CONSTRUCTION AND THE ENVIRONMENT GENERAL CONTRACTOR (GC) PERCEPTIONS AND PRACTICES JJ Smallwood, Department of Construction Management, University

y of Port Elizabeth (UPE)

Abstract: Construction has a substantial impact on the environment. Much energy is used in the: production of materials such as cement, steel, aluminium, wood products, plastics, and paints; movement of materials and components to, and on site, and running and operating of plant and equipment on site. Construction waste, resulting from the construction process, results in the waste of land resources and the contamination of natural resources and ecologies. A further dimension to waste is the use of hazardous chemical substances (HCSs), which results in hazardous waste. Unnecessary water usage constitutes a further form of waste, which has an indirect impact on the environment. A range of environment related legislation applies to development and construction, and many clients are setting environment related requirements. Although the achievement of ISO 14001 EMS certification is the optimum standard to strive for, environmental related interventions and documentation such as, policy, mission statement, programmes, rules and emergency procedures, are relatively easy to evolve, communicate and implement. International literature indicates that optimum concern for the environment and EMS certification result in enhanced image and marketability, optimal use of resources, and cost savings. Given the abovementioned, Phase 2 of the study Environmental practices in construction was initiated to determine, among other, GC practices and perceptions. The salient findings indicate: a low level of attention to the environment, particularly with respect to documentation, the separation and recycling of waste, and medical surveillance; measures to control / reduce various occurrences that impact on the environment can be deemed to be prevalent, and benefits do accrue from addressing the environment. KEYWORDS: Environment, construction, benefits

INTRODUCTION
The environmental cost resulting from the construction process is substantial (Ofori, 1992). Much energy is used in the: production of materials such as cement, steel, aluminium, wood products, plastics and paints; movement of materials and components to sites, and running and operating of plant and equipment on site. The construction process results in waste, which in turn results in, inter alia, the waste of land resources and the contamination of natural resources and ecologies. Ofori (1992) contends that the environment should be the fourth goal on construction projects, along with cost, quality and schedule. There are three reasons the industry needs to act relative to the environment: to pre-empt unfavourable consequences as a result of the increasing array of environment-related statutes, regulations and policies; to prepare for the changed nature of items it will be required to design, construct and manage, the new materials it might have to use and the processes it will have to adopt, and to contribute to overall environmental related efforts and issues (Ofori, 1992). This paper presents the findings of phase two of the study environmental practices in construction, the objectives of which are primarily to investigate: Environmental practices, and Benefits of addressing the environment.

LITERATURE SURVEY
Relationship with health and safety Environmental concerns are often interrelated with construction health and safety issues. Unhealthy and unsafe practices, inter alia, concrete run-off or spillage, fires, oil spillage, waste and uncontrolled sanitation impact negatively on the environment (Coble and Kibert, 1994). Generation of dust,

hazardous materials and the release of non-biodegradable material into the environment contribute to the impact (March, 1992). Status quo According to Griffith (1995) organisations in the engineering sector, representing clients of the construction industry have taken environmental initiatives, whereas designers and contractors have been reticent to do so. Legislation The National Constitution and a number of Acts and Regulations refer to environmental issues in South Africa. The Bill of Rights Chapter 2, enshrined in the National Constitution (Republic of South Africa, 1996) states that everyone has the right to an environment that is not harmful to their health or well being, and to have the environment protected for the benefit of present and future generations through legislative and other measures that prevent pollution and ecological degradation, promote conservation and secure ecologically sustainable development and use of natural resources. Other rights include the right to sufficient food and water. The objects of local government included in Local Government Chapter 7, include, inter alia, the promotion of a safe and healthy environment. The Environment Conservation Act (Republic of South Africa, 1989) addresses general environmental policy, creates protective measures for the natural environment, includes policy relative to hazardous waste disposal and addresses waste disposal, and declares certain areas noise control areas. The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Regulations (Republic of South Africa, 1997) published under the Environment Conservation Act require the conducting of EIAs. The National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) (Republic of South Africa, 1998) sets principles for decision making relative to environmental management and aims to engender sustainable development as a result of integrated environmental management (IEM) of the design and construction processes. This requires environmental implementation and development plans for projects. The Hazardous Substances Act (Republic of South Africa, 1973) provides for the control of substances that may cause ill health, or death. This Act requires, inter alia, that hazardous chemical substances (HCSs) in storage, distribution and / or transport be clearly identified in accordance with various SABS codes of practice. Various Regulations promulgated under the Occupational Health and Safety Act (Republic of South Africa, 1993) impact on environmental related issues. The Regulations for Hazardous Chemical Substances require that employers: conduct risk assessments, baseline medical surveillance, and biological monitoring; manage the storage, issue and use of HCSs, and issue and manage the use of personal protective equipment (PPE). The Regulations also require that exposure to HCSs be controlled through elimination, substitution, containment, engineering mechanisms and safe work procedures (SWPs), in addition to PPE. The Environmental Regulations schedule requirements relative to thermal conditions, lighting, ventilation, housekeeping, noise, and precautions against flooding. The Facilities Regulations schedule requirements relative to sanitation, and drinking water. The Asbestos Regulations schedule requirements relative to education and training, control of asbestos, issue and use of PPE, processing of materials, demolition, and disposal. The White Paper: Creating an Enabling Environment for Reconstruction, Growth and Development in the Construction Industry (Republic of South Africa, 1999) addresses the environment in Chapter 4 Enhancing industry performance, the goal being to enhance environmental protection through procurement leverage. This entails the enforcement of existing environmental requirements on all public sector contracts, the adaptation or development of minimum and best-practice standards such as ISO 14001 and the inclusion thereof as a condition of contract on select number of prime publicsector contracts. Environmental management systems (EMSs)

All management systems should provide a defined and organised approach to the relevant activities, while also meeting bottom-line business needs (Jackson, 1997). Common elements include: clearly defined policy and objectives; clear-cut responsibilities; documented systems; on-going training; records; document control; control of critical processes; internal audits; corrective action; reviews, and continual improvement. ISO 14001 ISO 14001, EMSs Specifications with guidance for use, is the standard an organisation will use to establish its own EMS. It provides an overall framework for EM and integrates the framework with all the organisations activities. Effectively, it requires that an organisation identify and manage all significant environmental impacts of its activities, products or services (Jackson, 1997). Although ISO 14001 does not establish absolute environmental performance requirements, it does contain requirements that should result in enhanced and steadily improving level of performance: Motivation to implement ISO 14001 Kein et al. (1999) advocate that contractors should consider registration to the ISO 14001 Environmental Management System (EMS) if it: is a client or industry requirement; complements their marketing strategy, or can be a motivational factor. Environmental management practices An exploratory survey conducted in the Cape Peninsula, South Africa, determined that between 20 and 40% of GCs had written environmental documentation: policy (38.5%); mission statement (23.1%); management programme (23.1%); rules (30.8%), and emergency procedures to protect the environment (23.1%). Only one respondent (7.7%) had a documented EMS, but no ISO 14001 certification (Smallwood, 2002). However, 46.2% responded that they were intending to achieve ISO 14001 certification. Environmental practices Kein et al. (1999) surveyed Singaporean contractors who had attained ISO 9000 Quality Management System certification. Keeping roads and drains adjacent to site clean was ranked first among environmental practices, followed by: conserving water; reducing noise; reducing, reusing and recycling; using environment friendly materials/products, and using lead-free fuel. According to the Building Research Establishment (BRE) (1998), Rydon Construction, a leading house builder in the United Kingdom, undertakes a number of environmental practices: creating environmental awareness; environmental management of subcontractors; identification of site storage when preparing site layouts; optimum storage and protection of materials to minimise waste; using waste face bricks for non-facing applications; using recycled materials arising from site as opposed to purchasing primary materials, and segregating and sending metal, hardcore, timber, and cardboard / paper wastes for recycling. The exploratory survey conducted among GCs in the Cape Peninsula determined that measures to reduce and control the impact and / or usage of dust, litter, material waste, noise and water usage can be regarded as prevalent. 30.8% of GCs responded that they separated waste - paper, bricks, steel, non-ferrous metal, glass and plastic constitute the materials separated from the waste. 30.8% of GCs also responded that they recycled waste - paper, metal that is sold as scrap, and suitable timber constitute the waste that is recycled. 61.2% of GCs did not conduct medical surveillance of construction workers, 15.4% did not know and 15.4% undertook chest X-rays (Smallwood, 2000). A study conducted by Macozoma and Benting (1999) in South Africa determined that construction waste production is largely centred in metropolitan areas, illegal dumping is a big problem, the reuse of construction waste is extensive at various stages of the waste cycle, and conventional construction standards and specifications need to be adjusted to accommodate the use of secondary materials. The Civil Engineer International (1999) reports that Tarmac Construction Services, United Kingdom, has initiated a range of environmental training in an endeavour to raise environmental awareness and to raise environmental standards, the primary objective being to have an EMS on all of its sites within five years:

integrated management systems for project managers (PMs); preparation and presentation of induction for site managers; integration of EMSs with H&S on site for PMs, and project compliance with environmental legislation and the development of project EMPs for engineers. Influence of clients Client influence may manifest itself in the form of project requirements that are clearly defined at tendering stage. The exploratory survey conducted among GCs in the Cape Peninsula determined that 38.5% of GCs had undertaken contracts where they were required to implement environmental management / protection (Smallwood, 2002). A study conducted by Griffith (1995) in the UK construction industry determined that major client organisations have increasing expectations of designers and contractors they employ with regard to environmental matters, especially where they operate an EMS within their organisation. ProjectPro (1998) reports on the Table Mountain Aerial Cableway Project completed in the first quarter of 1998. In accordance with ISO 14000, the project entailed the formulation of an environmental management plan (EMP), a first in Africa. The EMP required that method statements be approved prior to the commencement of construction, which was then monitored by a full-time environmental control officer (ECO). Construction could only be undertaken inside demarcated areas, and construction methods and techniques had to be adapted to protect the environment no-go areas were established to protect vegetation and rocks. The Boardwalk casino project in Port Elizabeth was one of the first major projects undertaken subsequent to the promulgation of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Regulations and the National Environmental Management Act. The environmental impact assessment (EIA) and the environmental management process (EMP) required the following actions: environmental awareness training; implementation of a health and safety programme; provision of toilet facilities; the use of designated access routes to sites; disposal of excavated material to designated to an approved site; the construction of temporary berms to prevent flooding; daily collection and removal of litter, and the prescribed disposal of hazardous substances (Eksteen and Bate, 2002). Benefits of addressing the environment Rydon Construction, cited by the BRE (1998), realised the following benefits by integrating environmental issues into its health and safety programme: a financial saving; reduced impact on the environment by reducing the quantities of waste being sent to landfill sites; increased awareness among their own staff and that of suppliers and subcontractors, and increased awareness among suppliers with respect to their role. The exploratory survey conducted among GCs in the Cape Peninsula determined that improved health and safety predominated in terms of benefits of prioritising the environment, followed by employee awareness, enhanced public relations, reduced material waste, and improved worker quality of life (Smallwood, 2000). Esterhuyse (2002), Chairman, Murray & Roberts Corporate Social Investment Committee says: Environmental excellence is a source of competitive advantage in a globalising world. Benefits of implementing an EMS Kein et al. (1999) cite the Swedish contractor, Skanskas experience, namely, that an EMS improves environmental performance, increases employee commitment and understanding of the organisations environmental impact. Reducing environmental impact ensures optimal use of resources, which results in cost savings. According to Nates (1999) savings and returns-on-investment from implementing an EMS by generic industry include: reduced material and energy wastage; reduced and/or elimination of process and operational inefficiencies, and improved environmental and general management. Other benefits include: compliance with environmental legislation; maintaining sound relations with all stakeholders; enhancement of the organisations environmental image; reduced insurance rates, and client assurance with respect to environmental requirements.

RESEARCH
Sample frame The sample frame consisted of 93 general contractor (GC) members of the Master Builders and Allied Trades Association (MBA) (Cape Peninsula). 3 Questionnaires were returned to sender, and 17 responses were included in the analysis of the data a net response rate of 18.9%. Findings 47.1% of GCs undertake commercial construction, 35.3% domestic, 11.8% industrial, and 5.9% all types. 29.4% of GCs undertake R 6m of construction per annum, 17.6% > R 6m 12m R 48m, 5.9% > R 48m R 96m, and 17.6% > R 96m R 960m. R 12m, 29.4% > R

On average, GCs subcontract out 20.8% of the value of construction to labour only subcontractors (SCs) and 47.3% to full (labour and material) SCs on average a total of 68.1%. Table 1 indicates the degree of importance of the environment to respondents organisations in terms of a scale of not important to extremely important. The resultant II of 2.53 indicates that the environment is between important to very important / very important. Degree Not important Fairly important Important Very important Extremely important Response (%) 0.0 20.0 33.3 20.0 26.7

Table 1: Degree of importance of the environment. Table 2 indicates the frequency at which measures are implemented to control / reduce the occurrence of ten occurrences on site that impact negatively on the environment, in terms of percentages relative to a scale of never to always, and an II with a minimum value of 0.0 and a maximum value of 4.0. The occurrences with II values above the midpoint value of 2.0, namely nine of the ten, indicate that related measures can be deemed implemented to control / reduce their occurrence. However, litter and material waste predominate among occurrences relative to which GCs implement measures to control / reduce. Given that their II values > 3.2 4.0 the measures can be deemed to be implemented between often to always / always. II values in the range > 2.4 3.2 indicate that relative to the occurrences, measures are implemented between sometimes to often / often. II values in the range > 1.6 2.4 indicate that relative to the occurrences, measures are implemented between rarely to sometimes / sometimes.

Occurrences Litter Material waste Water usage Hazardous waste Dust Hazardous chemical substances Noise Rework Effluent e.g. RMC wash off water Energy waste

N/A 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.7 0.0 7.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.3

Dont know 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 15.4 0.0 8.3

Response (%) SomeNever Rarely times 0.0 5.9 0.0 0.0 6.7 0.0 0.0 14.3 14.3 7.7 0.0 0.0 6.7 0.0 13.3 7.7 6.7 7.7 15.4 16.7 7.7 6.7 0.0 23.1 16.7 7.7 26.7 7.7 15.4 8.3

Often 11.8 13.3 28.6 15.4 60.0 15.4 40.0 38.5 30.8 25.0

Always 82.4 80.0 42.9 61.5 20.0 53.8 20.0 30.8 15.4 16.7

II 3.71 3.67 3.00 2.92 2.87 2.85 2.60 2.54 2.08 1.75

Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Table 2: Frequency of implementation of measures on site to control / reduce various occurrences that impact on the environment. 35.3% of GCs separated waste, 58.8% did not and 5.9% did not know. The materials separated are: bricks (16.7%); glass (50%); hardcore (50%); hazardous chemicals / oil (33.3%); metals (50%); paper (50%); plastic (66.7%), and timber (16.7%). 35.3% of GCs recycled waste, 58.8% did not, and 5.9% did not know. The materials recycled are: glass (16.7%); hardcore (16.7%); metals (33.3%); paper 66.7%), and plastic (33.3%). Table 3 indicates the extent to which environmental documentation is available in terms of percentages relative to a scale of dont have to written, and an II with a minimum value of 0.0 and a maximum value of 2.0. Although environmental rules and environmental policy predominate, given that all the II values are below the midpoint value of 1.0, the documentation can be deemed to be unavailable. Documentation Environmental rules Environmental policy Environmental mission statement Emergency procedures to protect the environment Environmental management programme Dont know 6.3 5.9 6.7 6.7 6.7 Response (%) Dont Verbal have 56.3 25.0 64.7 11.8 66.7 20.0 66.7 73.3 20.0 13.3 II 0.50 0.47 0.33 0.33 0.27 Rank 1 2 3= 3= 5

Written 12.5 17.6 6.7 6.7 6.7

Table 3: Environmental documentation available. In terms of the environmental aspects addressed by GCs that had a written or verbal environmental management programme, 33.3% addressed waste materials, and 33.3% addressed the protection of existing trees, plants and flowers. In terms of the aspects of the environment protected by GCs that had written or verbal emergency procedures, 25% addressed land based resources, and 25% land, air and water pollution. 5.9% of GCs have a documented EMS, and 94.1% do not. Although the GC that does have a documented EMS is not ISO 14001 certified, the GC intends to achieve such certification within three months. Those GCs that did not have a documented EMS were requested to respond with respect to the time period within which they intended to achieve ISO 14001 certification. 6.7% stated within 2 years, 6.7% within 3 years, 6.7% within 4 years, 6.7% within 5 years, 66.7% within 6 years, and 6.7% never. 43.8% of GCs had undertaken contracts that required that they implement environmental management / protection, 50% had not, and 6.3% did not know. A range of construction processes were required to be controlled, and resources conserved, inter alia, protection of flora (50%), removal of rubble (33.3%), conservation of ground water (16.7%), and control of litter (33.3%). Only one GC (5.9%) had undertaken a single contract for an ISO 14001 client

Table 4 indicates that improved health and safety H&S) predominates in terms of benefits from prioritising the environment. This is probably attributable to the direct links between the environment and H&S. Approximately half of the GCs identified improved quality, productivity and client satisfaction, slightly less, enhanced overall performance, improved worker quality of life, and employee awareness. Just over a third identified reduced material waste, increased worker satisfaction, enhanced public relations, and competitive advantage. It is significant that the three primary TQM processes are within the top four ranked benefits. Benefit Improved health and safety Improved quality Improved productivity Increased client satisfaction Enhanced overall performance Improved worker quality of life Employee awareness Reduced material waste Increased worker satisfaction Enhanced public relations Competitive advantage Earlier completion Increased profits Dont know Response (%) 81.3 56.3 50.0 50.0 43.8 43.8 43.8 37.5 37.5 37.5 37.5 18.8 18.8 6.3 Rank 1 2 3= 3= 5= 5= 5= 8= 8= 8= 8= 12= 12= 14

Table 4: Benefits from prioritising the environment.

CONCLUSIONS
The construction process impacts on the environment in many ways. However, design occurs upstream of construction, and consequently, can mitigate the impact of development on the natural and existing built environments. A range of environmental related legislation is applicable to development, and requires certain actions from clients, designers, contractors, and suppliers. An EMS formalises and engenders environmental related actions. Environment related actions are often inter-related with H&S issues and complement H&S and performance relative to other project parameters. EMS certification enhances organisation image and market competitiveness. The findings of the exploratory phase of the South African study Environmental practices in construction indicated a low level of attention to the environment, particularly with respect to: documentation; measures to reduce and control the impact of or usage of effluent, energy waste, hazardous chemical substances, and hazardous waste; the separation and recycling of waste, and medical surveillance. A further finding was that benefits do accrue from addressing the environment. The second phase of the study Environmental practices in construction conducted approximately two years later among the same sample frame indicates that there has been an enhancement in the status of the environment and an increase in the frequency of environmental practices. Although the findings indicate that the environment is important to GCs, environmental related documentation is sparse, and if it exists, it is in verbal format. GCs generally do implement measures on site to control / reduce various occurrences that impact on the environment. However, there is less emphasis on separation and recycling of waste. Virtually all GCs do not have an EMS, and it can be concluded that they generally adopt an informal approach to the management of environmental issues. Clients do influence GCs environmental practices, but this influence is more related to actions, than to the implementation of management systems, and procedures. The identification of benefits of prioritising the environment is primarily related to H&S, which reinforces the findings of literature. However, other benefits do accrue, inter alia, quality, productivity and client satisfaction, which amplifies the synergistic role of the environment. Although the findings of the descriptive studies indicate that environmental practices are prevalent, particularly the second phase, in terms of environmental practices, the responding GCs are likely to

constitute the more committed GCs. Consequently, the findings cannot be deemed to be representative of environmental related practices of GCs in South Africa. However, given that they are likely to constitute the more committed GCs, the conclusions in the form of an informal approach to environmental issues and the low level of separation and recycling, are a cause for concern.

RECOMMENDATIONS
Client associations should evolve environmental goals and the Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB) should accelerate the implementation of interventions to protect the environment. The various design disciplines professional associations should evolve environmental practice notes and contractor associations should evolve environmental guidelines. Although the study did not investigate the extent to which tertiary built environment institutions address environmental issues, the findings of both the literature and descriptive surveys amplify the need for such education.

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Republic of South Africa. 1997. The Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations. Pretoria. Republic of South Africa. 1998. The National Environmental Management Act No. 107 of 1998. Pretoria. Republic of South Africa. 1999. White Paper: Creating an Enabling Environment for Reconstruction, Growth and Development in the Construction Industry. Pretoria. Smallwood, J.J. 2000. Environmental practices in construction. Proceedings of International Conference Sustainable Building 2000, Maastricht, The Netherlands, 22 25 October, 198 200.