in'initive is so*eti*es ini!ate by a pre!ein. arti!le, an su!h
in'initives are kno%n as arti!ular in'initives.

;ormation of 0resent ense #nfiniti.es

In 4n.lish, the in'initive is .enerally *arke %ith the %or >to? pre!ein. the
a!tual in'initive 'or*. In :reek the enin.s 'or the present in'initive, that is, the
in'initive 'or*e 'ro* the ste* o' the present tense, are -VoI , -tIV , an -o0oI . /I
verbs atta!h the in'initive enin. -VoI to the short value o' the 'inal ste* vo%el (e...
1I0tVoI not 1I0VoI). #*e.a verbs, atta!h the enin. -tIV to the verbal ste*, that is,
the part o' the verb that re*ains on!e the -m enin. is roppe 'ro* the present tense
'or*. /ost o' the ti*e, the JtIV enin. is 8uite !lear, but in !ontra!t verbs the JtIV
!ontra!ts %ith the ste* vo%els o , t , or o , an the result is JoV , JtIV , an JouV . In
the !ase o' eponent verbs, the in'initive enin. is Jo0oI. Esually, the JooI enin. o'
the verb is roppe, an then a !onne!tin. vo%el epsilon an Jo0oI are ae to the
eponent ste*. )he verb uVooI, ho%ever, has a !onne!tin. alpha instea o' an
epsilon. Deponent !ontra!t verbs 'ollo% the re.ular pro!eure (ste* = t = o0oI), but
the epsilon !ontra!ts %ith the ste* vo%el to prou!e Joo0oI , JtIo0oI , an Jouo0oI .
In spite o' the unusual !onne!tin. vo%els, ho%ever, the *arker o' a eponent in'initive
( Jo0oI ) is 8uite !lear.

/I Ierbs #*e.a Ierbs Deponent Ierbs
present ste* present ste* present ste*
= short vo%el = VoI VoI VoI VoI = tIV tIV tIV tIV = (t) = o0oI o0oI o0oI o0oI

IoVoI IutIV uVoo0oI
1I0tVoI tptIV tpto0oI
ItVoI tVVoV (alpha !ontra!t) EtIpoo0oI
Io1oVoI IItIV (epsilon !ontra!t) optIo0oI
tIxVuVoI EIpouV (o*i!ron !ontra!t) tVoV1Iouo0oI

?ses of the #nfiniti.e

In'initives !an be use in three basi! %ays. )hey *ay 'un!tion as si*ple nouns,
an %hen they are use in this %ay, they o'ten have the arti!le. Cith !ertain verbs
in'initives *ay represent the a!tion o' an inire!t state*ent. )he 4n.lish senten!e @I
kno% him to be an honest manA is an e3a*ple. -inally, an 'or no% *ost i*portantly, the
in'initive *ay !o*plete or >'ill out? the iea o' spe!ial verbs. -ro* this usa.e !o*es the

20
ter* >!o*ple*entary in'initive?. "ertain verbs ten to take or re8uire in'initives.
Ierbs, 'or e3a*ple, that e3press a >*oe? o' a!tion (su!h as ne!essity or esire) %ithout
spe!i'yin. a parti!ular a!tion, use the in'initive to e3plain %hat is ne!essary or esire.
)hese >*oal? verbs, there'ore, !o*ple*ent their *eanin.s %ith in'initives. #ther
verbs, su!h as >be.in? or >are? have *eanin.s that all but re8uire 'urther spe!i'i!ation.

)er!s aking "omplementary #nfiniti.es

So*e verbs, be!ause o' their *eanin.s, routinely take !o*ple*entary in'initives.
< 'e% e3a*ples are$ t0tIm >I %ish?, EtIpoooI >I try?, uVooI >I a* able?, an
xtItum >I !o**an, orer?. )he verbs t0tIm , EtIpoooI, an uVooI si*ply take
the in'initive to 'ill out the iea o' %hat the sub5e!t >%ishes?, >tries?, or >is able? to o.
)he verb xtItum, on the other han, al*ost al%ays has an a!!usative o' the person
!o**ane as %ell as the in'initive to sho% the a!tion !o**ane. )he verbs t0tIm
an xtItum belon. to the o*e.a,verb 'a*ily so 'ollo% the pattern o' a verb like Ium.

>I %ish? >I !o**an?

1st t0tIm t0tIotV xtItum xtItuotV
2n t0tItI t0tIt1t xtItutI xtItut1t
0r t0tItI t0tIouoI xtItutI xtItuouoI.

)he verbs uVooI >I a* able?, pouIooI >I %ish?, an EtIpoooI >I try? all !an be
!lasse as eponentsF uVooI, *ore pre!isely, is a /I,verb eponent, %hile
pouIooI an EtIpoooI belon. to the o*e.a,verb 'a*ily. )he verbs pouIooI an
EtIpoooI, there'ore, both take enin.s e3a!tly like tpooI thou.h the !onne!tin.
vo%els o' >I try? look i''erent be!ause EtIpoooI is also an alpha,!ontra!t verb.

>I a* able? >I %ish?

1st uVooI uVot0o pouIooI pouIot0o
2n uVoooI uVoo0t pouItI pouIto0t
0r uVo1oI uVoV1oI pouIt1oI pouIoV1oI

>I try? EtIpoooI

1st EtIpmoI EtIpmt0o
2n EtIp EtIpoo0t
0r EtIpo1oI EtIpmV1oI

22
"hapter ;i.e

wo 1ew *eclensions

"hapter )hree introu!e a !lass o' nouns kno%n as the thir e!lension.
Cithin this !lass o' nouns there are variations, but all thir e!lension nouns use the
sa*e or very si*ilar enin.s. <nother >'a*ily rese*blan!e? a*on. thir e!lension
nouns is the ne!essity o' 'inin. the ste* in the .enitive sin.ular. :reek, ho%ever, has
t%o other istin!t !lasses or 'a*ilies o' nouns that take patterns o' enin.s 8uite
i''erent 'ro* those o' the thir e!lension. <s the ter* >thir e!lension? %oul
i*ply, these t%o other noun .roups are !alle >'irst e!lension? an >se!on e!lension?.

(econd *eclension

Se!on,e!lension nouns ten to be *as!uline or neuter thou.h there are also
!o**only use 'e*inine nouns in this e!lension. )he enin.s o' the se!on
e!lension are !hara!teri;e by vo%els an iphthon.s that have an >o? soun in the*,
an this pattern o' enin.s looks al*ost e3a!tly like the enin.s o' the *as!uline an
neuter 'or*s o' the e'inite arti!le. <s in the thir e!lension, neuter nouns o' the
se!on e!lension i''er 'ro* the pattern o' *as!uline or 'e*inine nouns in the
no*inative an a!!usative !ases. )he no*inative an a!!usative sin.ular al*ost
al%ays en in >V? an the no*inative an a!!usative plural al%ays en in a short >o?.

Regular Second Declension

>house? * >roa? ' >.i't? n

oIxo oIxoI oo ooI mpoV mpo
oIxou oIxmV oou omV mpou mpmV
oIxq oIxoI oq ooI mpq mpoI
oIxoV oIxou ooV oou mpoV mpo

)he se!on e!lension !an be 'urther ivie into re.ular an !ontra!t nouns.
"ontra!t nouns are se!on e!lension nouns, but their 'inal ste* vo%el has !ontra!te
%ith the nor*al enin.s o' the se!on e!lension. )he resultin. !ontra!tions, ho%ever,
i''er little 'ro* re.ular enin.s. In the no*inative an a!!usative sin.ular the
iphthon. >ou? appears instea o' the e3pe!te o*i!ron. <ll other enin.s are the

2(
sa*e as re.ular se!on,e!lension nouns e3!ept that enin.s o' !ontra!t nouns o'ten
bear the !ir!u*'le3 a!!ent %here a nor*al o3ytone (ooO) %oul have an a!ute.

Contract Second Declension

>*in? * >bone? n
sin. plur sin. plur

Vou VoI oo1ouV oo1o
Vou VmV oo1ou oo1mV
Vq VoI oo1q oo1oI
VouV Vou oo1ouV oo1o

;irst *eclension

-irst,e!lension nouns are *ostly 'e*inine, but there is an i*portant sub.roup
o' nouns that are *as!uline an sho% sli.ht i''eren!es in their no*inative an
.enitive sin.ulars. )he enin.s o' the 'irst e!lension are !hara!teri;e by an >? or an
>o? vo%el an look like the enin.s o' the 'e*inine e'inite arti!le. In the plural, 'irst,
e!lension enin.s have o>s throu.hout e3!ept 'or the .enitive plural, %hi!h is al%ays
-mV an is al%ays !ir!u*'le3e (histori!ally a !ontra!tion o' JomV).
In the sin.ular, ho%ever, a 'irst e!lension noun *ay have all >s, all o>s, or both
>s an o>s. )he variation epens on the last letter o' the ste* an is 8uite easy to
prei!t. I' the ste* ens in p, t, or I the noun %ill have all o>s in the sin.ular. I' the
ste* oes not en in p, t, or I, an the no*inative ens in , then all the sin.ular
enin.s %ill have vo%els. I' the ste* oes not en in p, t, or I, but the no*inative
ens in o, then the no*inative an a!!usative %ill have o >s, an the .enitive an
ative sin.ular %ill have >s. )he three nouns belo% %ill serve as e3a*ples o' ea!h o'
the three vo%el patterns that !an o!!ur in 'irst,e!lension sin.ular 'or*s.

Regular First Declension

>%oo? ' >lan? ' >sea? '

uI uIoI mpo mpoI 0oIo11o 0oIo11oI
uI uImV mpo mpmV 0oIo11 0oIo11mV
uIQ uIoI mp mpoI 0oIo11Q 0oIo11oI
uIV uIo mpoV mpo 0oIo11oV 0oIo11o

2+
Contract First Declension

"ontra!t nouns o' the 'irst e!lension are not very nu*erous or 're8uent. Chen
they o!!ur, ho%ever, they present no i''i!ulty be!ause their enin.s are e3a!tly like
re.ular 'irst,e!lension nouns e3!ept 'or a !ir!u*'le3e ulti*a %here nor*al nouns
have the a!ute. < 're8uent !ontra!t noun in the sin.ular is the noun >earth?, %hi!h is
, , Q, V. #thers are oux ('i. tree '), Vo (*ina '), an Ip (Mer*es *).

Masculine First Declension

/as!uline 'irst,e!lension nouns are e3!eptional only in their no*inative an
.enitive sin.ulars. I' the ste* oes not en t, I, or p, the 'irst t%o 'or*s %ill be -
-ou. I' the ste* oes en in t, I, or p, the 'irst t%o 'or*s %ill be -o -ou.

>!iti;en? * >youn. *an? * Mer*es * (!ontra!t)
sin. plur sin. plur

EoII1 EoII1oI VtoVIo VtoVIoI Ip
EoII1ou EoII1mV VtoVIou VtoVImV Ipou
EoII1Q EoII1oI VtoVI VtoVIoI IpQ
EoII1V EoII1o VtoVIoV VtoVIo IpV

E'pressions of ime and (pace

Time
In 4n.lish, ti*e e3pressions usually involve prepositions su!h as >in the ni.ht?,
>on the thir ay?, >'or three hours?. :reek, on the other han, !an e3press so*e o' the
*ost !o**on ti*e relationships %ithout any prepositions at all. )he .enitive o' a ti*e
%or ini!ates the >ti*e %ithin %hi!h? an event happens. )hus, >in the ni.ht? !an be
e3presse in :reek %ith the .enitive >1 Vux1o?. )he ative !ase is use to e3press
a >point o' ti*e? or the >ti*e %hen? an event takes pla!e. >#n the thir ay?, 'or
e3a*ple, is renere as >1Q 1pI1Q tp?. )he a!!usative o' a ti*e %or ini!ates
e3tent or uration o' ti*e. )he phrase >'or three hours? is, there'ore, renere in :reek
as >1ptI mpo?.

Space
In e3pressions o' spa!e, :reek *akes use o' prepositions *u!h *ore 're8uently
than in e3pressions o' ti*e. Chen a preposition is involve, unerstanin. the spatial
relationship is as strai.ht 'or%ar as in 4n.lish. )he preposition in !on5un!tion %ith its
ob5e!t ini!ates *otion to%ars, *otion a%ay 'ro*, or lo!ation

21
)here are, ho%ever, spatial e3pressions that rely solely on !ase an o not use
prepositions. )o e3press e3tent o' spa!e :reek uses the a!!usative o' %ors that i*ply
istan!e or *easure*ent. In a senten!e su!h as @Me thro%s the stone t%enty 'eetA,
t%enty 'eet ini!ates ho% 'ar the stone %as thro%n an is there'ore put in the
a!!usative$ IoI 1oV II0oV tIxooI Eoo.

he +elati.e 0ronoun

)he 'or*s o' the relative pronoun (o, ,o) are very si*ilar to the e'inite
arti!le. )he relative pronoun has no >1? in its 'or*s an al%ays has a rou.h breathin..
)he no*inative, *as!uline, sin.ular 'or* o' the relative has a si.*a (o), but in all
other 'or*s the enin.s o' the relative an the arti!le are e3a!tly alike.

Sin. Plur
* ' n * ' n

no* o o oI oI o
.en ou ou mV mV mV
at q Q q oI oI oI
a!! oV V o ou o o

)he 4n.lish e8uivalent o' the :reek relative is the pronoun >%ho? or >%hi!h?.
Enlike :reek, the 4n.lish relative pronoun has no istin!tive plural, but like :reek,
4n.lish relative pronouns o have i''erent !ase enin.s that ini!ate ho% the relative
pronoun is use in its o%n !lause. Belo% are liste 'or*s o' the 4n.lish relative
pronoun, thou.h it shoul be note that in 4n.lish the %or >that? !an also be use as a
relative pronoun (@)he book that I le't on the table belon.s to a 'rien.A)

(sin.ular & plural)
%ho %hi!h
%hose, o' %ho* %hose, o' %hi!h
toS'or %ho* to S 'or %hi!h
%ho* %hi!h

I' the :reek relative is in the ative !ase or is the ob5e!t o' a preposition, the 4n.lish
relative %ill have to be translate %ith the appropriate preposition.
)he relative pronoun in both :reek an 4n.lish introu!es a suborinate !lause,
an this entire suborinate !lause es!ribes a noun or pronoun. )he noun or pronoun
es!ribe by the relative is !alle the ante!eent. )he relative pronoun *ust a.ree

27
%ith its ante!eent in nu*ber an .enerF its !ase, ho%ever, is eter*ine by its
'un!tion in its o%n !lause, e...$
nom pl f acc pl f
@the %o*en %ho* %e see....A oI uVoIxt o opmtV ...

nom sing m gen sing m
@the kin. %hose .uars %e sei;e...A o pooIItu ou uIoxo opEootV ...

0ersonal 0ronouns

)he thir,person pronouns (obli8ue !ases o' ou1o) have alreay been
introu!e in previous !hapters, an the thir person re'le3ive pronoun ('or*s o'
tou1ou) has o!!urre on an ad hoc basis in several reain.s. It re*ains to learn the
pronouns o' the 'irst an se!on person in the sin.ular an plural.
-irst,person personal pronouns in :reek !orrespon to the 4n.lish pronouns >I?
an >%e? in their various !ases. )he :reek se!on,person pronoun !orrespons to the
4n.lish pronoun >you?, e3!ept that :reek *akes a !lear istin!tion bet%een a sin.le
person aresse, an *ore than one person aresse, %here stanar 4n.lish *ust
*ake o %ith >you? to ini!ate both sin.ular an plural.
In :reek, as in 4n.lish, i' a 'or* o' a 'irst or se!on person pronoun is use in an
obli8ue !ase an re'ers ba!k to the sub5e!t, it is !onsiere re'le3ive. In :reek, ho%ever,
only the re.ular 'or*s o' the pronoun are ne!essary, %here in 4n.lish, the su''i3 >,sel'?
*ust be ae to the pronoun. )hus, in the senten!es opmoI opmoI opmoI opmoI ot ot ot ot >)hey see you? an
op op op op ot ot ot ot >Uou see yoursel'? both e*ploy the pronoun >ot ot ot ot? but the se!on 'or* is
re'le3ive be!ause it re'ers ba!k to the sub5e!t o' the senten!e.
In 4n.lish, the 'inite verb !annot be 'ully unerstoo %ithout a pronoun or noun
as the sub5e!t. < :reek verb, on the other han, alreay i*plies a sub5e!t pronoun in its
enin., an so the no*inative 'or*s o' the personal pronouns are not ne!essary to
unerstan the sub5e!t an the verb o' the senten!e. Sin!e the no*inative o' the :reek
personal pronoun is not .ra**ati!ally essential, it is use instea 'or e*phasis. <ny
ti*e the no*inative o' the personal pronoun appears, it lens e*phasis to the sub5e!t.

1
st
person >I?, >%e? 2
n
person >you?
Sin.ular Plural Sin.ular Plural

no* tm tI ou utI
.en tou ou mV oou oou umV
at toI oI IV ooI ooI uIV
a!! tt t o ot ot uo

29

)he thir person pronoun (ou1o, ou1, ou1o) !orrespons to the 4n.lish >he?,
>she?, >it?, an >they? in their various !ases. )he obli8ue 'or*s o' ou1o usually o not
re'er ba!k to the sub5e!t o' the senten!e but rather to other person(s) or thin.(s) that are
not the sub5e!t. I' a thir person pronoun oes re'er to the sub5e!t (>hi*sel'?, >hersel'?,
>itsel'?, >the*selves?), the 'or*s o' the :reek re'le3ive tou1ou, tou1, tou1ou et!.
shoul be use (thou.h so*e :reek authors are not al%ays !onsistent on this point).
)he re'le3ive pronoun is *ae up o' the pre'i3 > t-? ae to the obli8ue 'or*s o'
ou1o. Sin!e the re'le3ive pronoun?s 'un!tion is to re'er ba!k to the sub5e!t, it !annot
itsel' be the sub5e!t, an so the re'le3ive has no no*inative 'or*s. )o translate the
re'le3ive pronoun it is ne!essary to !onsier the sub5e!t to %hi!h the re'le3ive re'ers an
to translate a!!orin. to the sub5e!t?s nu*ber an .ener, e..$

@)he %o*an sees hersel'A tou1 tou1 tou1 tou1 V VV V op op op op uV uV uV uV
@)he !hilren see the*selvesA tou1ou tou1ou tou1ou tou1ou opmoI opmoI opmoI opmoI oI oI oI oI EoIt EoIt EoIt EoIt

Sin.ular Plural

* ' n * ' n

no* ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,,
.en tou1ou tou1 tou1ou tou1mV tou1mV tou1mV
at tou1q tou1Q tou1q tou1oI tou1oI tou1oI
a!! tou1oV tou1V tou1o tou1ou tou1o tou1o

he #ndefinite & #nterrogati.e 0ronouns

)he ine'inite %or 1I 1I !an 'un!tion either as an a5e!tive or as a pronoun. I'
the ine'inite %or a.rees %ith a noun in nu*ber, .ener, an !ase, then it is
'un!tionin. as an a5e!tive. )he noun EoI, 'or e3a*ple, *eans >!hil?, but EoI 1I,
%hi!h uses the ine'inite a5e!tive, *eans >so*e !hil? or >a !ertain !hil?. I', ho%ever,
the 'or*s o' 1I 1I o not *oi'y a noun but instea stan alone, then they are bein.
use as ine'inite pronouns %hi!h !orrespon to su!h 4n.lish e3pressions su!h as
>so*e one?, >so*ethin.? or >a !ertain one?, >a !ertain thin.?. )he senten!e opm 1IVo
*eans >I see so*eone?, an the senten!e tpoV1oI 1IVt *eans >!ertain ones are
!o*in.?. )he 'or*s o' the ine'inite a5e!tiveSpronoun are .iven belo%. <ll 'or*s o'
1I 1I are en!liti! an 'ollo% the rules 'or en!liti! a!!ent .iven in "hapter )%o. Chen

(0
the ine'inite is liste in a parai.*, all t%o,syllable 'or*s are a!!ente on the ulti*a,
an one,syllable 'or*s are .iven no a!!ent at all.

Indefinite Pronoun/Adjective

Sin.ular Plural

*, ' n *, ' n

no* 1I 1I 1IVt 1IVo
.en 1IVo 1IVo 1IVmV 1IVmV
at 1IVI 1IVI 1IoI 1IoI
a!! 1IVo 1I 1IVo 1IVo

<n i*portant %or to learn alon. %ith the ine'inite pronoun (>so*eone,
so*ethin.?) is the interro.ative pronoun (>%hoN %hatN?). In :reek, the 'or*s o' these
t%o %ors look e3a!tly alike e3!ept that they are a!!ente i''erently. )he ine'inite
1I 1I 're8uently loses its a!!ent, an in its t%o syllable 'or*s o'ten has an a!!ent on
the ulti*a. )he interro.ative 1I 1I never loses its a!!ent, al%ays a!!ents the penult in
its t%o,syllable 'or*s, al%ays has an a!ute a!!ent, an never !han.es the a!ute to .rave
even i' 'ollo%e by another %or. :ra**ati!ally too, the t%o %ors are use very
i''erently. )he interro.ative 1I 1I al*ost al%ays stans 'irst in its !lause an, as its
na*e i*plies, asks a 8uestion. )he ine'inite 1I 1I never stans 'irst an re'ers, o'
!ourse, to an ine'inite ante!eent or a.rees %ith so*e noun to *ake it less spe!i'i!.

Interrogative Pronoun/Adjective

Sin.ular Plural

*, ' n *, ' n

no* 1I 1I 1IVt 1IVo

(1
"hapter (i'

)er!al (tems and 0rincipal 0arts

Ierbal 'or*s are !reate or conjugated by ain. enin.s to a verbal ste*.
Ierbal enin.s li*it the *eanin. o' the verb by spe!i'yin. the person an nu*ber o'
the sub5e!t. )he ste* o' the verb, on the other han, spe!i'ies the tense o' the verb, that
is, the ti*e anSor the kin o' a!tion that the verb !onveys. )hus, to !on5u.ate verbs in
i''erent tenses, one *ust be a!8uainte %ith the i''erent ste*s o' a .iven verb.
Ierbal ste*s are erive 'ro* a verb?s principal parts. )he ter* esi.nates the
han,'ull o' sele!te 'or*s o' the verb 'ro* %hi!h all the other 'or*s o' the verb !an be
!reate. 6or*al :reek verbs typi!ally have si3 prin!ipal parts, %hi!h !onsist o' the
'irst,person sin.ular 'or*s o' the 'ollo%in. tenseSvoi!e !o*binations$ 1) present a!tive,
2) 'uture a!tive 0) aorist a!tive, 2) per'e!t a!tive, () per'e!t *ileSpassive, +) aorist
passive. /any verbs, ho%ever, %ill not have all si3 prin!ipal parts, an in eponent
verbs the (
th
an +
th
prin!ipal parts have a!tive *eanin.s.

1) pres a!t 2) 'ut a!t 0) aor a!t 2) per' a!t () per' *iSpass +) aor pass

ImI mom tmxo tmxo tooI to0V
>I .ive? >I %ill .ive >I .ave? >I have .iven? >I have been .iven? >I %as .iven?

Ium Iuom tIuoo ItIuxo ItIuoI tIu0V
>I loose? >I %ill loose? >I loose? >I have loose? >I have been loose? >I %as loose?

ItIEm ItIym tIIEoV ItIoIEo ItItIoI tItI0V
>I leave? >I %ill leave? >I le't? >I have le't? >I have been le't? >I %as le't

IItm IIom tIIoo EtIIxo EtIIoI tII0V
I love I %ill love I love I have love I have been love I %as love

IVooI tVoooI ttVoV toVo ttVoI ttV0V
I be!o*e I %ill be!o*e I be!a*e I have be!o*e I have be!o*e I be!a*e

tooI tooI ttoV -- -- --
>I re!eive? >I %ill re!eive? >I re!eive?

pouIooI pouIoooI -- -- ptpouIoI tpouI0V
I %ish I %ill %ish I have %ishe I %ishe

tpooI tItuoooI I0oV tIIu0o -- --
>I .o? >I %ill .o? >I %ent? >I have .one?

(2
)er! ;amilies

<s note in earlier !hapters, :reek verbs are ivie into t%o basi! !lasses or
'a*ilies, /I verbs an o*e.a verbs. )he t%o verbal 'a*ilies are na*e a'ter the
enin.s o' their 'irst prin!ipal parts, an /I an o*e.a verbs i''er only in their
present, i*per'e!t, an aorist tenses, an even here there are *any si*ilarities. ()he
i*per'e!t tense %ill be introu!e in a later !hapter.) In other tenses the t%o kins o'
verbs are !on5u.ate e3a!tly alike, or, put *ore pre!isely, /I verbs are !on5u.ate 5ust
like o*e.a verbs.
Be'ore aressin. spe!i'i! verbal enin.s an !on5u.ations, one other verbal
istin!tion is ne!essary, na*ely, the istin!tion bet%een pri*ary an se!onary tenses.
:reek istin.uishes very !are'ully bet%een a!tions that take pla!e in the present or
'uture (pri*ary tenses) an those that take pla!e in the past (se!onary tenses). )here
are even i''erent sets o' enin.s that unerline the pri*arySse!onary istin!tion.
)hus, the present an aorist tenses o' /I an o*e.a verbs involve both the istin!tion
bet%een t%o i''erent verb 'a*ilies as %ell as istin!tion bet%een pri*ary an
se!onary enin.s. )he !hart belo% reprou!es pri*ary an se!onary enin.s 'or /I
verbs on the le't an the !orresponin. enin.s 'or t%o kins o' o*e.a,verb aorists on
the ri.ht.
-#-.er!s L LL L-.er!s

I tV m otV
1t tI t1t
oI ooI tI ouoI

aorist 1st aorist And aorist

xoV V tV o otV oV otV
xoV 1t o o1t t t1t
xtV -- ooV t oV t oV

/I verb enin.s are .iven %ithout !onne!tin. vo%els sin!e the ste* o' a I verb
alreay ens in a vo%el to %hi!h enin.s are ire!tly ae. )his vo%el is len.thene
in the sin.ular an shortene in the plural an *ust be learne 'or ea!h I verb.

*eponent )er!s

-or pra!ti!al reasons, it is o'ten use'ul to esi.nate eponent verbs as a spe!ial
!lass o' their o%n. Deponent verbs !onvey the sa*e in'or*ation about verbal a!tion as

(0
o nor*al verbs, but they o so %ith a i''erent set o' enin.s. )he present,tense o'
eponent enin.s %ill be 'a*iliar 'ro* the verbs uVooI an tpooI. Dike nor*al
/I an o*e.a verbs, eponent verbs also *ake the istin!tion bet%een pri*ary an
se!onary tenses an !onse8uently take i''erent sets o' enin.s to 'or* their aorist
tenses. Pri*ary,tense eponent enin.s 'or both /I an o*e.a verbs are oI, ooI, oI, ooI, oI, ooI, oI, ooI,
1oI 1oI 1oI 1oI @ t0o, o0t, V1oI t0o, o0t, V1oI t0o, o0t, V1oI t0o, o0t, V1oI. Se!onary tense eponent enin.s are V, oo, 1o, V, oo, 1o, V, oo, 1o, V, oo, 1o, @ t0o, t0o, t0o, t0o,
o0t, V1o o0t, V1o o0t, V1o o0t, V1o.
Chile eponents o' both !lasses o' verb use the sa*e enin.s, they i''er in their
'or*ation in t%o %ays. Deponent /I verbs have one !hara!teristi! vo%el be'ore the
eponent enin.s an use only the short version o' that vo%el. #*e.a verbs, on the
other han, use a set pattern o' the*ati! vo%els (o, t, t o, t, t o, t, t o, t, t @ o, t, o o, t, o o, t, o o, t, o or o oo o S o oo o) bet%een the
ste* an enin.s. )he other %ay in %hi!h eponent o*e.a verbs i''er 'ro* eponent
/I verbs is that o*e.a eponents e3hibit a !ontra!te 'or* in the se!on person
sin.ular. )he 'ull enin. ooI, there'ore, be!o*es tI tI tI tI or Q QQ Q (t = ooI) in the present, m mm m in
the 'irst aorist (o = oo), an ou ou ou ou in the se!on aorist (t = oo).


Present
oI t0o ooI ot0o
ooI o0t tI (Q) to0t
1oI V1oI t1oI oV1oI

<orist
1st aorist And aorist

V t0o oV ot0o oV ot0o
oo o0t m oo0t ou to0t
1o V1o o1o oV1o t1o oV1o

So*e verbs have eponent enin.s in all tenses, %hile other verbs take eponent
'or*s only in so*e tenses. )he prin!ipal parts o' a verb, ho%ever, ini!ate %hether
eponent enin.s %ill be use an in %hat tenses they %ill o!!ur. I' a verb has a
prin!ipal part %ith a eponent enin., all the tenses 'or*e 'ro* that prin!ipal part
%ill take eponent enin.s.
)he verb tpooI, 'or e3a*ple, has eponent enin.s in both its present an
'uture tense 'or*s, but its aorist tense takes nor*al, non,eponent se!on,aorist
enin.s (tpooI tItuoooI I0oV). <s another e3a*ple, the verb tpm1om
!on5u.ates re.ularly in its present an 'uture tenses but is eponent in its aorist tense

(2
(tpm1om tpm1om poV). Both tpooI an tpm1om are only partially
eponent an are, there'ore, so*eti*es !alle >se*i,eponents?. )he verb tooI, on
the other han, has only eponent 'or*s (tooI tooI ttoV). Prin!ipal
parts, there'ore, not only ini!ate %hether a parti!ular verb !han.es ste* 'ro* one
tense to another an %hether the verb has a 'irst or se!on aorist, but prin!ipal parts
also ini!ate %hether a verb has eponent 'or*s an in %hat tenses those 'or*s o!!ur.

)er!al Aspect and the Aorist ense

:reek tenses o' the ini!ative *oo not only esi.nate a ti*e o' a!tion, but they
also !o**uni!ate a !ertain kind of action. )he present tense, 'or e3a*ple, an the past
tense !alle the >i*per'e!t? !onvey a!tion that is !ontinuous, on,.oin., repetitive, or
in!o*plete. )he tenses kno%n as the per'e!t an pluper'e!t, on the other han,
esi.nate an a!tion that is !o*plete or 'inishe. )his iea o' kind or manner o' a!tion
!onveye in the verb tense is kno%n as the verb?s aspect, that is, ho% the a!tion o' the
verb >looks? or >appears?. I*per'e!t aspe!t *eans that the verbal a!tion is un'inishe or
on,.oin.. Per'e!t aspe!t ini!ates that the verbal a!tion is 'inishe or !o*plete.
In aition to the tenses that ini!ate >per'e!t? or >i*per'e!t? aspe!t, there is the
aorist tense, %hi!h sho%s no aspe!t at all. )he aorist ini!ates a verbal a!tion %ithout
i*plyin. %hether that a!tion is !o*plete or in!o*plete. )hus, the aorist tense, in
.eneral, !o**uni!ates a si*ple a!tion, an the aorist ini!ative, in parti!ular, sho%s a
si*ple a!tion in past ti*e. )he tense is very !o**on an is o!!asionally !alle the
>5unk tense? be!ause o' its every,ay use 'or unaorne narration. Chere the i*per'e!t
tense lin.ers over the a!tion an *arks the verbal a!tion as so*ethin. on,.oin., the
aorist tense si*ply states that the a!tion took pla!e.
)he aorist ini!ative sho%s a!tion in the past an is, there'ore, a se!onary tense.
)he aorists o' m,verbs !an be 'urther ivie into t%o !lasses a!!orin. to the pattern
o' enin.s they take. )he t%o !lasses are kno%n as >'irst aorist? an >se!on aorist?.
)he enin.s asso!iate %ith 'irst aorists are !hara!teri;e by alpha !onne!tin. vo%els
(o, o, t, otV, o1t, oV) %hile se!on aorists enin.s !learly sho% the the*ati!
vo%els asso!iate %ith o*e.a verbs ( oV, t, t, otV, t1t, oV ).
)he aorist tense in /I verbs is !onstru!te so*e%hat i''erently than in o*e.a
verbs but is o'ten !alle a >se!on aorist? sin!e it is 8uite istin!t 'ro* 'irst aorists. (It
shoul, ho%ever, be note that so*e /I verbs o not sho% the !hara!teristi!ally /I
verb 'or*ation in the aorist but instea borro% 'or*s 'ro* the 'irst aorist o' o*e.a
verbs). )he surest .uie to kno%in. %hether a verb takes a 'irst or se!on aorist is its
pri!ipal parts. I', 'or e3a*ple, the thir prin!ipal part .ives a 'or* like tIuoo or
tEtyo, then it is a 'irst aorist verb, an its aorist tense %ill only take 'irst aorist

((
enin.s. I' the thir prin!ipal part is tIoV or tIIEoV, then it is a se!on aorist an
%ill only take se!on aorist enin.s.

Augmenting the Aorist ense

In the aorist tense, /I verbs an o*e.a verbs not only take se!onary enin.s,
but they also augment the verb ste*. <n au.*ent a''e!ts the be.innin. o' the verb ste*
an provies an aitional ini!ation that the verb is a past or se!onary tense. )his
verbal au.*ent !an be o' t%o kins. I' the verb be.ins %ith a !onsonant, the syllable >t?
is pre'i3e to the verb ste*. )he >t? is !alle a syllabi! au.*ent. I' the verb be.ins %ith
a vo%el, that initial vo%el is usually len.thene. )he len.thene vo%el is kno%n as a
te*poral au.*ent. )he 'ollo%in. provies a list o' vo%els %ith their usual au.*ente
values.

o be!o*es I be!o*es I oI be!o*es Q
tbe!o*es u be!o*es u ou be!o*es u
t be!o*es tI oI be!o*es q
o be!o*es m

It shoul also be note that i' a verb has a prepositional pre'i3, the au.*ent is usually
ae to the ste* an not to the be.innin. o' the verb. )hus, oEox1tIVm in the aorist
be!o*es oEt t t tx1tIVo.

;irst- and (econd-Aorist ;orms of m mm m-)er!s

In !on5u.atin. aorist 'or*s, it is i*portant to !he!k the thir prin!ipal part to
eter*ine, 'irst o' all, %hether the verb in 8uestion has a 'irst or se!on aorist an,
se!only, to eter*ine %hether the aorist ste* has uner.one une3pe!te !han.es.
Se!on aorists al*ost al%ays !han.e their ste*s, o'ten 8uite ra*ati!ally. -irst,aorist
ste*s are *ore !onsistent, but even they !an vary .reatly 'ro* the ori.inal ste*. )he
thir prin!ipal part also *akes !lear %hat the au.*ent 'or a parti!ular verb %ill be.

First Aorists

-irst aorists are istin.uishe by o>s in the personal enin.s an the !lose
kinship o' their aorist ste* %ith the present. )he .eneral pro!eure 'or 'or*in. a 'ully
re.ular 'irst aorist is to take the ste* o' the 'irst prin!ipal part, au.*ent the ste*, a
the su''i3 -o-, an then a the enin.s o, o, t, otV, o1t, oV. )he su''i3 -o-in
!o*bination %ith !ertain souns uner.oes phoneti! an ortho.raphi! !han.es.

(+
(/any o' these !han.es are alreay 'a*iliar 'ro* the is!ussion o' the ative plural
'or*s o' thir e!lension nouns.)

labial stops (E, p, ) = o T y
ental stops (1, , 0, ) = o T o
palatal stops (x, , ) = o T
li8uis (I, , V, p) = o T ,,

In !o*bination %ith the last .roup o' letters, the -o- isappears entirely %hen ae
to a li8uiF thus, the enin.s (o, o, t, otV, o1t, oV) see* to be ae ire!tly to the
ste*. -irst aorists %ith li8ui ste*s not only rop the ,o-, but they also ten to
len.then the vo%el o' the aorist ste*.

Ium t = Iu = o = o T tIuoo
EtEm t = EtE = o = o T tEtyo
EtI0m t = EtI0 = o = o T tEtIoo
Itm t = It = o = o T tIto
tVm t = tV = o = o T ttIVoV

)he 'ollo%in. are e3a*ples o' the 'irst aorist verbs Ium , EtEm an tVm !on5u.ate
in the all persons sin.ular an plural in the aorist tense.

aor o' Ium @I loose@ aor o' EtEm @I sent@ aor o' tVm @I re*aine@

tIuoo tIuootV tEtyo tEtyotV ttIVo ttIVotV
tIuoo tIuoo1t tEtyo tEtyo1t ttIVo ttIVo1t
tIuot tIuooV tEtyt tEtyoV ttIVt ttIVoV

Second Aorists

)he se!on aorist i''ers 'ro* the 'irst aorist in t%o notable %ays$ 1) the se!on
aorist ini!ates its tense throu.h a !han.e in the ste* itsel', an 2) the se!on aorist
takes the sa*e the*ati! vo%els an enin.s as the i*per'e!t tense (oV, t, t, otV,
t1t, oV). Sin!e i*per'e!t an se!on enin.s are the sa*e, the se!on aorist ste* has
to be istin!tive. )he ste* o' the se!on aorist is erive 'ro* the thir prin!ipal part
an is o'ten 8uite istin!t 'ro* the present ste*Wthe aorist ste* is usually shorter

(1
(IopoV-m, t-Iop-oV). So*eti*es, ho%ever, the se!on aorist ste* i''ers 'ro*
that o' the present tense by only one letter (ItIE-m, t- IIE -oV).

aor o' ItIEm @I le't@ aor o' IopoVm @I took@ aor o' t pooI @I !a*e@

tIIEoV tIIEotV tIopoV tIopotV I0oV I0otV
tIIEt tIIEt1t tIopt tIopt1t I0t I0t1t
tIIEt tIIEoV tIopt tIopoV I0t I0oV

Aorist #nfiniti.es of m mm m-)er!s

<orist tense in'initives, like all in'initives, es!ribe an a!tion %ithout li*itations
o' person an nu*ber an ini!ate kin o' a!tion rather than ti*e o' a!tion. Chere the
present tense in'initive sho%s on,.oin. or !ontinuous a!tion, the aorist in'initive sho%s
si*ple a!tion, or the si*ple 'a!t o' an a!tion. It oes not !o**ent on the !o*pletion or
in!o*pletion o' the a!tion. <ll aorist in'initives lose the au.*ent !hara!teristi! o' the
!on5u.ate ini!ative 'or*.
<s there are t%o types o' aorists a*on. o*e.a verbs ('irst an se!on), there are
also t%o types o' o*e.a,verb in'initive. -irst aorist in'initive a - -- -oI oI oI oI to the aorist ste*F
thus, the enin. -ooI ooI ooI ooI ('inal si.*a an the in'initive enin.) is a !o**on *arker o' a
'irst aorist in'initive. )he syllable be'ore the enin. -oI oI oI oI re!eives the a!!ent.

IuooI EtyoI tIVoI

Se!on aorists, on the other han, a the enin. - -- -tIV tIV tIV tIV, %hi!h is, o' !ourse, the
sa*e enin. as is use 'or the present,tense in'initive o' o*e.a verbs. )%o 'eatures o'
the se!on,aorist in'initive prevent it 'ro* bein. !on'use %ith the present in'initive.
)he ste* o' the se!on aorist i''ers 'ro* that o' the present, an the se!on aorist
in'initive pla!es a !ir!u*'le3 enin. on the in'initive enin. (-tIV tIV tIV tIV).

IoptIV IIEtIV

<n i*portant point to e*phasi;e about in'initives is that their >tense? oes not,
in itsel', ini!ate time o' a!tion. Instea, the tense o' an in'initive sho%s kin o' a!tion.
)he present in'initive sho%s !ontinuous a!tion, an the aorist in'initive ini!ates si*ple
a!tion. #'ten this istin!tion is i''i!ult to sho% in an 4n.lish translation, an in *any
!ases both present an aorist in'initives %ill be renere in the sa*e %ay, %ith the
%or >to? an the verbal iea.

(7
In the !onte3t o' *any :reek senten!es, either a present or an aorist tense
in'initive *i.ht be !hosen, epenin. on %hat an author %ishes to e*phasi;e. )o use
a present tense in'initive in a senten!e like @I %ish to .iveA (t0tIm IoVoI) %oul
e*phasi;e the on,.oin. a!tion o' the in'initive (@I %ish to be .ivin.A), %here the use o'
the aorist in'initive %oul si*ply na*e the esire a!tion rather than e*phasi;e its on,
.oin. 8uality (t0tIm ouVoI @I %ish to .ive.A).

Aorists of -#-)er!s

)o 'or* the aorist tense o' /I,verbs, the .eneral pro!eure is to rop any
reupli!ation (a kin o' ouble 'irst letter %ith a !onne!tin. vo%el), au.*ent the
si*ple ste*, an a se!onary enin.s. /I,verb aorists, %hen they are not eponent,
also ten to have the lon. !onne!tin. vo%el in the sin.ular an the shortene version in
the plural.
)here are, ho%ever, a 'e% e3!eptions to these rules o' re.ular 'or*ation. In three
/I,verbs (ImI, 1I0I, II), the une3pe!te enin.s -xo, -xo, -xt appear in
the sin.ular. In the plural, ho%ever, the -xo isappears, an the 'or*s revert to
nor*al 'or*ation, that is, the au.*ent, si*ple ste*, short !onne!tin. vo%el, an
enin.s. Be!ause o' i''erent kins o' !ontra!tions in the sin.ular an plural, the aorist
o' II !han.es its au.*ente 'or* 'ro* xo in the sin.ular to tIxo in the plural. In
an!ient ti*es, the aorist plural o' II is only atteste %ith prepositional pre'i3es.

aor o' ImI @I .aveA aor o' 1I0I @I pla!eA aor o' I I @I thre%A

tmxo totV t0xo t0ttV xo tItV
tmxo to1t t0xo t0t1t xo tI1t
tmxt toooV t0xt t0tooV xt tIooV

)he verb Io1I has t%o aorists. )he 'irst aorist is transitive (@I !ause to
stanA) an 'ollo%s the re.ular pattern 'or 'irst,aorist o*e.a verbs, su!h as Ium. )he
se!on aorist o' Io1I is intransitive (I stoo) an, %ith one e3!eption, 'ollo%s the
re.ular pattern 'or aorist /I,verbs. Chile this se!on aorist (to1V) takes the nor*al
/I,verb enin.s, it is unusual in that its plural oes not shorten the ste* vo%el.

1
st
aor o' Io1I @I stoo (so*ethin.) upA 2
n
aor o' I o1I @I stooA

to1oo to1ootV to1V to1tV
to1oo to1oo1t to1 to11t
to1ot to1ooV to1 to1ooV

(9
In the aorist, /I verbs in -uI .enerally loose their /I,verb enin.s an
!hara!teristi! >u uu u? vo%el an take the 'irst,aorist 'or*s o' re.ular o*e.a verbs.
-re8uently the 'irst aorist si.*a an alpha enin.s are ae in prei!tably 'ashion
on!e the enin. has been roppe, espe!ially i' the verb ens in >VuI? (t-tIx = o = o
T ttIo). So*eti*es the 'irst aorist 'or* *ust be learne 'ro* the vo!abulary.

@I sho%A 1
st
aor o' tIxVuI @I sho%eA

tIxVuI tIxVutV ttIo ttIotV
tIxVu tIxVu1t ttIo ttIo1t
tIxVuoI tIxVuooI ttIt ttIoV

-#-)er! Aorist #nfiniti.es

<s is true o' aorist in'initives o' o*e.a verbs, /I,verb aorist in'initives es!ribe
an a!tion %ithout li*itations o' person, nu*ber, an spe!i'i! ti*e. #nly the basi!
*eanin. o' the verb an the aorist >aspe!t? re*ain. <lso like o*e.a,verb in'initives,
/I,verb in'initives also lose the au.*ent !hara!teristi! o' their !on5u.ate aorist
ini!ative 'or*s. <orist in'initives o' nor*al /I verbs en %ith the syllable VoI
(instea o' the -oIor -tIV o' o*e.a verbs), but the true in'initive enin. is tVoI.
Chen JtVoI is ae to the aorist ste*, the 'inal ste* vo%el an the epsilon o' the
in'initive enin. !ontra!t an result in a !ir!u*'le3e iphthon. or lon. vo%el be'ore
the in'initive *arker VoI.

aor in' o' ImI aor in' o' 1I0I aor in' o' I I aor in' o' I o1I

ouVoI 0tIVoI tIVoI o1VoI

<lthou.h the verb tII has no aorist tense an there'ore no aorist in'initive, its present
in'initive looks so *u!h like the aorist in'initive o' II that it shoul be *entione
here as %ell. )he present in'initive >to be? is tIVoI. )he se!on aorist in'initive o' II
(tIVoI) i''ers only in its rou.h breathin. *ark.

#rregular Aorists

)he so !alle >irre.ular? aorists i''er little 'ro* se!on aorist verbs, espe!ially o'
the /I,verb variety. )hese aorists take the enin.s V, , -, tV, 1t, ooV an have
only one !onne!tin. vo%el. Enlike *ost /I,verbs, ho%ever, the !onne!tin. vo%el is
not shortene in the plural. )hree o' the *ost i*portant verbs %ith this type o' aorist

+0
'or*ation are poIVm (>I .o?), IVmoxm (>I kno%?), an um (>I sink?). )heir aorist
'or*s are !on5u.ate belo%.

@I %entA @I kne%A @I sankA

tpV tptV tVmV tVmtV tuV tutV
tp tp1t tVm tVm1t tu tu1t
tp tpooV tVm tVmooV tu tuooV

)he aorist in'initives o' the verbs su!h as poIVm, IVmoxm, an um also take
an enin. in ,VoI. <s %ith all in'initives, they rop their au.*ents an then a the
in'initive enin. to their ste*s. )he ste* !an *ost easily be 'oun by roppin. the >V?
o' the aorist, 'irst person sin.ular.

pVoI VmVoI uVoI

-#-)er! *eponents

Deponent verbs o' the /I,verb type are, in .eneral, less !o**on than eponents
o' the o*e.a,verb type. )here are, ho%ever, so*e notable e3!eptions. )he eponent
/I verb uVooI (>I a* able?) is a very !o**on verb an %ill, therer'ore, be use as
the *oel verb 'or other /I,verb eponents. < 'e% i*portant /I,verb eponents are
tEIo1ooI (>kno%, kno% ho% to?), xo0oI (>sit?) xtIoI (>lie, re!line?).
It %ill be noti!e 'ro* the !on5u.ation o' uVooI in the present tenses that
verbal enin.s are si*ply atta!he to the verb?s ste*. <s ini!ate above, there is no
loss o' letters or !ontra!tion in the se!on,person sin.ular as is the !ase 'or eponent
o*e.a verbs. In /I,verbs, the verbal ste* alreay ens %ith a vo%el, but %here
re.ular /I,verbs len.then the 'inal ste* vo%el in the sin.ular an return it to its
ori.inal len.th in the plural, eponent /I,verbs keep the sa*e len.th o' the 'inal ste*
vo%el in both the sin.ular an plural.

Present

@I a* ableA @I lie, re!lineA @I a* seate, sitA

1st uVooI uVot0o xtIoI xtIt0o xo0oI xo0t0o
2n uVoooI uVoo0t xtIooI xtIo0t xo0ooI xo0o0t
0r uVo1oI uVoV1oI xtI1oI xtIV1oI xo01oI xo0V1oI

+1
*eponent )er!s in the Aorist ense

Dike re.ular o*e.a verbs, eponent o*e.a verbs *ay take a 'irst or se!on
aorist. Belo% are liste e3a*ples o' verbs %ith both types o' aorist. In aition, the
verb tpooI, %hi!h has both eponent an nor*al prin!ipal parts, is liste to sho%
that eponent prin!ipal parts prou!e eponent 'or*s %here a nor*al prin!ipal part
prou!es nor*al 'or*s.

'irst aorist se!on aorist se*i,eponent

Pres tooI tot0o IVooI IVot0o tpooI tpot0o
ttI tto0t IVtI IVto0t tptI tpto0t
tt1oI toV1oI IVt1oI IVoV1oI tpt1oI tpoV1oI

<or ttoV ttot0o ttVoV ttVot0o I0oV I0otV
ttm ttoo0t ttVou ttVto0t I0t I0t1t
tto1o ttoV1o ttVt1o ttVoV1o I0t I0oV

*eponent Aorists, hird or (i'th 0rincipal 0art

< key istin.uishin. 'eature o' eponent verbs (or the eponent prin!ipal parts
o' se*i,eponents) is that they have only a!tive *eanin.s. )he 'a!t that eponent
'or*s are al%ays a!tive *eans that the si3th prin!ipal part, %hi!h is usually passive, in
eponent verbs has an a!tive *eanin.. )his, in turn, *eans that eponent verbs *ay
e3press the iea o' the aorist a!tive %ith either the thir or the si3th prin!ipal part. <
'e% eponent verbs have both the thir an si3th prin!ipal parts %ith no i''eren!e in
*eanin., but *ost verbs %ill have either the thir or si3th prin!ipal part as their aorist
tense.

tooI tooI ttoV ttoV ttoV ttoV -- -- --
>I re!eive? >I %ill re!eive? >I re!eive?

IVooI tVoooI ttVoV ttVoV ttVoV ttVoV toVo ttVoI ttV0V ttV0V ttV0V ttV0V
>I be!o*e? >I %ill be!o*e? >I be!a*e? >I have be!o*e? >I have be!o*e? >I be!a*e?

uVooI uVoooI -- -- tuVoI tuV0V tuV0V tuV0V tuV0V
>I a* able? >I %ill be able? >I have been able? >I %as able?

optooI opoooI -- -- EtopoI top top top top0V 0V 0V 0V
>I 'ear? >I %ill 'ear? >I have 'eare? >I 'eare?

+2
Sin!e so*e !o**on eponent verbs 'or* their aorist tense 'ro* the si3th
prin!ipal part, it %ill be ne!essary to kno% ho% to !on5u.ate verb 'or*s base on the
ste* o' this last prin!ipal part. )he si3th prin!ipal part al%ays ens in -V V V V an *ost
o'ten has a pre!ein. 0 00 0 as %ell (see the e3a*ples o' uVooI an IVooI above).
)he 'inal V VV V o' the si3th prin!ipal part is the 'irst,person personal enin., an the 0 0 0 0 or
is a su''i3 %hi!h re*ains !onstant in all persons an nu*bers. )he si3 personal enin.s
that !an be atta!he to the ste* o' this prin!ipal part %ill be 'a*iliar 'ro* the re.ular
aorist enin.s o' /I verbs (V, , V, , V, , V, , - -- -, , , , @ tV, 1t, ooV tV, 1t, ooV tV, 1t, ooV tV, 1t, ooV). Belo% is the e3a*ple o' uVooI
!on5u.ate in the aorist tense (@I %as ableA) 'ro* the +
th
prin!ipal part.

tuV0V tuV0tV top0V top0tV
tuV0 tuV01t top0 top01t
tuV0 tuV0ooV top0 top0ooV

+0
"hapter (e.en
he #mperfect & ;uture enses

"onBugating the 0resent and #mperfect enses

)he aorist tense ini!ates si*ple a!tion in past ti*e. By !ontrast, the i*per'e!t
tense sho%s on,.oin., !ontinuous, or habitual a!tion in the past. Iery o'ten the 4n.lish
pro.ressive past tense (>they %ere senin....?, >%e %ere hearin. ...?) .ives a .oo iea o'
the 'or!e o' the :reek i*per'e!t tense.
Chere the thir prin!ipal part o' the verb provies the ste* o' the aorist tense, it
is the 'irst prin!ipal part o' a verb that provies the ste* o' the i*per'e!t tense. <s in
the aorist tense, the i*per'e!t tense also au.*ents the ste* %ith either a syllabi! or
te*poral au.*ent. <'ter the 'irst person sin.ular enin. has been roppe 'ro* the
present ste*, the personal enin.s appropriate to the verb !lass (/I or o*e.a verbs)
*ay be ae. /I verbs, o' !ourse, len.then their ste* vo%el in the sin.ular an
shorten it in the plural. )he enin.s 'or /I verbs an o*e.a verbs are as 'ollo%s.

#mperfect


V tV oV otV
1t t t1t
-- ooV t oV

In the i*per'e!t, both kins o' verbs use se!onary enin.s an augment the verb
ste*. <s in the aorist, this verbal au.*ent !an be o' t%o kins. I' the verb be.ins %ith
a !onsonant, it si*ply pre'i3es an >t? to the present ste* (syllabi! au.*ent). I' the verb
be.ins %ith a vo%el, it usually len.thens that vo%el (te*poral au.*ent). )he
'ollo%in. !hart appeare in the is!ussion o' the aorist tense but is repeate here 'or
!onvenien!e an provies a list o' vo%els %ith their usual au.*ente values.

o be!o*es I be!o*es I oI be!o*es Q
t be!o*es u be!o*es u ou be!o*es u
t be!o*es tI oI be!o*es q
o be!o*es m

So*e /I verbs sho% a sli.ht irre.ularity in the se!on an thir person sin.ular
'or* o' the i*per'e!t tense. In the verbs 1I0I an II the re.ular has

+2
une3pe!tely !han.e to tI, %hi!h represents a very si*ilar soun. )he verb ImI
also sho%s one unprei!table 'eature, na*ely, that the !onne!tin. vo%el in the
i*per'e!t sin.ular is >ou? not >m?, as one *i.ht e3pe!t.
In the !harts belo%, o*e.a verbs %ill be represente by both a 'irst an se!on,
aorist verb (Ium, ItIEm). )he /I verbs, on the other han, sho% *ore s*all
variations an %ill, there'ore, be represente by ImI, 1I0I, II an Io1I.

tIuoV tIuotV tIouV tIotV t1I0V t1I0ttV
tIut tIut1t tIou tIo1t t1I0tI t1I0t1t
tIut tIuoV tIou tIoooV t1I0tI t1I0tooV

tItIEoV tItIEotV IV IttV Io1V Io1otV
tItIEt tItIEt1t ItI It1t Io1 Io1o1t
tItIEt tItIEoV ItI ItooV Io1 Io1oooV

#mperfect ense of "ontract )er!s

)he present,tense 'or*s o' !ontra!t verbs have alreay been introu!e in
"hapter -ive. )he !hara!teristi! 'eature o' this !lass o' verbs is that they !ontra!t their
ste* vo%el %ith the the*ati! vo%els o' the personal enin.s. )his !ontra!tion,
ho%ever, nor*ally o!!urs only in the present an i*per'e!t tenses. <ll other tenses
'ollo% the pattern o' nor*al o*e.a verbs.
<n i*portant !hara!teristi! o' the !onne!tin. vo%els o' present,tense !ontra!t
verbs also hols true 'or !ontra!t verbs in the i*per'e!t. Chen !ontra!tions o!!ur in
one type o' !ontra!t verb, there are only t%o possible !ontra!tions 'or ea!h type o'
!ontra!t verb (e3!ept 'or the present 'irst,person sin.ular -m). In alpha !ontra!t verbs,
the !onne!tin. vo%el bet%een ste* an enin. is either -o or -m. In epsilon !ontra!t
verbs, only the iphthon.s -tI an -ou are possible. In o*i!ron !ontra!ts, only the
!ontra!tions -oI an -ou %ill be 'oun. )hus, three pairs o' vo%els (oSm, tISou, an
oISou) su**ari;e the !ontra!tions possible in ea!h type o' verb.
<nother 'eature share by present an i*per'e!t !ontra!t verbs is that a bo3 !an
be ra%n so that all the !onne!tin. vo%els %ithin the bo3 !orrespon to the !ontra!t?s
'irst !hara!teristi! vo%el %hile all the vo%els le't outsie the bo3 !orrespon to its
se!on. -or alpha an epsilon !ontra!ts the bo3 in!lues the 2
n
sin.ular, 0
r
sin.ular,
an 2
n
plural. #*i!ron !ontra!t verbs, ho%ever, have a s*aller bo3 in the present
tense 'or the 'irst vo%el o' its pair (,oI) an no bo3 at all 'or the 'or*s o' the i*per'e!t
(%hi!h *eans that all !onne!tin. vo%els in the i*per'e!t are Jou). )he 'ollo%in. !hart
reprou!es both the present an i*per'e!t tenses o' ea!h type o' !ontra!t verb.

+(
Present tVVm tVVmtV IIm IIoutV EIpm EIpoutV
tVV tVVo1t IItI IItI1t EIpoI EIpou1t
tVV tVVmoI IItI IIouoI EIpoI EIpouoI

I*per'e!t ttVVmV ttVVmtV tIIouV tIIoutV tEIpouV tEIpoutV
ttVVo ttVVo1t tIItI tIItI1t tEIpou tEIpou1t
ttVVo ttVVmV tIItI tIIouV tEIpou tEIpouV

)ariants of "ontract )er!s

So*e alpha !ontra!t verbs, like om, take an - in the se!on an thir sin.ular
an se!on plural instea o' the *ore !o**on -o. 43!ept 'or this !han.e o' -o to -
the verb !on5u.ates 5ust as the verb tVVom.
4psilon !ontra!t verbs %ith a sin.le syllable ste*, su!h as EItm, only !ontra!t
their enin.s %ith the ste* vo%el %hen the !ontra!tion results in the iphthon. -tI.
#ther%ise the verbal enin.s are si*ply ae to the ste* vo%el -t, an the t%o
vo%els are le't as separate, un!ontra!te syllables.

Present m mtV EItm EItotV
Q 1t EItI EItI1t
Q moI EItI EItouoI

I*per'e!t tmV tmtV tEItoV tEItotV
t t1t tEItI tEItI1t
t tmV tEItI tEItoV

#mperfect of tII tII tII tII

Dike the present tense, the i*per'e!t o' tII is irre.ularF unlike the present, the
i*per'e!t is not en!liti!. )he irre.ularities, ho%ever, o' the i*per'e!t are not as .reat as
they 'irst appear, an *ost are !on'ine to the sin.ular 'or*s. So*e%hat surprisin.ly,
the 'irst sin.ular 'or* @I %asA *ay or *ay not have a V VV V as its enin. althou.h the V VV V is
*u!h *ore !o**only use than not. )he se!on sin.ular @you %ereA, instea o'
enin. %ith a si*ple , sho%s the enin. o0o o0o o0o o0o. -inally, the thir sin.ular 'or* @he, she,
it %asA routinely takes a V VV V enin. %here in *ost /I verbs it %oul take no enin. at
all.

++
I*per'e!t o' tII

, V tV
o0o 1t
V ooV

#mperfect ense of *eponent )er!s

)he i*per'e!t tense o' eponent verbs !onveys the sa*e in'or*ation about
verbal a!tion as o nor*al verbs, but they o so %ith a i''erent set o' enin.s. )he
basi! enin.s use, ho%ever, %ill be 'a*iliar 'ro* aorist tenses o' eponent /I an
#*e.a verbs, na*ely, V, oo, 1o, t0o, o0t, V1o V, oo, 1o, t0o, o0t, V1o V, oo, 1o, t0o, o0t, V1o V, oo, 1o, t0o, o0t, V1o . Sin!e i*per'e!t eponent
verbs use the sa*e basi! enin.s as aorist eponents, it %ill be !riti!ally i*portant to
noti!e the i''eren!e in the verbs ste*.
Chile /I an #*e.a eponents use the sa*e basi! enin.s, they i''er in ho%
they 'or* their i*per'e!t tenses in t%o %ays. /I verbs have one !hara!teristi! vo%el
be'ore the eponent enin.s (unlike nor*al /I,verb aorists %ith a lon. vo%el in the
sin.ular an a short vo%el in the plural). #*e.a verbs, on the other han, use the*ati!
vo%els (o, t, t o, t, t o, t, t o, t, t @ o, t, o o, t, o o, t, o o, t, o) bet%een the ste* an enin.s. )he other i''eren!e is that
o*e.a,verb eponents e3hibit a !ontra!te 'or* in the se!on person sin.ular. )he 'ull
enin. too, there'ore, be!o*es ou ou ou ou in the i*per'e!t (as is true o' the !orresponin.
enin. in the se!on aorist). -or !o*parison, the enin.s o' the i*per'e!t an aorist
are .iven belo% 'or both /I an o*e.a verbs.


I*per'e!t
V t0o oV ot0o
oo o0t ou to0t
1o V1o t1o oV1o

<orist


So*e verbs have eponent enin.s in all tenses, %hile other verbs take eponent
'or*s only in so*e tenses. )he prin!ipal parts o' a verb, ho%ever, ini!ate %hether
eponent enin.s %ill be use an in %hat tenses they %ill o!!ur. I' a verb has a prin!ipal

+1
part %ith a eponent enin., all the tenses 'or*e 'ro* that prin!ipal part %ill take
eponent enin.s. )hus, i' the 'irst prin!ipal part (present tense) is eponent, then the
i*per'e!t tense %ill also be eponent. Belo% are e3a*ples o' /I an #*e.a eponent
verbs !on5u.ate in the i*per'e!t.


tuVoV tuVot0o ttoV ttot0o tIVoV tIVot0o
tuVooo tuVoo0t ttou ttto0t tIVou tIVto0t
tuVo1o tuVoV1o ttt1o ttoV1o tIVt1o tIVoV1o

"ontract *eponent )er!s

"ontra!t verbs, as pointe out previously, are si*ply a variety o' o*e.a verb.
)he 'eature that istin.uishes the* is that the the*ati! vo%el o' re.ular enin.s (,o, ,t,
,t, ,o, ,t, ,o) !ontra!ts %ith the 'inal vo%el o' the verbal ste*. "ontra!t eponents
uner.o the sa*e pro!ess, but it is the the*ati! vo%el o' the eponent enin.s (,ooI,
,tI, ,t1oI, et!.) that !ontra!ts %ith the 'inal ste* vo%el. Belo% are .iven e3a*ples o'
alpha, epsilon, an o*i!ron !ontra!t eponent verbs in the present an i*per'e!t.

EtIpoooI >I try? optooI >I 'ear? tVoV1IoooI >I oppose?

Present

EtIpmoI EtIpmt0o opouoI opout0o tVoV1IouoI tVoV1Iout0o
EtIp EtIpoo0t optI optIo0t tVoV1IoI tVoV1Iouo0t
EtIpo1oI EtIpmV1oI optI1oI opouV1oI tVoV1Iou1oI tVoV1IouV1oI

I*per'e!t

tEtIpmV tEtIpmt0o topouV topout0o VoV1IouV VoV1Iout0o
tEtIpm tEtIpoo0t topou toptIo0t VoV1Iou VoV1Iouo0t
tEtIpo1o tEtIpmV1o toptI1o topouV1o VoV1Iou1o VoV1IouV1o

;uture ense

In the present, i*per'e!t, an aorist tenses, o*e.a an /I,verbs *ake use o'
i''erent !onne!tin. vo%els an sli.htly i''erent enin.s. In all other tenses, ho%ever,
both !lasses o' verbs !on5u.ate alike. Put another %ay, /I,verbs have istin!tive 'or*s

+7
in only three tenses (present, i*per'e!t, aorist), but in all other tenses they !on5u.ate
e3a!tly like o*e.a verbs.
9e.ular 'uture tense verbs si*ply a a o oo o to the present ste* an then a the
'a*iliar o*e.a,verb enin.s 'ro* the present tense ( m, tI, tI, otV, t1t, ouoI).
Chen o oo o is ae to the ste*, phoneti! or ortho.raphi! !han.es are o'ten ne!essary.
So*e verbs like Ium a o oo o to its ste* (Iuo-) %ith no !han.es, but a verb like EtEm
ha the rather i''erent lookin. 'uture ste* Ety- be!ause the 'inal ste* !onsonant E EE E
has !o*bine %ith the 'uture su''i3 o oo o. -uture prin!ipal parts *ay also e3perien!e less
prei!table soun !han.es an are so*eti*es ra%n 'ro* an entirely i''erent ste*s
than the present tense. In these !ases, the only sure .uie to the !orre!t 'or* o' the
'uture tense is the verb?s se!on prin!ipal part.
/ost 'uture tense verbs %ill take the enin.s m, tI, tI, otV, t1t, ouoI, an
i' the se!on prin!ipal part ens in -m, then these enin.s !an be assu*e. I',
ho%ever, the se!on prin!ipal part ens in -ooI, then the 'uture tense is !onsiere
eponent an %ill take the sa*e enin.s as the verb tpooI.

'uture a!tive o' Ium 'uture a!tive o' ImI 'uture eponent o' tpooI

Iuom IuootV mom mootV tItuoooI tItuoot0o
IuotI Iuot1t motI mot1t tItuotI tItuoto0t
IuotI IuoouoI motI moouoI tItuot1oI tItuooV1oI

"ontract ;uture enses

#!!asionally the prin!ipal parts o' a verb %ill list a 'uture tense %hi!h !arries an
une3pe!te !ir!u*'le3 a!!ent on the ulti*a (,m). )he verb tVm >I re*ain? has su!h a
'uture in the 'or* tVm. )his type o' a!!entin. ini!ates that the 'uture tense takes
!ontra!te enin.s that are 'or*e like the present tense o' an epsilon !ontra!t verb.
4spe!ially in the !ase o' xoItm, it is easier to see ho% the 'uture 'or* be.an as
xoItom, xoItotI, et!. #ver ti*e the si.*a bet%een t%o vo%els .raually roppe
out an then the vo%els o' the enin.s be.an !ontra!tin. %ith the vo%el o' the or.inal
ste*.

@I %ill re*ainA @I %ill !allA

-uture tVm tVoutV xoIm xoIoutV
tVtI tVtI1t xoItI xoItI1t
tVtI tVouoI xoItI xoIouoI

+9

he ;uture of tII tII tII tII

<lthou.h the verb tII une3pe!tely takes eponent 'or*s in its 'uture tense,
the 'uture tense is 8uite re.ular %hen !o*pare to either the present or i*per'e!t
tenses o' the verb.
@I %ill beA

toooI toot0o
totI (Q) toto0t
tot1oI tooV1oI

#nfiniti.es

In'initives are verbal nouns, an %hile they o not e!line an have no person or
nu*ber, they o have tense an voi!e. -or the *o*ent only tense %ill be a !on!ern,
sin!e the voi!e o' all verbs an in'initives thus 'ar has been a!tive. In the ini!ative
*oo o' the verb, tense esi.nates a spe!i'i! ti*e o' a!tion (present, 'uture, past) as
%ell as kin o' a!tion (on,.oin. or !ontinuous versus si*ple). In'initives, ho%ever, o
not re'er to a spe!i'i! ti*e but rather to *anner or kin o' a!tion. )he present in'initive
sho%s on,.oin. a!tion, but oes not ne!essarily re'er to a!tion >ri.ht no%? in the
present. )he aorist in'initive ini!ates a si*ple a!tion an not ne!essarily an a!tion in
past ti*e. )he aorist 'o!uses on the basi! iea o' the a!tion an is not !on!erne %ith
%hether the a!tion is on,.oin. or !o*plete. )he per'e!t tense in'initive (%hi!h %ill be
*et in later !hapters) e*phasi;es a state o' !o*plete a!tion. )he 'uture tense i*plies
subse8uent a!tion, a!tion that !o*es a'ter so*e point ti*e.
)he 'or*ation o' in'initives has alreay been aresse pie!e*eal, but the
'ollo%in. %ill provie an overvie% o' re.ularly 'or*e in'initives.

10
-#-)er!s &mega )er!s

present 1
st
pp ste* = short vo%el = VoI 1
st
pp ste* = tIV

IoVoI IutIV, ItIEtIV
1I0tVoI tVVoV
ItVoI IItIV
Io1oVoI EIpouV

aorist 0
r
pp ste* = !ontra!te vo%el = VoI 0
r
pp ste* = oIor tIV

ouVoI IuooI, IIEtIV
0tIVoI tVVooI
tIVoI IIooI
o1VoI EIpmooI

'uture 2
n
pp ste* = tIV 2
n
pp ste* = tIV

motIV IuotIV, ItIytIV
0otIV tVVotIV
otIV IIotIV
o1otIV EIpmotIV

*eponent #nfiniti.es

)he *ost !o**on enin. 'or the in'initive o' a eponent verb is o0oI, an it
usually o!!urs %ith the !onne!tin. vo%el epsilon (thus -to0oI). I', ho%ever, a
eponent verb uses the si3th prin!ipal part to 'or* its aorist tense, then the enin.
VoI%ill be use.

11
-#-)er!s &mega )er!s

present 1
st
pp ste* = short vo%el = o0oI 1
st
pp ste* = to0oI

uVoo0oI tto0oI, IVto0oI
EtIpoo0oI
optIo0oI
tVoV1Iouo0oI

aorist 0
r
pp ste* = !ontra!te vo%el = VoI 0
r
pp ste* = oo0oIor to0oI

too0oI, tVto0oI

+
th
pp ste* = VoI +
th
pp ste* = VoI

uV0VoI pouI0VoI, tV0VoI

'uture 2
n
pp ste* = to0oI 2
n
pp ste* = to0oI

uVoto0oI tto0oI, tVoto0oI

he )er! tIIm tIIm tIIm tIIm C the 0resent or ;uture #nfiniti.e

/ost verbs that take !o*ple*entary in'initives %ill *ost o'ten take in'initives
that are either present or aorist. )he present tense %ill e*phasi;e the on,.oin. a!tion
o' the in'initive %here the aorist tense %ill ten to report the in'initive?s a!tion as a
si*ple 'a!t. )he verb tIIm @I a* about to....A, ho%ever, be!ause it !arries a *eanin.
that is 'or%ar or 'uture lookin. is usually asso!iate %ith either a present or a 'uture
tense in'initive to 'ill out its *eanin..

12
"hapter Eight

AdBecti.es in General

<5e!tives provie aitional in'or*ation about the nouns they *oi'y. )hey
*ay si*ply point out a noun (su!h as the e*onstrative a5e!tives >this, that?), or they
*ay attribute so*e 8uality to a noun (>.oo, evil, lar.e, s*all?). )he ter* >a5e!tive? is
erive 'ro* the Datin %ors ad >to, to%ar? an iacio >I thro%?, an so an a5e!tive is
literally a %or >thro%n alon. sie? the noun it *oi'ies or 8uali'ies.
Sin!e :reek %or orer is 8uite 'le3ible an :reek senten!es *ay !ontain a
nu*ber o' i''erent nouns, %or orer !annot be relie on to eter*ine %hat a5e!tive
*oi'ies %hat noun,,:reek a5e!tives o not even have to be pla!e i**eiately ne3t
to their nouns. <5e!tives *ust, there'ore, be *arke or >keye? to the nouns they
*oi'y. )his is one throu.h !ase enin.s. Sin!e nouns *ay be *as!uline, 'e*inine,
or neuter, sin.ular or plural, an *ay o!!ur in any o' the 'our !ases, a5e!tives *ust,
there'ore, be able to ini!ate any !o*bination o' nu*ber, .ener, an !ase.
)o !reate its 'or*s, an a5e!tive *ay use one o' 'our basi! patterns o' enin.s.
#ne pattern is to use thir e!lension enin.s 'or *as!uline an neuter 'or*s an 'irst
e!lension enin.s 'or 'e*inine 'or*s. < se!on pattern uses only thir e!lension
'or*s an re8uires that *as!uline an 'e*inine a5e!tives share the sa*e 'or*s.
<nother a5e!tive parai.* !reates its 'or*s %ith se!on an 'irst e!lension enin.s.
/as!uline an neuter 'or*s take the se!on e!lension, an 'e*inine 'or*s take the
'irst. -inally, there is an a5e!tive pattern that uses only se!on e!lension enin.s.
#n!e a.ain, the *as!uline an 'e*inine *ust share 'or*s, an the neuter i''ers only
in the no*inative an a!!usative !ases. #ne point that is essential to re*e*ber
!on!ernin. a5e!tives is that a5e!tives o' one e!lensional pattern !annot take the
enin.s o' another. )hus, an a5e!tive?s enin.s %ill not al%ays look the sa*e as those
o' the noun it *oi'ies, but the .ra**ati!al in'or*ation !onveye by the a5e!tive
*at!hes the in'or*ation !onveye by its noun (EoII xoI >a beauti'ul !ity? opo
to >a .reat *ountain? et!.).

AdBecti.e ?se and AdBecti.es as (u!stanti.es

<5e!tive use *ay be ivie into t%o istin!t !ate.ories, attributive an
prei!ative. I' the a5e!tive is !onne!te to its noun via a 'or* o' >to be?, then the
a5e!tive is !onsiere prei!ative. I' the a5e!tive si*ply attributes a 8uality to a noun
%ithout the a.en!y o' >to be?, then it is !onsiere attributive.
Besies *oi'yin. nouns, a5e!tives *ay so*eti*es stan alone as a
substantives. I' an a5e!tive 'un!tions in this %ay, its .ener an nu*ber usually i*ply

10
a >*an?, >%o*an?, or >thin.? %ith the parti!ular 8uality o' the a5e!tive. In a senten!e
like oo0oI tVouoI tV 1Q EoItI @.oo *en (or people) re*ain in the !ityA, the
a5e!tive >.oo? is no*inative, *as!uline, an plural, an so it i*plies >*en? or >people?
sin!e the *as!uline .ener esi.nates either a *as!uline or *i3e, .enere .roup. I',
ho%ever, the senten!e reas oo0oI tVouoI tV 1Q EoItI then the .ener %oul
ini!ate that @.oo %o*en live in the !ityA. )he a5e!tive *ay also be use in the
neuter to i*ply a thin. or thin.s that possess the 8uality o' the a5e!tive, as in the
senten!es IopoVotV oo0o oEo 1ou pooIItm @%e re!eive .oo thin.s 'ro* the
kin.A or IopoVotV oo0oV oEo 1ou pooIItm @%e re!eive a .oo thin. 'ro*
the kin.A.

hird & ;irst-*eclension AdBecti.es

<n i*portant an !o**only use !lass o' a5e!tives takes enin.s o' the thir
an 'irst e!lensions. )he *as!uline an neuter .eners take thir,e!lension enin.s,
an the 'e*inine 'or*s take enin.s o' the 'irst e!lension. Chen a5e!tives are .iven
in a vo!abulary list or in a i!tionary, it is !o**on to list their no*inative sin.ular
'or*s an so*eti*es their .enitive sin.ular 'or*s i' there is any oubt about the
a5e!tive?s ste*. )he ste* o' the 'e*inine 'or*s !an be 'oun by roppin. the enin.
'ro* the no*inative sin.ular 'or* (it shoul be note in the a5e!tive Eooo that the
sin.ular enin.s %ill alternate %ith o>s an >s sin!e the initial ,o oes not 'ollo% t, I
or p). In the !ase o' the *as!uline an neuter 'or*s, ho%ever, the true ste* o' the thir
e!lension 'or*s !an only be eter*ine 'ro* the .enitive sin.ular 'or*. )hus, the
ste* 'or the thir,e!lension 'or*s o' Eo, Eooo, EoV is EoV1,,a ste* %hi!h loses the
,V1 %hen ,oI is ae in the ative plural.

all, everyF %hole

Sin. Plur
* ' n * ' n

no* Eo Eooo EoV EoV1t EoooI EoV1o
.en EoV1o Eoo EoV1o EoV1mV EoomV EoV1mV
at EoV1I EooQ EoV1I EooI EoooI EooI
a!! EoV1o EoooV EoV EoV1o Eooo EoV1o

)he *eanin.s o' Eo vary so*e%hat epenin. on %here this a5e!tive is
pla!e in relation to the arti!leSnoun unit, %hether there is an arti!le %ith the noun, an
%hether the %or Eo is sin.ular or plural. #utsie an arti!leSnoun unit the Eo

12
*eans >all?. I' there is no arti!le an the noun is sin.ular a *oi'yin. 'or* o' Eo
*eans >every?, an i' a 'or* o' Eo is pla!e bet%een the arti!le an noun an a.rees
%ith that noun, it *eans %hole.

Eooo EoII >all the !ity? EoooI oI EoItI >all the !ities?
Eooo EoII >every !ity? EoooI EoItI >all !ities?
Eooo EoII >the %hole !ity?

<nother pattern o' a5e!tives that 'ollo%s the thir an 'irst e!lension e3hibits
the enin.s ,u ,tIo ,u in the no*inative sin.ular. )his type o' a5e!tive *ay see*
unprei!table at 'irst until si*ilarities %ith !ertain noun e!lensions are note. -or
pra!ti!al purposes, the ste* o' this a5e!tive !an be 'oun by roppin. the ,u 'ro* the
no*inative sin.ular 'or*. -e*inine 'or*s a the iphthon. ,tI- to the ste* be'ore
the 'irst e!lension enin.s, an sin!e the 'e*inine ste* 1otI, ens in an ,I,, all the
sin.ular 'e*inine enin.s have an alpha. )hus, the 'e*inine 'or*s o' a5e!tives in ,u
,tIo ,u 'ollo% the pattern o' mpo.
)he thir,e!lension 'or*s o' this a5e!tive are si*ilar to the enin.s o' the
spe!ial thir,e!lension noun EoII. Chere EoII has an ,I, in the no*inative an
a!!usative, an a5e!tive like 1ou has the vo%el ,u. )he %or EoII has also
uner.one 8uantitative *etathesis in its .enitive sin.ular ,tm, %here a5e!tives in ,u
,tIo ,u have the *ore nor*al lookin. enin. ,to in the .enitive sin.ular.

>s%i't, 8ui!k?

Sin. Plur
* ' n * ' n

no* 1ou 1otIo 1ou 1otI 1otIoI 1oto
.en 1oto 1otIo 1oto 1otmV 1otImV 1otmV
at 1otI 1otI 1otI 1otoI 1otIoI 1otoI
a!! 1ouV 1otIoV 1ou 1otI 1otIo 1oto

&ne, 1o &ne

)he %or >one? is .enerally use as an a5e!tive, althou.h it *ay also be use as
pronounF the %or >no one, nothin.?, on the other han, is .enerally use as a pronoun.
Dike the a5e!tives Eo an 1ou, tI an outI take thir,e!lension enin.s in
their *as!uline an neuter 'or*s an 'irst,e!lension enin.s in their 'e*inine 'or*s.
)he 'e*inine 'or*s all have alpha,type enin.s be!ause the ste* ens in >I?.

1(
Se*anti!ally, >one? an >no one, nothin.? !an only be sin.ular, an so the %ors tI an
outI o not have plural 'or*s.

>one? >no one, nothin.?

* ' n * ' n

no* tI Io tV outI outIo outV
.en tVo Io tVo outVo outIo outVo
at tVI I tVI outVI outI outVI
a!! tVo IoV tV outVo outIoV outV

hird-*eclension AdBecti.es

< nu*ber o' a5e!tives take only thir,e!lension enin.s. <5e!tives o' this
kin use the sa*e 'or*s 'or both *as!uline an 'e*inine .eners an sli.htly i''erent
'or*s 'or the neuter. Be!ause these a5e!tives have only t%o 'or*s in the no*inative
sin.ular, they are o'ten !alle t%o,ter*ination a5e!tives. #ne thir,e!lension
a5e!tive has alreay been introu!e in earlier !hapters, na*ely, the ine'inite
a5e!tive 1I 1I >so*e, a !ertain?. (1I 1I *ay also be use as a pronoun >so*e one,
so*ethin.? i' it oes not *oi'y another %or.)

Sin. Plur

*, ' n *, ' n

no* 1I 1I 1IVt 1IVo

<nother i*portant variety o' the thir,e!lension a5e!tive has no*inative
sin.ular 'or*s in , ,t. )his a5e!tive shares *any si*ilarities %ith the noun opo.
)he .enitive an ative !ases 'ollo% opo e3a!tly as o the plural neuter no*inative
an a!!usative. )he neuter plural enin. - happens to look the sa*e as the sin.ular
*as!uline an 'e*inine a!!usative sin.ular sin!e the enin.s results 'ro* the sa*e
!ontra!tion (,to).

1+

>true, truth'ul?

Sin. Plur
*, ' n *, ' n

no* oI0 oI0t oI0tI oI0
.en oI0ou oI0ou oI0mV oI0mV
at oI0tI oI0tI oI0toI oI0toI
a!! oI0 oI0t oI0tI oI0

< thir type o' t%o,ter*ination thir,e!lension a5e!tive has no*inative
sin.ular 'or*s in ,mV ,oV. )he 'or*s o' the noun oImV provie a help'ul pattern 'or
this variety o' a5e!tive. #nly the neuter no*inative an a!!usative enin.s nee
spe!ial attention, sin!e the *oel %or oImV has no neuter 'or*s.

'oolish, senseless?

Sin. Plur
*, ' n *, ' n

no* opmV opoV opoVt opoVo
.en opoVo opoVo opoVmV opoVmV
at opoVI opoVI opooI opooI
a!! opoVo opoV opoVo opoVo

)his type o' thir,e!lension a5e!tive is espe!ially i*portant be!ause *any
!o*parative a5e!tives 'ollo% its pattern o' enin.s. <lthou.h there are several %ays
to 'or* !o*parative a5e!tives, so*e o' the *ost !o**on !o*paratives take enin.s
like opmV (e... tImV >.reater?, xptI11mV >better?, xoIIImV >*ore beauti'ul?).

(econd & ;irst-*eclension AdBecti.es

<5e!tives o' the se!on an 'irst e!lension are not only 8uite !o**on, but
they also ten to be less !o*pli!ate than thir,e!lension a5e!tives. )he ste* o' a
se!on an 'irst,e!lension a5e!tive !an al*ost al%ays be eter*ine by roppin. the
,o o' the *as!uline sin.ular no*inative 'or*. De!linin. a5e!tives o' this type is
*ae si*pler still by its si*ilarity to the e'inite arti!le. )he a5e!tive xoIo, 'or

11
e3a*ple, has enin.s like the arti!le e3!ept 'or three 'or*s$ *as!uline an neuter
no*inative sin.ular an the netuer a!!usative sin.ular (!o*pare the o 1o ).

>beauti'ul, .oo?
Sin. Plur
* ' n * ' n

no* xoIo xoI xoIoV xoIoI xoIoI xoIo
.en xoIou xoI xoIou xoImV xoImV xoImV
at xoIq xoIQ xoIq xoIoI xoIoI xoIoI
a!! xoIoV xoIV xoIoV xoIou xoIo xoIo

So*e a5e!tives that take se!on an 'irst,e!lension enin.s have an p, t or I
as the last letter o' the ste*, an in this !ase, the enin.s o' the 'e*inine sin.ular have
all o>s rather than >s.

>s*all?
Sin. Plur
* ' n * ' n

no* Ixpo Ixpo IxpoV IxpoI IxpoI Ixpo
.en Ixpou Ixpo Ixpou IxpmV IxpmV IxpmV
at Ixpq Ixp Ixpq IxpoI IxpoI IxpoI
a!! IxpoV IxpoV IxpoV Ixpou Ixpo Ixpo

#rregular (econd & ;irst-*eclension AdBecti.es

)here are !ertain sli.htly irre.ular a5e!tives o' the se!on an 'irst e!lension.
)heir unprei!table 'or*s, ho%ever, are 'oun only in the no*inative an a!!usative
'or*s o' the *as!uline an neuter sin.ular. I' the no*inative sin.ular 'or*s are
kno%n, a!!usative 'or*s are prei!table, an the 'e*inine no*inative sin.ular
provies the ste* 'or all other 'or*s o' the a5e!tive.

17
>.reat, lar.e?
Sin. Plur
* ' n * ' n

no* to toI to toIoI toIoI toIo
.en toIou toI toIou toImV toImV toImV
at toIq toIQ toIq toIoI toIoI toIoI
a!! toV toIV to toIou toIo toIo

>*u!hF *any?
Sin. Plur
* ' n * ' n

no* EoIu EoII EoIu EoIIoI EoIIoI EoIIo
.en EoIIou EoII EoIIou EoIImV EoIImV EoIImV
at EoIIq EoIIQ EoIIq EoIIoI EoIIoI EoIIoI
a!! EoIuV EoIIV EoIu EoIIou EoIIo EoIIo

In 4n.lish, the %ors >*u!h? an >*any? are i''erent %ors, but in :reek both
*eanin.s are !onveye by one %or (EoIu). )hus, the istin!tion bet%een the
notions o' >*u!h? an >*any? is not so *u!h one o' root *eanin. but o' the sa*e basi!
*eanin. e3presse either as sin.ular or as plural.

(econd-*eclension AdBecti.es

)he t%o,ter*ination a5e!tive o' the se!on e!lension is si*ilar to that o' the
thir e!lension but involves 'e%er !o*pli!ations an variations. /as!uline an
'e*inine 'or*s are the sa*e an take the enin.s 'a*iliar 'ro* the noun oIxo.
6euter enin.s are the sa*e as the enin.s o' the noun mpoV.

>un5ust, evil?
Sin. Plur
*, ' n *, ' n

no* oIxo oIxoV oIxoI oIxo
.en oIxou oIxou oIxmV oIxmV
at oIxq oIxq oIxoI oIxoI
a!! oIxoV oIxoV oIxou oIxo

19
*emonstrati.e AdBecti.es and 0ronouns

#' the three e*onstrative %ors in :reek (>this?, >that?, >thisSthat?), the 'irst t%o,
ou1o an txtIVo, take the sa*e enin.s as the %or ou1o. )he thir
e*onstrative, %hi!h si*ply points an !an *ean >this? or >that?, !onsists o' the arti!le
%ith the su''i3 ,t. )hese three %ors !an be use either as substantives or a5e!tives.
Chen they *oi'y nouns, unlike other a5e!tives they take the prei!ate position, that
is, the e*ostrative is pla!e either be'ore or a'ter the noun,arti!le unit.

>this?
Sin. Plur
* ' n * ' n

no* ou1o ou1 1ou1o ou1oI ou1oI 1ou1o
.en 1ou1ou 1ou1 1ou1ou 1ou1mV 1ou1mV 1ou1mV
at 1ou1q 1ou1Q 1ou1q 1ou1oI 1ou1oI 1ou1oI
a!! 1ou1oV 1ou1V 1ou1o 1ou1ou 1ou1o 1ou1o

>that?

Sin. Plur
* ' n * ' n

no* txtIVo txtIV txtIVo txtIVoI txtIVoI txtIVo
.en txtIVou txtIV txtIVou txtIVmV txtIVmV txtIVmV
at txtIVq txtIVQ txtIVq txtIVoI txtIVoI txtIVoI
a!! txtIVoV txtIVV txtIVo txtIVou txtIVo txtIVo

>this, that?

Sin. Plur
* ' n * ' n

no* ot t 1ot oIt oIt 1ot
.en 1out 1ot 1out 1mVt 1mVt 1mVt
at 1qt 1Qt 1qt 1oIot 1oIot 1oIot
a!! 1oVt 1Vt 1ot 1ouot 1oot 1ot

70
0osition of AdBecti.es

It has alreay been note above that a e*onstrative a5e!tive takes prei!ate
position in relation to the noun it *oi'ies, that is, it is pla!e outsie o' the arti!le noun
.roup %ith %hi!h it a.rees. )he usual position 'or a5e!tives o' 8uality, ho%ever, is the
attributive position, %hi!h is bet%een the arti!le an the noun *oi'ie. )here are,
ho%ever, t%o variations o' attributive position. )he 'irst is the !o**on orer 'oun in
4n.lish, na*ely, arti!le,,a5e!tiveWnoun, as in @the beauti'ul !ityA xoI EoII.
)he se!on pattern, ho%ever, is arti!le,,noun, arti!le,,a5e!tive, as in EoII
xoI, %hi!h is literally translate as @the !ity, the beauti'ul (one)A but still *eans
@the beauti'ul !ityA.

Placement of Demonstrative djectives

ou1o o oVp @)his *anA

1Q uVoIxI txtIVQ @to that %o*anA

Placement of djectives of !uality

tx 1 xoI EoItm
tx 1 EoItm 1 xoI @out o' the beauti'ul !ityA

tI 1V toIV 0oIo11oV
tI 1V 0oIo11oV 1V toIV @into the .reat seaA

Chen, ho%ever, a nor*al attributive a5e!tive is pla!e in prei!ate position (that is,
outsie the arti!le,noun .roup) then it is e8uivalent to a prei!ate a5e!tive %ith a 'or*
o' >to be? unerstoo.

1ou o IEEo @)he horse is s%i't.A

oI IooI oI0tI @)he %ors are true.A

Ixpo o EoI @)he !hil is s*all.A

71
"hapter 1ine
0erfect and 0luperfect ensesD
0ersonal 0ronouns

0erfect Aspect

<s note in earlier !hapters, :reek verbs !onvey not only the ti*e o' an a!tion
but also type or kin o' a!tion. )he i*per'e!t an aorist tenses, 'or e3a*ple, both re'er
to a!tion in the past, but the i*per'e!t sho%s !ontinuous or on,.oin. a!tion %here the
aorist ini!ates a si*ple a!tion. )his notion o' kin or type o' a!tion is !alle verbal
aspe!t.
In aition to !ontinuous an si*ple a!tion or aspe!t, :reek also istin.uishes a
thir type o' a!tion, na*ely !o*plete or >per'e!t? aspe!t. <ll per'e!t tenses e*phasi;e
that the a!tion o' the verb has been !o*plete an has resulte in a 'inishe state.
)here are three per'e!t tenses, the per'e!t, pluper'e!t, an 'uture per'e!t. )he per'e!t
tense re'ers to a !o*plete state in present ti*e an is, there'ore, a pri*ary tense.
<lthou.h 4n.lish an :reek usa.e o not e3a!tly !orrespon, a rou.h e8uivalent to the
:reek per'e!t tense is the 4n.lish present per'e!t %ith the helpin. verbs >have? or >has?
(>I have %ritten a book?, >they have 'inishe the ra!e.?) )he pluper'e!t tense re'ers to an
a!tion !o*plete at so*e point in past ti*e, an is best translate %ith an 4n.lish past
per'e!t %ith the helpin. verb >ha?. )he 'uture per'e!t tense, %hi!h !an be translate
%ith the helpin. verbs >%ill have?, is not !o**on in :reek an %ill be is!usse in
later !hapters.

;ormation of 0erfect enses

)he per'e!t an pluper'e!t tenses are istin.uishe by their o%n set o' enin.s
an by pre'i3in. a >reupli!ation? to the verbal ste*. I' reupli!ation is not possible, an
au.*ent is ae instea althou.h this >au.*ent? oes not si.ni'y past ti*e. /any
per'e!ts also a a >x? as a su''i3 to their ste* be'ore ain. per'e!t enin.s. Ierbs
that a the >x? are kno%n as 'irst per'e!ts an verbs %ithout the >x? as se!on per'e!ts.
Se!on per'e!ts (like se!on aorists) o'ten uner.o a !han.e o' ste* vo%el (ItIEm >I
leave? / ItIoIEo >I have le't?).
In orer to re!o.ni;e verbs in the per'e!t an pluper'e!t tenses, it is ne!essary to
unerstan ho% these tenses are !onstru!te. )o reprou!e the per'e!t tense o' a .iven
verb, ho%ever, the only sure .uie is to kno% the verb?s prin!ipal parts. So*e :reek
verbs, like Ium or EoItum !an be re.ularly 'or*e 'ro* the 'irst prin!ipal part, but
*ost verbs uner.o too *any ste* !han.es to be prei!table.

72
"ndings

Chile per'e!t ste*s *ay vary, per'e!t an pluper'e!t enin.s are the sa*e 'or all
but a s*all nu*ber o' irre.ular verbs. It *akes no i''eren!e %hether a .iven verb
takes a 'irst or se!on per'e!t (i.e. a 'or* %ith or %ithout a >x? su''i3)F the enin.s liste
belo% %ill be use 'or both varieties o' per'e!t. In this %ay, 'irst an se!on per'e!ts
i''er 'ro* 'irst an se!on aorists, sin!e 'irst an se!on aorists take i''erent sets o'
enin.s, but 'irst an se!on per'e!ts take the sa*e set o' enin.s. )he se!on per'e!t
la!ks the >x? an usually !han.es the ste* vo%el. )he enin.s 'or per'e!t an
pluper'e!t tenses are liste belo%.

Sin. Plur

Per'e!t -o -otV
-o -o1t
-t -ooI

Pluper'e!t - -ttV
- -t1t
-tI -tooV

#eduplication or ugment of the Perfect

#ne o' the *ost obvious si.ns o' the per'e!t tense is reupli!ation, that is, the
initial !onsonant o' the verbal ste* is ouble an %ith an >t> !onne!tin. vo%el is
pre'i3e to the verbal ste*. I' the verbal ste* be.ins %ith a sin.le !onsonant (e3!ept p)
or %ith a !onsonant 'ollo%e by I, , V, p, that 'irst !onsonant is reupli!ate as a si.n
o' the per'e!t tense.

EoItum >I tea!h? Et Et Et EtEoItuxo >I have tau.ht?,
poIIm >I thro%? pt pt pt pt pIxo >I have thro%n?

I' the initial !onsonant o' the ste* is an aspirate, it is reupli!ate %ith its non,aspirate
value
IItm >I love? Et Et Et EtIIxo >I have love?,
0ouom >I *arvel? 1t 1t 1t 1t0ouoxo >I have *arvele?,
oIVm >I .ape? xt xt xt xt Vo >I have .ape?

I', ho%ever, the ste* o' the verb be.ins %ith a vo%el, a p, or a ouble !onsonant (other

70
than a stop = I, , V, p) it !annot be reupli!ate. In these !ases the ste* is si*ply
au.*ente. I' the vo%el ste* be.ins %ith a vo%el, the vo%el is len.thene, that is,
.iven a te*poral au.*ent.

tpm1om >I ask? pm1xo >I have aske?

I' the ste* be.ins %ith a !onsonant !luster that !annot be reupli!ate, a si*ple
syllabi! (>t>) au.*ent is pre'i3e to the ste*

o1tIIm >I sen? t t t t o1oIxo >I have sent?

ugment of the Pluperfect

)he pluper'e!t tense be.ins %ith the ste* o' the per'e!t, that is, the 'ourth
prin!ipal part %ithout the personal enin. -o (ItIux-o or ItIoIE-o 'or e3a*ple). )he
pluper'e!t enin.s (, , tI, ttV, t1t, tooV) are then ae to the ste*, an i' the
per'e!t ste* has been reupli!ate, it re!eives an >t> au.*ent as a pre'i3 to the ste*

Ium >I loose? ItIuxo >I have loose? t t t tItIux >I ha loose?

I', ho%ever, the per'e!t ste* has been au.*ente (an there'ore be.ins %ith a vo%el),
the au.*ente ste* is kept un!han.e an only the enin.s are !han.e

tpm1om >I ask? pm1xo >I have aske? pm1x >I ha aske?

;irst and (econd 0erfects "onBugated

Diste belo% are e3a*ples o' three verbs (Ium >I loose?, ItIEm >I leave?, om >I
lea?) !on5u.ate in the per'e!t an pluper'e!t tenses. )he verbs Ium an ItIEm
reupli!ate, %here the verb om au.*ents the initial vo%el o' its verbal ste*.

Per'e!t ItIuxo ItIuxotV ItIoIEo ItIoIEotV o otV
ItIuxo ItIuxo1t ItIoIEo ItIoIEo1t o o1t
ItIuxt ItIuxooI ItIoIEt ItIoIEooI t ooI

Pluper'e!t tItIux tItIuxttV tItIoIE tItIoIEttV ttV
tItIux tItIuxt1t tItIoIE tItIoIEt1t t1t
tItIuxtI tItIuxtooV tItIoIEtI tItIoIEtooV tI tooV

72

0erfect enses with 0resent -eanings

"ertain verbs in :reek o!!ur in the per'e!t tense but have present *eanin.s.
)his use o' the per'e!t tense is a natural e3tension o' the iea o' !o*plete a!tion in
present ti*e. #ne o' the *ost i*portant verbs o' this !lass is the verb oIo >I kno%?.
)he verb has no present tense, an its per'e!t tense !onveys the iea >I have !o*e to
kno%? or, *ore si*ply, >I kno%?. In orer to e3press the sa*e verbal iea in past ti*e
(>I kne%?), the pluper'e!t o' oIo *ust be use.
)he oler 'or*s o' oIo (belo% le't) la!k !onne!tin. vo%els bet%een ste* an
enin.s an in the per'e!t even sho% !han.e ste* vo%els in the sin.ular an plural.
4ven in an!ient ti*es, ho%ever, the 'or*s o' oIo %ere re.ulari;e (belo% ri.ht) an
%ere o'ten !on5u.ate %ith !onsistent ste*s an re.ular per'e!t an pluper'e!t
enin.s.

Per'e!t o' oIo @I kno%A

sin. plur sin. plur

oIo IotV oIo oIotV
oIo0o Io1t oIo oIo1t
oIt IoooI oIt oIooI

Pluper'e!t o' oIo @I kne%A

sin. plur sin. plur

Q QotV QtIV QttV
Qo0o Qo1t QtI Qt1t
QtI QooV QtI (V) QtooV

)er!s with ;irst and (econd 0erfects

#!!asionally, a verb %ill have both a 'irst an a se!on per'e!t liste in its
prin!ipal parts. In *ost !ases, the 'irst per'e!t %ill have an transitive a!tive *eanin.
an the se!on an intransitive *eanin.. In the verb oIIuI >I estroy?, 'or e3a*ple,
the 'irst per'e!t oImItxo *eans >I have estroye? %here the se!on per'e!t oImIo

7(
*eans >I a* ruine?. In the verb EtI0m >I persuae?, the 'irst per'e!t EtEtIxo *eans >I
have persuae? an the se!on per'e!t EtEoI0o *eans >I trust?.

0erfect enses of *eponent )er!s

)he eponent 'or*s o' the per'e!t tense are !reate by ain. the enin.s ire!tly
to the per'e!t ste*. )he enin.s 'or eponent verbs in the per'e!t an pluper'e!t are as
'ollo%s.
Sin. Plur

Per'e!t -oI -t0o
-ooI -o0t
-1oI -V1oI

Pluper'e!t -V -t0o
-oo -o0t
-1o -V1o

)he enin.s use are !learly the very sa*e as in other pri*ary an se!onary tenses o'
eponent verbs. In the eponent verbs uVooI an IVooI, %hi!h are liste belo%,
the pri*ary enin.s oI, ooI, 1oI, t0o, o0t, V1oI are atta!he ire!tly to the per'e!t
ste* to .ive the per'e!t tense, an the se!onary enin.s V, oo, 1o, t0o, o0t, V1o
are ae to the pluper'e!t ste* (the per'e!t ste* %ith an au.*ent). Cith verbs %hose
per'e!t ste* ens in a vo%el, these enin.s !an easily be 5oine to the ste* %ith no
soun or ortho.raphi! !han.es. I' the per'e!t ste* ens in a !onsonant so*e soun
!han.es are *ae as in the per'e!t tenses o' oE1ooI, IoV0oVooI, an tooI.

uVooI I am able IVooI I become
(stem tuV-) have been able (stem ttV-) have become

Per' tuVoI tuVt0o ttVoI ttVt0o
tuVooI tuVo0t ttVooI ttVo0t
tuV1oI tuVV1oI ttV1oI ttVV1oI

Plup' ttuVV ttuVt0o tttVV tttVt0o
ttuVoo ttuVo0t tttVoo tttVo0t
ttuV1o ttuVV1o tttV1o tttVV1o

7+
optooI I fear oE1ooI I grasp, take hold of
(stem Etop-) have feared (stem -) have grasped

Perf EtopoI Etopt0o oI t0o
EtopooI Etopo0t yoI 0t
Etop1oI EtoptVoI E1oI tVoI
tIoI tIoI

Plupf tEtopV tEtopt0o V tttt0o
tEtopoo tEtopo0t yo 0t
tEtop1o EtoptVoI E1o tVoI
ooV ooV

IoV0oVooI I forget tooI I receive
(stem ItI0-) have forgotten (stem ttx-) have received

Perf ItIooI ItIot0o ttoI ttt0o
ItIooI ItIo0t ttoI tt0t
ItIo1oI ItIotVoI ttx1oI tttVoI
tIoI tIoI

Plupf tItIoV tItIot0o tttV tttt0o
tItIoo tItIo0t ttto ttt0t
tItIo1o ItIotVoI tttx1o tttVoI
ooV ooV

71
Su**ary o' 6or*al Ierb 4nin.s

-# .er!s L LL L-.er!s

-uture
m otV
tI t1t
tI ouoI

Present
I tV m otV
1t tI t1t
oI ooI tI ouoI

I*per'e!t
V tV oV otV
1t t t1t
-- ooV t oV

<orist

xoV V tV o otV oV otV
xoV 1t o o1t t t1t
xtV -- ooV t oV t oV

Per'e!t
o otV
o o1t
t ooI

Pluper'e!t
ttV
t1t
tI tooV

77
Su**ary o' Deponent Ierb 4nin.s


-uture
ooI ot0o
tI to0t
t1oI oV1oI

Present
oI t0o ooI ot0o
ooI o0t tI to0t
1oI V1oI t1oI oV1oI

I*per'e!t
V t0o oV ot0o
oo o0t ou to0t
1o V1o t1o oV1o

<orist


Per'e!t
oI t0o
ooI o0t
1oI V1oI

Pluper'e!t
V t0o
oo o0t
1o V1o

79
Su**ary o' In'initive 4nin.s

-# .er!s L LL L-.er!s
nor*al eponent nor*al eponent

-uture tIV to0oI

Present VoI o0oI tIV to0oI

<orist tVoIV o0oI 1st aor oI oo0oI
And aor tIV to0oI

Per'e!t tVoI o0oI

90
"hapter en
0articiples 0resent, Aorist, 0erfect & ;uture enses

0articiples in General

<lthou.h parti!iples are erive 'ro* verbs, .ra**ati!ally they are !lasse as
a5e!tives, an like all a5e!tives, parti!iples are use 'irst an 'ore*ost to *oi'y
nouns. < parti!iple, there'ore, *oi'ies or attributes a 8uality to a noun, but *ore
spe!i'i!ally, a parti!iple attributes a verbal 8uality to a noun. Parti!iples share or
participate in the 8ualities o' both verbs an a5e!tives. <s a5e!tives, parti!iples a.ree
%ith the nouns they *oi'y in nu*ber, .ener, an !ase an are e!line a!!orin. to
the patterns o' a5e!tives. Sin!e, ho%ever, they are erive 'ro* verbs, parti!iples also
isplay !ertain verbal 8ualities. )hey have tense an voi!e an *ay take ire!t ob5e!ts
an averbs. In this !hapter only parti!iples %ith a!tive *eanin.s %ill be is!usse.
Parti!iples !an o!!ur in 'our tenses$ present, aorist, per'e!t, an 'uture. But
unlike the 'inite verbs treate thus 'ar, a parti!iple oes not sho% a!tion that is 'i3e to
a ti*eline as absolutely present, past, or 'uture. Instea, a parti!iple sho%s verbal
a!tion that is relative to the 'inite verb o' the !lause in %hi!h the parti!iple o!!urs. #n
the *ost basi! level, a parti!iple?s tense ini!ates a kin or type o' a!tion (i.e. verbal
aspe!t). )he kins o' a!tion sho%n in a parti!iple *ay be !ontinuous, si*ple,
!o*plete, or subse8uent. -ro* these i''erent verbal aspe!ts, the parti!iple?s tense !an
sho% that the parti!iple?s a!tion is .oin. on at the sa*e ti*e as a 'inite verb, is prior to
the verb, is !o*plete at the ti*e o' the verb, or even is o!!urin. a'ter the verb.

0articipial -eaning

)he ori.inal si.ni'i!an!e o' the present parti!iple is that o' !ontinuous,
in!o*plete, or on,.oin. a!tion. )he present parti!iple ini!ates !ontinuous a!tion, an
'ro* this on,.oin. aspe!t o' parti!iple is erive the *ost !o**on *eanin. o' the
present parti!iple, na*ely, a!tion !onte*porary to or at the sa*e ti*e as that o' the
verb. )he 4n.lish >,in.? parti!iple provies a basi! e8uivalent to the :reek present
parti!iple (e... @Sailin. by the islan, the sailors hear the SirensA).
)he tense o' the aorist parti!iple ini!ates si*ple a!tion, an by e3tension sho%s
an a!tion prior to the verb. )he ini!ation o' prior ti*e see*s to have evelope out o'
the iea that i' the a!tion o' the parti!ipial is si*ple or si*ply >one? in relation to the
'inite verb, then it is prior to the verb. < rou.h an reay translation o' the aorist
parti!iple is >havin. Je? %ith the appropriate 4n.lish past parti!iple (e... @Mavin.
lane on the islan, they establishe !a*pA). #!!asionally, the aorist parti!iple sho%s
si*ple a!tion at the sa*e ti*e o' the verb, an in these !ases !onte3t is the only sure

91
.uie. )his latter *eanin. e*phases verbal aspe!t over ti*e i*pli!ations an is *u!h
less !o**on than the notion o' prior a!tion.
)he pri*ary si.ni'i!an!e o' the per'e!t parti!iple is !o*plete or a!!o*plishe
a!tion. Chen translatin. the per'e!t parti!iple the *ost %orkable literal translation is
>havin. Je?, %hi!h, un'ortunately, is ienti!al %ith that o' the aorist parti!iple. )he
per'e!t parti!iple, ho%ever, e*phasi;es an a!tion or verbal state that is !o*plete at the
ti*e o' the 'inite verb (e... @)he poet, havin. %ritten a poe*, .ave it to the kin.A). )he
'uture parti!iple ini!ates an a!tion that o!!urs a'ter the a!tion o' the 'inite verb but has
also .aine the aitional !onnotation o' intent or purpose (>in orer to >). )hus the
iea o' a verbal a!tion that is about to happen is use to sho% the intent or purpose o'
the noun *oi'ie by the parti!iple.
In all uses o' the parti!iple %here a ti*e esi.nation is i*plie, the ti*e o' the
parti!iple is al%ays relative to that o' the 'inite verb. 4ven i' the tense o' the verb is
*ove 'or%ar or ba!k%ar in ti*e, the parti!iple still sho%s the sa*e ti*e
relationship %ith the verb. )hus, a present tense parti!iple sho%s a!tion .oin. on at the
sa*e ti*e as the verb re.arless o' %hen the 'inite verb takes pla!e. )he aorist
parti!iple .enerally sho%s an a!tion be'ore that o' the *ain verb %hether the verb is a
past, present, or 'uture. Dike%ise the per'e!t parti!iple ini!ates a !o*plete state at
the ti*e o' the verb.

0articiples of &mega )er!s

Chen erive 'ro* the ste*s o' nor*al verbs, parti!iples in the present, aorist,
per'e!t, an 'uture take thir, an 'irst, e!lension enin.s in the sa*e alternatin.
pattern as Eo Eooo EoV. )hus, as in the parai.* o' Eo, the ste* 'or 'e*inine
'or*s o' the parti!iple is 'oun by re*ovin. the enin. -o 'ro* the no*inative
sin.ular 'e*inine, an the ste* 'or the *as!uline an neuter 'or*s, on the other han,
is erive 'ro* the *as!uline .enitive sin.ular by roppin. the e!lensional enin.
o. <s in *ost thir, e!lension 'or*s, the *as!uline an neuter ative plural %ill
o'ten lose ste* !onsonants an a5ust the !onne!tin. vo%el in !o*pensation.

0resent 0articiple (loosing)

Sin. Plur
* ' n * ' n

no* IumV Iuouoo IuoV IuoV1t IuouooI IuoV1o
.en IuoV1o Iuouo IuoV1o IuoV1mV IuouomV IuoV1mV
at IuoV1I IuouoQ IuoV1I IuouoI IuouooI IuouoI
a!! IuoV1o IuouooV IuoV IuoV1o Iuouoo IuoV1o

92
Aorist 0articiples

In 'or*in. aorist parti!iples o' nor*al verbs, %hether they have 'irst or se!on
aorists, the parti!ipial ste* is taken 'ro* the verb?s thir prin!ipal part. )o 'or* the
parti!iple, the thir prin!ipal part is e,au.*ente an the 'irst,person sin.ular enin.
is re*ove. )he parti!ipial enin.s are then ae to this si*ple aorist ste*.

;irst-Aorist 0articiples (aving loosed!

)he enin.s o' the 'irst aorist parti!iple are atta!he to the ste* o' the 'irst aorist
an take the sa*e enin.s as Eo Eooo EoV. In the 'irst aorist parti!iple the a!!ent
'alls on the ste* o' the parti!iple unless it is ra%n onto the parti!ipial enin. by a lon.
last syllable.

Sin. Plur
* ' n * ' n

no* Iuoo Iuoooo IuooV IuooV1t IuooooI IuooV1o
.en IuooV1o Iuooo IuooV1o IuooV1mV IuooomV IuooV1mV
at IuooV1I IuoooQ IuooV1I IuoooI IuooooI IuoooI
a!! IuooV1o IuooooV IuooV IuooV1o Iuoooo IuooV1o

(econd-Aorist 0articiples (aving left!

)he se!on aorist parti!iple takes enin.s that look like those o' the present
tense. )%o 'eatures, ho%ever, istin.uish se!on aorist 'or*s 'ro* those o' present
parti!iples. /ost i*portantly, the ste* o' a se!on,aorist parti!iple is usually 8uite
i''erent 'ro* that o' the present (usually shorter). In aition, the a!!ent o' a se!on,
aorist parti!iple 'alls on the 'irst vo%el o' the parti!ipial enin. rather than on the
verbal ste*.

Sin. Plur
* ' n * ' n

no* IIEmV IIEouoo IIEoV IIEoV1t IIEouooI IIEoV1o
.en IIEoV1o IIEouo IIEoV1o IIEoV1mV IIEouomV IIEoV1mV
at IIEoV1I IIEouoQ IIEoV1I IIEouoI IIEouooI IIEouoI
a!! IIEoV1o IIEouooV IIEoV IIEoV1o IIEouoo IIEoV1o

90
0articiples of -# )er!s

Parti!iples 'or*e 'ro* /I verbs sho% the sa*e pattern o' thir,e!lension
enin.s in the *as!uline an neuter an 'irst,e!lension enin.s in the 'e*inine. )he
ste* o' the 'irst,e!lension 'or*s is 'oun in the 'e*inine sin.ular no*inative by
roppin. the enin. ,o, an the ste* 'or the thir,e!lensional 'or*s is 'oun in the
*as!uline sin.ular .enitive by roppin. the enin. ,o. In /I,verb parti!iples the
vo%el that !o*es 5ust be'ore the enin. is or is very si*ilar to the short value o' the
vo%el that !hara!teri;es ea!h /I verb in its 'inite 'or*s. ImI , 'or e3a*ple, is
!hara!teri;e by ,o, 1I 0I by ,t, II by -t , an Io1I by -o.
#n!e the present 'or*s o' the parti!iple is kno%n, the aorist 'or*s are easily
*ae by roppin. the reupli!ation 'ro* the present parti!iple. )he no*inative
sin.ular 'or*s o' /I,verb parti!iples are the least prei!table, but on!e these are
learne alon. %ith the *as!uline .enitive sin.ular, all the other 'or*s !an be re.ularly
e!line. Belo% are liste the 'irst 'our 'or*s 'or /I,verb parti!iples.

ImI ImI ImI ImI Iou Iouoo IoV .ivin.
IoV1o Iouo IoV1o
IoV1I etc$

ou ouoo oV havin. .iven
oV1o ouo oV1o
oV1I etc$

1I0I 1I0I 1I0I 1I0I 1I0tI 1I0tIoo 1I0tV pla!in., puttin.
1I0tV1o 1I0tIo 1I0tV1o
1I0tV1I etc$

0tI 0tIoo 0tV havin. pla!e
0tV1o etc$

I I I I I ItI ItIoo ItV thro%in.
ItV1o etc$

tI tIoo tV havin. thro%n
tV1o etc$

92
I o1I o1I o1I o1I Io1o Io1ooo Io1oV settin., stanin. up
Io1oV1o etc$

I o1I o1I o1I o1I (2n aor) o1o o1ooo o1oV havin. stoo
o1oV1o etc$

tII tII tII tII mV ouoo oV bein.
oV1o etc$

0articiples of "ontract )er!s

"ontra!t verbs sho% !ontra!te 'or*s o' the parti!iple only in the present tense
unless they happene to have a !ontra!t 'uture as %ell. )hese !ontra!t parti!iples, like
their verbal !ounterparts, take the enin.s o' re.ular o*e.a verb parti!iples but
uner.o !ontra!tion o' their ste* vo%els %ith the vo%els o' the parti!ipial enin.s.
)he resultant !ontra!tions are not nu*erous. <lpha !ontra!t parti!iples have -m- in all
their e!lensional 'or*s, %hile epsilon an o*i!ron !ontra!ts have -m- in their
no*inative *as!uline sin.ular 'or* an the iphthon. -ou- in all other 'or*s.

tVVom tVVom tVVom tVVom tVVmV tVVmoo tVVmV be.ettin.
tVVmV1o etc

IItm IItm IItm IItm IImV IIouoo IIouV lovin.
IIouV1o etc$

EIpom EIpom EIpom EIpom EIpmV EIpouoo EIpouV 'illin.
EIpouV1o etc$

0erfect 0articiple (aving loosed)

Per'e!t parti!iples sho% !o*plete a!tion at the ti*e o' the verb, an a literal
translation souns 5ust like an aorist parti!iple, >havin. loose?. Its e!lensional pattern
sho%s unusual 'or*s in the no*inative sin.ular, but in all other 'or*s, it has enin.s
like the se!on aorist e3!ept that the enin.s have no nu (e... ,o1o instea o' ,oV1o).

9(
Be!ause the ste* o' the 'e*inine 'or*s ens %ith an iota ( ItIuxuI- ), the enin.s o'
the 'e*inine, sin.ular %ill have alpha vo%els throu.hout (like the noun mpo ).

Sin. Plur
* ' n * ' n

no* ItIuxm ItIuxuIo ItIuxo ItIuxo1t ItIuxuIoI ItIuxo1o
.en ItIuxo1o ItIuxuIo ItIuxo1o ItIuxo1mV ItIuxuImV ItIuxo1mV
at ItIuxo1I ItIuxuI ItIuxo1I ItIuxooI ItIuxuIoI ItIuxooI
a!! ItIuxo1o ItIuxuIoV ItIuxo ItIuxo1o ItIuxuIo ItIuxo1o

;uture 0articiple (in order to loose)

)he 'uture parti!iple o' nor*al verbs takes the sa*e enin.s as the present
parti!iple, but these enin.s are ae to the ste* o' the se!on prin!iple part, that is,
the 'uture ste*. In *ost !lassi!al te3ts, the 'uture parti!iple is 8uite rare an has a
spe!iali;e use. )he 'uture parti!iple is usually asso!iate %ith %ill an intention an
is al*ost al%ays use to sho% purpose.

Sin. Plur
* ' n * ' n

no* IuomV Iuoouoo IuooV IuooV1t IuoouooI IuooV1o
.en IuooV1o Iuoouo IuooV1o IuooV1mV IuoouomV IuooV1mV
at IuooV1I IuoouoQ IuooV1I IuoouoI IuoouooI IuoouoI
a!! IuooV1o IuoouooV IuooV IuooV1o Iuoouoo IuooV1o

0articiples of *eponent )er!s

<s note earlier, a istin.uishin. 'eature o' eponent verbs (or the eponent
prin!ipal parts o' se*i,eponents) is that they have only a!tive *eanin.s. )his is true
o' eponent parti!iples as %ell. Dike eponent verbs, eponent parti!iples also take a
i''erent pattern o' parti!ipial enin.s than is asso!iate %ith nor*al verbs. Deponent
parti!iples be.in %ith ste* o' the ne!essary prin!ipal part, a a !onne!tin. vo%el
(e3!ept in the per'e!t) a the su''i3 -tV- an then enin.s o' the se!on an 'irst
e!lension (o oV). I', ho%ever, the eponent verb uses the si3th prin!ipal part 'or
its aorist, then the ste* o' that prin!ipal part (e,au.*ente an %ithout ,V) %ill a
the enin.s tI tIoo tV tV1o %hi!h 'ollo% the thir an 'irst e!lensions.
/ost eponent verbs %ill have only one %ay to 'or* ea!h tense o' its parti!iple.
)he verb tooI >I re!eive?, 'or e3a*ple, has only one %ay to 'or* its aorist parti!iple,

9+
an that is 'ro* the 0
r
prin!ipal parti!iple (totVo). )he verb pouIooI >I %ish?,
althou.h it uses a i''erent prin!ipal part (the +
th
) to 'or* the aorist parti!iple, also has
only one 'or* o' the aorist parti!iple (>havin. %ishe? pouI0tI, pouI0tIoo,
pouI0tV). )here are, ho%ever, so*e eponent an se*i eponent verbs that have
*ore than one %ay to 'or* a .iven tense o' the parti!iple even thou.h these i''erent
'or*ations *ay have the sa*e *eanin.. <s an e3a*ple, the verb IVooI is
espe!ially ri!h in i''erent 'or*s %hi!h have the sa*e *eanin..

a!tive *ile passive

-ut tVootVo - -oV tV0ootVo - -oV
>in orer to be!o*e? >in orer to be!o*e?

Pres IVotVo - -oV IVotVo - -oV
>be!o*in.? >be!o*in.?

<or tVotVo - -oV tV0tI -tIoo -tV
>havin. be!o*e? >havin. be!o*e?

Per' toVm -uIo -o tVtVo - -oV tVtVo - -oV
toVo1o
>havin. be!o*e? >havin. be!o*e? >havin. be!o*e?

E'amples of *eponent 0articiples

Present Parti!iple @re!eivin.A 'ro* tooI tooI tooI tooI tooI ttoV

Sin. Plur
* ' n * ' n

n totVo totV totVoV totVoI totVoI totVo
. totVou totV tot Vou totVmV totVmV totVmV
totVq totVQ tot Vq totVoI tot VoI totVoI
a totVoV totVV totVoV totVou tot Vo totVo

91
1st,<orist Parti!iple @havin. re!eiveA 'ro* tooI tooI ttoV ttoV ttoV ttoV

Sin. Plur
* ' n * ' n

n totVo totV totVoV totVoI totVoI totVo
. totVou totV tot Vou totVmV totVmV totVmV
totVq totVQ tot Vq totVoI tot VoI totVoI
a totVoV totVV totVoV totVou tot Vo totVo

2n,<orist Parti!iple @havin. be!o*A 'ro* IVooI tVoooI ttVoV ttVoV ttVoV ttVoV ...

n tVotVo tVotV tVotVoV tVotVoI tVotVoI tVotVo
. tVotVou tVotV tVotVou tVotVmV tVotVmV tVotVmV
tVotVq tVotVQ tVotVq tVotVoI tVotVoI tVotVoI
a tVotVoV tVotVV tVotVoV tVotVou tVotVo tVotVo

<orist Parti!iple (+
th
prin!ipal part) @havin. be!o*eA 'ro* IVooI ... ttV0V ttV0V ttV0V ttV0V

n tV0tI tV0tIoo tV0tV tV0tV1t tV0tIooI tV0tV1o
. tV0tV1o tV0tIo tV0tV1o tV0tV1mV tV0tIomV tV0tV1mV
tV0tV1I tV0tIoQ tV0tV1I tV0tIoI tV0tIooI tV0tIoI
a tV0tV1o tV0tIooV tV0tV tV0tV1o tV0tIoo tV0tV1o

?ses of the 0articiple

)he uses o' the parti!iple !an be !onveniently ivie into three !ate.ories$
1) attributive, 2) !ir!u*stantial, an 0) supple*entary. -or*ally, the 'irst t%o uses
!an be istin.uishe 'ro* ea!h other by the pla!e*ent o' the arti!le in relationship to
the parti!iple, an the thir usa.e is istin.uishable by the presen!e o' !ertain
spe!iali;e verbs in !on5un!tion %ith the parti!iple.

he Attri!uti.e 0articiple

)he attributive parti!iple is o'ten 'oun in !on5un!tion %ith the arti!le, an %hen
the arti!le is present it pre!ees the parti!iple. )he attributive parti!iple, there'ore,
'ollo%s the !onstru!tion o' a5e!tives o' 8uality, an o' the three !lasses o' parti!iples,

97
the attributive parti!iple is the *ost like a si*ple a5e!tive. <n attributive parti!iple or
parti!ipial phrase is o'ten best renere in 4n.lish by relative !lause.

1ou Epo tou1V poIVoV1o EoII1o totV 2I.
@)he Sphin3 ate the !iti;ens .oin. to her.A
@)he Sphin3 ate the !iti;ens %ho %ent to her.A

oI 1o oIVIo oxouooV1t EoII1oI ou uVoV1oI ou1o IuooI.
@)he !iti;ens, havin. hear the rile, are not able to solve it.A
@)he !iti;ens %ho hear the rile are not able to solve it.A

oI 1oV IEEoV Epo JpoIo IIEoV1t IIIVt tEItoV Epo VooV 1IVo.
@)he :reeks %ho ha le't the horse be'ore )roy saile to a !ertain islan.A

)he attributive parti!iple .enerally *oi'ies a noun but *ay also be use as a
substantive. )hus, %hen a parti!iple is pre!ee by an arti!le an oes not *oi'y a
noun, it !an be translate %ith the appropriate 'or* o' >one, *an, %o*an, thin., ones,
*en %o*en, thin.s?. <n 4n.lish relative !lause !an be espe!ially help'ul in translatin.
a substantive parti!iple.

1o oIVIo ouV1I0tIoo oEox1tVtI 1ou ou1o ou IuoV1o.
@)he one posin. the rile %ill kill the ones not solvin. it.A
@)he one %ho is posin. the rile %ill kill the ones %ho o not solve it.A

o 1o oIVIo ItIuxm tto1o 1V pooIItIoV.
@)he one havin. solve the rile re!eive the kin.o*.A
@)he one %ho solve the rile re!eive the kin.o*.A

o tI0mV Epo 1o po IutI 1o oIVIo.
@)he one (*an) havin. !o*e to )hebes solves the rile.A
@)he *an %ho !a*e to )hebes solves the rile.A

he "ircumstantial 0articiple

Chile the !ir!u*stantial parti!iple is still an a5e!tive an a.rees %ith a noun or
pronoun in the senten!e, it nevertheless 'un!tions *ore as an averb in that it provies

99
the verbal ba!k.roun or settin. 'or the 'inite verb. -or*ally, the !ir!u*stantial
parti!iple is istin.uishe 'ro* the attributive by stanin. in prei!ate position to
%hatever %or it *oi'ies, an it !annot be pre!ee by an arti!le. )he !ir!u*stantial
parti!iple !o**only o!!urs in the no*inative an a.rees %ith the sub5e!t, %hether
state or unerstoo. )he !ir!u*stantial parti!iple is o'ten best translate by an
4n.lish suborinate !lause, an epenin. on the lo.i!al relationship o' the parti!iple
to the *ain verb, the parti!iple *ay be translate as te*poral (>%hen, %hile, a'ter?),
!ausal (>sin!e, be!ause?), !on!essive (>althou.h? o'ten %ith xoI1oI), or !onitional (>i'?).

1oV IEEoV Epo JpoIo IIEoV1t oI IIIVt tEItoV Epo VooV 1IVo.
@)he :reeks havin. le't the horse be'ore )roy saile to a !ertain islan.A
@<'ter they le't the horse be'ore )roy, the :reeks saile to a !ertain islan.A

IIEou 1o oo1o tV 1Q oxpoEoItI ImV 0tIt 1o oIVIo oxouooI.
@Mavin. seen the bones o' *en on the a!ropolis #eipus %ishe to hear the rile.A
@<lthou.h he ha seen the bones o' *en on the a!ropolis #eipus %ishe to hear the
rile.A

IIEou op 1V 2Io tV 1Q oxpoEoItI xo0IouooV.
@#eipus sees the Sphin3 sittin. on the a!ropolis.A
@#eipus sees the Sphin3 as she sits on the a!ropolis.A

he Geniti.e A!solute

<n i*portant !onstru!tion that 'alls uner the !ate.ory o' the !ir!u*stantial
parti!iple is the .enitive absolute. )he .enitive absolute, as its na*e su..ests, is
.ra**ati!ally absolute 'ro* the rest o' the senten!e, in that it has no .ra**ati!al
!onne!tion %ith the rest o' the senten!e. Do.i!ally, ho%ever, it .ives the ba!k.roun or
!ir!u*stan!es o' the !lause %ith %hi!h it o!!urs. < .enitive absolute !onsists o' at least
t%o ele*ents, a noun or pronoun in the .enitive an a parti!iple a.reein. in nu*ber,
.ener, an !ase %ith that noun or pronoun.
In the .enitive absolute !onstru!tion, the parti!iple *ay pre!ee or 'ollo% the
.enitive noun %ith %hi!h it a.rees, but in translatin. the !onstru!tion it is essential to
translate the .enitive noun 'irst an then the parti!iple. <s in all parti!ipial
!onstru!tions, other *oi'yin. %ors *ay be present that separate the noun an its
parti!iple, an so spe!ial attention *ust be .iven to the a.ree*ent o' parti!iples an
nouns.

100
1ou IIEou 1o oIVIo IuooV1o (ItIuxo1o) tou1V oEtx1tIVtV 2I
@#eipus havin. solve the rile, the Sphin3 kille hersel'.A
@Be!ause #eipus solve the rile, the Sphin3 kille hersel'.A

1mV IIIVmV Epo VooV 1IVo tI0o V1mV oI Jpmt 1oV IEEoV tI 1V
EoIIV tIopoV.
@)he :reeks havin. .one to a !ertain islan, the )ro5ans took the horse into the !ity.A
@<'ter the :reeks ha .one to a !ertain islan, the )ro5ans took the horse into the !ity.A

1mV oVpmV tx 1ou IEEou poIVoV1mV, oI oIIoI IIIVt tI 1V EoIIV
tpoV1oI.
@)he *en !o*in. out o' the horse, the :reeks !o*e to the !ity.A
@Chile the *en are !o*in. out o' the horse, the other :reeks !o*e into the !ity.A

he (upplementary 0articiple

)he supple*entary parti!iple o!!urs in iio*ati! e3pressions an !o*pletes or
supple*ents the *eanin. o' spe!ial verbs. In :reek verbs like 1uoVm >happen,
happen on?, 0oVm >anti!ipate, o 'irst?, an IoV0oVm >es!ape noti!e, lie hi?
!o**only take a parti!iple to 'ill out their *eanin.s. )he parti!iple then a.rees %ith
the sub5e!t o' the verb an ini!ates the verbal a!tion that the sub5e!t >happens to o? or
>anti!ipates so*eone else in oin.?, or >es!apes noti!e? in oin.. Chen the parti!iple is
use in this %ay, the parti!ipial a!tion *ust, o' !ourse, be !onte*porary %ith the verb.
)he tense o' the parti!iple, there'ore, is si.ni'i!ant only 'or its aspe!t, that is, it only
ini!ates %hether the a!tion is on,.oin. (present) or is a si*ple a!tion (aorist).

IIEou opo tV 1Q oq t1utV opmV.
@#eipus happene to see a !hariot on the roa.A

oI IIIVt IoV0o VouoI tI0oV1t tI 1V EoIIV
@)he :reeks es!ape noti!e !o*in. into the !ity.A
@)he :reeks !a*e se!retlySunnoti!e into the !ity.A

tI0ouoo Epo 1V EoIIV 1oV IIEouV t0ootV 2I.
@)he Sphin3 pre!eeSanti!ipate #eipus in !o*in. to the !ity.A
@)he Sphin3 !a*e to the !ity be'ore #eipus.A

101
"hapter Ele.en
Acti.e, -iddle, and 0assi.e )oice

Ierbs *ake state*ents about substantives an ini!ate an a!tion or state
asso!iate %ith the sub5e!t o' the senten!e. )he basi! iea !onveye by the root o' the
verb is spe!i'ie by several para*eters in a !on5u.ate verb 'or*. )hose para*eters
are person, nu*ber, tense, voi!e, an *oo. Ep to this point, nu*ber, person, an
tense have been the three 'eatures o' the verb that have been is!usse syste*ati!ally.
In the present !hapter, the verbal !hara!teristi! o' >voi!e? %ill be is!usse.
< verb?s voi!e ini!ates the sub5e!t?s relationship to the verbal a!tion. Ioi!e
sho%s, 'or e3a*ple, %hether the sub5e!t prou!es the a!tion o' the verb or passively
re!eives it. )he sub5e!t?s a!tive or passive relationship to the verb provies the ter*s to
es!ribe the t%o opposite poles o' verbal voi!e. I' the sub5e!t a!ts or per'or*s the
a!tion o' the verb, then the verb is sai to be in the a!tive voi!e. <l*ost all verbal
*eanin.s that have been introu!e thus 'ar have been in the a!tive voi!e. I', ho%ever,
the sub5e!t is a!te on or re!eives the a!tion o' the verb, the verb is sai to be passive.
In aition to the a!tive an passive voi!es, both o' %hi!h are !o**only use in
4n.lish, :reek also ini!ates a relationship bet%een the sub5e!t an verb that is !alle
the middle voice. Si*ply put, the *ile voi!e es!ribes the sub5e!t a!tin. 'or itsel' or in
its o%n interest. So*eti*es the *ile voi!e sho%s that the sub5e!t a!ts on itsel', but
this usa.e is *u!h rarer than the sub5e!t?s a!tin. for itsel'. )he esi.nation >*ile
voi!e? ini!ates that the relationship bet%een sub5e!t an verb lies so*e%here bet%een
a!tive an passive voi!e, but the *eanin. o' the *ile voi!e is *u!h !loser to the
4n.lish a!tive voi!e an !an o'ten si*ply be translate %ith an a!tive verb. -or
learnin. purposes, ho%ever, it is o'ten use'ul to *ark the :reek *ile verb in 4n.lish
translation by ain. the phrase >'or hi*sel'?, >'or hersel'?, >'or itsel'?, or >'or the*selves?
epenin. on the sub5e!t o' the senten!e.

;orms of the -iddle and 0assi.e )oice

)he 'or*s o' the *ile an passive voi!es are alreay 'a*iliar 'ro* eponent
verbs sin!e these *ile an passive 'or*s are the sa*e as those use by eponent
verbs. <s is!usse in the previous !hapter, eponents 'or* a spe!ial !lass o' verbsF
they only take eponent enin.s an have only a!tive *eanin.s. I', ho%ever, eponent
enin.s are atta!he to the ste*s o' nor*al o*e.a an /I verbs, then the voi!e o' the
nor*al verbs is !han.e, usually to passive voi!e, so*eti*es to *ile. < help'ul iea
is that o' !ontrast or >*is*at!h?. 6or*al verbs %ith nor*al enin.s are a!tive,
eponent verbs %ith eponent enin.s are a!tive, but nor*al verbs %ith eponent
enin.s *ark so*e unusual !han.e, na*ely, that the verb is passive or *ile voi!e.

102
Regular "mega #er$s

43!ept 'or the aorist passive an 'uture passive, the 'or*s o' the *ile an
passive voi!es use the sa*e enin.s. -or pri*ary tense enin.s, the 'or*s are oI,
ooI, 1oI, t0o, o0t, V1oI. )he *ileSpassive enin.s 'or se!onary tense verbs are
V, oo, 1o, t0o, o0t V1o %ith one e3!eption. )he aorist passive has its o%n set o'
enin.s (V, , -, tV, 1t, ooV) %hi!h are atta!he ire!tly to the ste* o' the si3th
prin!ipal part.
)he usual %ay to !onstru!t a *ileSpassive verb 'or*, is to be.in %ith the
verb?s ste*, a the appropriate !onne!tin. vo%el, an then a *ileSpassive
enin.s. In o*e.a verbs, the !onne!tin. vo%el that is usually ae bet%een the ste*
an enin.s is one o' the the*ati! vo%els (o, t, t, o, t, o). )he 'irst aorist *ile,
ho%ever, uses an alpha as its !onne!tin. vo%el, an the per'e!t an pluper'e!t tenses
a no !onne!tin. vo%el at all bet%een their ste*s an the *ileSpassive enin.s.
<s is alreay 'a*iliar 'ro* o*e.a eponent verbs, the se!on person sin.ular
enin. routinely loses its ,o, an then !ontra!ts %ith the the*ati! vo%el. In the present
'uture tenses, ,tooI be!o*es ,toI an 'inally !ontra!ts to ,tI. In the i*per'e!t aorist the
pro.ress is 'ro* ,too to ,to an 'inall to ,ou. In the 'irst aorist, ,ooo be!o*es ,oo an
then !ontra!ts to ,m.
<s a .eneral rule, the *ileSpassive 'or*s in a parti!ular tense are built on the
sa*e verbal ste* as the a!tive verb in the sa*e tense but si*ply a i''erent, that is,
eponent enin.s. In t%o tenses, ho%ever, the passive verb i''ers 'ro* that o' the
*ile. In the aorist passive, the verb ste* is ra%n 'ro* the si3th prin!ipal part o' the
verb rather than the thir prin!ipal part an as the enin. (V, , -, tV, 1t, ooV)
instea o' eponent enin.s. )he 'uture passive also ra%s its ste* 'ro* the si3th
prin!ipal part, as a ,o oo o,, then the*ati! vo%els, an 'inally eponent enin.s.
Diste belo% is the 'ull !on5u.ation o' Ium in the ini!ative *oo, a!tive,
*ile, an passive voi!es. It is i*portant to note %hi!h prin!ipal part provies the
ste* 'or a .iven tenseSvoi!e !o*bination.

1
st
pp$ present & i*per'e!t a!tive @ present & i*per'e!t *ile S present & i*per'e!t passive
2
n
pp$ 'uture a!tive @ 'uture *ile
0
r
pp$ aorist a!tive @ aorist *ile
2
th
pp$ per'e!t a!tive @ pluper'e!t a!tive
(
th
pp$ per'e!t *ile & per'e!t passive @ pluper'e!t *ile & pluper'e!t passive
+
th
pp$ aorist passive @ 'uture passive

100
Ium Ium Ium Ium Acti.e -iddle 0assi.e

;ut Iuom IuootV IuoooI Iuoot0o Iu0oooI Iu0oot0o
IuotI Iuot1t IuotI tI tI tI Iuoto0t Iu0otI tI tI tI Iu0oto0t
IuotI IuoouoI Iuot1oI IuooV1oI Iu0ot1oI Iu0ooV1oI

0res Ium IuotV IuooI Iuot0o IuooI Iuot0o
IutI Iut1t Iu tI tI tI tI Iuto0t Iu tI tI tI tI Iuto0t
IutI IuouoI Iut1oI IuoV1oI Iut1oI IuoV1oI

#mpf tIuoV tIuotV tIuoV tIuot0o tIuoV tIuot0o
tIut tIut1t tIu ou ou ou ou tIuto0t tIu ou ou ou ou tIuto0t
tIut tIuoV tIut1o tIuoV1o tIut1o tIuoV1o

Aor tIuoo tIuootV tIuooV tIuoot0o tIu0V tIu0tV
tIuoo tIuoo1t tIuom mm m tIuooo0t tIu0 tIu01t
tIuot tIuooV tIuoo1o tIuooV1o tIu0 tIu0ooV

0f ItIuxo ItIuxotV ItIuoI ItIut0o ItIuoI ItIut0o
ItIuxo ItIuxo1t ItIuooI ItIuo0t ItIuooI ItIuo0t
ItIuxt ItIuxooI ItIu1oI ItIuV1oI ItIu1oI ItIuV1oI

0lpf tItIux tItIuxttV tItIuV tItIut0o tItIuV tItIut0o
tItIux tItIuxt1t tItIuoo tItIuo0t tItIuoo tItIuo0t
tItIuxtI tItIuxtooV tItIu1o tItIuV1o tItIu1o tItIuV1o

Second Aorist Middle and Passive

)he se!on aorist *ile is 'or*e 'ro* the thir prin!ipal part an takes
enin.s an the*ati! vo%els that look like the i*per'e!t tense. <s has o'ten been seen
in the aorist a!tive, the i''eren!e o' ste* istin.uishes se!on aorist 'ro* i*per'e!t
'or*s. )he aorist passive is 'or*e 'ro* the si3th prin!ipal part an takes the enin.s
V, o, --, tV, 1t, ooV.

Acti.e -iddle 0assi.e

Aor tIIEoV tIIEotV tIIEoV tIIEot0o tItI0V tItI0tV
tIIEt tIIEt1t tIIEou ou ou ou tIIEto0t tItI0 tItI01t
tIIEt tIIEoV tIIEt1o tIIEoV1o tItI0 tItI0ooV

102
Perfect Middle /Passive %it a final consonant

)he *ileSpassive 'or*s o' the per'e!t tense are !reate by ain. eponent
enin.s ire!tly to the per'e!t ste* 'oun in the 'i'th prin!ipal part. In the 'or*s o' Ium,
'or e3a*ple, the pri*ary enin.s oI, ooI, 1oI, t0o, o0t, V1oI are atta!he to the
per'e!t ste* ItIu an the se!onary enin.s V, oo, 1o, t0o, o0t, V1o to the
pluper'e!t ste* tItIu. Chen the ste* o' the (
th
prin!ipal part ens in a vo%el, eponent
enin.s !an be easily 5oine to the ste* %ith no soun or ortho.raphi! !han.es.
Se!on per'e!ts, ho%ever, o'ten have a ste* that ens %ith a !onsonant, an %hen
the !onsonant o' the ste* *eets the !onsonant o' the enin., !han.es o' soun an
spellin. are 're8uent. I', 'or e3a*ple, a si.*a o!!urs bet%een to !onsonants, it is si*ply
le't out to ease pronun!iation. )he se!on person plural enin. routinely uner.oes this
!han.e. )he !han.es an phoneti! !o*pensations that %oul be ne!essary 'or the thir
person plural are so !o*pli!ate that !lassi!al authors usually repla!e that 'or* %ith
the per'e!t *ileSpassive parti!iple an the appropriate tense o' the verb tII (present
or i*per'e!t). )he 'ollo%in. !hart .ives three i''erent verbs in their *ileSpassive
per'e!t an pluper'e!t tenses. )he 'irst verb ens in a labial !onsonant, the se!on in a
ental, an the thir in a palatal. <t ti*es the ste* !onsonant !han.es, at ti*es the
!onsonant o' the enin. !han.es, an so*eti*es no !han.e at all o!!urs.

ItIEm >I leave EtI0m >I persuae? tpm >I !arry?

(ItItIE-) have been left (EtEtI0-) have been persuaded (tVtx-) have been carried
0f
ItItIoI ItItIt0o EtEtIooI EtEtIot0o tVVtoI tVVtt0o
ItItIyoI ItItI0t EtEtIooI EtEtIo0t tVVtoI tVVt0t
ItItIE1oI ItItItVoI EtEtIo1oI EtEtIotVoI tVVtx1oI tVVttVoI
tIoI tIoI tIoI
0lupf

tItItIV tItItIt0o tEtEtIoV tEtEtIot0o tVVt V tVVtt0o
tItItIyo tItItI0t tEtEtIoo tEtEtIo0t tVVto tVVt0t
tItItIE1o ItItItVoI tEtEtIo1o EtEtIotVoI tVVtx1o tVVttVoI
ooV ooV ooV
MI #er$s

In the present, i*per'e!t, an aorist tenses, a key 'eature that istin.uishes /I
verbs 'ro* o*e.a verbs is that /I verbs o not use the*ati! vo%els bet%een the verb
ste* an the personal enin.s. Instea, the enin.s are atta!he ire!tly to the ste*,
%hi!h, in /I verbs, al%ays ens in a vo%el. In !on5u.atin. the a!tive voi!e o' /I verbs,
the ste* vo%el is len.thene in the sin.ular an then shortene to the ori.inal vo%el in

10(
the plural. In !on5u.atin. the *ile an passive voi!es, /I verbs a eponent
enin.s, but keep the ori.inal ste* vo%el %ith no spe!ial len.thenin. o' the vo%el in
the sin.ular. In the 'ollo%in. e3a*ples, only the present, i*per'e!t, an aorist tenses
are .iven sin!e the other tenses o' the /I verb !on5u.ate like o*e.a verbs.

ImI ImI ImI ImI
<!tive /ile Passive

Pres ImI IotV IooI Iot0o IooI Iot0o
Im Io1t IoooI Ioo0t IoooI Ioo0t
ImoI IoooI Io1oI IoV1oI Io1oI IoV1oI

I*p' tIouV tIotV tIoV tIot0o tIoV tIot0o
tIou tIo1t tIooo tIoo0t tIooo tIoo0t
tIou tIoooV tIo1o tIoV1o tIo1o tIoV1o

<or tmxo totV toV tot0o to0V to0tV
tmxo to1t tou ou ou ou too0t to0 to01t
tmxt toooV to1o toV1o to0 to0ooV

1I0I 1I0I 1I0I 1I0I

Pres 1I0I 1I0ttV 1I0toI 1I0tt0o 1I0toI 1I0tt0o
1I0 1I0t1t 1I0tooI 1I0to0t 1I0tooI 1I0to0t
1I0oI 1I0tooI 1I0t1oI 1I0tV1oI 1I0t1oI 1I0tV1oI

I*p' t1I0V t1I0ttV t1I0tV t1I0tt0o t1I0tV t1I0tt0o
t1I0tI t1I0t1t t1I0too t1I0to0t t1I0too t1I0to0t
t1I0tI t1I0tooV t1I0t1o t1I0tV1o t1I0t1o t1I0tV1o

<or t0xo t0ttV t0tV t0tt0o t1t0V t1t0tV
t0xo t0t1t t0ou ou ou ou t0to0t t1t0 t1t01t
t0xt t0tooV t0t1o t0tV1o t1t0 t1t0ooV

II II II II

Pres II IttV ItoI Itt0o ItoI Itt0o
I It1t ItooI Ito0t ItooI Ito0t
IoI IooI It1oI ItV1oI It1oI ItV1oI

10+
I*p' IV IttV ItV Itt0o ItV Itt0o
ItI It1t Itoo Ito0t Itoo Ito0t
ItI ItooV It1o ItV1o It1o ItV1o

<or xo tItV tIV tIt0o tI0V tI0tV
xo tI1t tIoo tIo0t tI0 tI01t
xt tIooV tI1o tIV1o tI0 tI0ooV

I o1I o1I o1I o1I

Pres Io1I Io1otV Io1ooI Io1ot0o Io1ooI Io1ot0o
Io1 Io1o1t Io1oooI Io1oo0t Io1oooI Io1oo0t
Io1oI Io1ooI Io1o1oI Io1oV1oI Io1o1oI Io1oV1oI

I*p' Io1V Io1otV Io1oV Io1ot0o Io1oV Io1ot0o
Io1 Io1o1t Io1ooo Io1oo0t Io1ooo Io1oo0t
Io1 Io1oooV Io1o1o Io1oV1o Io1o1o Io1oV1o

<or to1V to1tV
to1 to11t
to1 to1ooV

Contract #er$s

Chile !ontra!t verbs are re.ular o*e.a verbs, in the present an i*per'e!t
tenses the !ontra!tion o' 'inal ste*,vo%el %ith the*ati! vo%els prou!es 'or*s that
so*e%hat is.uise their unerlyin. re.ularity.

tVVom tVVom tVVom tVVom
<!tive /ile Passive

Pres tVVm tVVmtV tVVmoI tVVmt0o tVVmoI tVVmt0o
tVV tVVo1t tVV tVVoo0t tVV tVVoo0t
tVV tVVmoI tVVo1oI tVVmV1oI tVVo1oI tVVmV1oI

I*p' ttVVmV ttVVmtV ttVVmV ttVVmt0o ttVVmV ttVVmt0o
ttVVo ttVVo1t ttVVm m m m ttVVoo0t ttVVm m m m ttVVoo0t
ttVVo ttVVmV ttVVo1o ttVVmV1o ttVVo1o ttVVmV1o

101
IItm IItm IItm IItm
<!tive /ile Passive

Pres IIm IIoutV IIouoI IIout0o IIouoI IIout0o
IItI IItI1t IItI IItIo0t IItI IItIo0t
IItI IIouoI IItI1oI IIouV1oI IItI1oI IIouV1oI

I*p' tIIouV tIIoutV tIIouV tIIout0o tIIouV tIIout0o
tIItI tIItI1t tIIou ou ou ou tIItIo0t tIIou ou ou ou tIItIo0t
tIItI tIIouV tIItI1o tIIouV1o tIItI1o tIIouV1o

EIpom EIpom EIpom EIpom

Pres EIpm EIpoutV EIpouoI EIpout0o EIpouoI EIpout0o
EIpoI EIpou1t EIpoI EIpouo0t EIpoI EIpouo0t
EIpoI EIpouoI EIpou ou ou ou1oI EIpouV1oI EIpou ou ou ou1oI EIpouV1o

I*p' tEIpouV tEIpoutV tEIpouV tEIpout0o tEIpouV tEIpout0o
tEIpou tEIpou1t tEIpou tEIpouo0t tEIpou tEIpouo0t
tEIpou tEIpouV tEIpou1o tEIpouV1o tEIpou1o tEIpouV1o

(hared ;orms of the -iddle and 0assi.e

43!ept 'or the aorist an 'uture tenses, *ile an passive 'or*s are ienti!al in
all other tenses. In the aorist an 'uture tenses, there'ore, *ile an passive *eanin.s
are i**eiately istin.uishable 'ro* the i''eren!e in the 'or*s o' these verbs. In
other tenses, ho%ever, !onte3t *ust ini!ate %hether the *eanin. is *ile or passive.
#ne tell,tale si.n that a *ileSpassive 'or* is a!tually *ile in *eanin. is the
presen!e o' a ire!t ob5e!t. Passive verbs o not take ire!t ob5e!ts sin!e the sub5e!t
itsel', rather than an ob5e!t, is re!eivin. the a!tion o' the verb. )he *ile voi!e, on the
other han, *ay an o'ten oes take a ire!t ob5e!t. < *ile voi!e verb %ith an
a!!usative ini!ates that sub5e!t ire!ts the a!tion o' the verb to the ob5e!t 'or the
sub5e!t?s o%n bene'it.
Cith so*e verbs, the *ile voi!e so alters the *eanin. o' the verb that, 'or
pra!ti!al purposes, the verb has i''erent *eanin.s epenin. on %hether it is a!tive or
*ile. )he verb opm >I rule?, 'or e3a*ple, in the *ile voi!e (o pooI), *eans >I
be.in?, or the a!tive verb oIptm >I take? in the *ile voi!e *eans >I !hoose?
(oIptooI). In this book an *ost :reek te3tbooks, %hen a verb has substantially
i''erent *eanin.s in the *ile voi!e, the *ile,voi!e *eanin. is note in

107
vo!abulary lists an .lossaries. )he usual 'or*at is to list the a!tive 'or* o' the verb
an its *eanin. an then to .ive the abbreviation >*i.? 'ollo%e by the *eanin. o' the
verb in the *ile voi!e.

-iddle and 0assi.e 0articiples

/ile an passive parti!iples, like *ile an passive verbs, 'or the *ost part
use ienti!al 'or*s. )he one e3!eption, as in the !on5u.ate verbs, is the aorist passive
parti!iple. )his parti!iple uses the ste* o' the si3th prin!ipal part, takes thir an 'irst
e!lension enin.s, an is 8uite re*inis!ent o' the a!tive parti!iples in its e!lension.
)o 'or* the aorist passive parti!iple, the ste* is 'oun by roppin. the 'inal JV
'ro* the si3th prin!ipal part. )o this ste* are ae the enin.s -tI, -tIoo, -tV an
the .enitive sin.ular enin. -tV1o. <ll other tenses o' *ile an passive parti!iples
'ollo% the se!on an 'irst e!lension an are 'or*e *u!h *ore si*ply. )hus, 'or all
*ile an passive parti!iples (e3!ept aorist passive), the ste* is 'oun by 'irst
roppin. the 'irst,person sin.ular enin. 'ro* the appropriate prin!ipal part. )o this
verbal base, a !onne!tin. vo%el is usually ae (no vo%el is ae in the per'e!t
*ileSpassive), then the su''i3 -tV- is atta!he. #n!e this *ileSpassive ste* has
been built up, enin.s o' the se!on an 'irst e!lensions are ae. )he
*ileSpassive ste* oes not !han.e 'ro* *as!uline to 'e*inine or 'ro* no*inative to
.enitive, an so all *ileSpassive parti!iples e3!ept aorist passive e!line like the
a5e!tive xoIo - -oV.

109

-ut IuomV Iuouoo IuoV IuootVo - -oV Iu0ootVo - -oV
IuoV1o
>in orer to loose? >in orer to loose 'or onesel'? >in orer to be loose?

Pres IumV Iuouoo IuoV IuotVo - -oV IuotVo - -oV
IuoV1o
>loosin.? >loosin. 'or onesel'? >bein. loose?

1 <or Iuoo Iuoooo IuooV IuootVo - -oV Iu0tI Iu0tIoo Iu0tV
IuooV1o Iu0tV1o
>havin. loose? >havin. loose 'or onesel'? >havin. been loose?

2 <or IIEmV IIEouoo IIEoV IIEotVo - -oV ItI0tI ...
IIEoV1o
>havin. le't? >havin. le't 'or onesel'? >havin. been le't?

1 Per' ItIuxm -uIo -o ItIutVo - -oV ItIutVo - -oV
ItIuxo1o
>havin. loose? >havin. loose 'or onesel'? >havin. been loose?

2 Per' ItIoIEm ... ItItItVo - -oV ItItItVo - -oV
>havin. le't? >havin. le't 'or onesel'? >havin. been le't?

110
"hapter wel.e
he (u!Buncti.e -ood

-oods of the )er!

In earlier !hapters, the verbal 8ualities o' person, nu*ber, tense, an voi!e have
been is!usse, an it no% re*ains to e3a*ine the last para*eter o' the verb, na*ely,
*oo. Person an nu*ber ienti'y %ho oes the a!tion, tense says %hen an %hat
kin o' a!tion is o!!urrin., an voi!e ini!ates %hether the sub5e!t a!ts or is a!te on.
)he *oo o' the verb, ho%ever, esi.nates the reality o' the verbal a!tion, at least as it
is presente by the authorSspeaker. <n a!tion, 'or e3a*ple, *ay be presente as a!tual,
potential, %ishe 'or, or %ille. )he !urrent !hapter !on!entrates on one parti!ular
*oo but be.ins %ith an overvie% o' %hat ea!h *oo i*plies about the verb?s a!tion.
:reek e*ploys 'our i''erent *oos to sho% the verb?s relationship %ith reality.
)he te!hni!al .ra**ati!al na*es 'or these *oos are ini!ative, sub5un!tive, optative,
an i*perative. Ep to this point, the verbs syste*ati!ally presente have all been in
the ini!ative *oo, that is, in the *oo that >ini!ates? that a!tion has a!tually taken
pla!e, is takin. pla!e, or !ertainly %ill take pla!e. )he ini!ative *oo is the *oo o'
'a!ts an the state*ent o' 'a!ts. )he sub5un!tive *oo, ho%ever, %hen !onsiere on
its o%n, looks to the 'uture, !arries %ith it notions o' potential an .enerality, an
re*ins the reaer or hearer that the a!tion is not yet reali;e. )he optative *oo, at
its *ost basi!, is va.uer than the sub5un!tive an sho%s that the possibility o' the a!tion
is *ore re*ote. (In their !o**on uses, ho%ever, the sub5un!tive an optative sho% a
.reat eal o' overlap, as %ill be !lear in later !hapters.) -inally, the i*perative *oo,
like the sub5un!tive an optative, also eals %ith potentiality but i''ers 'ro* the* in
that it e*phasi;es the %ill o' the speaker i*pose on the person aresse.
#ne key 'eature ivies the usa.e o' ini!ative *oo 'ro* that o' the
sub5un!tive, optative, an i*perative *oos. )hat 'eature is the si.ni'i!an!e o' verb
tense. Ierb tense in the ini!ative .ives the ti*e o' the verb?s a!tion (presentS'uture or
past) an the kin o' a!tion involve (on,.oin., si*ple, !o*plete). In non,ini!ative
*oos, tense sho%s kin o' a!tion but not ti*e o' a!tion. )hus, i''erent tenses o' a
non,ini!ative verb *ay be use in the sa*e !onstru!tion, epenin. on %hether the
author %ishes to e*phasi;e on,.oin., si*ple, or !o*plete a!tion. )he tense o' the
verb, ho%ever, oes not ini!ate a parti!ular point on a ti*e line. <n e3a*ple o' this
stri!tly aspectual use o' tense !an be seen in a senten!e that !oul use e8ually %ell t%o
i''erent tenses o' the sub5un!tive. )he senten!e @)hey !o*e in orer that they *ay see
the !ityA !oul be renere in :reek either %ith the present sub5un!tive o' the verb >see?
(tpoV1oI IVo 1V EoIIV opmoI opmoI opmoI opmoI) or %ith the aorist sub5un!tive (tpoV1oI IVo 1V
EoIIV ImoI ImoI ImoI ImoI). )he i''eren!e bet%een the t%o is that the 'or*er senten!e e*phasi;es

111
that the propose a!tion o' seein. is !ontinuous or on,.oin. %here the se!on senten!e
si*ply states that seein. the !ity is the intene out!o*e.

;orms of the (u!Buncti.e -ood

)he 'or*s o' the verb in the sub5un!tive *oo are 'ar easier than 'or*s o' the
ini!ative sin!e sub5un!tive 'or*s are both *ore !onsistent an less nu*erous. Chile
the sub5un!tive has all three voi!es, it only has three tenses, present, aorist, an per'e!t.
)hus, 'or nor*al verbs there are 'e%er than hal' the nu*ber o' 'or*s in the sub5un!tive
that are 'oun in the ini!ative. )he verbal enin.s in the sub5un!tive all 'ollo% the
pattern o' o*e.a verbs even i' they are atta!he to /I,verbs, an there is only one set
o' enin.s re.arless o' the sub5un!tive?s tense.
)he sub5un!tive enin.s, *oreover, i''er only sli.htly 'ro* those o' the
ini!ative. Chere the ini!ative enin.s o' o*e.a verbs are !hara!teri;e by the
the*ati! vo%els o, t, t, / o, t, o that !o*e bet%een the verbal ste* an enin., the
enin.s o' the sub5un!tive are !hara!teri;e by a lengthening o' these nor*al, the*ati!
!onne!tin. vo%els. )hus, the sub5un!tive enin.s are m, Q, Q / mtV, 1t, moI in the
a!tive, an moI, Q, 1oI / mt0o, o0t, mV1oI in the *ileSpassive. In the
sub5un!tive aorist passive, nor*al a!tive enin.s are atta!he to the ste* o' the si3th
prin!ipal part o' the verb.
)he a!tive sub5un!tive enin.s are also virtually ienti!al to the sub5un!tive
'or*s o' tII, the only i''eren!e bein. that the sub5un!tive 'or*s o' Xto beX have
a!!ents an breathin. *arks (m, , / mtV, 1t, moI).

Su$junctive of Regular "mega #er$s

<!tive /ile Passive

pres Ium IumtV IumoI Iumt0o IumoI Iumt0o
IuQ Iu1t IuQ Iuo0t IuQ Iuo0t
IuQ IumoI Iu1oI IumV1oI Iu1oI IumV1oI

aor Iuom IuomtV IuomoI Iuomt0o Iu0m Iu0mtV
IuoQ Iuo1t IuoQ Iuoo0t Iu0Q Iu01t
IuoQ IuomoI Iuo1oI IuomV1oI Iu0Q Iu0moI

p' ItIuxm ItIuxmtV ItIutVo m ItIutVoI m tV ItIutVo m ItIutVoI mtV
ItIuxQ ItIux1t ItIutVo ItIutVoI 1t ItIutVo ItIutVoI 1t
ItIuxQ ItIuxmoI ItIutVo ItIutVoI m oI ItIutVo ItIutVoI moI

112
Su$junctive of MI #er$s

<!tive /ile Passive

ImI ImI ImI ImI

pres Im ImtV ImoI Imt0o ImoI Imt0o
Iq Im1t Iq Imo0t Iq Imo0t
Iq ImoI Im1oI ImV1oI Im1oI ImV1oI

aor m mtV moI mt0o o0m o0mtV
q m1t q mo0t o0Q o01t
q moI m1oI mV1oI o0Q o0moI

1I0I 1I0I 1I0I 1I0I

pres 1I0m 1I0mtV 1I0moI 1I0mt0o 1I0moI 1I0mt0o
1I0Q 1I01t 1I0Q 1I0o0t 1I0Q 1I0o0t
1I0Q 1I0moI 1I01oI 1I0mV1oI 1I01oI 1I0mV1oI

aor 0m 0mtV 0moI 0mt0o 1t0m 1t0mtV
0Q 01t 0Q 0o0t 1t0Q 1t01t
0Q 0moI 01oI 0mV1oI 1t0Q 1t0moI

II II II II

pres Im ImtV ImoI Imt0o ImoI Imt0o
IQ I1t IQ Io0t IQ Io0t
IQ ImoI I1oI ImV1oI I1oI ImV1oI

aor m mtV moI mt0o I0m I0mtV
Q 1t Q o0t I0Q I01t
Q moI 1oI mV1oI I0Q I0moI

110
Io1I Io1I Io1I Io1I

pres Io1m Io1mtV Io1moI Io1mt0o Io1moI Io1mt0o
Io1Q Io11t Io1Q Io1o0t Io1Q Io1o0t
Io1Q Io1moI Io11oI Io1mV1oI Io11oI Io1mV1oI

aor o1m o1mtV
o1Q o11t
o1Q o1moI

Su$junctive of Contract #er$s

<!tive /ile Passive
tVVom tVVom tVVom tVVom

pres tVVm tVVmtV tVVmoI tVVmt0o tVVmoI tVVmt0o
tVV tVVo1t tVV tVVoo0t tVV tVVoo0t
tVV tVVmoI tVVo1oI tVVmVoI tVVo1oI tVVmVoI

IItm IItm IItm IItm

pres IIm IImtV IImoI IImt0o IImoI IImt0o
IIQ II1t IIQ IIo0t IIQ IIo0t
IIQ IImoI II1oI IImV1oI II1oI IImV1oI

EIpom EIpom EIpom EIpom

pres EIpm EIpmtV EIpmoI EIpmt0o EIpmoI EIpmt0o
EIpoI EIpm1t EIpoI EIpmo0t EIpoI EIpmo0t
EIpoI EIpmoI EIpm1oI EIpmV1oI EIpm1oI EIpmV1o

?ses of the (u!Buncti.e -ood

)he uses o' the sub5un!tive *ay be !onveniently treate in t%o !ate.ories$ those
that o!!ur in inepenent !onstru!tions an those in epenent !onstru!tions. )he
sub5un!tive is not as 're8uent in inepenent !lauses as it is in suborinate !lauses. Its

112
inepenent usa.es, *oreover, are *ore strai.ht'or%ar an li*ite an are usually
'airly easy to re!o.ni;e. )he epenent sub5un!tive, on the other han, is both *ore
're8uent an *ore varie in its uses. It is 'ro* these uses in suborinate or epenent
!lauses that the sub5un!tive erives it na*e. Diterally, the sub5un!tive is the *oo o'
the verb that is >5oine uner? or >sub,orinate? to the verb o' the *ain !lause.

he (u!Buncti.e -ood #n #ndependent "lauses

In *ain !lauses, the sub5un!tive *oo *ay ini!ate an e3hortation, a ne.ative
!o**an, a eliberation on the speaker?s part, or the stron. ne.ation o' a 'uture a!tion.
Several o' these uses o!!ur pri*arily %ith !ertain persons an nu*bers or o!!ur only in
the ne.ative.

%ortatory Subjunctive

)he hortatory sub5un!tive, as its na*e i*plies, is use to .ive a kin o'
!o**an or e3hortation. It is *ostly use in the 'irst person plural an is *ost easily
brou.ht into by pla!in. the iea o' the verb a'ter the 4n.lish phrase >let us ...?. )hus, the
hortatory sub5un!tive %orks as a kin o' !o**an that >%e? .ive to >ourselves?. I' the
e3hortation prohibits (@let us not...A) the ne.ative use is .

1o mpo tmt0o / tmt0o.
Det us re!eive the .i'ts.
tx 1 EoItm tpmt0o / tI0mt0o
Det us not .o out o' the !ity.

&egative 'ommands

Chen .ivin. a ne.ative !o**an to a se!on or thir person sub5e!t it is usual
to use a ne.ate 'or* o' the sub5un!tive. #ther%ise, !o**ans are e3presse in the
i*perative *oo, %hi!h %ill be syste*ati!ally introu!e in a later !hapter.

EIo1tuQ / EIo1tu1t 1oI oVpooI txtIVoI.
Do not believe those *en. (Don?t be believin. those *en)
EIo1tuoQ / EIo1tuo1t 1oI oVpooI txtIVoI.
Do not believe those *en.

11(
Strongly &egated (uture ction

I' a 'uture event is to be e*phati!ally enie, the ouble ne.ative ou is use
%ith the sub5un!tive, usually the aorist sub5un!tive.

1ou EoII1o tx 1 EoItm ou EtyQ o pooIItu.
)he kin. %ill (surely) not sen the !iti;ens out o' the !ity.
tI 1V EoIIV ou tI0moI.
)hey %ill by (no *eans) !o*e into the !ity.

he (u!Buncti.e -ood #n *ependent "lauses

)he sub5un!tive in epenent !lauses is 'ar *ore 're8uent an varie than the
inepenent sub5un!tive, but be!ause epenent sub5un!tives by e'inition o!!ur in
suborinate !lauses, all epenent sub5un!tives %ill be introu!e by a suborinatin.
%or. )he suborinatin. %or o'ten .ives a !lear iea o' the !onstru!tion even be'ore
the verb o!!urs.

Purpose

#ne o' the *ost i*portant uses o' the sub5un!tive is in purpose !lauses. )he
purpose !lause e3presses the .oal sou.ht by the a!tion o' the *ain !lause. Sin!e that
.oal or purpose is only potential an not yet reali;e at the ti*e o' the *ain !lause?s
a!tion, the sub5un!tive *oo is use. Positive purpose !lauses are introu!e by the
suborinatin. !on5un!tions IVo, m an oEmF ne.ative purpose !lauses are introu!e
%ith or IVo .

1o mpo ou1oI ImoI o pooIItu IVo ou1o tI 1oV ItpoV tpmoI / tVtxmoI.
)he kin. .ives the* .i'ts that they *ay !arry the* into the te*ple.
tx 1 EoItm tpot0o opEoo0mtV.
Ce .o out o' the !ity in orer that %e *ay not be sei;e.

)enerali*ed Statements with oV

/any suborinate !lauses esi.nate a parti!ular ti*e or !ir!u*stan!e that
provies ba!k.roun to the a!tion o' the *ain !lause. < te*poral !lause, 'or e3a*ple,

11+
in the senten!e @Ce sa% the* %hen they !a*e into the !ity@ serves su!h a 'un!tion. In
the !ase o' relative pronouns, the suborinate !lause es!ribes *ore !losely so*e noun
or pronoun in the *ain !lause as in the senten!e @I .ive the* that %hi!h they %ant@.
In both o' these !ases so*ethin. spe!i'i! is esi.nate in the suborinate !lause, either
a parti!ular ti*e %hen so*ethin. happene or a parti!ular person or thin..
Su!h !lauses, ho%ever, *ay also be use in a *ore .eneral %ay, an this sort o'
.enerali;e !lause e*ploys a sub5un!tive verb an the parti!le oV. )he sub5un!tive
%ith oV o!!urs in te*poral, relative, an !onitional !lauses. "onitions %ill be treate
syste*ati!ally later, but the e3a*ples belo% %ill illustrate the .enerali;in. 'un!tion o'
the sub5un!tive an oV in te*poral an relative !lauses.

VuV ou1ou opmtV m tI 1V EoIIV tpoV1oI.
6o% %e see the* as they !o*e into the !ity.

ou1ou opmtV o1oV tI 1V EoIIV tpmV1oI ( tI0mtV).
Ce see the* %henever they !o*e into the !ity.

ImI o 1I pouIoV1oI. I .ive the* that %hi!h they %ant.

ImI o 1I oV pouImV1oI. I .ive the* %hatever they %ant.

'lauses of (earing

"lauses o' 'earin. e*ploy the sub5un!tive an use the %ors or ou to
introu!e the epenent !lause %hi!h e3presses %hat is 'eare. )he %or
introu!es a positive !lause o' 'earin. %hile the %ors ou introu!es a ne.ative
'earin. !lause. It *ay, at 'irst, see* stran.e that positive !lause o' 'earin. shoul be
introu!e by the ne.ative %or . )he !onstru!tion, ho%ever, !an be !onsiere the
result o' t%o ori.inally inepenent !lauses, su!h as @I a* a'raiA an @*ay the ene*y
not !o*eA, out o' %hi!h .re% the suborinate !lause o' 'earin. @I 'ear lest the ene*y
!o*eA. )he parti!le ou, then, si*ply ne.ates so*e %or in the suborinate !lause
introu!e by .

optI1oI 1ou1o tV1oI. Me 'ears that it %ill happen.

opout0o ou tI0moI. Ce 'ear that they %ill not !o*e.

111
"hapter hirteen
he &ptati.e -ood

he (u!Buncti.e and &ptati.e "ontrasted

Sin!e the optative *oo is o'ten i''i!ult to e'ine in isolation, it is help'ul to
unerstan it by !ontrast %ith the sub5un!tive, an that !ontrast is !learest in the
inepenent uses o' the t%o *oos. )he inepenent sub5un!tive, 'or e3a*ple, is use
to e3press su!h stron. 'uture ieas as an e3hortation or !o**an. )he *ain
inepenent use o' the optative, on the other han, e3presses a *ere %ish. )he
optative *oo is, in 'a!t, na*e 'or this >%ishin.? 'un!tion, an the ter* itsel' is 'ro*
the Datin verb >I %ish? opto optare. )hus, the sub5un!tive sho%s .reater !ertainty an
'ir*ness o' purpose, %hile the optative is hope'ul but 'ar less !ertain about the
out!o*e.
<s *entione in the previous !hapter, the *ost basi! iea o' the sub5un!tive
*oo is 'uturity, an it is 'ro* this 'or%ar,lookin. 8uality o' the *oo that the
sub5un!tive erives its various uses, both inepenent an epenent. )he hortatory
sub5un!tive, 'or e3a*ple, ur.es %hat *ust yet be one, an a stron.ly ne.ate
state*ent usin. ou an the sub5un!tive also *akes an assertion about the 'uture.
Suborinate !onstru!tions su!h as purpose or 'earin. !lauses also have a !lear 'uture
re'eren!e.
By !ontrast, the optative !onveys *u!h *ore oubt'ul an un!ertain notions,
espe!ially in its inepenent uses. Su!h e3pressions as %ishes (@%oul that they
!o*eA) an e3pressions o' potential (@%e %oul .o %ith youA) look to the 'uture but in
a *u!h va.uer *ore oubt'ul %ay than the sub5un!tive. In suborinate !onstru!tions
su!h as purpose an 'earin. !lauses, the optative o'ten see*s to 'un!tion e3a!tly as the
sub5un!tive, but even here there is an i*portant i''eren!e. )he i''eren!e is that the
optative in a epenent !lause is tri..ere by a secondary verb in the *ain !lauses, an
an!ient :reek 're8uently *arks any potential or reporte state*ent as va.uer an less
un!ertain i' it is *otivate by a past,tense verb. In reporte state*ents, 'or e3a*ple, i'
the verb is pri*ary, the state*ent is reporte in the ini!ative, %hi!h re'le!ts the *oo
o' the a!tual state*ent. I', ho%ever, the state*ent is introu!e %ith a se!onary verb,
the inire!t state*ent is 're8uently *arke by usin. the optative *oo in tenses that
re'le!t those o' the ori.inal state*ent.

(imilar ?ses of the (u!Buncti.e and &ptati.e

Chile the ori.inal *eanin.s o' the sub5un!tive an optative *oos are i''erent,
*any o' their uses, espe!ially in suborinate !lauses, are al*ost e3a!tly the sa*e.

117
Ener !ertain !ir!u*stan!es, 'or e3a*ple, an optative *ay be use in a IVo !lause to
e3press the sa*e purpose that a sub5un!tive verb *i.ht e3press. )he senten!e
tpot0o IVo 1V EoIIV Imt0o @Ce .o in orer that %e *ay see the !ityA
e3presses in its suborinate !lause the sa*e .oal as the senten!e I0otV IVo 1V
EoIIV IoIt0o @Ce %ent in orer that %e *i.ht see the !ityA, even thou.h the 'irst
epenent verb is aorist sub5un!tive an the se!on is aorist optative. )he 'ollo%in.
senten!es .ive e3a*ples o' three suborinate !onstru!tions (purpose, .enerali;e
state*ents, an 'earin. !lauses) in %hi!h the sub5un!tive an optative *oos e3press
the sa*e verbal ieas

tpot0o IVo mpo tmV1oI. @)hey !o*e in orer that they *ay re!eive .i'ts.A
I0otV IVo mpo toIV1o. @)hey !a*e in orer that they *i.ht re!eive .i'ts.A

o1oV tI0moI, ou1oI mpo IotV. @Chenever they !o*e, %e .ive the* .i'ts.A
o1t tI0oItV, ou1oI mpo totV. @Chenever they !a*e, %e .ave the* .i'ts.A

optI1oI, mpo ou IopQ. @Me 'ears that he %ill not re!eive .i'ts.A
toptI1o, mpo ou IopoI. @Me 'eare that he %oul not re!eive .i'ts.A

(eEuence of -oods

)he :reek lan.ua.e *akes a sharp istin!tion bet%een an a!tion that takes pla!e
in the present or the 'uture an an a!tion that takes pla!e in the past. )he
istin.uishin. o' verbs base on their ti*e o' a!tion has been so i*portant that spe!ial
ter*s have been use to na*e the t%o !ate.oriesF the ter* >pri*ary? esi.nates tenses
that have a present or 'uture,ti*e re'eren!e, an the ter* >se!onary? enotes all tenses
that have a past,ti*e re'eren!e. )he i*portan!e o' the pri*arySse!onary istin!tion
has been 8uite apparent in the 'or*ation o' ini!ative *oo verbs sin!e the istin!tion
o' presentS'uture ti*e versus past ti*e has been unerline by i''erent sets o' enin.s
asso!iate %ith pri*ary an %ith se!onary tenses.
)his sensitivity to the ti*e o' verbal a!tion has spe!ial appli!ation to the
e*ploy*ent o' the sub5un!tive an optative *oos in suborinate !lauses. <s *ay
have been noti!e in the previous e3a*ple senten!es, the one i''eren!e that
eter*ine the *oo o' the verb in the epenent !lauses %as the tense o' the leain.
verb, that is, the verb o' the *ain !lause. In suborinate !lauses that e3press possible or
potential a!tion, i' the leain. verb o' the *ain !lause is a pri*ary tense, the *oo o'
the suborinate !lause is sub5un!tive. I', ho%ever, the leain. verb is a se!onary

119
tense, the *oo o' the suborinate !lause is optative. )he relationship bet%een the
tense o' inepenent verb an the verb o' the suborinate !lauses is kno%n as
>se8uen!e? or >se8uen!e o' *oos?. )he ter* >se8uen!e? is taken 'ro* the Datin %or
seEuor (>I 'ollo%?) an si*ply re'ers to %hat non,ini!ative *oo *ay 'ollo% a .iven
leain. verb. :reek se8uen!e o' *oos *ay be su**ari;e in the 'ollo%in. !hart.

2eading )er! )er! of the (u!ordinate "lause

Primary Tense Subjunctive +ood
(present, 'uture, per'e!t) (tense eter*ine by >kin? o' a!tion)

Secondary Tense ,ptative +ood
(i*per'e!t, aorist, pluper'e!t) (tense eter*ine by >kin? o' a!tion)

enses of the &ptati.e

<s is true o' all non,ini!ative *oos, tense in the optative oes not ini!ate
ti*e o' a!tion but sho%s kin o' a!tion or >aspect?. ()he one e3!eption to this rule %ill
be ealt %ith uner the heain. o' >the optative in inire!t is!ourse?.) )hus, i''erent
tenses o' an optative verb !oul be use in the sa*e !onstru!tion, epenin. on
%hether the author %ishes to e*phasi;e on,.oin., si*ple, or !o*plete a!tion. )he
tense o' the verb, there'ore, oes not ini!ate ti*e o' a!tion, si*ply kin o' a!tion. <n
e3a*ple o' this aspectual use o' tense !an be seen in a senten!e that !oul use e8ually
%ell t%o i''erent tenses o' the optative. )he senten!e @)hey !a*e in orer that they
*i.ht see the !ityA !oul be renere in :reek either %ith the present optative o' the
verb >see? (tI0oV IVo 1V EoIIV opqtV) or %ith the aorist optative (tI0oV IVo 1V
EoIIV IoItV). )he only i''eren!e bet%een the t%o is that present optative in the 'irst
senten!e ini!ates that the a!tion o' seein. is !ontinuous or on,.oin. %here the aorist
optative in the se!on senten!e sho%s a si*ple a!tion.

;orms of the &ptati.e -ood

Dike the sub5un!tive, the optative *oo is easier to 'or* than the ini!ative sin!e
the 'or*s o' the optative are both *ore !onsistent an less nu*erous. Chile tenses o'
optative are still not as nu*erous as the ini!ative, the optative has one *ore tense than
the sub5un!tive, that is, it has present, future, aorist, an per'e!t tenses. Chere the
sub5un!tive *oo is *arke by len.thene !onne!tin. vo%els (m, , , / m, , m) be'ore
the personal enin.s, the si.n o' the optative is a iphthon. enin. %ith iota (oI, oI,

120
tI, q). )he iphthon. >oI? is *ost !o**on in the optative *oo, an is 'oun in *ost
tenses o' o*e.a verbs, in ImI, verbs in -VuI, an in -tm !ontra!ts an -om
!ontra!ts. In o*e.a verbs, 'irst aorist 'or*s o' the a!tive an *ile are !hara!teri;e
by >oI?, an 'or*s o' the aorist passive have the !onne!tin. vo%el >tI?. )he /I verbs
1I0I an II, be!ause o' their ste* vo%els, sho% >tI? throu.hout, an the /I verb
Io1I, also be!ause o' the ste* vo%el, take enin.s %ith the !onne!tin. vo%el >oI?.
"ontra!t verbs in ,om also take the >oI? !onne!tin. vo%el, but this iphthon. is
is.uise by the ,oI !ontra!tin. %ith the ste* vo%el ,o %hi!h yiels ,q.
)he a!tive enin.s o' the optative (I, , --, tV, 1t, tV) are .enerally use 'or all
verbs in the optative %hether o*e.a, /I, or !ontra!t verbs. /I verbs an !ontra!t verbs
e3hibit a typi!al variant pattern o' enin.s in the 'irst, se!on, an thir person
sin.ular (,V, -, -), but even in the sin.ular they *ay also take re.ular o*e.a,verb
enin.s. /ileSpassive,voi!e enin.s are the sa*e 'or any type o' verb in the optative
(V, o, 1o, t0o, o0t, V1o). )he *ileSpassive enin. o' the se!on personal
sin.ular enin. ,o lies bet%een the un!ontra!te 'or* -oo an the !ontra!te enin.s
that are the rule in the ini!ative an sub5un!tive. (Intervo!ali! si.*a has been lost, but
the ,o is un!ontra!te.)

#egular ,mega Verbs


fut IuooII IuooItV IuooIV IuooIt0o Iu0ooIV Iu0ooIt0o
IuooI IuooI1t IuooIo IuooIo0t Iu0ooIo Iu0ooIo0t
IuooI IuooItV IuooI1o IuooIV1o Iu0ooI1o Iu0ooIV1o

pres IuoII IuoItV IuoIV IuoIt0o IuoIV IuoIt0o
IuoI IuoI1t IuoIo IuoIo0t IuoIo IuoIo0t
IuoI IuoItV IuoI1o IuoIV1o IuoI1o IuoIV1o

aor IuooII IuooItV IuooIV IuooIt0o Iu0tIV Iu0tItV
IuotIo IuooI1t IuooIo IuooIo0t Iu0tI Iu0tI1t
IuotIt IuotIoV IuooI1o IuooIV1o Iu0tI Iu0tItV

pf ItIuxoII ItIuxoItV ItIutVo tIV ItIutVoI tItV ItIutVo tIV ItIutVoI tI tV
ItIuxoI ItIuxoI1t ItIutVo tI ItIutVoI tI1t ItIutVo tI ItIutVoI tI 1t
ItIuxoI ItIuxoItV ItIutVo tI ItIutVoI tItV ItIutVo tI ItIutVoI tI tV

121
+I Verbs

pres IoIV IoItV IoIV IoIt0o IoIV IoIt0o
IoI IoI1t IoIo IoIo0t IoIo IoIo0t
IoI IoItV IoI1o IoIV1o IoI1o IoIV1o

aor oIV oItV oIV oIt0o o0tIV o0tItV
oI oI1t oIo oIo0t o0tI o0tI1t
oI oItV oI1o oIV1o o0tI o0tItV

pres 1I0tIV 1I0tItV 1I0tIV 1I0tIt0o 1I0tIV 1I0tIt0o
1I0tI 1I0tI1t 1I0tIo 1I0tIo0t 1I0tIo 1I0tIo0t
1I0tI 1I0tItV 1I0tI1o 1I0tIV1o 1I0tI1o 1I0tIV1o

aor 0tIV 0tItV 0tIV 0tIt0o 1t0tIV 1t0tItV
0tI 0tI1t 0tIo 0tIo0t 1t0tI 1t0tI1t
0tI 0tItV 0tI1o 0tIV1o 1t0tI 1t0tItV

pres ItIV ItItV ItIV ItIt0o ItIV ItIt0o
ItI ItI1t ItIo ItIo0t ItIo ItIo0t
ItI ItItV ItI1o ItIV1o ItI1o ItIV1o

aor tIV tItV tIV tIt0o I0tIV I0tItV
tI tI1t tIo tIo0t I0tI I0tI1t
tI tItV tI1o tIV1o I0tI I0tItV

pres Io1oIV Io1oItV Io1oIV Io1oIt0o Io1oIV Io1oIt0o
Io1oI Io1oI1t Io1oIo Io1oIo0t Io1oIo Io1oIo0t
Io1oI Io1oItV Io1oI1o Io1oIV1oI Io1oI1o Io1oIV1oI

aor o1oIV o1oItV
o1oI o1oI1t
o1oI o1oItV

122
'ontract Verbs

pres tVVqV tVVqtV tVVqV tVVqt0o tVVqV tVVqt0o
tVVq tVVq1t tVVqo tVVqo0t tVVqo tVVqo0t
tVVq tVVqtV tVVq1o tVVqV1o tVVq1o tVVqV1o

pres IIoIV IIoItV IIoIV IIoIt0o IIoIV IIoIt0o
IIoI IIoI1t IIoIo IIoIo0t IIoIo IIoIo0t
IIoI IIoItV IIoI1o IIoIV1o IIoI1o IIoIV1o

pres EIpoIV EIpoItV EIpoIV EIpoIt0o EIpoIV EIpoIt0o
EIpoI EIpoI1t EIpoIo EIpoIo0t EIpoIo EIpoIo0t
EIpoI EIpoItV EIpoI1o EIpoIV1o EIpoI1o EIpoIV1o

?ses of the &ptati.e -ood

<s %as the !ase %ith the sub5un!tive, the uses o' the optative *ay be
!onveniently treate in t%o !ate.ories$ those uses that o!!ur in inepenent
!onstru!tions an those in epenent !onstru!tions. )he optative is not as 're8uent in
inepenent !lauses as it is in suborinate !lauses, an its inepenent uses, like the
sub5un!tive, are *ore strai.ht'or%ar an there'ore easier to re!o.ni;e. )he epenent
optative is *ore 're8uent an varie but is !learly *arke by suborinatin. %ors.
)hese are the sa*e %ors that *ark !orresponin. !onstru!tions o' the sub5un!tive.

he &ptati.e -ood #n #ndependent "lauses

In inepenent !lauses, the optative *oo *ay ini!ate a %ish or a !autious
state*ent about the 'uture. <s *entione above, the optative *oo takes its na*e
'ro* its 'un!tion o' e3pressin. a %ish.

-ishes in the ,ptative

)he optative e3pressin. %ishes *ay o!!ur in any person an nu*ber. Cishes in
the optative *ay be pre!ee by the parti!les tI0t an tI op, but %ishes o not
re8uire these %ors. I' the %ish is ne.ative, the %or is use.

oI 0toI xoIo IoItV / oItV.
/ay the .os .ive .oo thin.s.

120

tpoIV1o oI t0poI / tI0oItV
/ay the ene*ies not !o*e.

Potential ,ptative with oV

)he potential optative e3presses an a!tion in the 'uture that may or would happen.
In su!h senten!es there is a kin o' i*plie !onition, but the !onitional iea is so
unspe!i'ie or ine'inite that it is not state. In this !onstru!tion the optative *ust be
a!!o*panie by an oV.

1ou EoII1o tx 1 EoItm EtytIt oV o pooIItu.
)he kin. %oul not sen the !iti;ens out o' the !ity.

he &ptati.e -ood #n *ependent "lauses

Dike the sub5un!tive, the optative in epenent !lauses is *u!h *ore 're8uent
an varie than the inepenent optative an, also like sub5un!tives, %ill be introu!e
by a suborinatin. %or. )he !onstru!tions e3pressin. purpose, .enerali;e
!ir!u*stan!e, an 'ear are al*ost e3a!tly the sa*e as the sa*e !onstru!tions that use
the sub5un!tive, but be!ause the leain. verbs are se!onary tenses, the optative *oo
is use instea o' the sub5un!tive.

Purpose

Purpose !lauses e3press the .oal sou.ht by the a!tion o' the *ain !lause. Sin!e
that .oal or purpose is only potential an not yet reali;e at the ti*e o' the *ain
!lause?s a!tion, the optative *oo is use. Positive purpose !lauses are introu!e by
the suborinatin. !on5un!tions IVo, m an oEm (that, so that, in orer that)F ne.ative
purpose !lauses %ith or IVo ... . (that ... not, so that ... not, in orer that ... not).

1o mpo ou1oI tmxtV o pooIItu IVo ou1o tI 1oV ItpoV tpoItV / tVtxtIoV.
)he kin. .ave the* .i'ts that they *i.ht !arry the* into the te*ple.

tx 1 EoItm tI0otV opEoo0tItV.
Ce %ent out o' the !ity in orer that %e *i.ht not be sei;e.

122
)enerali*ed Statements without oV

Suborinate !lauses *ay esi.nate a parti!ular ti*e or !ir!u*stan!e that
provies ba!k.roun to the a!tion o' the *ain !lause, or they *ay ini!ate a .eneral
!ir!u*stan!e or !o**only o!!urrin. a!tion or state. In the previous !hapter, these
.enerali;e state*ents, %hen they %ere introu!e by pri*ary,tense leain. verbs,
%ere ini!ate by the sub5un!tive *oo an the parti!le oV. I' the leain. verb is
se!onary, ho%ever, the verb is put in the optative *oo, an no >oV? is use.

ou1ou tIotV o1t tI 1V EoIIV I0oV.
Ce sa% the* %hen they !a*e into the !ity.

ou1ou tIotV o1t tI 1V EoIIV tI0oItV.
Ce sa% the* %henever they !a*e into the !ity.

tmxo o 1I tpouIoV1o.
I .ave the* that %hi!h they %ante.

tmxo o 1I pouIoIV1o.
I .ave the* %hatever they %ante.

'lauses of (earing

"lauses o' 'earin. in se!onary se8uen!e e*ploy the optative an use the %ors
or ... ou to introu!e the epenent !lause %hi!h e3presses %hat is 'eare. <
positive !lause o' 'earin. is introu!e by , an a ne.ative 'earin. !lause by ... ou.

toptI1o 1ou1o tVoI1o.
Me %as 'earin. that this %oul happen.

topout0o oux tI0oItV.
Ce %ere 'earin. that they %oul not !o*e.

Indirect Statement fter Secondary Verbs

In previous !hapters there have been o!!asional e3a*ples o' reporte or inire!t
state*ent. In su!h !onstru!tions, not the ori.inal 8uote but an inire!tly state version
o' the 8uote %as introu!e by a verb o' sayin. or statin. an then *arke %ith the

12(
suborinatin. %or o 1I >that?. )he :reek hanlin. o' inire!t state*ent i''ers 'ro*
4n.lish in t%o %ays. )he 'irst is that the ori.inal tense o' the ire!t 8uote is retaine in
:reek, an the se!on is that %hen inire!t state*ent is introu!e by a se!onary
leain. verb, the verb o' the inire!t state*ent may be .iven in the !orresponin. tense
o' the optative.

he citiFensG @%e %ill sen the kin. out o' the !ity.A
@EtyotV 1oV pooIIto tx 1 EoItm.A

Me says that the !iti;ens %ill sen the kin. out o' the !ity.
IttI o1I oI EoII1oI EtyouoI 1oV pooIIto tx 1 EoItm.

Me sai that the !iti;ens %oul sen the kin. out o' the !ity.
tIEtV o1I oI EoII1oI EtyoItV 1oV pooIIto tx 1 EoItm.

he citiFensG @%e sen (are senin.) the kin. out o' the !ity.A
@EtEotV 1oV pooIIto tx 1 EoItm.A

Me says that the !iti;ens sen (are senin.) the kin. out o' the !ity.
IttI o1I oI EoII1oI EtEouoI 1oV pooIIto tx 1 EoItm.

Me sai that the !iti;ens sent (%ere senin.) the kin. out o' the !ity.
tIEtV o1I oI EoII1oI EtEoItV 1oV pooIIto tx 1 EoItm.

he citiFensG @%e sent the kin. out o' the !ity.A
@EtyotV 1oV pooIIto tx 1 EoItm.A

Me says that the !iti;ens sent the kin. out o' the !ity.
IttI o1I oI EoII1oI tEtyoV 1oV pooIIto tx 1 EoItm.

Me sai that the !iti;ens ha sent the kin. out o' the !ity.
tIEtV o1I oI EoII1oI EtytIoV 1oV pooIIto tx 1 EoItm.

12+
"hapter ;ourteen, "onditions

(u!ordinate "lauses and "onditions

Cith the introu!tion o' the sub5un!tive *oo, suborinate !lauses have been
use to e3press the *ore subtle ieas o' potential an possibility, but they are not in
their basi! nature or 'un!tion any i''erent than suborinate !lauses that take the
ini!ative *oo. Suborinate !lauses %ith either *oo provie ba!k.roun or 'urther
spe!i'i!ity 'or the a!tion o' the *ain !lause.
)he !onitional !lause is si*ply another type o' suborinate !lause. In 4n.lish it
is introu!e by su!h %ors as >i'?, >even i'?, an >unless? an like all suborinate
!lauses, a !onitional !lause !annot stan on its o%n but re8uires the *ain !lause to
.ive the !on!luin. a!tion or state. )he !lause @i' %e .o to the !ity...A, 'or e3a*ple,
!annot stan on its o%n. It re8uires so*e kin o' !on!lusion su!h as in the !onitional
senten!e$ @i' %e .o to the !ity, %e %ill see our 'a*ilyA.
Chile !onitional !lauses are suborinate !lauses like any other type o'
suborinate !lause, it is nonetheless, use'ul to treat the* separately be!ause o' their
spe!iali;e use o' i''erent *oos an their typi!al asso!iation %ith !ertain kins o'
*ain !lause. Parti!ular !o*binations o' *oos an tenses in the !onition an
!on!lusion !lauses sho% 8uite pre!isely the nature an i*pli!ations o' the !onitional
senten!e.

ypes of "ondition

In :reek, the various !onitions !an be !onveniently ivie into 'our basi!
types, ea!h o' %hi!h .enerally has at least t%o 'urther subivisions. )he 'irst !ate.ory
!onsists o' parti!ular !onitions, the se!on .eneral !onitions, the thir 'uture
!onitions, an the 'ourth !ate.ory unreal or !ontrary,to,'a!t !onitions. )he type o'
!onition is eter*ine by %hat tenses an *oos o!!ur in the !onitional !lause an
the !on!lusion. )he !onition or >i',!lause? is te!hni!ally kno%n as the >protasis?, a ter*
o' :reek ori.in %hi!h literally *eans @%hat is arran.e in 'rontA. )he *ain !lause or
!on!lusion o' the !onitional senten!e is !orresponin.ly !alle the >apoosis?, another
:reek erivative *eanin. @%hat is .iven 'ro*A.

Particular 'onditions

< parti!ular !onition .ives no ini!ation o' the reality o' the !onitional
senten!eWit *ay or *ay not be realWan ra%s a !on!lusion only in a particular
!ir!u*stan!e or settin.. )his !onition oes not inten 'or its !on!lusion to be

121
.enerali;e to other si*ilar !ir!u*stan!es. )he t%o subivisions o' si*ple !onitions
are present parti!ular an past parti!ular. <ll parti!ular !onitions use the ini!ative
*oo in both the protasis an apoosis. I' present ini!ative verbs o!!ur in both
!lauses, it is kno%n as present parti!ular !onition, %hereas past ini!atives in both
!lauses *ake up the past parti!ular !onition.

tI mpo tpouoI, ItIEouoI ou1o tV 1q oI xq.
@I' they brin. (bear) .i'ts, they leave the* in the house.A

tI mpo ttpoV, tItIEoV ou1o tV 1q oIxq.
@I' they %ere brin.in. .i'ts, they %ere leavin. the* in the house.A

tI mpo VtxoV, tIIEoV ou1o tV 1q oIxq.
@I' they brou.ht .i'ts, they le't the* in the house.A

)eneral 'onditions

In !ontrast to parti!ular !onitions, .eneral !onitions aress habitual,
repeate, !usto*ary, or .enerally true out!o*es. Dike parti!ular !onitions, .eneral
!onitions i*ply nothin. about the truth o' the !onition or the *ain !lause, they
si*ply e*phasi;e that if a !ertain !onition is true (%hi!h *ay or *ay not be the !ase),
then the !on!lusion as state in the *ain !lause is also true. Chere parti!ular
!onitions 'o!us on one spe!i'i! !ase, .eneral !onitions envision a general or re!urrin.
!ir!u*stan!e %hi!h has a generally vali !on!lusion.
)he t%o subivisions o' .eneral !onitions are present .eneral an past .eneral.
<ll .eneral !onitions use the ini!ative *oo in the !on!lusion (apoosis), but the
protasis has either the sub5un!tive *oo or the optative. )he protasis o' a present
.eneral !onition takes the sub5un!tive *oo %ith oV, an a past .eneral !onition has
a protasis %ith the optative *oo an no parti!le oV.

toV mpo tpmoI, ItIEouoI ou1o tV 1q oIxq.
@I' (ever) they brin. (are brin.in. .i'ts), they leave the* in the house.A

toV mpo tVtxmoI, ItIEouoI ou1o tV 1q oIxq.
@I' (ever) they brin. .i'ts, they leave the* in the house.A

tI mpo tpoItV, tItIEoV ou1o tV 1q oIxq.
@I' (ever) they %ere brin.in. .i'ts, they %ere leavin. the* in the house.A

127

tI mpo tVtxtIoV, tIIEoV ou1o tV 1q oI xq.
@I' (ever) they brou.ht .i'ts, they le't the* in the house.A

(uture 'onditions

-uture !onitions, as their esi.nation i*plies, look to the 'uture 'or their
'ul'ill*ent an are 'urther subivie as *ore vivi, less vivi, an *ost vivi (this
last !onition is 8uite rare). -uture *ore vivi !onitions present the 'ul'ill*ent o' the
!onition as relatively !ertain. -uture less vivi !onitions, on the other han, sho%
!onsierably *ore oubt or less !ertainty about the 'ul'ill*ent o' the !onition. )he
'uture *ost vivi !onition ini!ates stron. !ertainty an even eter*ination on the
speaker?s part as to the 'ul'ill*ent o' the !onitional senten!e. )he 'uture *ost vivi
!onition is o'ten use %ith threatenin. state*ents an !onse8uently is also kno%n as
>*inatory?, a ter* take 'ro* the Datin verb >to threaten? (*inor, *inari, *inatus su*).
-uture *ore vivi !onitions use the %or toV to *ean >i'? (a !o*bination o' tI
an the .enerali;in. parti!le oV) an e*ploy the sub5un!tive *oo in the protasis o'
the !onition an the 'uture tense ini!ative in the apoosis. )he !onstru!tion o' this
!onition ( toV sub5un!tiveS'uture ini!ative) sho%s that the 'uture *ore vivi
!onition 'or*s a !ontinuu* %ith the present .eneral !onition. In other %ors, the
'uture *ore vivi !onition *ay be !onsiere a present .eneral !onition *ove into
'uture ti*e. In 4n.lish, the e8uivalent o' the 'uture *ore vivi uses a present tense
verb in the protasis an a 'uture tense in the apoosis. )hus, %hen translatin. a :reek
'uture *ore vivi !onition, it is pre'erable to translate the protasis o' the !onition
%ith a si*ple 4n.lish present tense an the apoosis %ith an 4n.lish 'uture tense.
)he 'uture less vivi !onition is so*eti*es kno%n as the >shoul,%oul?
!onition. It is so !alle be!ause the t%o helpin. verbs >shoul? an >%oul? *ay be
use %ith the verbs o' the !onition an !on!lusion, respe!tively, to !onvey the iea
that the 'ul'ill*ent o' the !onition is possible, thou.h so*e%hat oubt'ul. -uture less
vivi !onitions use optatives in both the protasis an apoosis, but the apoosis also
!ontains the parti!le oV.
)he 'uture *ost vivi !onition is 'ar less 're8uent than its *ore an less vivi
!ounterparts an takes 'uture tense ini!atives in both the protasis an apoosis.

toV mpo tpmoI, ItIyouoI ou1o tV 1q oIxq.
@I' they brin. (are brin.in.) .i'ts, they %ill leave the* in the house.A

toV mpo tVtxmoI, ItIyouoI ou1o tV 1q oIxq.
@I' they brin. .i'ts, they %ill leave the* in the house.A

129

tI mpo tpoItV, ItIEoItV oV ou1o tV 1q oIxq.
@I' they shoul brin. .i'ts, they %oul leave the* in the house.A

tI mpo tVtxtIoV, IIEoItV oV ou1o tV 1q oIxq.
@I' they shoul brin. .i'ts, they %oul leave the* in the house.A

tI mpo oux oIoouoI, pI0ooV1oI tx 1ou oIxou.
@I' they %ill not brin. .i'ts, they %ill be thro%n out o' the house.A

.nreal or 'ontrary/to/(act 'onditions

Enreal or !ontrary,to,'a!t !onitions assu*e that the situation es!ribe by the
!onitional senten!e is not, in 'a!t, true. )his type o' !onition, like parti!ular an
.eneral !onitions, !o*es in t%o varieties, present an past. Both present an past
unreal !onitions e*ploy the ini!ative *oo an %oul be i''i!ult to istin.uish
'ro* parti!ular !onitions e3!ept that unreal !onitions in!lue the parti!le oV in the
apoosis. )he present unreal !onition takes the i*per'e!t ini!ative in the protasis
an an i*per'e!t ini!ative with oV in the apoosis. "orresponin.ly, the past unreal
!onition takes an aorist ini!ative in the protasis an an aorist ini!ative with oV in the
apoosis. ()he parti!le oV in the !on!lusion o' unreal !onitions sho%s its 'or*al
a''inity an se*anti! !ontinuity %ith the 'uture less vivi !onition. I', 'or e3a*ple, a
'uture less vivi !onition, %hi!h sho%s oubt, is trans'erre to the present or past an
the oubt is !on'ir*e, then the !onition has be!o*e i*possible or unreal.)

tI mpo ttpoV, tItIEoV oV ou1o tV 1q oIxq.
@I' they brou.ht .i'ts, they %oul leave the* in the house.A

tI mpo VtxoV, tIIEoV oV ou1o tV 1q oIxq.
@I' they ha brou.ht .i'ts, they %oul have le't the* in the house.A

100
(ummary of "onditions in Greek
In orer to see the varieties o' :reek !onitions in overvie% the 'ollo%in.
su**ary is .iven in outline 'or*.

I. Parti!ular "onitions

1. present parti!ular tI = ini!ative present tense S ini!ative present tense
tI tVouoI, tpot0o. I' they re*ain, %e .o.

2. past parti!ular tI = ini!ative past tense S ini!ative past tense
tI ttVoV, I0otV. I' they re*aine, %e %ent.

II. :eneral "onitions

1. present .eneral tI = sub5un!tive S present ini!ative
toV tVmoI, tpot0o. I' (ever) they re*ain, %e .o.

2. past .eneral tI = optative S i*per'e!t ini!ative
tI tVoItV, pot0o. I' (ever) they re*aine, %e %ent.

III. -uture "onitions

1. 'uture *ore vivi toV = sub5un!tive S 'uture ini!ative
toV tVmoI, tItuoot0o. I' they re*ain, %e %ill .o.

2. 'uture less vivi tI = optative S optative = oV oV oV oV
tI tVoItV, tI0oItV oV. I' they shoul re*ain, %e %oul .o.

0. V'uture *ost vivi tI = 'uture ini!ative S 'uture ini!ative
tI tVouoI, tItuoot0o. I' they (%ill) re*ain, %e %ill .o.

II. Enreal "onitions (!ontrary to 'a!t)

1. present unreal tI = i*per'e!t ini!ative S i*per'e!t ini!ative = oV oV oV oV
tI ttVoV, pot0o oV. I' they re*aine, %e %oul .o.

2. past unreal tI = aorist ini!ative S aorist ini!ative = oV oV oV oV
tI ttIVoV, I0otV oV. I' they ha re*aine, %e %oul have .one.

101
"hapter ;ifteen
he #mperati.e -ood,
*irect and #ndirect 4uestions

#mperati.e -ood

)he 'ourth an last *oo o' the :reek verb is the i*perative. It is !onsierably
less !o*pli!ate in its uses an has 'e%er 'or*s than any o' the other three *oos. <n
i*perative verb %ill only o!!ur in an inepenent !lause an is use to e3press an
orer or !o**an .iven by the speaker. )he person !o**ane *ay either be a
se!on person (sin.ular or plural) or a thir person (sin.ular or plural) an is the
sub5e!t o' the verb (2
n
person$ @.o into the !ityA, 0
r
person$ @let hi* leave the !ityA).
)he i*perative *oo has only three tenses (present, aorist, an per'e!t) an like
other non,ini!ative *oos rops the au.*ent in its aorist 'or*s. )he i*perative,
*oreover, is !on5u.ate only in the se!on an thir persons. I' a !o**an or orer is
to be .iven to a 'irst person sub5e!t, espe!ially 'irst person plural (>let us ...?), then the
hortatory sub5un!tive is use. )he ne.ative 'or the i*perative is , an %here a
ne.ative !o**an %oul be e3presse in the aorist tense, = sub5un!tive is o'ten
use instea o' the ne.ative i*perative.

;orms of the #mperati.e

)he 'or*s o' the i*perative that re8uire the !losest attention are the se!on
person sin.ular 'or*sF these are less prei!table an o'ten involve !ontra!tions,
espe!ially in the *ileSpassive 'or*s. Se!on person plural 'or*s, ho%ever, look
e3a!tly like ini!ative 'or*s, e3!ept that the aorist 'or* has no au.*ent. In the se!on
person plural, there'ore, the 'or!e o' the i*perative *oo *ust be re!o.ni;e 'ro*
!onte3t. )hir person 'or*s o' the i*perative are istin!tive be!ause o' an o*e.a
vo%el in their enin.s an the presen!e o' either 1 or 0.
<s is the !ase in the sub5un!tive an optative, the tense o' the i*perative si*ply
!o*uni!ates kin o' a!tion rather than ti*e o' a!tion. )hus, the i''eren!e bet%een the
aorist i*perative EIo1tuooV >believe? an the present i*perative EIo1tut >believe? or
>be believin.? is the i''eren!e bet%een a si*ple a!tion an a !ontinuous one. It shoul
be note, ho%ever, that i''erent tenses o' the i*perative so*eti*es sho% little or no
i''eren!e in *eanin. an *ay be e*ploye out o' habit or a !on!ern 'or euphony
rather than to *ake a !are'ul aspe!tual istin!tion.

102
#egular ,mega Verbs

pres Iut Iut1t Iuou Iuto0t Iuou Iuto0t
Iut1m IuoV1mV Iuto0m Iuto0mV Iuto0m Iuto0mV

aor IuooV Iuoo1t IuooI Iuooo0t Iu01I Iu01t
Iuoo1m IuooV1mV Iuooo0m Iuooo0mV Iu01m Iu0tV1mV

per' ItIuxt ItIuxt1t ItIuoo ItIuo0t ItIuoo ItIuo0t
ItIuxt1m ItIuxt1mooV ItIuo0m ItIuo0mV ItIuo0m ItIuo0mV

+I Verbs

pres Iou Io1t Iooo Ioo0t Iooo Ioo0t
Io1m IoV1mV Ioo0m Ioo0mV Ioo0m Ioo0mV

aor o o1t ou oo0t o01I o01t
o1m oV1mV oo0m oo0mV o01m o0tV1mV

pres 1I0tI 1I0t1t 1I0too 1I0to0t 1I0too 1I0to0t
1I0t1m 1I0tV1mV 1I0to0m 1I0to0mV 1I0to0m 1I0to0mV

aor 0t 0t1t 0ou 0to0t 1t01I 1t01t
0t1m 0tV1mV 0to0m 0to0mV 1t01m 1t0tV1mV

pres ItI It1t Itoo Ito0t Itoo Ito0t
It1m ItV1mV Ito0m Ito0mV Ito0m Ito0mV

aor t t1t ou to0t t01I t01t
t1m tV1mV to0m to0mV I01m I0tV1mV

pres Io1 Io1o1t Io1ooo Io1oo0t Io1ooo Io1oo0t
Io1o1m Io1oV1mV Io1oo0m Io1oo0mV Io1oo0m Io1oo0mV

aor o10I o11t
o11m o1oV1mV

100
'ontract Verbs

pres tVVo tVVo1t tVVm tVVoo0t tVVm tVVoo0t
tVVo1m tVVmV1mV tVVoo0m tVVoo0mV tVVoo0m tVVoo0mV

pres IItI IItI1t IIou IItIo0t IIou IItIo0t
IItI1m IIouV1mV IItIo0m IItIo0mV IItIo0m IItIo0mV

pres EIpou EIpou1t EIpou EIpouo0t EIpou EIpouo0t
EIpou1m EIpouV1mV EIpouo0m EIpouo0t EIpouo0m EIpouo0t

*irect 4uestions

In 4n.lish, ire!t 8uestions *ay be introu!e by an interro.ative %or
(pronouns or averbs su!h as >%hoN?, >%hatN?, >%hereN?, >%hyN?, et!.), they *ay be
*arke by an inverte sub5e!t an verb (@Cill you .oNA), or they *ay be si.nale by
!onte3t an tone o' voi!e (@Uou?re .oin. %ith the*NA). In 4n.lish, as in :reek, i' a
8uestion is not introu!e %ith a spe!ial interro.ative %or (>%hoN, %hatN? et!.), it is
!alle a >si*ple? 8uestion. In :reek, the si*ple 8uestion *ay be 'urther spe!i'ie by the
parti!le opo, %hi!h a!ts as a kin o' 8uestion *ark an *akes !lear that a .iven
senten!e is a 8uestion an not a state*ent. Si*ple 8uestions, 'urther*ore, *ay be
open,ene or they *ay e3pe!t either >yes? or >no? as their ans%er.
Si*ple open,ene 8uestions *ay or *ay not have the parti!le opo an are
translate as si*ple state*ents that have been trans'or*e into 8uestions (@Cere you
in the !ityNA). I', ho%ever, an author %ishes to i*ply that the ans%er to the 8uestion is
>yes?, the ne.ative ou is ae. )he >positive,response? 8uestion in :reek !orrespons
to the 4n.lish positive state*ent 'ollo%e by a ne.ative >ta.? 8uestion, %hi!h also
i*plies a positive ans%er (@)he kin. sent the .uars, in?t heNA). I', on the other
han, an author %ishes to i*ply that the ans%er to the 8uestion is >no?, then the
ne.ative is use in the 8uestion. )he :reek >ne.ative,response? 8uestion is then
translate as an 4n.lish ne.ative state*ent %ith a positive >ta.? 8uestion (@)hey in?t
a!!ept the .i'ts, i theyNA).

o0o tV EoItI; @Cere you in the !ityNA
oux o0o tV EoItI; @Uou %ere in the !ity, %eren?t youNA
o0o tV EoItI; @Uou %eren?t in the !ity, %ere youNA

102
opo o pooIItu tEtyt 1ou uIoxo; @Di the kin. sent the .uarsNA
opo o pooIItu oux tEtyt 1ou uIoxo; @)he kin. sent the .uars, in?t heNA
opo o pooIItu tEtyt 1ou uIoxo; @)he kin. in?t sen the .uars, i heNA

1o mpo ttoV1o; @Di they a!!ept the .i'tsNA
1o mpo oux ttoV1o; @)hey a!!epte the .i'ts, in?t theyNA
1o mpo ttoV1o; @)hey in?t a!!ept the .i'ts, i theyNA

#nterrogati.e 0ronouns and Ad.er!s

Besies si*ple 8uestions, %hi!h *ay or *ay not have opo, 8uestions *ay be
introu!e %ith interro.ative %ors that *ore narro%ly ask the 8uestion in re.ar to a
person, pla!e, ti*e, or *anner. I' the 8uestion is aske re.arin. an unkno%n person
or thin., so*e 'or* o' the interro.ative pronounSa5e!tive is pla!e at the be.innin. o'
the senten!e. )he 'or*s o' the interro.ative pronounSa5e!tive (1I 1I) are e3a!tly the
sa*e as the ine'inite pronounSa5e!tive (1I 1I) e3!ept that the interro.ative al%ays
has the a!ute a!!ent an is al*ost al%ays 'irst in the 8uestion. )he interro.ative 1I 1I
is use as a pronoun %hen it stans alone (>%hoN? >%hatN?) an as an a5e!tive %hen it
*oi'ies a noun (>%hi!hN?, >%hatN?).

Interro.ative (%ho, %hat) Ine'inite (so*e, so*eone, a !etain)

sin. plur sin.ular plural

1I 1I 1IVt 1IVo 1I 1I 1IVt 1IVo
1IVo 1IVo 1IVmV 1IVmV 1IVo 1IVo 1IVmV 1IVmV
1IVI 1IVI 1IoI 1IoI 1IVI 1IVI 1IoI 1IoI
1IVo 1I 1IVo 1IVo 1IVo 1I 1IVo 1IVo

1I V txtI; @Cho %as thereNA
1I V txtI; @Chat %as thereNA
1IVo IEEoV tIt; @Chose horse i you seeNA
1IVI mpo IoooI; @)o %ho* o they .ive .i'tsNA

10(
1IVo tEtyt; @Cho* i he senNA
1I tIIEoV; @Chat i they leaveNA
1IVo ItIEouoI; @Chat thin.s o they leaveNA

1I uV 1oV op1oV tVtxt; @ChatS%hi!h %o*an brou.ht the breaNA
1IVo EoIo Eo1p to1IV ou1o; @#' %hi!h !hil is this one the 'atherNA
1IoI EoII1oI mpo tEtyt; @)o %hatS%hi!h !iti;ens i he sen .i'tsNA
1IVo EoItI tIt1t; @Chat !ities i you seeNA

#ndirect 4uestions

Chen a 8uestion o!!upies the pla!e o' the *ain !lause it is sai to be a >ire!t
8uestion?. Yuestions *ay, ho%ever, be introu!e by an suborinate to a *ain verb
o' askin. or in8uirin.. In this !ase, the 8uestion is sai to be inire!t an o!!upies the
position o' a suborinate !lause. <nother %ay to state the sa*e pheno*enon is to
re!o.ni;e that the ire!t 8uestion is a 8uote, %hereas the inire!t 8uestion is an
inire!tly state version o' that 8uote. <'ter the verb o' askin. or in8uirin., the inire!t
8uestion is si.nale by a suborinatin. interro.ative %or.
)he :reek hanlin. o' inire!t 8uestions i''ers 'ro* 4n.lish in t%o %ays. -irst
o' all, the ori.inal tense o' the ire!t 8uote is retaine in :reek, even a'ter a se!onary
leain. verb. Se!only, %hen an inire!t 8uestion is introu!e by a se!onary leain.
verb, the verb o' the reporte 8uestion may be .iven in the !orresponin. tense o' the
optative.

tpm1mtV 1IVo IEEoV tIt. @Ce ask %hose horse you sa%.A
tpm1moI 1IVI mpo IoooI. @)hey ask to %ho* they .ive .i'ts.A
tpm1o1t 1IVo tEtyt. @Uou ask %ho* he sent.A

pm1 1I IIEoItV. @Me %as askin. %hat they le't.A
poV 1IoI EoII1oI mpo EtytIt. @I aske to %hi!h !iti;ens he ha sent .i'ts.A
pot0o 1IVo EoItI IoI1t. @Ce aske %hat !ities you ha seen.A

10+
"hapter (i'teen
"omparison of AdBecti.es

+e.iew of AdBecti.e *eclensions

<n a5e!tive, as a part o' spee!h, esi.nates a %or that *oi'ies a noun or
pronoun either by si*ply pointin. it out (e*onstrative a5e!tives) or by attributin. to
it so*e 8uality (attributive a5e!tives). <5e!tives *ay be .roupe into >'a*ilies?
a!!orin. to %hat pattern o' e!lension they 'ollo%. )hus, there are a5e!tives that
'ollo% a *i3e e!lensional pattern, su!h as those that have enin.s ra%n 'ro* the
thir an 'irst e!lensions (Eo Eooo EoV or 1ou -tIo -u) or 'ro* the se!on an
'irst e!lensions (xoIo - -oV). In aition, !ertain a5e!tives take enin.s 'ro* a
sin.le e!lension, su!h as those that have only thir,e!lension enin.s (oI0
oI0t or ompmV ompoV) or only se!on,e!lension enin.s (oIxo oIxoV).

*egrees of the AdBecti.e

)hus 'ar, attributive a5e!tives have *ae a positive assertion about so*e
8uality o' a noun %ith no re'eren!e to other nouns that *i.ht also e3hibit the sa*e
8uality. <n attributive a5e!tive, ho%ever, *ay also ini!ate that a noun e3hibits *ore
o' a .iven 8uality than other nouns, an in this !ase the a5e!tive is sai to be
!o*parative or in the !o*parative e.ree. I' an a5e!tive sho%s that a noun has the
*ost o' a .iven 8uality, then the a5e!tive is sai to be in the superlative e.ree or
si*ply superlative.
In 4n.lish, there are t%o basi! %ays to e3press the !o*parative an superlative
e.rees o' the a5e!tive. )he 'irst is to a the su''i3es ,er an ,est to the base o' the
a5e!tive as in the a5e!tive >'ast, 'aster, 'astest?. -or lon.er a5e!tives, ho%ever, it is
!usto*ary to pla!e the averbs >*ore? an >*ost? be'ore the positive e.ree o' the
a5e!tive as in >intelli.ent, *ore intelli.ent, *ost intelli.ent?. (In :reek, ho%ever, even
very lon. a5e!tives si*ply a enin.s.) So*e a5e!tives that take the enin.s ,er an
,est also !han.e the a5e!tive?s ste* 'ro* the positive to the !o*parative, an o'ten
'ro* the !o*parative to the superlative. )he a5e!tive >.oo, better, best? provies an
e3a*ple o' !o**on a5e!tive in 4n.lish %hose ste* !han.es in the !o*parative an
superlative e.rees. )he :reek lan.ua.e too atta!hes i''erent enin.s to the a5e!tive
ste* to e3press the !o*parative an superlative e.rees. )here are t%o i''erent sets
o' enin.s that ini!ate the !o*parative an superlative e.rees (-1tpo / -1o1o or -
ImV -IoV / -Io1o ), an a nu*ber o' i*portant a5e!tives also !han.e their ste*s to
sho% i''erent e.rees o' !o*parison.

101
"omparati.e and (uperlati.e *egrees in -1t 1t 1t 1tp pp po o o o, -1o1o 1o1o 1o1o 1o1o

)he enin.s -1tpo, -1tpo, -1tpoV 'or the !o*parative an -1o1o, -1o1,
-1o1oV 'or the superlative 'ollo% the se!on an 'irst e!lensions an are by 'ar the
*ore !o**on an re.ular %ay to !o*pare the a5e!tive. )hese enin.s are usually
ae to the ste* o' the a5e!tive, so*eti*es %ith, so*eti*es %ithout a !onne!tin.
vo%el.
In positive a5e!tives o' the se!on or se!on an 'irst e!lensions, the -o is
roppe, an one o' the vo%els -o- or -m- is use to !onne!t the a5e!tive ste* to the
!o*parative or superlative enin.s. I' the penulti*ate syllable o' the a5e!tive is short
then -m- is use as the !onne!tin. vo%el, but i' the penult is lon. then -o- is use. (<
syllable is lon. i' it !ontains a lon. vo%el or is !lose by a !onsonant.)

ooo oom1tpo oom1o1o
%ise %iser %isest

oIo oIm1tpo oIm1o1o
%orthy *ore %orthy *ost %orthy

Ioupo Ioupo1tpo Ioupo1o1o
stron. stron.er stron.est

)hir,e!lension a5e!tives .enerally a !o*parative an superlative enin.s
ire!tly to the ste* o' the neuter sin.ular no*inative 'or*. <5e!tives in -mV -oV a
the enin.s -to1tpo an -to1o1o in the !o*parative an superlative e.rees on the
analo.y o' %ors like oI0to1tpo.

ou ou1tpo ou1o1o
sharp sharper sharpest

oI0 oI0to1tpo oI0to1o1o
true truer truest

ompmV ompoVto1tpo ompoVto1o1o
%ise, pruent %iser, *ore pruent %isest, *ost pruent

"omparati.e and (uperlati.e *egrees in -ImV ImV ImV ImV -Io1o Io1o Io1o Io1o

<nother pattern o' 'or*s that e3presses the !o*parative an superlative e.rees
e*ploys the thir e!lension enin.s -ImV -IoV in the !o*parative an then a set o'

107
se!on, an 'irst, e!lension enin.s -Io1o, -Io1, -Io1oV 'or the superlative e.ree.
)his pattern o' enin.s is !o**on 'or *any re.ularly !o*parin. thir,e!lension
a5e!tives su!h as as in u tIo u >s%eet, pleasant? as %ell as 'or i*portant
irre.ular a5e!tives that !han.e their ste*s in the !o*parative an superlative.

X*ore pleasantX
sin. plural
*, ' n *, ' n

ImV IoV IoVt IoVo
IoVo IoVo IoVmV IoVmV
IoVI IoVI IooI IooI
IoVo IoV IoVo IoVo

X*ost pleasantX
sin. plural
* ' n * ' n

Io1o Io1 Io1oV Io1oI Io1oI Io1o
Io1ou Io1 Io1ou Io1mV Io1mV Io1mV
Io1q Io1Q Io1q Io1oI Io1oI Io1oI
Io1oV Io1V Io1oV Io1ou Io1o Io1o

#rregular "omparison

<5e!tives %ith irre.ular !o*parative an superlative 'or*s o not e!line any
i''erently than re.ularly !o*pare a5e!tives. )heir sole i''eren!e is that the ste*s o'
their !o*parative an superlative 'or*s !annot be prei!te 'ro* the positive e.ree
o' the a5e!tive.

xoIo - -oV xoIIImV -oV xoIIIo1o - -oV
beauti'ul *ore beauti'ul *ost beauti'ul

oo0o - -oV otIVmV -oV opIo1o - -oV
ptI1ImV -oV ptI1Io1o - -oV
xptI11mV -oV xpo1Io1o - -oV
.oo better best

109
xoxo - -oV xoxImV -oV xoxIo1o - -oV
tIpmV -oV tIpIo1o - -oV
ba %orse %orst

to tImV -oV tIo1o - -oV
.reat .reater .reatest

Ixpo - -oV tIo11mV -oV tIoIo1o - -oV
s*all s*aller s*allest

EoIu EoII EoIu EItImV -oV EItIo1o - -oV
*u!h *ore *ost

oIIo - -oV uEoIImV -oV oIIIo1o - -oV
s*all, 'e% s*aller, 'e%er s*allest, 'e%est

1ou -tIo -u 0o11mV -oV 1oIo1o - -oV
s%i't s%i'ter s%i'test

pIo - -oV pmV -oV po1o - -oV
easy easier easiest

wo %ays to E'press =han>G or Geniti.e "ase

)he !o*parative e.ree o' the a5e!tive invites !o*parison %ith so*e other
noun or pronoun. In 4n.lish, the %or >than? is typi!ally use to link the noun or
pronoun *oi'ie by the !o*parative a5e!tive %ith the noun or pronoun to %hi!h it is
!o*pare. In :reek, the !o*parison !an be *ae in t%o %aysF either %ith a %or that
*eans >than? () or by pla!in. the noun or pronoun bein. !o*pare in the .enitive
!ase. )he 'irst !onstru!tion !orrespons e3a!tly to 4n.lish, an in :reek the se!on
*e*ber o' the !o*parison is in the sa*e !ase as the 'irst (@the horse is 'aster than the
*anA o IEEo to1IV 0o11mV o oV0pmEo).
)he se!on !onstru!tion is !alle the >.enitive o' !o*parison? an is erive
'ro* the ori.inal notion o' separation inherent in the ol ablative !ase, %hi!h, over
ti*e, %as absorbe by the .enitive. )hus, in the senten!e @the horse is 'aster than the

120
*anA (o IEEo to1IV 0o11mV 1ou oV0pmEou) the iea is literally @the horse is 'aster
from the *anA.

(pecial #dioms with "omparati.es and (uperlati.es

Besies their nor*al *eanin.s o' >*ore? an >*ost?, !o*paratives an
superlatives are so*eti*es use in spe!ial iio*s. )he %or m %ith the superlative
*eans @as ... as possibleA (m Ioupo1o1o >as stron. as possible?, m 1oIo1o >as
s%i't as possible?). )he superlative *ay also o!!ur %ith no real !o*parison involve,
an in this !ase it *eans si*ply @very...A. )he !o*parative e.ree *ay also be use
%ith the *eanin. @rather...A.

Ad.er!s and the "omparison of Ad.er!s

<verbs are %ors that are base on a5e!tives, but their 'un!tion is not to
spe!i'y nouns or pronouns but instea to li*it verbs an verbal 'or*s, a5e!tives, an
even other averbs. <verbs, %hile they are base on !ertain 'or*s o' the a5e!tive an
have enin.s, o not e!line. )hus, 'or every e.ree o' the a5e!tive (positive,
!o*parative, an superlative) there is only one 'or* o' the averb. <verbs usually
stan in 'airly !lose pro3i*ity to the %ors they li*it an *oi'y.
In 4n.lish, averbs very o'ten en %ith the su''i3 >,ly?, %hi!h is atta!he to the
ste* o' the a5e!tive. In this %ay, an a5e!tive >8ui!k? is *ae into the a5e!tive
>8ui!kly?, or the a5e!tive >thou.ht'ul? be!o*es >thou.ht'ully?. Chen !o*parin.
averbs in 4n.lish the %ors >*ore? an >*ost? are usually pla!e be'ore the positive
'or* o' the averb (>thou.ht'ully? >*ore thou.ht'ully? >*ost thou.ht'ully?), thou.h
%ith !ertain averbs the !o*parative an superlative 'or*s look the sa*e as the those
o' the a5e!tive (>8ui!kly? >8ui!ker? >8ui!kest?).
)here are, o' !ourse, so*e averbs that o not 'ollo% the re.ular pattern. )he
4n.lish averbs relate to the a5e!tive >.oo? provie a vivi e3a*ple$ >%ell, better,
best?. #ther e3a*ples are >baly, %orse, %orst? an >*u!h, *ore, *ost?.

0ositi.e *egree

)o 'or* the positive e.ree o' re.ular averbs, the enin. o' the .enitive plural
o' the a5e!tive ,mV is !han.e to ,m. )hus, the a5e!tive xoIo >beauti'ul? be!o*es
xoIm >beauti'ully?, u >s%eet? be!o*es tm >s%eetly?, an the a5e!tive oI0
>true? be!o*es oI0m >truly?. In aition to re.ular averbs, there are averbs %hose
'or* !annot be prei!te 'ro* an a5e!tive 'or*, an these *ust be learne as
vo!abulary ite*s. )he %ors oIo >very?, 1oo >8ui!kly?, oVm >above?, an tu

121
>near? are !o**on averbs that o not take the nor*al -m enin. (it shoul be note
that the nor*al 'or*ation o' >8ui!kly? 1otm is 8uite !o**on).
)he !o*parative e.ree o' the averb is e8uivalent to the a!!usative sin.ular o'
the !o*parative a5e!tive. )his 'or* is, o' !ourse, the sa*e as the no*inative
a!!usative sin.ular, but it is the 'un!tion o' the a!!usative !ase (the !ase that li*its the
verb) that allo%s the a5e!tive to be use to *oi'y the verb. I', there'ore, the e.rees
o' the a5e!tive are kno%n, the !o*parative averb presents 'e% i''i!ulties. )he
a5e!tive Ioupo >stron.?, 'or e3a*ple, be!o*es Ioupo1tpoV >*ore stron.ly?,
xoIo >beauti'ul? be!o*es xoIIIoV >*ore beauti'ully?, u >s%eet? be!o*es IoV
>*ore s%eetly?, an oI0 >true? be!o*es oI0to1tpoV >*ore truly?.
)he prin!ipal o' 'or*in. the superlative e.ree o' the averb is 8uite si*ilar to
that o' the !o*parative, but instea o' the a!!usative sin.ular it is the plural a!!usative
that is use averbially. )hus, Ioupo >stron.? be!o*es Ioupo1o1o >*ost stron.ly?,
xoIo >beauti'ul? be!o*es xoIIo1o >*ost beauti'ully?, u >s%eet? be!o*es Io1o
>*ost s%eetly?, an oI0 >true? be!o*es oI0to1o1o >*ost truly?.

Ioupm Ioupo1tpoV Ioupo1o1o
stron.ly *ore stron.ly *ost stron.ly

oom oom1tpoV oom1o1o
%isely *ore %isely *ost %isely

oI0m oI0to1tpoV oI0to1o1o
truly *ore truly *ost truly

tm IoV Io1o
s%eetly *ore s%eetly *ost s%eetly

1oo, 1otm 0o11oV 1oIo1o
8ui!kly *ore 8ui!kly *ost 8ui!kly

oIo oIIoV oIIo1o
very *ore, rather *ost, espe!ially

tu otIVoV opIo1o
%ell better best

122
"hapter (e.enteen
he )er!s I I I I and tI tI tI tI, #nfiniti.es,
#nfiniti.e "onstructions

he -#-)er! I I I I

)he verb I is like other ,/I verbs e3!ept 'or t%o points. In the present tense
the se!on person sin.ular, the re!eives an iota subs!ript (Q), an in the i*per'e!t
tense the se!on person sin.ular *ay either have the e3pe!te 'or* t or, *ore
!o**only, to0o. )he ste* o' I is really o, an so in the sin.ular shortens to
o in the plural. It shoul also be note that I has /I,verb 'or*s only in the present
an i*per'e!tF its aorist tense !on5u.ates 5ust like the 'irst,aorist o' an o*e.a verb.

Ini!ative Sub5un!tive #ptative I*perative

present

I otV m mtV oIV oItV
Q o1t Q 1t oI oI1t o0I o1t
oI ooI Q moI oI oItV o1m oV1mV

i*per'e!t

tV totV
to0o to1t
t toooV

In'initive Parti!iple

oVoI o ooo oV (.en oV1o )

he #mpersonal )er! tI tI tI tI

Besies verbs that *ay take any o' the personal enin.s an i*ply personal
sub5e!ts (I, you, he, she, it, %e, you, they), !ertain verbs are use only in the thir person
sin.ular an harly i*ply a sub5e!t at all but have as their sub5e!t an ineter*inate an
i*personal >it?. )his sub5e!t >it? oes not re'er to so*e orinary neuter noun, it si*ply
a!ts as a pla!e holer in 4n.lish 'or verbs %hose real sub5e!t is an in'initive or a !lause,
or %hose sub5e!t is so uni*portant or .eneral that it !annot be spe!i'ie.

120
In :reek, an i*portant i*personal verb is the %or tI >it is ne!essary?. )his
verb *ay o!!ur in i''erent tenses an *oos, but its 'or*s are al%ays thir person
sin.ular. )hus, %hen prin!ipal parts are .iven 'or i*personal verbs, all the 'or*s are
.iven in the thir,person sin.ular rather than 'irst sin.ular (tI totI ttot). Dike
*any i*personal verbs, tI takes !o*ple*entary in'initives to !o*plete its *eanin.
an spe!i'y %hat @is ne!essaryA (e... tI IIEtIV mpo tV 1q Itpq @it is ne!essary to
leave the .i'ts in the te*pleA).

#nfiniti.es in All enses & )oices

)he in'initive is a neuter verbal noun an oes not e!lineF thus, there is only
one 'or* 'or any .iven tense an voi!e !o*bination. Chile the in'initive *ay o!!ur in
any o' the three voi!es, it has only 'our tenses, present, 'uture, aorist, an per'e!t. )he
tenses o' the in'initive in *ost o' their uses sho% only verbal aspe!t, or >kin> o' a!tion.
#ne i*portant e3!eption is inire!t state*ent, %hi!h %ill be treate belo%.

;orms of the #nfiniti.e

)he 'or*s o' the in'initive %ill be 'a*iliar 'ro* previous !hapters but are
repeate hear 'or a better overvie% o' their 'or*ation. "lose e3a*ination o' the
in'initives liste belo% %ill reveal that only 'our enin.s are use$ -tIV, -VoI, -oI, -o0oI
('ive enin.s i' JtVoI is !onsiere separately 'ro* JVoI). )he a!tive enin. 'or o*e.a
verbs is re.ularly -tIV e3!ept in the 'irst aorist %here -oI o!!urs. "ontra!t verbs are
really no e3!eption e3!ept that the -tIV enin. is so*eti*es is.uise by !ontra!tion.
/I verbs, on the other han, take the enin. -VoI on both their present an aorist
in'initives. )he *ileSpassive -o0oI enin. is use 'or both o*e.a verbs an /I
verbs, but in the aorist passive, the enin. is -VoI.

#egular ,mega/Verb Infinitives 0infinitives from Ium 1 ItIEm in the 2
nd
aorist3

a!tive *ile passive

'ut IuotIV Iuoto0oI Iu0oto0oI

pres IutIV Iuto0oI Iuto0oI

1 aor IuooI Iuooo0oI Iu0VoI

2 aor IIEtIV IIEto0oI ItI0VoI

per' ItIuxtVoI ItIuo0oI ItIuo0oI

122
+I Verbs
a!tive *ile passive

ImI pres IoVoI Ioo0oI Ioo0oI

aor ouVoI oo0oI o0VoI

1I0I pres 1I0tVoI 1I0to0oI 1I0to0oI

aor 0tIVoI 0to0oI 1t0VoI

II pres ItVoI Ito0oI Ito0oI

aor tIVoI to0oI I0VoI

Io1I pres Io1oVoI o1oo0oI o1oo0oI

aor o1VoI

'ontract Verbs

tVVom pres tVVoV tVVoo0oI tVVoo0oI

IItm pres IItIV IItIo0oI IItIo0oI

EIpom pres EIpouV EIpouo0oI EIpouo0oI

#nfiniti.e "onstructions

Prior to this !hapter, the in'initive has been use al*ost e3!lusively in one type o'
!onstru!tion, that is, as !o*ple*entary in'initive. )he !o*ple*entary in'initive is use to
'ill out or spe!i'y the a!tion o' the 'inite verb o' the !lause. )he *eanin. o' !ertain verbs
either re8uire or stron.ly *otivate the use o' an in'initive. < 'e% su!h verbs are$ >I a* able?
(uVooI), >it is ne!essary? (tI), >I !o**an? %ith the a!!usative an in'initive (xtItum),

12(
an >I %ish? (t0tIm). )he tense o' the !o*ple*entary in'initive has no ti*e esi.nation
an only ini!ates kin or aspe!t o' the verb a!tion.
/ost !onstru!tions %ith the in'initive sho% the sa*e stri!tly aspe!tual use o' the
in'initive (present tense sho%s !ontinuous a!tion, aorist tense si*ple a!tion, an per'e!t
tense !o*plete a!tion). )he in'initive in inire!t state*ent is, in one sense, an e3!eption
sin!e in'initive tense in this !onstru!tion oes i*ply a ti*e relationship %ith the *ain verb.
But even these ti*e relationships are erive 'ro* the aspe!t o' the in'initive, not the other
%ay aroun.
)he present tense in'initive, 'or e3a*ple, sho%s on.oin. a!tion, an in inire!t
state*ent is interprete as .oin. on at the same time as the verb o' the *ain !lause. )he
aorist tense o' the in'initive in inire!t state*ent sho%s si*ple a!tion in relationship to the
*ain verb an is interprete as already 4done5, an thus >past? in relationship to the *ain
verb. )he 'uture tense in'initive sho%s a!tion a'ter or subse6uent to the *ain verb, an the
per'e!t tense ini!ates an a!tion completed at the sa*e ti*e as the *ain verb.

#ndirect (tatement

< ire!t state*ent is presente %ith no introu!tion or attribution. )he speaker
si*ply *akes the state*ent an i*pli!itly takes responsibility 'or it. < ire!t state*ent
is not reporte. <n inire!t state*ent, on the other han is introu!e %ith a verb o'
sayin., kno%in., thinkin., believin., or per!eivin. an usually reports the state*ent o'
so*eone else. )he 4n.lish senten!e @)hey re!eive the .i'ts@ is an e3a*ple o' a ire!t
state*ent. )hat sa*e state*ent, ho%ever, *ay be reporte or state inire!tly$ @Me
says that they re!eive the .i'ts@.
Inire!t state*ent in 4n.lish usually takes the 'or* e3e*pli'ie above$ 1) an
introu!tory verb o' sayin., thinkin., statin., reportin., et!., 2) the !on5un!tion >that? to
*ark the be.innin. o' the inire!t state*ent, an 0) the state*ent itsel'. )he sub5e!t o'
the inire!t state*ent is so*eti*es a5uste to 'it the 'or*at o' inire!t report, as in the
e3a*ple$ they say$ @we %ill !o*eA, they say that they %ill !o*e.
4n.lish, ho%ever, also has a *ore rarely use an *ore li*ite !onstru!tion to
e3press inire!t state*ent, an that is$ 1) an introu!tory verb o' sayin., thinkin., et!.,
2) the sub5e!t o' the inire!t state*ent in the accusative, 0) the verb o' the inire!t
state*ent in the infinitive. <n e3a*ple o' this se!on !onstru!tion is$ @I !onsier hi* to
be a thie',A a senten!e %hi!h si*ply reports the thou.ht @)he *an is a thie'A inire!tly.
:reek has both types o' !onstru!tion an uses both %ith .reat 're8uen!y. Chen
translatin. 'ro* :reek to 4n.lish it is e3tre*ely i*portant to pla!e the 4n.lish %or
>that? a'ter the leain. verb an i**eiately be'ore the inire!t state*ent. 4ven i'
:reek e*ploys the a!!usative,in'initive !onstru!tion, the inire!t state*ent shoul still
be aapte into an 4n.lish !lause 'ollo%in. the %or >that?.

12+
"ertain introu!tory or >leain.? verbs ten to take one !onstru!tion or the other.
)he verb Itm >I say?, 'or e3a*ple, is 'ollo%e by the !on5un!tion o 1I, %hi!h
!orrespons to the 4n.lish >that?, an then the inire!t state*ent in a nor*al
sub5e!tSverb !lause. )he o1I !onstru!tion, *oreover, keeps the tense o' the ori.inal
8uote. )he !on5un!tion o1I in other !onte3ts *ay *ean >be!ause?, but a leain. verb o'
sayin. et!. %ill ini!ate, even be'ore the !lause is ienti'ie, that inire!t state*ent is to
be e3pe!te. In .eneral, the inire!t state*ent e3presse by o1I an a !lause %ill
present the 4n.lish speaker %ith little .ra**ati!al i''i!ulty. )he one pe!uliarity o' the
:reek inire!t state*ent %ith a o1I !lause is that the ori.inal tense o' the ire!t
8uotation is preserve. 4n.lish too oes this i' the leain. verb is pri*ary, but i' the
leain. verb is se!onary pres!riptive 4n.lish .ra**ar re8uires the >ba!k shi'tin.? o'
tenses in inire!t state*ent. )hus @they say that she %ill !o*eA be!o*es @they sai
that she would !o*eA.

IttI o1I EtEtI 1ou uIoxo @Uou say that he sens the .uarsA.
IttI o1I tEtyt 1ou uIoxo @Uou say that he sent the .uarsA.
IttI o1I EtytI 1ou uIoxo @Uou say that he %ill sen the .uarsA.

tIEt o1I EtEtI 1ou uIoxo @Uou sai that he sentV the .uarsA.
tIEt o1I tEtyt 1ou uIoxo @Uou sai that he ha sentV the .uarsA.
tIEt o1I EtytI 1ou uIoxo @Uou sai that he %oul senV the .uarsA.

)he a!!usative,in'initive !onstru!tion is so*e%hat *ore !o*pli!ate, but only in
t%o respe!ts$ 1) the no*inative sub5e!t is !han.e into the a!!usative !ase, an 2) the
verb is !onverte to the !orresponin. in'initive. )hus, %hen a ire!t state*ent is
trans'or*e into an inire!t state*ent %ith an a!!usative an in'initive, only the
sub5e!t an verb are a''e!te. <ll else re*ains the sa*e.
Sin!e the tenses o' :reek in'initives ini!ate kind rather than absolute time o'
a!tion, it *ay see* stran.e that they !an represent 'inite verbs that ha spe!i'i! ti*e
esi.nations. <lthou.h in'initives have no absolute ti*e esi.nation o' their o%n, they
!an still i*ply the ti*e o' the a!tion in inire!t state*ent throu.h their verbal aspe!t
an the relation o' that aspe!t to the *ain verb. )hus, the tense o' an in'initive in
inire!t state*ent sho%s a!tion relative to the leain. verb. )he present tense in'initive,
'or e3a*ple, sho%s a!tion .oin. on at the same time as the leain. verb. )he aorist
in'initive sho%s si*ple a!tion that happene prior to the a!tion o' the leain. verb, the
'uture in'initive ini!ates a!tion that takes pla!e after the a!tion o' the leain. verb, an

121
the per'e!t in'initive sho%s a!tion !o*plete at the sa*e ti*e as the *ain verb. )here
are, o' !ourse, t%o ini!ative tenses that o not have their o%n !orresponin. in'initive,
na*ely, the i*per'e!t an the pluper'e!t. )hese t%o tenses *ust be represente by
in'initives that alreay represent another tense. Be!ause o' si*ilar aspe!t, the i*per'e!t
ini!ative is represente in inire!t state*ent %ith a present in'initive, an the
pluper'e!t is represente by the perfect in'initive.
In the a!!usative,in'initive 'or* o' inire!t state*ent, there are 're8uently t%o
a!!usatives$ the a!!usative sub5e!t o' inire!t state*ent an the a!!usative ire!t ob5e!t
o' the in'initive. )he sub5e!t a!!usative .enerally !o*es be'ore the ire!t ob5e!t but
so*eti*es 'ollo%s the in'initive. )he overall sense o' the senten!e .enerally leaves little
oubt as to %hi!h a!!usative is sub5e!t an %hi!h is ob5e!t.

Q ou1oV EtEtIV 1ou uIoxo @Uou say that he sens the .uarsA.
Q EtyoI ou1oV 1ou uIoxo @Uou say that he sent the .uarsA.
Q ou1oV EtytIV 1ou uIoxo @Uou say that he %ill sen the .uarsA.

to0o ou1oV EtEtIV 1ou uIoxo @Uou sai that he sentV the .uarsA.
to0o ou1oV EtyoI 1ou uIoxo @Uou sai that he ha sentV the .uarsA.
to0o ou1oV EtytIV 1ou uIoxo @Uou sai that he %oul senV the .uarsA.

)here is one re'ine*ent to note re.arin. the a!!usative,in'initive !onstru!tion.
I' the sub5e!t o' inire!t state*ent is the same as the sub5e!t o' the leading verb, then the
sub5e!t o' inire!t state*ent is not put in the a!!usative but is le't out entirely. <ny
%ors o!!urrin. in the prei!ate o' inire!t state*ent that are linke %ith a state,o',
bein. verb to the sub5e!t (o' the leain. verb and o' inire!t state*ent) are pla!e in the
no*inative.

VoItI tVoto0oI pooIItu. @Me thinks that he %ill be!o*e kin.A.
VoItI IVto0oI pooIItu. @Me thinks that he be!o*es kin.A.
VoItI tVto0oI pooIItu. @Me thinks that he be!a*e kin.A.

127
+esult "lauses

9esult !lauses are introu!e in :reek by the !on5un!tion mo1t an ini!ate the
out!o*e o' the a!tion e3presse in the *ain !lause. :reek e*ploys t%o i''erent
!onstru!tions to e3press result, an ori.inally they !onveye so*e%hat i''erent *eanin.s.
< si*ple ini!ative verb *ay 'ollo% the !on5un!tion mo1t, or an a!!usative an in'initive,
%hi!h rese*bles the !onstru!tion o' inire!t state*ent, e3!ept that the in'initive sho%s only
kin an not ti*e o' a!tion. I' the ini!ative *oo o' the verb is use in a result !lause, the
e*phasis is on the a!tual result in the parti!ular instan!e es!ribe in the senten!e. I' the
a!!usative an in'initive !onstru!tion is use, the e*phasis is on the .eneral or natural
tenen!y o' a !ertain result to !o*e about, .iven the a!tion o' the *ain !lause. 4spe!ially in
later authors, the i''eren!e bet%een the t%o !onstru!tions *ay not be appre!iable. In
!lassi!al authors, ho%ever, there is o'ten an i*portant istin!tion *aintaine bet%een an
a!tual result an a .enerally or naturally o!!urrin. result.

Vux1o tpt1oI tx 1 EoItm o xImy mo1t oux opEot1oI
)he thie' .oes out o' the !ity at ni.ht %ith the result that he is not sei;e.

Vux1o tpt1oI tx 1 EoItm o xImy mo1t opEoto0oI / opEoooo0oI
)he thie' .oes out o' the !ity at ni.ht %ith the result that he is not sei;e.

Vux1o I0tV tx 1 EoItm o xImy mo1t oux pEoo0
)he thie' %ent out o' the !ity at ni.ht %ith the result that he %as not sei;e.

Vux1o I0tV tx 1 EoItm o xImy mo1t opEoo0VoI
)he thie' %ent out o' the !ity at ni.ht %ith the result that he %as not sei;e.

E EE Ep pp pIV IV IV IV "lauses

)he %or EpIV *ay be translate >be'ore? or >until? epenin. on the
.ra**ati!al !onstru!tion in %hi!h it o!!urs an %hat kin o' *ain !lause introu!es it.
)he use o' EpIV that is o' *ost !on!ern in the present !hapter is introu!e by a
positive assertion in the *ain !lause an takes the in'initive in the EpIV !lause. In this
'or*ulation, EpIV *eans >be'ore?.

129

ItIV 1ou IIou t0tIotV EpIV ou1ou tI0tIV / tpto0oI
@Ce %ish to see our (the) 'riens be'ore they .o.A

I', ho%ever, the *ain !lause is ne.ate, an the EpIV !lause re'ers to a e'inite
past a!tion, then EpIV !lause takes an ini!ative verb, usually aorist tense. I' the *ain
!lause is ne.ate an the EpIV !lause ini!ates an anti!ipate, 'uture, or habitual
a!tion, the verb o' the EpIV !lause %ill 'ollo% the rules 'or .eneral state*ents, that is,
the sub5un!tive = oV in pri*ary se8uen!e, the optative %ithout oV in se!onary
se8uen!e.

oux ttIVotV EpIV I0oV. @Ce i not re*ain until they !a*eA.
ouEo1t tIVotV EpIV tI0moI oV. @Ce never re*ain until they !o*eA.
ouEo1t oux ttIVotV EpIV tI0oItV. @Ce never re*aine until they !a*eA.

1(0

"hapter +eadings for

Elements of Ancient Greek
(working prototype)

by
Byron Stayskal (Ph.D.)

Byron Stayskal, 2012
(previous versions 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2009, 2010, 2011)

1(1

a!le of "ontents

"hapter 0 9eain.$ Baby Mera!les & the Snakes p. 1(2

"hapter 2 9eain.$ 4urystheus Be!o*es Lin. Instea o' Mera!les p. 1(6

"hapter ( 9eain.$ Mera!les & the 6e*ean Dion p. 160

"hapter + 9eain.$ Mera!les & Myra p. 165

"hapter 1 9eain.$ Mera!les & )he Sty*phalian Birs p. 170

"hapter 7 9eain.$ Mera!les & the /ares o' Dio*ees p. 175

"hapter 9 9eain.$ Mera!les 9es!ues the Lin.?s Dau.hter p. 180

"hapter 10 9eain.$ Mera!les & "erberus p. 185

"hapter 11 9eain.$ Lin. <!risius )ries to Destroy his Daughter & :ranson p. 190

"hapter 12 9eain.$ Perseus Pro*ises to Brin. the Mea o' /eusa p. 193

"hapter 10 9eain.$ Perseus Is 48uipe )o /eet /eusa p. 197

Chapter 14 Reading$ Perseus Slays the :or.on /eusa p. 203

Reading: Perseus 4s!apes /eusa?s Sisters p. 206

Reading: Perseus & )he Lin.?s Dau.hter (<nro*ea) p. 209

1(2
,a!y <eracles & the (nakes

Epo 1o mo1o tou1mV tpoV1oI oVp xoI uV t1o pptou.
tV uV to1I AIxV o t oVp to1IV AI1pumV. AIxV
1p EoIo to1I o t AI1pumV to1I oVp 1 uVoIxo 1o t ppto
to1I EoI IpoxI. o AI1pumV Eo1p 1ou pptou oux to1IV o op
IpoxI to1I EoI 1ou Îo oIIo AI1pumV 1oV EoIo tt1oI xoI
ou1q to1I Eo1p.
1oV t EoIo IpoxIto AIxV xoI o AI1pumV tI 1o
mo1o tou1mV tpouoI xoI ppmo ou1q IoooI. tEtI ppto IpoxI
to1I 1o ppmo tt1oI xoI xo0tutIV t0tItI. o tV ouV AI1pumV
ImoI 1Q 1pI 1V ooEIo tou1ou t AIxV 1oV EoIo 1I0oI tI
1V ooEIo 1ou oVpo tou1 mo1t 1o ppto IpoxI tV 1Q ooEII
oum xo0tutI. tI t 1o Ito tou1mV AIxV xoI AI1pumV
tpoV1oI xoI xo0tuouoI.

1(0
Vu IVt1oI tV t 1oI mooI 1o ppto tV 1Q ooEII xoI 1p
xoI AI1pumV tV 1q IttI tou1mV oum xo0tuouoI tV1oI oImV
Ipo 1oV EoIo IpoxIto oEoIIuVoI t0tItI. EtEtI ouV Ipo tEI 1o
ppto uo poxoV1o. oI t poxoV1t tI 1o mo1o tpoV1oI Epo
1V ooEIo oEou o EoI oum xo0tutI. t 1ou IpoxItou 1p
tEtI 1mV poxoV1mV oxoutI 1otm tpt1oI Epo 1V ooEIo oEou 1o
ppto ou1 xo0tutI. tEtI 1ou poxoV1o tV 1Q ooEII Eopo 1q
EoII pItEtI xpotI. oxoutI tV o AI1pumV 1o 1 uVoIxo 0to
tou1ou 1otm t tpt1oI Epo ou1V. tEtI 1oV EoIo ouV 1oI
poxouoI pItEtI ou1o xpotI.
tEtI t 1o ppto 1o 0to 1 1po xoI 1ou AI1puoVo
oxoutI xoI 1ou poxoV1o pItEtI tIpI tV poxoV1o opEotI tIpI t
poxoV1o opEotI. 1ou t poxoV1o 1oI tIpoI tou1ou otI xoI
ou1ou oEox1tIVtI. tEtI t 1ou poxoV1o oEox1tIVtI 1o omo1o ou1mV
tx 1 ooEIo IoI.

1(2
)oca!ularyG ,a!y <eracles & the (nakes

om I stran.le
oxoum I hear = .en, a!!
oIIo but
AIxV ' <l!*ene
AI1pumV oVo * <*phitryon
oVp oVpo * *an, husban
oEox1tIVm I kill
oEoIIuI I estroy
opEom I sei;e, snat!h
ooEI ooEIo ' shiel
ou1o o he, she, it, et!.
pItEm I see
ppto pptou n baby, in'ant
ppmo ppmo1o n 'oo, nourish*ent
op 'or (e3plains, .ives a reason)
IVooI I be!o*e, !o*e into bein., happen
uV uVoIxo ' %o*an, %i'e
oImV oVo *S' eity, .o
t an, but (postpositive)
tooI I re!eive
ImI I .ive
poxmV poxoV1o * serpent, snake
uo t%o
mo mo1o n house (usually plural)
tou1ou ou hi*sel', hersel', itsel', the*selves (re'le3ive
pronouns)
t0tIm I %ish, %ant (= in'initive)
tII I a*
tx .en out o'
tV at in
tI a!! into
tEtI %hen, a'terF sin!e (suborinatin. %or)
tEtI %hen, a'terF sin!e (suborinatin. %or)
tEI .en, at, a!! on, uponF onto, a.ainst
tpooI I !o*e, .o
Ztu Îo * Zeus
oum !la*ly, pea!e'ully

1((
Ipo Ipo ' Mera
IpoxI IpoxItou * Mera!les
II I thro%
xo0tum I sleep
xoI anF also, even
xpom I shout, s!rea*
Ito Itou n be, *arria.e be
tV1oI yet, ho%ever, nevertheless (postpositive)
tV ... t on the one han ... one the other han
t1o .en, a!! %ithF a'ter
1p 1po ' *other
Vu Vux1o ' ni.ht (.en @in the ni.htA)
oEou %here (suborinatin. %or)
oux, ou not
ouV there'ore (postpositive)
EoI EoIo *S' !hil
Eopo .en, at, a!! alon. sie o' ('ro* the sie o', besie, alon. sie)
Eo1p Eo1po * 'ather
EtEm I sen
Epo a!! to, to%ar
ouV at %ith
omo omo1o n boy
1otm 8ui!kly
1I0I I pla!e, set
tpm I !arry, I bear
0to 0to1o n voi!e, soun o' a voi!eF !ry
tIp tIpo ' han
mo1t so that, that (sho%s result, a suborinatin. %or)

1(+
Eurystheus ,ecomes 3ing #nstead of <eracles

tEtI o IpoxI EoI 1ou Îo to1I t0tItI o Ztu 1q IpoxItI
EoIIV IoVoI xoI ou1oV pooIIto 1 EoItm EoItIV. Ztu ouV EooI
1oI oIooI IttI o1I 1 Vux1o uV tIItI EoIo tx 1ou tVou
tpotm tVVoV xoI o EoI pooIItu tIItI IVto0oI.
Ztu tV 1o po1o EtpI 1 uVoIxo AIxV xoI EtpI 1ou
EoIo tou1ou IpoxItou IttI IpoxI op tx 1ou tVou tpotm
to1IV t Ipo IVmoxtI o1I uV oII tIItI tVVoV EoIo xoI
o EoI ou1 to1I tx 1ou tVou tpotm. 1o oVoo 1q EoII to1I
Iupuo0tu.
tEtI t Ipo 1oV IpoxIto IotI t0tItI xmIutIV 1oV Îo ou1q
1V EoIIV IoVoI. 1otm ouV Ipo Epo 1V oIoVo IIItI0uIoV
tpt1oI op IIItI0uIo 1oI uVoII 1o mIVo po0tI. xtItutI tV
Ipo IIItI0uIoV tIV 1V IpoxItou 1tpo xoI xmIutIV ou1V tVVoV

1(1
xtItutI t IIItI0uIoV 1V Iupuo0tm 1tpo oEtutIV xoI 1oV EoIo
Iupuo0to 1otm Epo 1o m otIV.
tEtI 1o 1 Ipo po1o IIItI0uIo oxoutI tpt1oI tI 1o mo1o
oEou AIxV 1o ppto tVVoV tIItI txtI t IIItI0uIo AIxVV
tI mo1t 1V EoooV Vux1o ou uVo1oI 1o ppto tou1 tVVoV. tEtI1o
t Epo 1V Iupuo0tm 1tpo tpt1oI xoI 1otm mIVo ou1 oEtutI
mo1t 1o ppto 1otm Epo 1o m otI.
tEtI 1 Vux1o Iupuo0tm 1p EoIo tVV xoI AIxV
1oV IpoxIto ou tVV o Ztu 1oV EoIo tou1ou pooIIto EoItIV ou
uVo1oI 1q t Iupuo0tI 1V EoIIV ImoI mo1t pooIItu ou IVt1oI
o IpoxI.

1(7
Io!abulary$ 4urystheus 9e!eives the Lin.ship instea o' Mera!les

om lea, brin., rive
AIxV ' <l!*ene
oIIo , ,o other, another
oVp oVpo * *an
ou1o ou1 ou1o he, she, it (0r person, personal pronoun)
pooIItu pooIItm * kin.
po0tm I help (so*eone in the dat in re.ar to an acc)
ppto pptou n baby, in'ant
tVVom I prou!e, .ive birth to
tVo tVou n ra!e, linea.e, line
IVooI I be!o*e, !o*e into bein., a*
IVmoxm I kno% (I kno% that o1I.... )
uV uVoIxo ' %o*an
oImV oIoVo * eity, .o
tm I bin, tie
ImI I .ive
uVooI I a* able
mo mo1o n house (plural, i.e. mo1o T house, pala!e)
tou1ou tou1 tou1ou hi*sel', hersel', itsel' (re'le3ive T t = ou1o)
t0tIm I %ish
IIItI0uIo o ' 4ileithuia, .oess o' !hilbirth
tII I a*
tx, t = .en out o'
txtI there
tV at in
tEtI %hen, a'terF sin!e (subordinating word)
tEtI1o then, ne3t
tpooI I !o*e, .o
Iupuo0tu Iupuo0tm * 4urystheus

1(9
Ztu Îo * Zeus
Ipo Ipo ' Mera
xoI anF also, even
xtItum I !o**an
xmIum I prevent (prevent an a!! 'ro* an in')
Itm I say (I say that o1I...)
tIIm I a* about to
1p 1po ' *other
Iotm I hate
Vu Vux1o ' ni.ht (.en @in the ni.htA)
o1I that, be!ause
oVoo oVoo1o n na*e
ou, oux not
EoI EoIo *S' !hil
Eo Eooo EoV (EoV1o) all, everyF %hole
EtpI = .en, a!! arounF about
tpotu ,tm * Perseus
EoII EoItm ' !ity
EoItm I *ake, o
Epo a!! to, to%ar
po po1o n %or
oEtum hasten, hurry (transitive = a!! or a!!&
in'initive)
1otm 8ui!kly
m m1o n li.ht
mI mIVo ' birth pain, !hilbirth
mo1t so that, %ith the result that

1+0
<eracles & the 1emean 2ion

tEtI o IpoxI VtoVIo IVt1oI Io 1mV opmV Epo 1V EoIIV
tpt1oI oEou o 0to AEoIImV 1o ItpoV ttI. txtI t tV Itpq uV
Io AEoIImV 1oI oV0pmEoI 1ou Ioou ImoI IttI 1q IpoxItI
o1I Epo 1V EoIIV 1ou pooIItm Iupuo0tm tI tpto0oI xoI 1tItIV 1o
o0Io o Iupuo0tu ou1q tEI1oootI.
o tV1oI pooIItu Iupuo0tu o 1oV IpoxIto IotI xoI optI1oI
t0tItI 1o o0Io o outI 1tItIV uVo1oI tEI1oootIV. 1oV ouV IpoxIto
xtItutI tou1q 1o tpo ItoV1o o tV 1oI uIoI xoI 1oI optoI 1
mpo oVoo1I tto oIxtI tptIV. o tV1oI ItmV o tV tt oIxtI
tpo ttI o outI 1I1pmoxtIV uVo1oI ou1t oIo1oI ou1t ItoI.
o1t tI 1o uIo xoI 1o op 1 tto poIVtI o IpoxI tptI
1ooV oIo1ou Io poEoIoV. tV t 1Q uIQ 1o oEIoIoV op xoI tEtI1o
1o 1ou ItoV1o 0to oxoutI. tEtI 1oV ItoV1o op oIo1ou tx 1ou
1oou IoI oIIo oI oIo1oI 1o 1ou ItoV1o tpo ou uVoV1oI 1I1pmoxtIV.

1+1
tEtI1o t 1pttI o IpoxI Epo 1oV ItoV1o ItI t 1o omo ou1ou
xoE1tI oIIo 1o Io 1oV ItoV1o ou 1I1pmoxtI. o t ItmV 1oV
IpoxIto oVuI 1I1pmoxtIV EtIpo1oI tEtI ou uVo1oI t0tItI oEo
IpoxItou tutIV tI t 1o oEIoIoV tou1ou 1otm 1pttI. 1q ouV
ItoV1I 1otm oxoIou0tI IpoxI tI 1o oEIoIoV oEou o 0p oIxtI
oIIo tIoI uo tIoooI xoI o1t IpoxI ou1oV tupIoxtIV EtIpo1oI
o ItmV tx 1ou oEIoIou tutI. o ouV IpoxI Et1poV tEI tIoooV
1I0oI tEtI1o oxoIou0tI 1q 0pI EoIIV tI 1o oEIoIoV oEou 1oV ItoV1o
1q poEoIq xoE1tI xoI 1o tIpo EtpI 1oV 1ou ItoV1o 1poIoV IoI
xoI ou1oV otI mo1t o ItmV oEo0VQ oxtI. oVuI t 1ou ItoV1o uVo1oI
1o tpo oItIV o ou1t oIo1oI ou1t I 1I1pmoxtIV uVoV1oI. o ouV
IpoxI 1o tpo oEo 1ou omo1o 1ou 0po IopoVtI xoI ou1o tEI
moI 1I0oI. tEtI 1oV IpoxIto ouV 1q 1ou ItoV1o tpo1I tEI
moI o Iupuo0tu op ou1oV ou1m optI1oI mo1t 1o tpo IpoxItI
ImoI xoI ou1oV 1V EoIIV ItIEtIV xtItutI.

1+2
Io!abulary$ Mera!les & the 6e*ean Dion
AEoIImV -mVo * <pollo
om I stran.le
o0IoV ou n labor
oxoIou0tm I 'ollo% ( =at)
oIIo but
oVp oVpo * *an
oV0pmEo -ou * *an, person
oEo = .en 'ro*
oEo0VQoxm I ie
poIVm I .o
IVooI I be!o*e, !o*e into bein., a*
uV uVoIxo ' %o*an
tI it is ne!essary (i*personal verb = in')
tpo tpo1o n skin, hie
ImI I .ive
Io = .en throu.h = a!! on a!!ount o'
uVooI I a* able
uo t%o
t0tIm I %ish
tII I a*
tI a!! into
tI Io tV tVo one
tIooo ou ' entran!e
tx = .en out o', 'ro*
txtI there, in that pla!e
tV at in
tEtI1o then, ne3t

1+0
tEI1ooom tEI1o11m I assi.n, i*pose (at person, a!! thin. orere)
tpooI I !o*e, .o
tupIoxm I 'in
tm I have, hol
0to -ou *S' .o
0p 0po * beast
ItpoV ou n te*ple
II I thro%
xoI anF also, even
xtItum I !o**an ( = a!! & in')
xoE1m I strike, s*ite, !ut o'', !hop
IopoVm I take, re!eive
Itm I say (I say that...)
ItIEm I leave
ItmV ItoV1o * lion
Ioo ou * %or
IoV see tI Io tV
Iotm I hate
VtoVIo VtoVIou * youn. *an
tto tto ' 6e*ea
Io Iou n s%or
oIxtm I %ell
oIo1o -ou * arro%
oVoo oVoo1o n na*e
oVu oVuo * !la%, talon, nail
oEou %here (subordinating word)
o o %ho,%hi!h, %hat, that
o1t %hen
o1I that, be!ause
opom I see

1+2
opo ou n *ountain
ou, oux not
outI outIo outV (outVo) no one, nothin.
ou1t ... ou1t neither ... nor
ou1m thus, so, in this %ay
EoIIV a.ain, ba!k a.ain
EtIpoooI I try, atte*pt
Et1po o ' bouler, !li''
EoII EoItm ' !ity
Epo a!! to, to%ar
poEoIoV ou n !lub
oEIoIoV oEIoIou n !ave
ouV at %ith
oIm I split, !ut, !leave, ivie
omo -o1o n boy
1otm 8ui!kly
1tItm I 'ul'il, a!!o*plish, 'inish
1I0I I pla!e, set
1I1pmoxm I %oun
1ooV 1oou n bo%
1poIo ou * ne!k (%hole ne!k & throat)
1ptm I run
uI uI ' 'orest, %oos
tpm I bear, !arry
tum I 'lee
0to 0to1o n voi!e, soun o' a voi!eF !ry
optooI I 'ear
mpo mpo ' lan, !ountry
mo ou * shouler

1+(
Mera!les & Myra

tEtI o IpoxI Epo 1V 1ou pooIItm EoIIV 1o tpo 1ou
ItoV1o oV tV tt oEtx1tIVt Vtxt Iupuo0tu ou1q o0IoV tu1tpoV
tEt1ot . IpoxIto ouV txtItuot 1oV poxoV1o oV oV0pmEoI 1V
upoV xoIouoI tuptIV xoI oEox1tIVoI. tV upo tV oEIoIq tu 1
IIV ^tpV qxot to t omo xoI xtoIo tVVto toxt t mV Io
xtoI oux tuVo1o oEo0oVtIV. EoIIoxI tx 1ou oEIoIou tou1
I0t upo tI 1o EtIoV oEou Epopo1o xoI pou xoI oV0pmEou
oEmItot .
I0t ouV o IpoxI opo1I tI 1V mpoV tu 1 IIV
oEou oVpt 1oV poxoV1o tIoV. t0 tou1ou tIopt IpoxI 1oV 1ou
otIou uIoV oVoo1I oIooV o 1o opo tI 1V 1 u po mpoV
Ioot . tEtI t 1o 1ou poxoV1o oEIoIoV tIoV IpoxI tx 1ou
opo1o 1otm tp xoI tI oEIoIoV Eup xoI II0ou xt . tV upo tV
1q oEIoIq tIVoI oux tuVo1o tx t 1ou oEIoIou I0t 1o t omo

1++
tou1 EtpI 1ou IpoxItou Eoo 0tIVoI xoI ou1oV oxVtIV tEtIpooo1o.
IpoxI 1o 1 upo omo tIpI o tou1ou IoI 1q t poEoIq
tou1ou 1o xtoIo oEo 1ou omo1o xoE1tI oIIo Iou tx 1ou 1 upo
1poIou oEou IpoxI IoV 1ou poxoV1o xtoIV oEoxoE1tI
1otm uo xtoIoI oVouoV1oI. m IpoxI 1o 1 upo xtoIo
oEo 1ou omo1o ou1 xoE1tI 0to Ipo toV xopxIVoV EtEtI o
1ou IpoxItou Eoo oxVtI. m IpoxI 1q poEoIq 1oV xopxIVoV
oEoIIuoI oI 1ou poxoV1o xtoIoI oVouoV1oI.
1oV ouV oIooV xoItI xoI 1otm tI0tIV xtItutI xoI IoEoo
tVtxoI xoI 1Q IoEoI Eup 0tIVoI tEI 1o 1 upo omo oEou xtoIV
oEoxoE1tI. IpoxI tV 1o xtoIo oEtxoyt oIoo t 1o
xtoIo 1q EupI txmIuot oVouto0oI ou1m t 1V upoV oI uo oVpt
oo oEtx1tIVoV. V t tV1oI Io tx 1mV tVVto xtoImV oEo0oVtIV
oux tuVo1o o ouV IpoxI Et1poV tEI 1V xtoIV t0xt .
tEtI 1V upoV oEmItooV IpoxI 1o 1ou poxoV1o omo toIot xoI
1o 1 upo oIo o Io to1I tEI 1ou oIo1ou ou1ou t0xt.

1+1
Io!abulary$ Mera!les & Myra

otIo -ou * brother
o0IoV ou n labor
oIo oIo1o n bloo
oIIo but
oo at the sa*e ti*e, to.ether
oV0pmEo -ou * *an, person
opo opo1o n !hariot
oVouooI oVouoooI oVtuV I .ro%, .ro% up
oVp oVpo * *an
oEo .en 'ro*
oEoIIuI oEoIm oEmItoo I estroy
oEoxoE1m oEoxoym oEtxoyo I strike o'', !ut o''
oEox1tIVm oEox1tVm oEtx1tIVo I kill
oEo0VQoxm oEo0oVouoI oEt0oVoV I ie
ou1o ou1 ou1o he, she, it (0r person pronoun)
poIVm poooI tpV I .o
pou poo *S' bull, o3, !o%
oxVm ooI toxoV I bite
tpo tpo1o n skin, hie
tu1tpo o oV se!on
poxmV poxoV1o *S' serpent, snake
uVooI uVoooI I a* able
uo t%o
tou1ou tou1 tou1ou hi*sel', hersel', itsel' (re'le3ive pronoun)
tu .en near
tII toooI I a*
tI a!! into
tI Io tV ( tVo ) one
tx, t .en out o'
tIouVm tIm Iooo I rive
tV at in
tVI see tI Io tV

1+7
tVVto nine
tEtI %hen, a'terF sin!e
tEI1ooom tEI1om tEt1oo I assi.n, i*pose (at person, a!! thin.)
tpooI tItuoooI I0oV I !o*e, .o
tm tm S oom tooV I have, hol
tupIoxm tupom tupoV I 'in
Ipo Ipo ' Mera
0to -ou *S' .o ( .oess )
Iou look, behol
II om xo I thro%
oIoo ou * Iolaus (nephe% o' Mera!les)
Io ou * poison
xoI anF also, even
xtItum xtItuom txtItuoo I !o**an
xoItm xoIm txoItoo I !all
xopxIVo ou * !rab
xtoI - ' hea
xoE1m xoym txoyo I strike, s*ite, kno!k, !ut
xmIum xmIuom txmIuoo I prevent
IoEo IoEoo ' tor!h, li.ht, la*p
^tpV ^tpV ' Derna
ItmV ItoV1o * lion
^tpVoIo o oV o' Derna, Dernaean
IIV IIV ' lake
II0o ou * stone
to toI to .reat, lar.e, bi.
tVm tVm ttIVo I re*ain
t1o .en F a!!. %ithF a'ter
Io see tI Io tV
tto tto ' 6e*ea
oIxo -ou * house

1+9
oIo1o -ou * arro%
oVoo oVoo1o n na*e
oEou %here
opom oyooI tIoV I see
o1t %hen
ou1m thus, so, in this %ay
ou, oux not
EtIoV ou n plain
EtIpoooI EtIpooooI tEtIpoooV I try, atte*pt
EtEm Etym tEtyo I sen
Et1po o ' bouler, !li''
EoII EoItm ' !ity
EoIIoxI o'ten
Eou Eoo * 'oot
Epopo1oV ou n sheep
Epo a!! to, to%ar
Eup Eupo n 'ire
poEoIoV ou n !lub
oEIoIoV oEIoIou n !ave
omo -o1o n boy
oIm oIom toIoo I split, !ut, !leave, ivie
1otm 8ui!kly
1I0I 0om t0xo I pla!e
upo o ' Myra, (.iant *ulti,heae %ater snake)
uIo ou * son
tpm oIom Vtxo S VtxoV I bear, !arry
tIp tIpo ' han
m as, %hile

110
Mera!les & )he Sty*phalian Birs

tEtI o IpoxI EoIIo o0Io t1tItI o Iupuo0tu tEt1ot ou1q
opVI0o 1IVo oEox1tIVoI oI tV uIQ qxouV tu IIV Q 1o oVoo
21uoII V. oI t oV0pmEoI tV 1Q mp tu 1 uI 1ou opVI0o
tIoouV xoI topouV1o o1I EoIIoxI oI opVI0t tx 1 u I tEt1oV1o
xoI 1ou opou 1Q xoEpq oEmIIuooV xoI 1ou tV 1oI opoI
oV0pmEou 1oI E1tpoI tou1mV o m oIo1oI tEtooV t1I1pmoxoV.
tEtI Io EoIImV mpmV EoIIo tpo IpoxI pt1o 1ou
opou ou oI 21uoIIt opVI0t oEmIIuooV xoI EoIIo E1tpo ou1mV
tEI 1Q Q tmpo. tou1q t t @1ou opVI0o tupom xoI ou1ou oIo1oI
oEox1tVmA. oI tV1oI opVI0t 1oV IpoxIto otI tmpmV xoI tI 1V
uIV ttuoV mo1t IpoxI oIo1ou tou1ou ItVoI oux tuVo1o.
IpoxI t t @1oI opVIoI oxoIou0om xoI txtI ou1ou oEoImA oIIo
ou1ou tuptIV oux tuVo1o 1o op 1 uI tVpo tu oIIImV
oVtut1o.

111
tV 0to A0V Epo IpoxIto oV tIItI xoI q po0tIV 0tIt
I0t ou1q t xpo1oIo o o 0to IoIo1o tEoIot tmxt. tEtI t
IpoxI 1o xpo1oIo Eopo 1 A0V tto1o tEI opo tu 1 uI
oEou oI opVI0t qxouV tp xoI txtI 1o xpo1oIo EoIu txpout. oI
opVI0t o1t 1oV 1mV xpo1oImV 0opupoV xouoV topouV1o xoI tx 1
uI tEt1oV1o mo1t IpoxI ou1ou 1oI oIo1oI oEox1tIVoI tuVo1o.

112
Io!abulary$ Mera!les & )he Sty*phalian Birs

IoIo1o ou * Mephaestus
om om ooV lea
opo ou * 'il
otI al%ays
A0V A0V ' <thena
o0IoV ou n labor
oI1tm oI1om Q1oo I ask, re8uest
oxoum oxouoooI xouoo I hear = .en, a!!
oIIo but
oIIImV one another, ea!h other
oVouooI oVouoooI oVtuV I .ro%, .ro% up
oVp oVpo * *an
oV0pmEo oV0pmEou * *an, person, hu*an bein.
opooI opooI poV I be.in (o'ten %ith in'initive)
po0tm po0om tpo0oo I help = at
op 'or
' lan, earth
uV uVoIxo ' %o*an
tVpoV ou n tree
tooI tooI ttoV I re!eive
ImI mom tmxo I .ive
uVooI uVoooI ,,, tuV0 I a* able
tu .en near
t0tIm t0tIom 0tIoo I %ish
tII toooI V I a*

110
tI a!! into
tIouVm tIm Iooo I rive
tV at in
t, tx = .en out o'
tEI1ooom tEI1om tEt1oo I assi.n, i*pose (at person, a!! thin. orere)
tmpmV see opom
tpo ,o ' ay
0to -ou *S' .o
0p 0po * beast
0opupo 0opupou * noise, uproar, !o**otion
II om xo I thro%
xoI anF also, even
xoEpo ou ' e3!re*ent, un.
xpoum xpouom txpouoo I strike to.ether, !lash, !lap
xpo1oIoV ou n !lapper, !y*bal, rattle
IIV IIV ' lake
Iotm Ioom tIooo I hate
oVoo oVoo1o n na*e
oIo1o -ou * arro%
oIxo -ou * house
oIxtm oIxom q xoo I %ell
oEou %here
opVI opVI0o *S' bir
opo -ou n *ountain

112
o o %ho, %hi!h, that
o1t %hen
o1I that, be!ause
ou, oux not
out nor, an... not
oupoVo oupoVou * sky, heaven
EoI EoIo *S' !hil
Eopo = .en at a!! alon.sie
Et1ooI Et1oooI tE1oV 'ly
EIE1m EtoouoI tEtooV I 'all
EoItm EoIom tEoIoo I *ake, o
EoII EoItm ' !ity
EoIIoxI o'ten
EoIu EoII EoIIu *u!h, *any
Epo a!! to, to%ar
E1tpoV ou n 'eather
21uoII Sty*phalis (a lake)
21uoIIo o oV Sty*phalian, pertainin. to lake Sty*phalis
1I 1I so*e, !ertainF so*eone, so*ethin.
1I1pmoxm I %oun
1ptm poouoI tpooV I run
uI uI ' 'orest, %oos
tum tuooItuouoI tuoV I 'lee
I om tV I say (o'ten introu!es ire!t 8uote)
IItm IIom tIIoo I love
optooI opoooI -- top0V I 'ear
m as, like

11(
Mera!les & the /ares o' Dio*ees

tEtI o IpoxI 1ou opVI0o 1ou 21uoIIou oIo1oI oEmItot Epo
1V toIV EoIIV NuxVV tp oEou o pooIItu Iupuo0tu oIIo o0IoV
oItEoV ou1q tEt1ot 1tItIV Iupuo0tu op 1oV IpoxIto txtItuot
IEEou 1IVo o o p pooIItu Îo tIt tuptIV xoI ou1o Epo
1V NuxVV ootIV. ou1oI tV oI 1ou Îoou IEEoI toIoI xoI
tIVoI ooV ou1o t topouV1o EoV1t oI pxt o1I EoIIoxI
o EoVpo Îo oV0pmEou 1oI I EEoI tIou xoI oI IEEoI ou1ou
o0IoV.
IpoxI xoI VtoVIoI 1IVt oI ou1q tpo0ouV VI 1otI Epo 1V mpoV
I0oV oEou o pooIItu Îo qxtI txtI t 1o IEEou tupoV xoI Epo
1V VouV oV oIIo oI 1ou Îoou uIoxt 0opupoV toV 1mV
IEEmV xouooV mo1t IpoxIto xoI 1ou oVpo ou1ou txmIuoV 1o
IEEou opEoooI.

11+
IpoxI tV ouV 1o IEEou VtoVI 1IVI oVoo1I Appq tmxt xoI
ou1oV ou1o uIoootIV txtItuot 1oI t 1ou Îoou oVpooI tot1o.
o tV1oI Appo opmV V tEItIm op oux tuIot mo1t txtIVoI
oI tIVoI IEEoI 1oV opoVo VtoVIoV pEoooV xoI ou1oV tooV. o1t
IpoxI xoI VtoVIoI oIIoI 1oI 1ou Îoou uIoI toooV1o 1ou
tV uIoxo oEtx1tIVoV 1oV t pooIIto pEoooV. 1oV tV Îoto
IpoxI 1oI IEEoI tmxt ou1oV t tooV oI IEEoI mo1t oV0pmEou
ouxt1I 0tIooV otIV.

111
Io!abulary$ Mera!les & )he /ares o' Dio*ees

Appo ou * <beros
om om ooV lea
o0IoV ou n labor
oIIo but
oIIo oV another, other
oVp oVpo * *an
opEom opEoom pEooo I sei;e
opmV opoV JoVo 'oolish
op 'or
tIVo oV terrible, 'ear'ulF !lever
ImI mom tmxo I .ive
Îo Îoou * Dio*ees (kin. o' )hra!e)
Imxm Imm tImo I persue, !hase, perse!ute
tII toooI V I a*
tI = a!! into

117
tV at in
t, tx = .en out o'
tEItIm !are'ully, attentively
tEI1ooom tEI1om tEt1oo I assi.n, i*pose (at person, a!! thin. orere)
to0Im tooI tooV I eat
tm tmSoom tooV I have
0toooI 0toooI t0toooV I %at!h, .a;e at
0to -ou *S' .o
0p 0po * beast
0opupo 0opupou * noise, uproar, !o**otion
p pxo )hra!ian
II om xo I thro%
IEEo IEEou ' *are
xoI anF also, even
xmIum xmIuom txmIuoo I prevent ( a!! = in' @'ro* oin....A)
oooI oouoI toooV I 'i.ht (a.ainst, %ith = at)
to toI to bi., lar.e, .reat
t1o = .en a!! %ithF a'ter
NuxV NuxV ' /y!ene, /y!enae
Vou Vtm VI VouV ' ship
oIo1o -ou * arro%
oIxtm oIxom q xoo I %ell
oVoo oVoo1o n na*e

119
oEou %here
opVI opVI0o *S' bir
opo opou n *ountain
o1t %hen
o1I that, be!ause
ou, oux not
out nor, an... not
ouxt1I no lon.er
ou1o ou1 1ou1o this
EItm EItuoooI tEItuoo I sail
EoII EoItm ' !ity
EoIIoxI o'ten
EoVpo EoVpo EoVpoV evil
Epo a!! to, to%ar
21uoIIo o oV Sty*phalian, pertainin. to lake Sty*phalis
1I 1I 1IVo so*e, !ertainF so*eone, so*ethin.
1I1pmoxm I %oun
1ou 1otIo 1ou s%i't, 'ast
tum tuooI tuoV I 'lee
uIooom uIom tuIoo I .uar, stan .uar
oItEo oV harsh, i''i!ult

170
Mera!les 9es!ues the Lin.?s Dau.hter

tEtI o IpoxI EoIIo tpo Epo 1V EoIIV JpoIoV tEItI
tEI tV 1V V tp Epo t ou1oV EoIIoI EoII1oI 1 EoItm t1ptoV
ou1q toooV A m IpoxItI, o 0to motIomV 1oV pooIIto mV
xtxtItuxt ouVoI 1V 0uo1tpo ou1ou 1q toIq x1tI o EoooV 1V
mpoV mV oEmIIu. tEtI1o o pooIItu 1ou uIoxo tou1ou txtItuot
1V 0uo1tpo tou1ou ooI xoI ou1V tEI txtIVV 1V Et1poV 0tIVoI.
oI uIoxt ouV 1V uo1u uVoIxo tEI 1V Et1poV 1t0xooI
xoI ou1V txooI. VuV t 1o to x1o 1o tIVoV Io 1 0oIo11
1otm tpt1oI IVo 1V uVoIxo opEoQ xoI to0IQ. opo ou uVoooI,
m EoI Îo, 1Q 1ou pooIItm 0uo1pI po0tIVN uVoooI 1V uVoIxo
omooINA

171
A m EoII1oIA oI IpoxI A 1 toI EoItm JpoIo
optIo0t. EoIIo xoI oItEo o0Io EtEoIxo tm ouV 1V uo1u
uVoIxo omooI uVoooI. 1o x1o 1o tIVoV o 1V EoooV mpoV
oEoIIuoI oEoIm.A
tEtI IpoxI 1o x1o tu 1 Et1po oEou 1V uVoIxo
ttxtooV op txtIot 1otm 1pttI tI tV tIpo Iou1po 1o popu
poEoIoV tou1ou xoI 1o Io 1o ou IopoVtI 1V t 1ou x1ou
xtoIV xoI 1o omo ou1ou EoIIoI EIoI poptIoI xoE1tI. toIoI
t pooI ooI oI EoII1oI Ao to IpoxI 1o tIVoV x1o oEtx1oVt
xoI 1V 1ou pooIItm 0uo1tpo otomxt. ou1V t oEo 1 Et1po
ItIuxt VuV t ou1V Epo o tptI.A

172
Io!abulary$ Mera!les 9es!ues the Lin.?s Dau.hter

o0IoV ou n labor
oVp oVpo * *an
oEo = .en 'ro*
oEox1tIVm oEox1tVm oEtx1tIVo oEtx1oVo I kill
opo (8uestion *arker)
opEom opEoom pEooo pEoxo I sei;e
ou1o ou1 ou1o he, she, it
popu poptIo popu heavy
po ' shout, !ry
' earth, lan
uV uVoIxo ' %o*an
tm om too txo I bin
Io = .en = a!! throu.hF on a!!ount o'
ImI mom tmxo I .ive
uo1u t un'ortunate
tou1ou tou1 tou1ou hi*sel', hersel', itsel'
tu .en near
tII toooI V I a*
tI a!! into
txtIot there, to that pla!e
txtIVo o that

170
tV at in
tEtI1o then, ne3t
tpooI tItuoooI I0oV tIIu0o I !o*e, .o
to0Im tooI tooV I eat
Ztu Îo * Zeus
tI mV IV o %e, our, to us, us
tpo o ' ay
0oIo11o ' sea
0to -ou *S' .o
0uo1p 0uo1po ' au.hter
IVo that, in orer that
Ioupo o oV stron.
xoI anF also, even
xtItum xtItuom txtItuoo xtxtItuxo I !o**an
xtoI - ' hea
x1o x1ou n sea *onster
IopoVm IyooI tIopoV I take, re!eive
Ium Iuom tIuoo ItIuxo I loose, untie
tV ... t on one han ... one other han
tV1oI yet, ho%ever, nevertheless
not
VuV no%
Io Iou n s%or
ou otIo ou sharp
oEou %here

172
ou, oux not
out nor, an... not
ouV there'ore
ou1o ou1 1ou1o this
Eo Eooo EoV EoV1o all, every, %hole
Et1po Et1po ' ro!k, !li''
EItm EItuoooI tEItuoo I sail
EI ' blo%, %oun
EoItm EoIom tEoI oo EtEoIxo I *ake, o
EoII EoItm ' !ity
EoII1 ou * !iti;en
EoIIoxI o'ten
EoVpo EoVpo EoVpoV evil
Epo a!! to, to%ar
poEoIoV ou n !lub
oqm omom tomoo otomxo I save, res!ue
1ou 1otIo 1ou s%i't, 'ast
1otm s%i'tly, 8ui!kly
1I0I 0om t0xo 1t0xo I pla!e
JpoIo o ' )roy
tum tuooI tuoV I 'lee
I om tV I say (introu!es ire!t 8uote)
uIo uIoxo * .uar
tIp tIpo ' han

17(
<eracles & "er!erus

1ou IpoxItou tVtxo o0Io 1t1tItxo1o o pooIItu Iupuo0tu 0tIt
o0IoV oItEm1o1oV xoI optpm1o1oV tEI1oootIV. IpoxIto ouV
oopo IomV xoI opoutVo o Iupuo0tu ou1oV 1oV tpptpoV 1oV 1ou
AIou xuVo tuptIV txtItuot xoI tI 1V EoIIV NuxtVV ootIV.
IpoxI t xoI1oI ou IVmoxmV oEou tI ooo 1mV 1ou AIou
mo1mV to1I 1 0tou A0V po0ouo ou1V tupt. 1V tV tIoooV
tupmV xo1tp xo1opo t I0tV tI 1V mpoV 1mV yumV 1mV
1t0VxuImV.
1ou t toIou IpoxItou tpotVou xoI 1oV 1ooV xoI 1ou oIo1ou
tpoV1o opoutVoI tuoV oI yuoI ou tV1oI toptI1o o tpptpo
o AIou tIVo xumV outVo oVpo ou1o op o Ioupo xoI optpo 0p
tIt 1ptI xtoIo toIo xoI ooV1o otI xoI oupoV poxmV to1I.
tEtI IpoxI Epo tpptpoV poIVmV ttIIt 1oV xuVo 1oI oEIoI
tou1ou xoE1tIV o AI ou1oV ImV t1ut xoI ou1oV txmIut.
@m IpoxItI@ t @1I t0tItI 1oV xuVo tou opEoooI;@

17+
o t @m oImV to 1mV 1t0Vxo1mV Iupuo0tu o pooIItu t
txtItuot tpptpoV Epo tou1oV ootIV.@
1ou1o oxouoo oI o AI @ot m EoI Îo tm tpptpoV 1q xoxq
Iupuo0tI tIoI tI mpI 1mV oEImV oou tpoI oVoI 1ou xuVo
xpo1tI.@ IpoxI tV ouV mpI 1mV oIo1mV xoI 1ou Iou Epo
tpptpoV 1pttI 1o t tIpo EtpI 1oV 1ou tIVou xuVo 1poIoV IoI
xoI ou1oV otI mo1t tpptpo IpoxIto t tou1oV t0tImV tEI 1V
V ootIV.
opmV t IpoxIto t1o 1ou tpptpou xoI oopo opoutVo o xoxo
Iupuo0tu tI EI0oV toV IoI oIIo Iou tV 1q EI0q tVmV ou IoV0oVtI
o pooIItu. Iupuo0to t tupmV o IpoxI ou1q tIo 1oV toV
AIou xuVo EtEtI uEo 1V V Epo 1oV AIV. IpoxItou t 1oV
optpoV xuVo IuooV1o tpptpo 1otm 1pttI tI 1V 1mV 1t0Vxo1mV
mpoV.

171
Io!abulary 'or Mera!les & "erberus

AI AIou Maes
opEom opEoom pEooo I sei;e
om om ooV lea
o0IoV ou n labor
oIIo but
oVp oVpo * *an
oEo0VQoxm oEo0oVouoI oEt0oVoV 1t0Vxo I ie
ou1o ou1 ou1o he, she, it
op 'or
' lan, earth
IVmoxm VmoooI tVmV I kno% (I kno% that....)
oImV oIoVo *S' .o, eity
tIxVuI tIm ttIo I sho%
poxmV poxoV1o * serpent, snake
mo mo1o n house (usually plural)
tVtxo eleven
tou1ou tou1 tou1ou hi*sel', hersel', itsel' ( t = ou1o)
tm tm S oom tooV I have, hol
tom toom tIooo I allo% (a!! = in')
tm ou oI t I
tI i'
tI a!! into
tII toooI V I a*
tIooo ou ' entran!e
tV at in
tEtI tEtI %hen, a'terF sin!e
tEI1ooom tEI1om tEt1oo I assi.n, i*pose (at per, a!! thin.)

177
Ztu Îo * Zeus
IpoxI IpoxItou IpoxItI IpoxIto * Mera!les
0to 0tou *S' .o
0p 0po * beast
II om xo I thro%
Iou behol, lookK
Ioupo o oV stron.
xoI1oI althou.h (= parti!iple)
xoI anF also, even
xoxo oV baF !o%arly, base
xo1opoIVm xo1opoooI xo1tpV I .o o%n
tpptpo ou * "erberus
xtoI - ' hea
xpo1tm xpo1om txpo1oo I !on8uer, *aster, have po%er over
xumV xuVo *S' o.
xmIum xmIuom txmIuoo I prevent ( a!! = in' @'ro* oin....A)
IoV0oVm IoooI tIo0oV I lie hien, .o unnoti!e
Ium Iuom tIuoo I loose, untie
tIIm tIIom ttIIoo I a* about to (= a!!)
tV ... t on the one han...one the other han
tV1oI yet, ho%ever, nevertheless
tVm tVm ttIVo I re*ain
t1o = .en, = a!! %ithF a'ter, a!!orin. to
not
Iotm I hate
oVo oV alone, only
NuxV NuxV ' /y!ene, /y!enae
Io Iou n s%or
oou ooV1o * tooth
oIo1o -ou * arro%
ou otIo ou sharp
oEIoV ou n %eapon

179
oEou %here
o o %ho, %hi!h
ou, oux not
ou1o ou1 1ou1o this
oupo o ' tail
EtEm Etym tEtyo EtEoo I sen
EtpI = a!! aroun
EI0o ou * lar.e %ine or stora.e 5ar
EoII EoItm ' !ity
Epo a!! to, to%ar
poEoIoV ou n !lub
oopo very, e3!eein.ly, e3!essively
ou oou ooI ot you (sin.)
1otm 8ui!kly, s%i'tly
1tItm 1tIm t1tItoo 1t1tItxo I 'inish, !o*plete
1ooV 1oou n bo%
1ptI 1pIo three
1uoVm 1tuooI t1uoV I happen
uEo = at, a!! uner
tum tuooI tuouoI tuoV I 'lee
optpo o oV 'ear'ul, 'ri.htenin.
optpm1o1o oV *ost 'ear'ul, very 'ear'ul
oItEm1o1o oV *ost i''i!ult, very i''i!ult
tIp tIpo ' han
mpI = .en %ithout
yu ' soul, shae
m #

190
3ing Acrisius ries to *estroy his *aughter and Grandson

pooIItu 1I AxpIoIo xoIoutVo tttVVxtI 0uo1tpo ôVoV
xoIoutVV xoI1oI uIoV oux tmV. o ouV pooIItu oIoVo pt1o tI uIoV
tVVotI. ou1q tIEtV o oImV o1I uIo tVV0ot1oI tx 1 0uo1po
u q AxpIoIo oEo0oVtI1oI. 1ou1o t opoutVo o AxpIoIo 0oIooV
uEo V tEoIot 1V t 0uo1tpo tV ou1q t0xtV. tEtI tV 1q 0oIoq
ôVo t1t0 AxpIoIo tIEtV o1I VuV txtIV uIoV ou uVo1oI tVVooI.
ôVo tV1oI xoI ouoo oux tIo0t Îo o t1oopm0tI tI puooV
tuV0 tI 1oV 0oIooV tI0tIV.
t1o tpo t EoIIo uIo ttVV0 tx ôVo o uEo 1 1po
txI0 tpotu. o EoI tV1oI xoI 1p xouo0ooV uEo 1mV uIoxmV.
o tV AxpIoIo oxoumV 1V 1ou EoIo mVV oIo0oVt1oI 1oV t ôVo
ttVVtVoV EoIo pouIt1oI t 1ou1oV oEoIIuVoI. ôVo t IttI o1I
o EoI tx Îo ttVV0 ou1Q ou EIo1tutI AxpIoIo. 1V 0uo1tpo t1o
1ou EoIo tI IopVoxo toIV 0tI poIItI ou1V tI 1V 0oIo11oV IVo
1p xoI o EoI oEo0oVmoI. 1 IopVoxo t EoIIo tpo tVt0tIo
tEI 1Q 0oIo11Q tEtI1o tpotV Epo VooV 1IVo 2tpIoV xoIoutVV
tupIoxoV1oI uEo oIItm 1IVo ôVo tpotu 1t.

191
Io!abulary 'or "hapter 11, 9eain.

oIo0oVooI oIo0oooI Qo0oV
Qo0oI I per!eive, 'in out
oxoum oxouoooI xouoo
oxxoo ,,,, xouo0V I hear = .en, a!!
AxpIoIo ,ou * <!risius
oIItu ,tm * 'isher*an
oEo0VQoxm oEo0oVouoI oEt0oVoV
1t0Vxo I ie
oEoIIuI oEoIm oEmIoV S oEmItoo
oEmItxo S oEoImIo I estroy (2 aor 2 p' perish)
poIIm poIm tpoIoV
ptpIxo ptpIoI tpI0V I thro%
pouIooI pouIoooI ,,
,, ptpouIoI tpouI0V I %ish, %ant
tVVom tVVom ttVVoo
ttVVxo ttVVoI ttVV0V I bear, prou!e, .ive birth to
' lan, earth
oImV oIoVo * eity, .o
ôVo , ' Dana[
uVooI uVoooI ,,,
,,, tuVoI tuV0 I a* able
tI i', %hether
tI = a!! into
t, tx= .en out o'
txtIVo txtIV txtIVo that
tV = at in
tEtI sin!e, %hen
tEtI1o then, ne3t
tEI = .en, at onF a!! onto
tpooI tItuoooI I0oV
tIIu0o I !o*e, .o
tpm1om tpm1om poV
pm1xo pm1oI pm10V I ask
tupIoxm tupom tupoV
tupxo tupoI tupt0V I 'in
tm tmSoom
tooV toxo I have, hol
Ztu Îo ÎI Îo * Zeus
tpo tpo ' ay
0oIoo ,ou * roo*, !ha*ber

192
IVo in orer that, that
xoI1oI althou.h (use %ith parti!iple)
xoItm xoIm txoItoo
xtxIxo xtxIoI txI0V I !all
xoIo xoI xoIoV beauti'ul
IoV0oVm Iom tIo0oV I es!ape noti!e, lie hi = part
IopVo IopVoxo ' bo3, !hest
Itm tpm tIEoV
tIpxo tIpoI tpp0V I say
to toI toV .reat, bi.
tV1oI ho%ever (post positive)
t1o = .en. %ithF = a!!. a'ter, behin
t1oopom t1oopmom
tt1oopmoo I !han.e shape, trans'or*
1p 1po ' *other
Voo ,ou ' islan
VuV no%
o1I that, be!ause
ou, oux not
ou1o ou1 1ou1o this
tpotu ,tm * Perseus
EIo1tum EIo1tuom tEIo1tuoo
EtEIo1tuxo EtEIo1tuoI tEIo1tu0V I believe =at
EoItm EoIom tEoIoo
EtEoIxo EtEoIoI tEoI0V I *ake, o
Epo = a!! to, to%ar
2tpIo ,ou ' Seriphus (an islan)
1t an (post positive)
1I0I 0om t0xo
1t0xo 1t0tIoI t1t0V I pla!e
uIo ,ou * son
uEo = .en uner, by (a.ent), throu.hF = at uner
(lo!ation)F =a!! uner (to%ars)
tpm oIom Vtxo S VtxoV
tVVoo tVVtoI Vt0V I bear, !arry
optooI opoooI ,,
,, EtopoI top0V I 'ear
uIo uIoxo * .uar
mV , ' voi!e
puoo ,ou * .ol

190
0erseus Grows ?p and 0romises to ,ring the <ead of -edusa

1V IopVoxo tV Q ôVo xoI tpotu t1t0ooV opo tx 1
0oIo11 oIItu Îx1u xoIoutVo 1V 1tpo xoI 1oV uIoV tupt
xoIEtp t E1mo mV o Îx1u tI 1oV oIxoV IopmV ou1oI EoIIo xoIo
tmxt. 1oV tV tpoto VtoVIoV IVotVoV oVo1pttI o oo0o oIItu
o t 1 Voou pooIItu oIutx1 o otIo Îx1uo to1IV 1V
tpotm 1tpo ImV pouIt1oI ou1V opEoooI. 1ou t tpotm oVpo
ttVtVou ou1V opEoooI ou uVo1oI optI1oI op ou1oV
oEox1tIVQ o tpotu. tpoto ouV opoutVo oIutx1 pouIt1oI
ou1oV tx 1 mpo EtyoI IVo ôVoV uVoIxo IopQ.
tp t 1IVI oIutx1 tIEVoV to EoIoo xoI EoV1o 1ou
IIou t1o tpotm xoItoo oI ou1oI @tI0mtV tI 1oV oIxoV ou
xoI to0ImtV xoI IEEou EoIIou omtV Epo 1o pooIItIoV

192
IVo ou1ou 1q pooIItI IVooq Im xoI 1V 0uo1tpo ou1ou om@.
EoV1t tV IIoI 1ou oIutx1ou IoooI IEEou tpotu t E1mo mV
ou uVo1oI. oIutx1Q ouV oI oIouVotVo @ IEEoV oux tm oIIo
o 1I oV pouIQ xoI oI1Q mom@.
o t oIutx1 oI ou1q @1V xtoIV 1 IopoVo Ntouo
oI1m ot ouV tx 1 mpo Etym IVo 1V NtouooV oEox1tIVQ xoI
Epo tt 1V xtoIV ou1 tVtxQ@. xoIEtp ou IVmoxmV oEou
oI IopoVt xo1oIxouoI tpt1oI IVo 1o IopoVo tupQ xoI 1V
Ntouo xtoIV Epo 2tpIoV tVtxQ.

19(
Io!abulary 'or @0erseus Grows ?p and 0romises to ,ring the <ead of -edusaH

oo0o , ,oV .oo
om om ooV
o oI 0V lea
otIo ,ou * brother
oIouVooI oIouVouoI
QouV0V I a* asha*e
oI1tm oI1om Q1oo
Q1xo Q1oI Q10V I ask 'or, e*an
oIpm opm po
pxo poI p0V I raise, take up
oVp oVpo * *an
oEox1tIVm oEox1tVm oEtx1tIVo
oEtx1oVo I kill
opEom opEoom pEooo
pEoxo pEoooI poo0V I sei;e
oIItu ,tm * 'isher*an
oIIo , ,oV another
oVo1ptm oVo0ptym oVt0ptyo
oVo1t1poo oVo1t0pooI oVt1pt0V I brin. up
pooIItIoV ,ou n pala!e
pouIooI pouIoooI J
,, ptpouIoI tpouI0V I %ish, %ant
otm om to toxo I *arry, %e
IVmoxm VmoooI tVmV
tVmxo tVmooI tVmo0V I kno%
IopmV ,oVo ' .or.on
uV uVoIxo ' %o*an
ôVo , ' Dana[
tIEVoV ,ou n *eal ban8uet
ImI mom tmxo
tmxo tooI to0V I .ive

19+
Îx1u ,uo * Di!tys
uVooI uVoooI ,,, ,,,
tuVoI tuV0 I a* able
txoo1o , ,oV ea!h
to0Im tooI tooV toxo I eat
tupIoxm tupom tupoV
tm tmSoom tooV
toxo I have, hol
tpo tpo ' ay
IVo in orer that, so that, in orer that
IEEo ,ou * horse
xoItm xoIm txoItoo
xtxIxo xtxIoI txI0V I !all
xoIo xoI xoIoV beauti'ul
xo1oIxtm I %ell
xoIEtp althou.h (%S parti!iple)
xtoI , ' hea
IopoVm IyooI tIopoV
tIIo tIIoI tI0V I take
IopVo IopVoxo ' bo3, !hest
to toI toV .reat, bi.
Ntouoo , ' /eusa
tV1oI ho%ever
1p 1po ' *other
ou o' *e, *ine
Voo ,ou ' islan
oIxtm oIxom qxoo
qxxo qxoI qx0V I %ell

191
oIxo ,ou * house
#IVooo ,ou * #eno*aeus
oEou %here
oEm ho%
opom (tmpmV) oyooI tIoV
tmpxo tmpoISmoI mV I see
ouV there'ore
Eopo * = .en. 'ro*
EtEm Etym tEtyo
EtEoo EtEtoI tEt0V I sen
tpotu tpotm Perseus
oIutx1 ,ou Polye!tes
EoItm EoIom tEoIoo
EtEoIxo EtEoIoI tEoI0V I *ake, o
E1mo , ,oV poor
2tpIo ,ou ' Seriphus
1I0I 0om t0xo
1t0xo 1t0tIoI t1t0V I pla!e
uIo ,ou * son
optooI opoooI
EtopoI top0V 'ear
IIo ,ou * 'rien
I om tV I say (o'ten introu!es a ire!t 8uote)
ytum ytuom tytuoo
tytuooI tytuo0V I e!eive, *i. lie

197
0erseus #s EEuiped o -eet -edusa

1ou oIutx1ou 1V IopoVo xtoIV oI1ooV1o o tpotu
tI0tV tx 1ou pooIItIou IuEoutVo oopo. ou op tVm oEou
oI IopoVt xo1oIxoItV xoI toptI1o ou1oV Ntouoo 1oI
o0oIoI tou1 oEox1tIVtIt. tIoV tV op oI IopoVt xtoIo
poxouoI EtpItoEtIpotVo xoI ooV1o toIou xoI E1tpuo 1otIo
oo1I t 1o 1 IopoVo EpoomEoV I oI II0o ttVt1o.
tpotI tV1oI tpo 0ooV oI 0toI A0 V op xoI Ip 1oV tpoto
Epo Vuo 1IVo tEtyoV IVo ou1q xuVV xoI EtIIo xoI EpoV oItV.
tpotu ouV 1o Vuo tupmV 1o mpo oI1oo tto1o 1V xuVV xoI 1o
EtIIo xoI 1V EpoV. o1t tpotu 1V xuVV 1Q xtoIQ tEI0tI oux
m0 uE oIImV. o1t t 1o EtIIo uEo 1oI EooI ooI1o Et1to0oI Io 1ou
oupoVou tuV0.

199
1V t EpoV tpotI toooV oI VuoI IVo 1V 1 Ntouo
xtoIV tVtxoI uV0tI. u Ipou Io xoI uE A0V ooEI
to1 to0. 1mV 0tmV po0ouV1mV o tpotu 1ou1o 1o mpo totVo
xoI 1V 1mV VumV mpoV oEoIIEmV tp Et1otVo Epo 1V VooV 1mV
IopoVmV.

200
)oca!ulary for I0erseus #s EEuiped o -eet -edusaI

oI1tm oI1om Q1oo
Q1xo Q1oI Q10V I ask 'or, e*an
oEox1tIVm oEox1tVm
oEtx1tIVo oEtx1oVo kill
oEoItIEm ItIym tIIEoV
ItIoIEo ItItIoI tItI0V leave
A0V A0V ' <thena
oIIo , ,o other, another
ooEI ooEIo ' shiel
poIVm poooI tpV ptpxo I .o
pooIItIoV ,ou n pala!e
po0tm po0om tpo0oo
ptpo0xo ptpo0oI tpo00V I help = at
IVooI tVoooI ttVoV
toVo ttVoI I be!o*e, !o*e into bein., a*
IVmoxm VmoooI tVmV
tVmxo tVmooI tVmo0V I kno%
IopmV IopoVo ' :or.on
tm om too
ttxo ttoI tt0V bin
Io = a!! throu.h
uVooI uVoooI ,,,
ImI mom tmxo
tmxo tooI to0V I .ive
poxmV poxoV1o * snake

201
uVooI uVoooI ,,,
mpoV mpou n .i't
t, tx= .en out o'
ttpooI tItuoooI I0oV tIIu0o I !o*e, .o
tEI,1I0I 0om t0xo
1t0xo 1t0tIoI t1t0V I pla!e on (pla!e an a!! on a at)
tm tmSoom tooV toxo I have, hol
Ip Ipou * Mer*es
0to ,ou * .o
IVo in orer that, so that, in orer that
to1o , ,oV polishe, s!rape
Io Iou n s%or
xo1oIxtm xo1oIxom xo1qxoo
xo1qxxo xo1qxoI xo1qx0V I %ell
xtoI ' hea
xuV , ' !ap
IuEtm .reive (trans), ve3F (pass) be .rieve, be istresse
II0o II0ou * stone
to toI to .reat, bi.
Ntouoo ' /eusa
tV1oI ho%ever
not, in orer that ... not, that...not
Vuo ,o ' ny*ph
Voo ,ou ' islan
oou ooV1o * tooth
oEou %here

202
oo1I 1I o 1I %ho, %hatF %hoever, %hatever
o1t o1oV %hen, %henever
oupoVo ,ou * heaven, sky
o0oIo ,ou * eye
EtEm Etym tEtyo
EtEoo EtEtoI tEt0V I sen
EtpIoEtIpom ,oom ,toEtIpooo
,toEtIpoxo ,toEtIpooI ,toEtIpo0V I t%ine aroun, !oil aroun
tpotu tpotm * Perseus
oIutx1 ,ou * Polye!tes
Eou Eoo * 'oot
EpoomEoV ,ou n 'a!e
Epo = a!! to, to%ar
E1tpu E1tpuo ' %in.
EtIIoV ,ou n sanal, shoe
Et1ooI Et1oooI I 'ly
Epo ,o ' sa!htel, knapsa!k
1ou 1otIo 1ou s%i't
oopo very *u!h, e3!eein.ly
uEo = .en = at =a!! uner, by (a.ent) Suner (lo!ation) S uner (to%ars)
optooI opoooI
EtopoI top0V I 'ear

200
0erseus (lays the Gorgon -edusa

Epo 1V VooV oEou oI 1ptI IopoVt xo1qxouV tI0mV t1tI
o tpotu 1V NtouooV IVo 1V xtoIV ou1 oEo1toI xoI tI 1V
Eo1pIo tVtxtIt. poIVmV t Io 1 mpo txtIV tmp EoIIou
oVpo II0ou ttVtVou tEtI 1o 1 IopoVo EpoomEoV tmpxtooV.
tI op 1IVt 1o 1 IopoVo EpoomEoV 1oI o0oIoI pItytIoV II0oI
tIVoV1o.
toptI1o tV o tpotu ou1oV oEox1tIVtIoV oI IooVt ou1o
t txtI tV 1Q Voq xo0tuouoo t1utV tupmV Epo ouV ou1o
tpotVo tIo0tV. ItIV t oux 0tIt 1o EpoomEo ou1mV II0o
tVoI1o tI op o tpotu ou1o 1oI o0oIoI tItV ou1o ttVt1o oV
II0o. tV ouV txtIVQ 1Q to1Q ooEII V ou1q A0 V tmxt
1V tIxoVo 1mV IopoVmV tpItEtV ou1m t NtouooV ImV tuV0
1V xtoIV ou1 1q ItI oEo1ttIV. 1V t xtoIV oEo1tmV xoI
tI 1V EpoV 0tI tutV o tpotu.

202
Io!abulary 'or @Perseus Slays the :or.on /eusaA

A0V A0V ' <thena
oVp oVpo * *an
oEo1tVm oEo1tm oEt1toV
oEo1t1xo oEo1t1oI t10V I !ut o''
ooEI ooEIo ' shiel
poIVm poooI tpV ptpxo I .o
pItEm pItym tpItyo I see
IVooI tVoooI ttVoV toVo ttVoI I be!o*e, !o*e into bein., a*
IopmV IopoVo ' :or.on
ImI mom tmxo tmxo tooI to0VI .ive
uVooI uVoooI ,, ,, tuVoI tuV0V I a* able
t0tIm t0tIom 0tIoo 0tIxo I %ish
tI i'
tI = a!! into
tIxmV tIxoVo ' i*a.e
txtI there
txtIVo txtIV txtIVo that
tV = at in
tEtI %hen, sin!e
tupIoxm tupom tupoV tupxo tupoI tupt0V I 'in
1tm 1om t1oo I seek
xo0tum xo0tuom I sleep
xo1oIxtm xo1oIxom xo1qxoo I %ell
xtoI , ' hea
IoV0oVm Iom tIo0oV I es!ape noti!e, lie hi = part
II0o II0ou * stone
Ntouoo Ntouo ' /eusa
tV1oI ho%ever

20(
notF lest, so that ... not
Voo ,ou ' islan
to1o , ,oV polishe, s!rape
Io Iou n s%or
oEou %here
o o %ho, %hi!h
ouV there'ore
ou1m in this %ay, thus, so
o0oIo ,ou * eye
Eo1pI Eo1pIo ' ho*elan, 'atherlan
tpotu tpotm * Perseus
Epo ,o ' sa!htel, knapsa!k
EoIu EoII EoIu *u!h, *any
EpoomEoV ,ou n 'a!e
Epo = a!! to, to%ar
1I0I 0om t0xo 1t0xo 1t0tIoI t1t0V I pla!e
1I 1I so*e, a !ertainF so*eone, so*ethin.
1ptI 1pIo three
1uoVm 1tuooI t1uoV 1t1uxo I happen to = part
tum tuooIStuouoI tuoV Ettuo I 'lee
optooI opoooI ,, ,, EtopoI top0V I 'ear
mpo mpo ' !ountry, lan

20+
0erseus Escapes -edusa>s (isters

oEo10tIo 1 xtoI 1 Ntouo oI tV xo0tuouooI
IopoVt oxouooooI tp0ooV 1o t 1 otI omo tou1mV IouooI
1oV tpoto tuoV1o tImxoV IVo ou1oV 1oI tIpoI tou1mV opEootIoV
xoI oEox1tIVtIoV. tou1oI t toooV @ou1oV tupt xoI opEoooV xoI
oEox1tIVmtV. @ 1oV t tV1oI tpoto oux tuVoV1o tuptIV ou1o op
1V Ntouo xtoIV tI 1V EpoV 0tI 1Q xtoIQ tou1ou tEt0xt
1V xuVV V ou1q oI VuoI toooV ou1oV opqtV oI IopoVt. 1oI
t EtIIoI 1otm Et1otVo tx 1 1mV IopoVmV Voou ttut. tI t
o tpotu 1V xuVV xoI 1o EtIIo oI Et1to0oI tuV0 totV oux
tutV oV tx 1 1mV IopoVmV mpo.

201
)oca!ulary for 0erseus Escapes -edusa>s (isters

otI otI ' sister
oEo1tVm oEo1tm oEt1toV
oEo1t1xo oEo1t1oI t10V I !ut o''
opEom opEoom pEooo
op 'or
IopmV ,oVo ' .or.on
uV uVoIxo ' %o*an
uVooI uVoooI ,,
,, tuVoI tuV0V I a* able
Io = a!! throu.h
Imxm Imm tImo
tImo tIm0V pursue
tou1ou tou1 tou1ou hi*sel', hersel', itsel' (re'l pro)
ttIpm ttpm tIpo
tpopo tp0V rouse, %ake up
ttpooI tItuoooI I0oV tIIu0o !o*e out, .o out
tEI1I0I 0om t0xo
1t0xo 1t0tIoI t1t0V I pla!e on (pla!e a!! on a at)
tEI = .en, at, a!! onS on, near, ne3t toSon, onto, a.ainst
tupIoxm tupom tupoV
tm tmSoom tooV toxo have, hol
IVo in orer that
xo0tum xo0tuom sleep
xtoI , ' hea

207
xuV , ' !ap
Ntouoo , ' /eusa
tV1oI ho%ever
not, lest, in orer that...not
Vu , ' ny*ph
Voo ,ou ' islan
ou1o ou1 1ou1o this
tpotu ,tm * Perseus
EtIIoV ,ou n sanal, shoe
Et1ooI Et1oooI tE1oV 'ly
Epo ,o ' sat!hel, knapsa!k
omo ,o1o n boy
1otm 8ui!kly
uEtp = .en. above, in behal' o'
tum tuooI tuoV Ettuo 'lee
I om tV I say (o'ten introu!es a 8uote)
tIp tIpo ' han

209
0erseus & he 3ing>s *aughter (Andromeda)

umV oEo 1mV IopoVmV tEt1t1o o tpotu Io 1ou oupoVou uEtp 1
0oIo11 xoI 1 . Et1otVo t uEtp mpo 1IVo tIt pooIIto t1o
EoIImV oV0pmEmV xoI uVoIxo xoIV t0tIooV tEI 1Q Et1p. tpotu t
1V uVoIxo ImV 1q pooIItI oI A m pooIItu, 1I uV tEI 1V Et1poV
t1t0 NA Am tVtA oI o pooIItu Ax1o tV tIVoV 1V mpoV
oEoIIuoI oImV t 1I txtItuot t 1V 0uo1tpo ou tEI 1V Et1poV
0tIVoI IVo 1o x1o ou1V ooI. tI ou ou1V omotIo tm oIV ooI oV
ou1V m uVoIxo.@ tpotu t oI @toV oI 0toI po01t 1V 0uo1tpo
oou omom.@ ImV t tV 1Q 0oIo11Q 1o x1o xoI ou Io tou1ou
opEooo 1otm tI 1oV oupoVoV tEt1t1o. EoIIoxI t 1q ItI ou1o
txoE1t mo1t 1o x1o oEt0oVt. 1ou t x1ou oEo0oVoV1o tpotu
1V uVoIxo tIuot xoI ou1V Epo 1oV pooIIto Vtxt.

210
)oca!ulary for 0erseus & he 3ing>s *aughter (Andromeda)

oV (parti!le use in !onitions)
oEo = .en 'ro*
oEo0VQoxm oEo0oVouoI oEt0oVoV I ie
opEom opEoom pEooo
po0tm po0om tpo0oo = at I help
' earth, lan
IopmV ,oVo ' .or.on
oImV oIoVo *S' eity, .o, .oes
uV uVoIxo ' %o*an
tIVo , ,oV terrible
ImI mom tmxo tmxo tooI to0V I .ive
Io = .enF a!! throu.h
tm om too ttxo ttoI tt0V I bin
toV i'
tm ou oI t I
tI i'
tI = a!! into
tEI = .en, at, a!! onF onto, a.ainst
to0Im tooI tooV toxo I eat
tou1ou tou1 tou1ou hi*sel', hersel', itsel' (re'l pro)
0oIo11o ' sea
0to -ou *S' .o
IVo that, in orer that
xoIo , ,oV beauti'ul
xtItum xtItuom txtItuoo xtxtItuxo I !o**an
x1o x1ou n sea *onster, *onster

211
Ium Iuom tIuoo ItIuxo ItIuoI tIu0V I loose, untie
t1o = .en F a!! %ithF a'ter
tIVo ou * stran.er
Io Iou n s%or
ou otIo ou sharp
oupoVo ,ou * heaven, sky
ou1o ou1 1ou1o this
tpotu ,tm * Perseus
Et1ooI Et1oooI tE1oV I 'ly
Et1po Et1po ' ro!k, !li''
EoIIoxI o'ten
Epo = a!! to, to%ar
ou oou ooI ot you (sin.)
oqm omom tomoo otomxo otomooI tom0V I save, res!ue
1otm s%i'tly, 8ui!kly
1I %hyN
1I 1I so*e, a !ertain
uEtp = .en above
I om tV I say (o'ten introu!es a 8uote)
tpm oIom Vtxo tVVoo tVVtoI Vt0V I bear, !arry
tum tuooI tuoV Etuo I 'lee
m # (o'ten pre!ees a vo!ative)
m as

Byron Stayskal, Elements of Ancient Greek, Aug 2012

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Byron Stayskal, Elements of Ancient Greek, Aug 2012

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Elements of Ancient Greek

(working prototype, introduction & chapters 1-17)

2. Persistent noun a!!ent.

>I loose? >I sen?

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