Determining Compressor Acceptability

Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.

Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
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domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.

Chapter : Mechanical For additional information on this subject, contact
File Reference: MEX-212.04 PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

DETERMINING COMPRESSOR ACCEPTABILITY

Engineering Encyclopedia Compressors

Determining Compressor Acceptability

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i

Section Page

INFORMATION............................................................................................................... 4
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 4
TEST METHODOLOGIES FOR ACCEPTABILITY OF DYNAMIC AND POSITIVE-
DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSORS............................................................................... 5
Hydrostatic Test.................................................................................................... 5
Helium Leak Test.................................................................................................. 6
Mechanical Running Test (Including Rotor Dynamics) ......................................... 7
Gas Leakage Test .............................................................................................. 18
Performance Test ............................................................................................... 19
String Test .......................................................................................................... 21
Post-Test Inspection........................................................................................... 22
DETERMINING DYNAMIC COMPRESSOR ACCEPTABILITY.................................... 23
Acceptability Criteria (31-SAMSS-001)............................................................... 26
Calculating Inlet Flow ......................................................................................... 26
Polytropic Calculations ....................................................................................... 28
Calculating Pressure Ratio from Head ............................................................... 30
Calculating Horsepower and Efficiency .............................................................. 31
Use of Fan Laws to Find the Operating Point at
Difference Tip Speeds ........................................................................................ 35
DETERMINING POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSOR ACCEPTABILITY....... 38
Acceptability Criteria (31-SAMSS-002/31-SAMSS-003)..................................... 38
Calculating Capacity........................................................................................... 39
Volumetric Efficiency................................................................................ 40
Cylinder Displacement ............................................................................. 43
Percent Clearance................................................................................... 44
Calculating Discharge Temperature ................................................................... 44
Calculating Power............................................................................................... 45
WORK AIDS.................................................................................................................. 47


Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii
WORK AID 1: RESOURCES USED TO DETERMINE DYNAMIC COMPRESSOR
ACCEPTABILITY .......................................................................................................... 47
Work Aid 1A: Calculation Procedures................................................................ 47
Work Aid 1B: Pertinent Data.............................................................................. 52
Nomenclature .......................................................................................... 52
Charts for Determining Compressor Performance Characteristics .......... 53
WORK AID 2: RESOURCES USED TO DETERMINE POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT
COMPRESSOR ACCEPTABILITY................................................................................ 55
Work Aid 2A: Calculation Procedures................................................................ 55
Work Aid 2B: Pertinent Data.............................................................................. 58
Nomenclature .......................................................................................... 58
GLOSSARY .................................................................................................................. 60



Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards iii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Typical Rotor Response Plot......................................................................... 12
Figure 2. Typical, Multi-Stage, Centrifugal Compressor Characteristic Curve.............. 24
Figure 3. Typical Axial Compressor Characteristic Curve ............................................ 25
Figure 4. Adiabatic Versus Polytropic Process............................................................. 34
Figure 5. Head Curve................................................................................................... 37
Figure 6. Horsepower Curve ........................................................................................ 37
Figure 8. Compressibility Factors at Low Reduced Pressure....................................... 54
Figure 9. Loss Correction Factor for Reciprocating Compressor ................................. 59

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Critical Constants of Gases............................................................................ 53



Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 4
INFORMATION

INTRODUCTION
Gas compressor inspection and testing for acceptability are
performed as indicated on the compressor data sheets and the
referenced Saudi Aramco Form 175 based on the compressor
type and the associated auxiliary equipment. The inspection
requirements for gas compressors will vary with the compressor
type and application. The Engineer must become familiar with
the requirements and criteria used for the acceptance of a gas
compressor. This module provides background information on
the testing and the inspection requirements, the methods, and
the Gas compressor inspection and testing for acceptability
criteria for dynamic and positive-displacement compressors.


TEST METHODOLOGIES FOR ACCEPTABILITY OF DYNAMIC AND
POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSORS
All compressor inspections and tests are to be within the
guidelines and conditions that are set forth in the applicable
Saudi Aramco Engineering Standard (SAES-K-402 for
centrifugal compressors and SAES-K-403 for reciprocating
compressors). These tests and inspections include the
following:
Hydrostatic Test
Helium Leak Test
Mechanical Running Test
Gas Leakage Test
Performance Test
String Test
Post-Test Inspection
Before the above tests are conducted, a visual inspection of the
compressor is performed in accordance with the applicable
Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards and API Standards for
the compressor to be tested.

Hydrostatic Test
Hydrostatic tests are performed by the vendor, and they do not
require visual inspection or witnessing by a Saudi Aramco
representative. The vendor is required to provide Saudi Aramco
with certificates and data for the hydrostatic test results for
evaluation.
Pressure-containing parts (including auxiliaries) must be
hydrostatically tested with liquid at a minimum of 1-1/2 (150%)
times the maximum allowable working pressure but at not less
than 20 psig for all components of a reciprocating compressor.
The only exceptions to the minimum hydrostatic test pressure
are the cylinder cooling jackets and packing cases, which have
a minimum pressure of 115 psig. The test liquid must be at a
higher temperature than the nil-ductility transition temperature of


the material that is being tested. The tests must be maintained
for a sufficient period to allow a complete examination of the
parts that are under pressure. The hydrostatic test will be
considered satisfactory when neither leaks nor seepage through
the casing or casing joint is observed for a minimum of 30
minutes. Large, heavy castings may require a longer testing
period. For example, SAES-K-403 (for reciprocating
compressors) requires that test pressure for critical items, such
as large cast cylinders, must be maintained for four hours.
Seepage past internal closures that are required for testing of
segmented cases and the operation of a test pump to maintain
pressure are acceptable.
The chloride content of the liquids that are used to test
austenitic stainless steel materials in centrifugal compressors
must not exceed 50 parts per million. To prevent the deposition
of chlorides that is caused by evaporative drying, all residual
liquid must be removed from the tested parts at the conclusion
of the test.
If the part to be tested is to operate at a temperature at which
the strength of a material is below the strength of that material
at room temperature, the hydrostatic test pressure will be
multiplied by a factor. The factor is obtained through division of
the allowable working stress for the material at room
temperature by the allowable working stress for the material at
operating temperatures. The stress values that are used will
conform to those values that are given in ASME B31.3 for
piping. For compressor casings and pressure vessels, the
stress values must conform to those values that are given in
Section VIII, Division 1 or 2, as applicable, of the ASME Code.
The pressure that is obtained will then be the minimum pressure
at which the hydrostatic test must be performed. The data
sheets must list the actual hydrostatic test pressures.

Helium Leak Test
Helium leak tests are performed by the vendor on rotary and
centrifugal compressors that are used for hydrogen service.
The helium leak test must be witnessed by a Saudi Aramco
representative. Test documentation and data must be
submitted to Saudi Aramco for review. SAES-K-402 requires a
helium leak test to be performed on the compressor casing of
any centrifugal compressor that is in hydrogen service. API


Standard 618 (for reciprocating compressors) requires a helium
leak test to be performed on all pressure-retaining parts, such
as cylinders and volume pockets, for all compressors that
handle gases with a molecular weight of 12 or less, or for gases
that contain more than 0.1 mol percent hydrogen sulfide. The
helium leak test is to be performed after the hydrostatic test.
The compressor casing for centrifugal compressors and the
pressure-retaining parts for reciprocating compressors are
tested for gas leakage with helium at the maximum allowable
working pressure. The test can be conducted in the following
two ways:
The casing or pressure-retaining parts are pressurized with
helium to the maximum allowable working pressure. The
components are then submerged in water. The maximum
allowable working pressure must be maintained for a minimum
of 30 minutes; no bubbles are permitted (zero leakage).
The casing or pressure-retaining parts are pressurized with
helium to the maximum allowable working pressure. The
pressure is maintained for a minimum of 30 minutes. A
nonsubmerged soap-bubble test is performed on the casing of a
centrifugal compressor. Leak detection is accomplished
through use of a helium probe for the pressure-retaining parts of
a reciprocating compressor. Zero leakage is required.

Mechanical Running Test (Including Rotor Dynamics)
The following discussion of test methods and requirements is
derived from applicable sections of API Standard 617 and API
Standard 618. Test procedures and acceptance criteria will be
based on the applicable API standard for centrifugal
compressors (API Standard 617) and reciprocating
compressors (API Standard 618) and must be mutually agreed
upon by the vendor, the buyer, and the Saudi Aramco Engineer.
A mechanical running test is an operational test of the
compressor that is conducted at the vendors facilities. The
mechanical running test must be of four hours in duration for
both centrifugal and reciprocating compressors. The four-hour
mechanical running test allows compressor components, such
as bearings and rotors, to become thermally stable. SAES-K-
403 requires that a mechanical running test must be performed
on all reciprocating compressors and that this test must be
witnessed for reciprocating process gas compressors. SAES-K-


402 requires that a mechanical running test must be performed
and witnessed on all centrifugal compressors. When a spare
rotor is purchased, the rotor must be installed and run in a
separate test prior to the job rotor test.
For reciprocating compressors, the mechanical running test
proves the mechanical operation of all of the auxiliary
equipment as well as the compressor, reduction gears (if
applicable), and the driver. The compressor does not have to
be pressure-loaded for this test. The test is not acceptable if
any repair or replacement is required to correct mechanical or
performance deficiencies that are identified during the
mechanical running test. The test must be rerun after the
repairs or corrections are completed.
For centrifugal compressors, the following requirements must be
satisfied prior to the performance of the mechanical running
test:
The shaft seals and bearings that were specified with the
compressor must be installed and used in the machine for
the mechanical running test.
The oil pressures, the oil viscosities, and the oil
temperatures must be at the same operating values as the
operating values that are recommended in the
manufacturers operating instructions for the specific unit
under test. The oil filtration must be ten microns nominal or
better.
All joints and connections must be checked for tightness.
Any leaks must be corrected prior to the mechanical running
test.
Facilities must be installed to prevent the entrance of oil into
the compressor during the test. These facilities must be in
operation throughout the test.
All warning, protection, and control devices must be
calibrated to the their alarm, shutdown, or relief set points.
Any auxiliary gear units that are supplied with the
compressor must be included in the mechanical running test.
The mechanical test should include the coupling that is to be
installed on the compressor. If the inclusion of the job
coupling is not practical, the mechanical running test must
be performed with coupling-hub moment simulators in place.
When all of the tests are complete, the moment simulators


must be furnished as part of the special tools for the
compressor.
The radial vibration and axial position transducer sensors,
signal conditioners, and connecting cables that are to be
supplied with the compressor must be used in the test. If the
vendor does not furnish the vibration monitoring equipment
or if the equipment is not compatible with the test shop
readout equipment, shop equipment and readouts that meet
the accuracy and calibration requirements of the applicable
API Standard must be used.

The compressor should be started and operated at speed
increments of approximately 10% from zero to the maximum
continuous speed. The compressor is run at the maximum
continuous speed until the bearing and lube oil temperatures
and the shaft vibrations have stabilized. Once the bearing and
lube oil temperatures and the shaft vibrations have stabilized,
the speed is increased to the trip speed, and the compressor is
operated for a minimum of 15 minutes. After 15 minutes, the
speed of the compressor is adjusted to the maximum
continuous speed, and the equipment is run for a minimum
duration of the test (four hours) at the maximum continuous
speed. The mechanical operation of all equipment being tested
and the operation of the test instrumentation must be
satisfactory during the test. During the four-hour test, radial
shaft vibration, bearing pad temperature, lubrication supply, and
return temperatures and flow must be measured. The inner
seal-oil leakage rate must be measured at each seal. The lube
oil and seal oil inlet pressures and temperatures should be
varied through the range that is permitted by the compressors
operating manual.
Processed from unfiltered transducer output signals,
measurements of radial shaft vibration and axial position must
be recorded, and they must not exceed the applicable vibration
limits throughout the test. While the mechanical test is being
conducted, vibration sweep readings must be recorded for
vibration amplitudes at frequencies other than synchronous. As
a minimum, these sweep readings must cover a frequency
range from 0.25 to 8 times the maximum continuous speed, but
they must not exceed 90,000 cycles per minute (1500 Hertz).
Polar plots that show the synchronous vibration amplitude (in
terms of radial shaft vibration), phase angle, and phase shift
versus rotational speed must be made before and after the four-


hour test. The speed range that is covered by the plots must be
from zero to the specified driver trip speed. The critical speeds
of the compressor must be verified during the mechanical
running test. Taped recordings of all real-time vibration data
should be made during the mechanical running test. These
recordings provide the initial data for vibration analysis.
An inspection that includes the dismantling, the inspection, and
the reassembly of the compressor, the gear, and the driver must
be made after satisfactory completion of the mechanical running
test. A bearing inspection must be completed. All bearings
must be removed, inspected, and reassembled after completion
of the mechanical running test. Shaft seals should be removed
for inspection. If minor scuffs or scratches occur on bearings or
on shaft seal surfaces, minor cosmetic repairs are not a cause
for rerunning the test.
The rotor dynamics of a compressor include the following
different areas and considerations:
The performance of a lateral analysis.
The performance of a torsional analysis.
The performance of assembly vibration testing and
balancing.
When an exciting frequency is applied to a rotor-bearing support
system that corresponds to the natural frequency of the rotor-
bearing support system, the system may be in a state of
resonance. A resonating rotor-bearing support system will have
its normal vibration displacement amplified.
The magnitude of amplification and the rate of phase shift
(phase-angle change) are related to the amount of damping in
the rotor-bearing support system and the mode shape that is
taken by the rotor as it deflects. The mode shapes for deflection
are commonly referred to as the first rigid (translatory or
bouncing) mode, the second rigid (conical or rocking) mode, the
first bending mode, the second bending mode, and the third
bending mode. An exciting frequency may be less than, equal
to, or greater than the rotational speed of the rotor. The
following are some of the sources of exciting frequencies that
must be considered:
Unbalance in the rotor system.


Oil-film instabilities (whirl).
Internal rubs.
Blade, vane, nozzle, and diffuser passing frequencies.
Gear-tooth meshing and side bands.
Coupling misalignment.
Loose rotor-system components.
Friction whirl.
Boundary-layer flow separation.
Acoustic and aerodynamic cross-coupling forces.
Asynchronous whirl.

The magnitude of the amplification is called the rotor
amplification factor. The rotor amplification factor (AF) is
determined through use of the following formula and the bode
plot that is shown in Figure 1:
1 2
1 c
N N
N
AF
=
The bode plot is a graph of amplitude versus the rotor speed (in
revolutions per minute) and phase (between the shaft reference
mark and peak vibration) versus rotor speed (in revolutions per
minute. The polar plot is a graph of amplitude versus phase for
a range of compressor speeds Figure 1 represents an actual
centrifugal compressor rotor response. The specific points of
interest on the bode and polar plots are identified. A rotor
response plot provides the following information:
The rotors first critical speed in revolutions per minute (N
c1
).
The rotors initial (or lesser) speed (N
1
). The initial speed
occurs at the first peak-to-peak amplitude that is equal to
0.707 times the peak-to-peak amplitude at the critical speed
(A
c1
).
The rotors final or greater rotational speed (N
2
) occurs after
the displacement at the first critical speed. The value of
peak-to-peak displacement at N
2
is equal to 0.707 of peak-
to-peak displacement at N
1
.
The peak-to-peak amplitude (A
c1
) at the rotors first critical
speed (N
c1
).



Figure 1. Typical Rotor Response Plot


If the rotor amplification factor is greater than or equal to 2.5, the
vibration frequency at which resonance occurs is called critical.
The rotational speed at which the resonance occurred is called
a critical speed. A critically damped system is a system that has
an amplification factor of less than 2.5.
Critical speeds for compressors must be determined analytically
through use of a damped, unbalanced, rotor response analysis,
which must be confirmed by test-stand data. Resonances that
occur within the specified operating speed range of the
compressor must be critically damped. Any operating speed
that should be avoided as a critical speed must be included in
the operating and maintenance instructions for the compressor.
The critical speeds of the driver must be compatible with the
critical speeds of the compressor, and the combination must be
suitable for the operating speed range.
It is the vendors responsibility to provide a damped,
unbalanced-response, lateral analysis for the compressor in
order to ensure acceptable amplitudes of vibration at any speed
from zero to trip. The effects of other equipment in the train
should be included in the damped, unbalanced-response
analysis. The following considerations should be included in the
damped, unbalanced-response analysis:
Support stiffness (base, frame, and bearing housing), mass,
and damping characteristics. These characteristics must
include the effects of rotational speed variations.
Bearing lubricant-film stiffness and any damping changes
that are due to speed, load, preload, oil temperatures,
accumulated assembly tolerances, and maximum to
minimum bearing clearances.
Rotational speeds (starting speeds, operating speed and
load ranges, trip speed, and coast-down speeds). (Any
special speeds, such as test condition speeds, should also
be included.)
Rotor masses, which include the mass moment, the
stiffness, and the damping effects of the coupling halves.
(Examples of the damping effects are accumulated fit
tolerances, fluid stiffening and damping, and frame and
casing effects.)
Asymmetrical loading. (Examples of asymmetrical loading
are partial arc admission, gear forces, side streams, and
eccentric clearances.)


As a minimum, the damped, unbalanced-response analysis
must include the following:
A plot and identification of the mode shape at each resonant
speed (critically damped or not) from zero to trip. The next
mode that occurs above the trip speed must also be
included in the plot.
The frequency, phase, and response amplitude data that
were based on measurements processed from the vibration
probe locations over the range of each critical speed.
For each response, diagrams that indicate the phase and the
major-axis amplitude at each coupling engagement plane,
the centerlines of the bearings, the locations of the vibration
probes, and each seal area throughout the machine. The
minimum design diametral running clearance of the seals
must also be indicated.
An additional plot of the unbalance and location (usually the
coupling) that will be used for shop testing. This additional,
unbalanced-response plot must include the effects of any
test stand conditions or test seals that may be used to
perform the shop verification test.
A stiffness map of the undamped rotor response from which
the damped unbalanced response analysis was derived.
This plot should show frequency versus support system
stiffness. The calculated support system stiffness curves
are superimposed.
The damped unbalanced response analysis must indicate that
the compressor, in the unbalanced condition, will meet the
following acceptance criteria:
If the amplification factor is less than 2.5, the response is
considered critically damped, and no separation margin is
required.
If the amplification factor is between 2.5 and 3.55, a
separation margin of 15% above the maximum continuous
speed and 5% below the minimum operating speed is
required.
If the amplification factor is greater than 3.55 and if the
critical response peak is below the minimum operating
speed, the required separation margin as a percentage of


minimum speed is determined by the following equation:
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
3 AF
6
84 100 SM
Where:
SM = Separation Margin
AF = Amplification Factor
If the amplification factor is greater than 3.55 and if the
critical response peak is above the trip speed, the required
separation margin, as a percentage of maximum continuous
speed, is determined by the following equation:
100
3 AF
6
126 SM |
.
|
\
|
=
Where:
SM = Separation Margin
AF = Amplification Factor
A shop verification of the unbalanced-response analysis must
be performed. The actual responses are the criteria used to
confirm the validity of the damped unbalanced response
analysis. The shop verification is performed on a test stand with
a rotor unbalanced magnitude of at least two times and no more
than eight times the specific unbalanced limit, typically placed at
the coupling. The actual critical speed responses are recorded
on the test stand. The dynamic response of the machine on the
test stand is a function of the test conditions. The test results
should be obtained at the conditions of pressure, temperature,
speed, and load that are the expected in the field; otherwise, the
test stand results may not be comparable with what occurs
during actual operation in the field.
The performance of a torsional analysis includes a
determination of the excitations of torsional resonances of the
compressor. Excitations of torsional resonances should be
considered in the dynamics analysis. These excitations may be
produced from any of the following partial list of sources:
Gear problems, such as unbalanced gears and pitch line
runout.


Gas pressure forces or unbalanced mass in connecting rod
of reciprocating compressors.
Start-up conditions that include speed detents that are under
the inertial impedances as well as other torsional
oscillations.
Torsional transient, such as startups of synchronous and/or
variable frequency electric motors.
Any greater torsional resonances, including the natural
frequencies, that are a product of the complete train must be at
least 10% above or 10% below any possible excitation
frequency that exists within the speed range of minimum to
maximum continuous speed. Torsional resonances are called
torsional criticals if they occur at frequencies that are twice the
compressors running speeds or greater, and they should be
avoided. If the compressors torsional resonances are
calculated to be a multiple of the running speed and if all efforts
to remove the critical from within the limiting frequency range
have been exhausted, a stress analysis must be performed to
demonstrate that the resonances have no adverse effect on the
complete compressor train.
The major components of the rotating element of a compressor
(the shaft, balancing drum, and impellers) must be vibration-
tested and dynamically-balanced. When a bare shaft with a
single keyway is dynamically-balanced, the keyway must be
filled with a fully crowned half-key for an initial balance. This
initial balance correction to the shaft must be recorded.
The rotating element (rotor) must be multi-plane, dynamically
balanced during the assembly of the compressor. Two of the
major components that make up the rotating element may be
added to the rotating element prior to completion of the dynamic
balancing. Any corrections that must be made to the rotating
element to correct an unbalance condition must be applied to
the components that were added to the rotating element. After
the compressor is completely assembled, minor corrections of
other components that were added to the assembly may be
required. These minor corrections will be determined during the
final trim balancing of the completely assembled element.
Residual unbalance is the amount of unbalance that remains in
a rotor after the rotor has been balanced. For dynamic
compressors, API Standard 617, Appendix D provides the


specific procedures and calculations for determining the residual
unbalance of a dynamic compressor. The following equation is
used to calculate the maximum allowable residual unbalance
per plane for a compressor:
4W/N U
max
=
Where:
U
max
= Amount of residual unbalance, in ounce-inches
(gram-millimeters).
W = The journal static weight load, in pounds
(kilograms).
N = The maximum continuous speed, in revolutions
per minute.
After the balancing machine readings indicate that the rotor has
been balanced to within the specified tolerances, a residual
unbalance check should be performed before the rotor is
removed from the machine. To perform a residual unbalance
check (multiplane balancing), a known trial weight is attached to
one of the balance planes of the rotor, and a balance check is
performed. The weight is moved around the rotor in six or
twelve equal increments and a balance check is performed.
The trial weight is moved to the next balance plane, and the test
is repeated until all of the balance planes have been tested.
The balance check readings are plotted on a polar plot, and the
amount of residual unbalance is calculated. If the specified
maximum allowable residual unbalance has been exceeded in
any balance plane, the rotor must be balanced more precisely,
and the residual-unbalance check must be repeated.
The peak-to-peak amplitude of unfiltered vibration in any
specific plane is tested during the testing of the balanced rotor.
With a balanced rotor operating at its maximum continuous
speed, the peak-to-peak amplitude of unfiltered vibration that is
measured on the shaft adjacent and relative to each radial
bearing must not exceed its calculated limitation or 2.0 mils (50
micrometers) on any plane, whichever is less. The peak-to-peak
amplitude of unfiltered vibration limitation is calculated through
use of the following formula (for U.S. customary units):
N
12,000
A =
Where:


A = The amplitude of unfiltered vibration, in mils
(micrometers) peak-to-peak.
N = The maximum continuous speed, in revolutions
per minute.
For any speed that is greater than the maximum continuous
speed, the vibration limit is a comparison to the maximum
vibration value that is recorded at the maximum continuous
speed. The vibration for any speed that is greater than the
maximum continuous speed must not exceed 150% of the
vibration value that is recorded at the maximum continuous
speed.
If the vendor can demonstrate that electrical runout or
mechanical runout is present in the rotor system, a maximum of
25% of the peak-to-peak amplitude of unfiltered vibration that
was calculated from the above formula or 0.25 mil (6.4
micrometers), whichever is greater, may be subtracted from the
vibration signal that is measured during the factory testing. The
electrical and mechanical runout are determined by rotation of
the rotor in V-blocks at the journal centerline while measuring
the runout. The runout measurement is measured with a
noncontact proximity probe (for electrical runout) and with a dial
indicator (for mechanical runout). The runout measurement is
taken for the full 360 degrees of rotation. The noncontact
proximity probe is located at the normal probe location, and the
dial indicator is located one probe tip diameter on either side of
the noncontact proximity probe. The electrical runout and
mechanical runout readings are recorded. The electrical runout
and mechanical runout readings must be supplied by the vendor
in the mechanical test report.

Gas Leakage Test
After the mechanical running test is completed, each completely
assembled, centrifugal compressor casing that is intended for
toxic or flammable gas service must have a gas leakage test as
specified in API 617. The gas leakage test must be witnessed.
The requirements of API 617 may require two separate tests as
described in the following text to accomplish the gas leakage
test.
The casing (including the end seals) is pressurized with an inert


gas to the maximum sealing pressure or the maximum seal
design pressure. The test is considered satisfactory when no
casing or casing-joint leaks are observed or detected.
When specified, the casing (with or without the end seals
installed) is pressurized to the rated discharge pressure and is
held at this pressure for a minimum of 30 minutes. After 30
minutes, a soap-bubble test (or another approved test) is
performed to check for gas leaks. The test is considered
satisfactory when no casing or casing-joint leaks are observed
or detected.

Performance Test
In accordance with SAES-K-402 for centrifugal compressors, as
a minimum, a performance test must be specified and
witnessed for each centrifugal compressor duty. For a series of
identical units, only one unit needs to be performance tested.
Tests must be in accordance with ASME Power Test Code 10-
1965 (compressors and exhausters), Class I, II, or III. Tests
must be to Class III specifications unless otherwise specified.
Class I or Class II tests must be considered for medium to high
discharge pressures (500 psia) where rotor instability that is due
to high gas densities could be encountered or where
compressors are located on an offshore platform. In these
circumstances, Saudi Aramcos Engineer must be consulted
concerning advisability of Class I or II full load, full pressure
tests. The extra costs of such tests, as compared to a Class III
test, must be weighed against the cost (and delay) to correct
any malperformance after the compressors are installed.
ASME Power Test Code (PTC10-1965) has defined the
following three classes of performance tests:
Class I, which is a test run on the design gas at near design
conditions. This test generally applies to air compressors.
Class II, which covers tests when using the design gas is not
practical. Both test and design gas must closely follow
perfect gas laws.
Class III, which is similar to test 2 in that a different gas is
used for the test; however, in this test, the gas does not
follow the perfect gas law.


When a performance test is conducted through use of a
substitute gas, the test must be performed at an equivalent
speed. In accordance with ASME PTC-10, when operating at
the equivalent speed, the test parameters must agree with the
corresponding field parameters. ASME PTC-10 includes the
required tables, the procedures, and the calculations that are
necessary to determine the equivalent speed and to correct the
test results to actual field conditions.

A minimum of five points that include surge and overload must
be taken at normal speed. For variable-speed machines,
additional points may be specified. Head and capacity should
have zero negative tolerance at the normal operating point (or
other points as specified). The horsepower at this point should
not exceed 104% of the specified value. The compressor test
must show that the compressor is suitable for continuous
operation at any capacity at least 10% greater than the
predicted approximate surge capacity that is designated on the
data sheets.
For constant-speed compressors, the head should be within the
range of 100% to 105% of the normal head. The horsepower
will be based on the required normal head and capacity.
Unless otherwise specified, the performance test should be
conducted through use of only one contract rotor.
Field test procedures should be in accordance with ASME
PTC10-1965, Compressors and Exhausters, within practical
limits. Tests should not be conducted until it is certain that the
compressor has reached equilibrium, with all parameters as
close as possible to those parameters that are anticipated in
actual service.
All pressure and temperature instrumentation must be properly
calibrated. The ASME code provides guidelines for
instrumentation of the external flanges of the compressor and
the flow measuring sections. This instrumentation will provide
adequate readings at the compressor flanges and flow-
measuring devices. Temperatures should be measured through
use of a thermocouple or an RTD system. The sensitivity and
readability of the temperature measuring device should be .5F
and should have an accuracy within 1F. Pressure readings
during testing should be at approximately mid scale. The
pressure gage sensitivity should be about .25% with a .5%


maximum error of full scale when reading pressures that are
greater than 20 psig. When pressures are less than 20 psig, a
vertical manometer should be used unless disallowed for safety
reasons.
A gas sample should be taken at the top of the suction and the
discharge of the compressor at the beginning and the end of the
test. To avoid condensation in the sample, the gas sample
must be analyzed at a temperature that is equal to or greater
than the expected field conditions. The gas sample should be
analyzed by a gas chromatograph. The equipment speed
should be determined through use of two independent phase
reference transducers. Mass flow rates are measured through
use of the process flow indicator but should be verified through
calculations; therefore, metering device upstream temperature,
upstream pressure, and differential pressure must also be
recorded.
If field tests are conducted to confirm that the guaranteed
conditions on new equipment are met, the acceptance
tolerances are the same as noted for the performance tests.
When field tests are conducted on existing equipment to
determine whether inspection is required, a reduction of
polytropic head and/or efficiency of 10% or greater from the
performance test results (at rated flow) is a sound basis for
recommending internal compressor inspection.
String Test
As specified in SAES-K-402, a string test is used for long
equipment trains, for off-shore installations, and in situations
where early detection of equipment malfunction is necessary.
The following system components are tested as a unit:
Driver
Gear
Compressor(s)
Oil Systems (Lube Oil and Seal Oil Systems)
String tests require prior agreement by Saudi Aramcos
Engineer, and they must be witnessed. String tests are
performed in addition to separate tests of individual
components. Torsional vibration measurements are to be
performed to verify data sheets.


Post-Test Inspection
In accordance with SAES-K-402 for centrifugal compressors, all
bearings and seals (except labyrinth types) must be removed
and inspected after the completion of the mechanical running
test. Additional dismantling, inspection, and re-assembly of the
compressor should be considered an optional extra for
application only in special circumstances. The merits of a post-
test inspection of the casing internal should be evaluated
against the benefits of shipping a unit with proven mechanical
assembly and casing joint integrity.
In accordance with SAES-K-403 for reciprocating compressors,
dismantling of the compressor after the mechanical running test
should be requested only on a compressor that is not of a
proven design. This dismantling and inspection is other than
any dismantling and inspection that is required by evidence of a
malfunction during the mechanical running test.


DETERMINING DYNAMIC COMPRESSOR ACCEPTABILITY
When determining a dynamic compressors acceptability,
several characteristics of the compressor must be considered.
The relationships between the inlet volume flow, head, speed,
efficiency, and power of a dynamic compressor are often
referred to as the compressors characteristics. The actual
compressor characteristics are compared to the compressors
vendor-guaranteed characteristics. The compressor must
perform within the specified tolerances of the guaranteed
characteristics.
Figure 2 is a typical multi-stage centrifugal compressor
characteristic curve. The curve is a plot of the inlet volume in
percent versus the head in percent and the horsepower in
percent. Speed and efficiency lines are plotted on the curve to
provide the compressors characteristics. The speed that is
shown on the curve ranges from 70% to 110%. The efficiency
that is shown on the curve ranges from 83% to 100% of the
peak efficiency, with the approximate surge line drawn in at a
low volume and efficiency.
As an example, if a compressor has a rated efficiency of 75%,
the efficiency will be 75% of the 100% line and 62.25% on the
83% line.



Figure 2. Typical, Multi-Stage, Centrifugal Compressor Characteristic Curve


Figure 3 is a typical axial compressor characteristic curve. The
curve is a plot of the design volume in percent versus the design
compression ratio in percent. Speed and efficiency lines are
plotted on the curve to provide the compressors characteristics.
The speed that is shown on the curve ranges from 75% to
105%. The efficiency that is shown on the curve ranges from
80% to a maximum efficiency of 100% of peak efficiency.

Figure 3. Typical Axial Compressor Characteristic Curve
Once the decision has been made as to which type of
compressor is to be used in a given application, each
compressor is tested against its vendor-guaranteed
characteristics to determine compressor acceptability. This
remainder of this section of the Module will examine the
following areas that Saudi Aramco Engineers must consider
when determining the acceptance of dynamic compressors:
Acceptability Criteria (31-SAMSS-001)
Calculating Inlet Flow Volume
Polytropic Calculations
Calculating Pressure Ratio from Head
Calculating Horsepower and Efficiency
Use of Fan Laws to Find Operating Point at Different Speeds


Acceptability Criteria (31-SAMSS-001)
The following account is cited from 31-SAMSS-001 (for
centrifugal compressors), which adopts and specifies
exceptions to API Standard 617. Centrifugal compressor
systems must be supplied by vendors who are qualified by
experience in manufacturing the proposed units. To qualify, the
vendor must have manufactured, at the proposed location of
manufacture, at least two compressors of comparable speed,
power rating, and discharge pressure for a gas of comparable
characteristics. These compressors must have been in
operation for at least one year, and they must be performing
satisfactorily.

Calculating Inlet Flow
The performance curves that are supplied by the manufacturer
and the machines performance are usually based on the actual
volume flow at the suction of the compressor. The calculations
to determine these performance curves have been discussed in
the Volumetric Flow and Mollier Method sections of Module
212.02. It is important that the Mechanical Engineer understand
that the process data are usually given in SCFM or lb./hr and
that the process data must be converted to ACFM in order to
determine compressor performance.
For the purpose of performance calculations, compressor
capacity is expressed as the actual volumetric quantity of a gas
at the inlet to each stage of compression on a per minute basis
(ICFM). All centrifugal compressors are based on actual flow,
which is converted to inlet or actual cubic feet per minute. This
conversion is done because a dynamic compressors (axial and
centrifugal) produced head is a function of inlet gas velocity.
The inlet velocity is derived by the division of volume flow by
blade area. The following equation is used to determine inlet
flow (Q
1
) in actual or inlet cubic feet per minute (ICFM) if the
inlet flow is known in standard cubic feet per minute (SCFM):
1
1
1
Z
R 520
T
P
14.7
SCFM ICFM
=
Where:
P
1
= Inlet pressure (psia)


T
1
= Inlet temperature (R) (R = F = 460)
Z
1
= Inlet compressibility factor

The following example will determine the actual ICFM of a
compressor that has suction of 60,000 SCFM at an inlet
pressure (P
1
) of 100 psia, an inlet temperature (T
1
) of 100F,
and an inlet compressibility factor (Z
1
) of 1.0.
/min ft 9525
1.0 1.08 .147 60,000
1.0
R 520
R 560
psia 100
14.7
60,000
Z
R 520
T
P
14.7
SCFM ICFM
3
1
1
1
=
=
=

The following equation is used to determine inlet flow (Q
1
) in
actual or inlet cubic feet per minute (ICFM) if the inlet flow is
known in weight flow (mass flow) in lb/min:
W
ICFM =
Where:
w = Mass flow (lb./min)
= Density (lb./ft
3
)
The following equation is used to determine density ():
1 1
1
Z x T
P
x
28.95
MW
x 2.7 =
Where:
MW = Molecular weight
P
1
= Inlet pressure (psia)


T
1
= Inlet temperature (R) (R = F = 460)
Z
1
= Inlet compressibility factor

The following example will determine the actual ICFM of
a compressor that has weight flow () of 3600 lb./min at
an inlet pressure (P
1
) of 100 psia, an inlet temperature
(T
1
) of 100F, a molecular weight (MW) of five, and a
compressibility factor (Z
1
) of 0.98.
/min ft 42,353
lb/ft 0.085
lb/min 3600
p
Q
0.085
0.182 0.172 2.7
0.98 560
100
28.95
5
2.7
Z T
P
28.95
MW
2.7
3
3
1 1
1
=
=
=
=
=

Polytropic Calculations
The actual compression path does not follow any reversible
process (isothermal, isentropic, or polytropic). The actual
compression path is most closely approximated by the
polytropic process in which PVn = a constant. In such cases,
polytropic calculations must be used. The polytropic head is
obtained through use of the following equation:
(
(
=

1
P
P
1)/n (n MW
T R Z
Head Polytropic
1)/n (n
1
2
1 univ avg



Where:
T
1
= Inlet temperature
P
1
= Inlet pressure
P
2
= Discharge pressure
n = Polytropic exponent
Z
avg
= Average compressibility factor
R
univ
= Universal gas constant (1545.32 ft-lbf/lbm-Mol-
R)
The polytropic exponent () factor may be found from the
equation:
P
1
k
1 k
n
1 n
|
.
|
\
|
=

Where:
k = Isentropic exponent
P
= Polytropic efficiency
Also, the relationship between discharge pressure and
temperature for an ideal gas polytropic process is useful during
field testing when polytropic efficiency is not known. This
relationship can be stated as the following equation:
1)/n (n
1
2
1
2
P
P
T
T

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
Where:
T
2
= Discharge temperature
This equation can be rewritten as follows:


|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
1
2
1
2
P
P
Ln
T
T
Ln
n
1 n

For real gases, n can be found from the following relationship:
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
1
2
1
2
ln
ln
n
Where:
1
= Inlet density
2
= Outlet density

Calculating Pressure Ratio from Head
The primary variable in calculating head required is pressure, P
2

and P
1
. The plot of pressure ratio versus flow rate will be similar
to head versus flow rate. Pressure ratio is calculated through
use of the following equation:
1
2
P
P
P
r =
Where:
r
P
= Pressure ratio
P
1
= Inlet pressure
P
2
The pressure ratio can be calculated from the head through use
of the following equation:
1 n
n
1 univ avg
p
P
1
n
1 n
T R Z
MW x H
r

(
(
+ |
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=


Where:
H
p
= Polytropic head
Z
avg
R
univ
= Universal gas constant
T
1
= Inlet temperature
For the same compressor that is operating at the same flow and
speed, r
P
will change if MW, Z, -1/, or /-1 changes.

Calculating Horsepower and Efficiency
The efficiency of a thermodynamic system is stated as the ratio
of the work output of the system (head) to the work input to the
system (shaft power).
The difference between head and work is the amount of losses
that are internal to the machine due to such conditions as
friction and windage. These losses show up as heat, and they
add to the discharge temperature.
These losses include losses that are external and internal to the
main flow path. Losses that are external to the main flow path
include losses such as windage losses, disk friction losses, and
leakage losses. Losses that are internal to the main flowpath
are actual losses of blade input energy, and they include the
following:
Skin friction
Blade loading and diffusion
Incidence angle
Exit mixing losses
Clearance losses
Horsepower is the rate of doing work. If a compressor is lifting a
weight of gas to a given head (H) at a specific rate (M),
horsepower would be calculated as follows:


33,000 x
M x H
GHP =
Where:
GHP = Gas horsepower
H = Head (ft-lbf/lbm)
M = Weight flow (lb./min)
= Efficiency

If polytropic head (H
poly
) is used in the equation, polytropic
efficiency (
poly
) must also be used. If isentropic head (H
isen
) is
used in the equation, isentropic efficiency (
isen
) must also be
used.
Gas horsepower is not the true input horsepower to the
compressor. Mechanical and hydraulic losses must be
considered in order to determine the true input horsepower or
brake horsepower (bhp). Typical losses to be considered are as
follows:
Bearing losses
Seal losses
Friction losses
Other losses, such as radiation losses, labyrinth seal losses,
and recirculation due to balancing devices, may typically be
ignored in calculating bhp. Bhp can be calculated as follows:
bhp = GHP + mechanical losses
The mechanical losses are typically noted on the compressor
data sheets. If the mechanical losses are not available, an
estimate of 20 hp may be used for seal losses, and an estimate
of 50 hp may be used for bearing horsepower. The estimated
horsepower values may vary greatly due to bearing load, speed,
and oil temperature.
As the following equation shows, adiabatic or isentropic
efficiency uses isentropic relationships to define head (useful
work) and total work input.


( )
1 2
1)/k (k
1 2 1
ad
T T
1 /P P T

Where:
ad
= Adiabatic efficiency
T
1
= Inlet temperature
T
2
= Discharge temperature
P
1
= Inlet pressure
P
2
k = Isentropic exponent

The overall adiabatic efficiency is useful as a measure of the
overall performance of a compressor in the determination of
power; however, adiabatic efficiency is not always a true
indication of efficiency in reference to internal losses. Figure 4
illustrates this point. Because isentropic work is proportional to
temperature rise (W
ad
= c
p
DT), the distance from point 1 to point
2
ad
is proportional to the adiabatic work that is required to
compress the gas from P
1
to P
2
. The actual work, however, is
proportional to the vertical distance from point 1 to point 2.



Figure 4. Adiabatic Versus Polytropic Process

The polytropic equation represents the true aerodynamic
efficiency of a compressor for compression of an ideal gas.
There are, however, limitations to this equation. Real gases do
not always have a constant k value. The value of k for some
gases at discharge conditions can vary significantly from the k
value at suction conditions. The enthalpy (or Mollier) equation
is the most accurate method to calculate the aerodynamic
efficiency for any condition. In some cases, the enthalpy (or
Mollier) is the only equation that can provide accurate results. If
the average value of k is known and, if is determined by
calculation,
p
can be determined by the following:



(BTU/lbm) h (BTU/lbm) h
lbf/BTU) (ft 778
lbf/lbm) (ft H
Input Work
Head
1)/n (n
1)/k (k
1 2
p
avg avg
P
=
=
=

Where:
P
= Polytropic efficiency
H
p
= Polytropic head (BTU/lb.)
h
2
= Discharge enthalpy (BTU/lb.)
h
1
= Inlet enthalpy (BTU/lb.)
k
avg
= Average isentropic coefficient
n = Polytropic coefficient
Use of Fan Laws to Find the Operating Point at Difference Tip Speeds
The fan laws for centrifugal compressors are similar to the
affinity laws for centrifugal pumps. The following equations
show the relationship between the volume flow rate (Q), the
head (H), the horsepower (bhp), and compressor speed (N):
Equation 1
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
1
2
1 2
N
N
Q Q
Equation 2
2
1
2
1 2
N
N
H H
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
Equation 3


3
1
2
1 2
N
N
bhp bhp
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
Where:
Q = Suction flow, actual
H = Polytropic head
bhp = Brake horsepower
N = Speed, rpm
As indicated in Equation 1, the performance of a centrifugal
compressor at speeds other than design speed is such that the
capacity or flow rate will vary directly as the speed varies. As
indicated in Equation 2, the head that is developed will vary as
the square of the speed varies. As indicated in Equation 3, the
horsepower will vary as the cube of the speed varies. As the
speed of the compressor deviates from the design speed, the
error of these laws increases. The fan laws only accurately
apply to single-stages with very low compression ratios.
These laws can be used to estimate the performance at one
speed if the performance at another speed is already known.
The accuracy of the fan laws decreases with increasing
compressor stages and gas density; therefore, the actual
performance prediction at off-design speeds must be obtained
from the compressors vendor.
If the curve at speed N
1
is known, these relationships are used
to draw the head and horsepower curves at speed N
2
, as shown
in Figure 5. Starting with any point on the head curve at speed
N
1
(point A
1
), both the head (H
2
) and the flow (Q
2
) are calculated
by equations 1 and 2. This calculation gives an equivalent
operating point on the curve for speed N
2
(point A
2
). A series of
these points defines the curve for N
2
. Similarly, for the
horsepower curve that is shown in Figure 6, the horsepower
(bhp
2
) and the flow (Q
2
) are calculated to obtain the equivalent
operating points.



Figure 5. Head Curve

Figure 6. Horsepower Curve


DETERMINING POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSOR
ACCEPTABILITY
This section of the Module will examine the following areas that
Saudi Aramco Engineers must consider when determining the
acceptance of positive-displacement compressors:
Acceptability Criteria
Calculating Capacity
Calculating Discharge Temperature
Calculating Power

Acceptability Criteria (31-SAMSS-002/31-SAMSS-003)
The following account is in accordance with 31-SAMSS-002 (for
packaged reciprocating plant and instrument air compressors),
which adopts and specifies exceptions to API Standard 680.
Reciprocating compressors must be supplied by vendors who
are qualified in manufacturing the proposed units. To qualify,
the vendor must have manufactured, at the proposed point of
manufacture, at least two compressors of identical frame size.
These compressors must have been in service in desert
environment conditions (as specified in Section 2.1.13 of 31-
SAMSS-002 and in SAES-A-112) for at least one year, and they
must be performing satisfactorily.
In addition to the design criteria of 20 years of service life,
compressors must be suitable for a minimum period of 10,000
hours of uninterrupted operation between planned maintenance
shutdowns.
The vendor must advise Saudi Aramcos Engineers of the flow
rate, the outlet temperature, and the inlet pressure that are
required at design conditions for Saudi Aramcos specified
coolant inlet temperature (specified on the data sheet).
The proposal and the operating instructions must specify
maximum and minimum operating conditions of the unit as
limited by pressure, temperature, and other conditions that
could shorten the life of the machine. The vendor must furnish
any required protective devices that are used to prevent
damage to the equipment.
In accordance with 31-SAMSS-003, reciprocating compressors


for process air or gas service must be supplied by vendors who
are qualified in manufacturing the proposed units (31-SAMSS-
003 adopts and specifies exceptions to API Standard 618). To
qualify, the vendor must have manufactured, at the proposed
point of manufacture, at least two compressors of identical
frame size, speed, power rating, and discharge pressure for a
gas of comparable characteristics. These compressors must
have been proven in service in a desert environment for at least
one year, and they must be performing satisfactorily.

Calculating Capacity
The value for the capacity of a positive-displacement
compressor is used to determine other pertinent compressor
operating characteristics. The theoretical capacity of the
positive-displacement compressor is used to compare against
the actual measured capacity of a compressor that is installed in
a system. A large difference between the calculated theoretical
compressor capacity and the measured compressor capacity
indicates that there may be compressor component degrada-
tion. The following equation is used to calculate the theoretical
maximum capacity of a reciprocating compressor cylinder:
VE x DISP x
Z
Z
x
T
P
x 0.0509 Q
s
std
s
s
=
Where:
Q = Theoretical maximum capacity in million
standard cu ft per day (mmscfd) at 14.7 psia
and 520R
P
S
= Suction pressure in psia
T
S
= Suction temperature in R
Z
std
= Compressibility factor at standard conditions
Z
S
= Compressibility factor at suction conditions
DISP = Cylinder displacement in cu ft per minute
(cfm)
VE = Volumetric efficiency
To determine the capacity of a single stage that has more than
one cylinder, the capacity value should be multiplied by the
number of cylinders in the stage.


Volumetric
Efficiency
The critical portion of the theoretical capacity equation is the
theoretical volumetric efficiency, as defined as:
VE = 1 - C(R
1/k
- 1)
Where:
C = Percent clearance as a decimal fraction of
displaced volume
R = Pressure ratio across the cylinder (discharge
pressure divided by suction pressure, psia)
k = Isentropic volume exponent at operating
conditions (the specific heat ratio for ideal gas,
C
p
/C
v
)
An alternate equation for determining the theoretical volumetric
efficiency is:
VE = 100 - R - C
|
|
.
|
\
|
1 R
Z
Z
1/k
d
s

Where:
P
d
= Discharge pressure in psia
P
s
Z
d
= Compressibility factor at discharge conditions
Z
s
C
p
/C
v
)
C = Cylinder clearance as a percentage
Volumetric efficiency is the suction volume flow rate divided by
the displacement. For a reciprocating compressor, the
theoretical volumetric efficiency is considerably less than 100%
because of clearance volume, valve losses, piston ring leakage,
and packing losses. Clearance volume is that portion of the
cylinder that is not swept by the piston. At the end of a


discharge stroke, the clearance volume is filled with a gas at
discharge pressure. During the subsequent suction stroke, this
gas begins to expand. The suction valve does not open until
the gas in the clearance volume expands from the discharge
pressure to the suction pressure. After this expansion, the gas
is admitted to the cylinder until the end of the suction stroke;
however, the gas is admitted during only 70% to 80% of the
total suction stroke. The amount of lost suction volume
depends on the compression ratio, the properties of the gas,
and the amount of clearance volume.
The volumetric efficiency of an operating compressor is
calculated to determine whether the valves, pistons, and
packing are properly operating. An actual volumetric efficiency
that is significantly less than the theoretical value indicates that
the valves, the piston rings, and/or the packing are leaking and
that maintenance is required. The actual volumetric efficiency
can be determined by the following equation:
VE = 1 - L - C (R
1/k
- 1)
Where:
C = Percent clearance as a decimal fraction of
displaced volume
C
p
/C
v
)
L = Loss correction factor as a decimal fraction
or
VE = 100 - R - L - C
|
|
.
|
\
|
1 R
Z
Z
1/k
d
s

Where:
C = Cylinder clearance as a percentage
L = Loss correction factor as a percentage
The loss correction factor (L), which accounts for the valve
packing losses and the piston ring losses, can be obtained from
Figure 7. The loss correction factor is determined by locating


the compression ratio value on the x axis. The compression
ratio is followed vertically up the graph until it intersects with a
line that corresponds to the inlet pressure. The y axis value for
the point of intersection is the value for the loss correction
factor. For nonlubricated reciprocating compressors, the loss
correction factor should be multiplied by two. If the alternate
volumetric efficiency equation is used, the loss correction factor
from Figure 7 must be multiplied by 100.

Figure 7. Loss Correction Factor for Reciprocating Compressors
The volumetric efficiency equations can be used during a
projects estimating phase to approximate the actual volumetric
efficiency that is quoted by the vendor.


Cylinder
Displacement
Calculation of cylinder displacement can be used with the
measurement of actual cylinder volume to determine the
volumetric efficiency of any positive-displacement compressor in
the field. The actual capacity that is measured in the field is
equal to the product of the displacement and the volumetric
efficiency. The cylinder displacement of a reciprocating
compressor is calculated through use of the following equations:

Single-acting compressor:
1728
n L m A
D
s

=
Double-acting compressor (without tail rod):
( )
1728
n L m a 2A
D
s

=
Where:
D = Displacement, ACFM (actual cubic feet/minute)
A = Cross-sectional area of cylinder, sq. in.
a = Cross-sectional area of piston rod, sq. in.
m = Number of cylinders (for each stage)
L
s
= Length of stroke, in.
n = Speed, strokes/minute, or rpm of crankshaft
The calculated displacement can be used to determine the
actual volumetric efficiency as follows:
/hr) m (ACFM nt displaceme
/hr) m or (ACFM capacity measured actual
VE
3
3
=
When the actual volumetric efficiency equation is used, both
volumetric flow rates must be in the same units (ACFM or
m
3
/hr).


Percent Clearance
The percent clearance for each stage is typically provided by
the compressors manufacturer. The percent clearance for a
stage can be determined through use of the following equation:
( ) 100
in nt, displaceme piston
in volume, clearance
C
3
3
=
Calculating Discharge Temperature
The effects of discharge temperature on a reciprocating
compressor encompass deterioration of packing, carbonization
of oils, and combustibility of gases. Packing life may be
significantly shortened by the dual requirement to seal both high
pressure and high temperature gases. To reduce carbonization
of the oil and the danger of fires, a safe operating limit for
discharge temperatures may be considered to be approximately
300F. When handling gases containing oxygen, which could
support combustion, there is a possibility of fire and explosion
because of the oil vapors that are present.
There are limiting factors when considering discharge
temperature. The maximum ratio of compression that is
permissible in one stage is usually limited by the discharge
temperature, particularly in the first stage. There are certain
processes that require a controlled discharge temperature. For
example, the compression of gases, such as oxygen, chlorine,
and acetylene, requires that the temperature be maintained
below 200F, but for most field applications, the use of 300F
maximum is a good average, and this maximum is
recommended by the API for nonlubricated compressors;
however, in accordance with 31-SAMSS-002, compressor
vendors are to determine the safe maximum discharge
temperature.
In accordance with SAES-K-403, the following guidelines apply:
When compressors supply an air dryer, the maximum allowable
discharge temperature downstream of the after cooler is 50C
(120F) for silica gel desiccant, and 60C (140F) for activated
alumina desiccant. Compressors that are equipped with
refrigerated dryers are limited to a 40C (100F) air discharge
temperature. Compressors in hydrogen service are limited to


135C (275F) discharge temperature.
Calculation of compressor discharge temperature may be
estimated as the adiabatic temperature at the end of the
compression process, which is given by the following equation:
T
d
= T
s
x (R
(k-1)/k
)
Where:
T
d

= Discharge temperature, R
T
s

= Suction temperature, R
R = Pressure ratio cylinder (discharge pressure
divided by suction pressure, psia)
C
p
/C
v
)
The actual discharge temperature will differ from the calculated
value because the equation does not include the effects of
cylinder cooling and efficiency.
Calculating Power
The manufacturers performance predictions should always be
used as a first choice in the calculation of the power of a
compressor. If the performance predictions are not available,
the equations that are provided below can be used to make
reasonable approximations. The equations to calculate
isentropic horsepower are as follows:
1 k
k
Q 43.67 HP
= (R
(k-1)/k
-1)
Where:
HP = Isentropic horsepower
Q = Compressor capacity in million standard cubic
feet per day (mmscfd) at 14.7 psia and 520R


C
p
/C
v
)
The isentropic horsepower equation indicates that the major
effects on isentropic power are the capacity (Q) and the
pressure ratio (R).
Any factors that affect capacity - for example, valve losses and
leakage - increase the horsepower that is actually consumed by
a compressor. To compensate for these factors, the isentropic
horsepower equation can be modified by factoring the
compressors efficiency and its mechanical efficiency. The
following equation provides a more accurate calculation of a
compressors brake horsepower:
1 k
k
x Q x 43.67 bhp
= (R
(k-1)/k-1
) x
Where:
Q = Compressor capacity in million standard cubic
feet per day (mmscfd) at 14.7 psia and 520R
C
p
/C
v
)
c
= Compression efficiency
m
= Mechanical efficiency
The compression and mechanical efficiencies can be supplied
by the compressors manufacturer. Compression efficiency
varies with many factors, but the typical industry standard is
0.85 (85%) for lubricated double-acting reciprocating
compressors and 0.80 (80%) for nonlubricated and/or single-
acting reciprocating compressors. The typical industry standard
for mechanical efficiency is 0.95 (95%).
Screw compressor compression efficiency is typically 80% for
lubricated compressors and 75% for nonlubricated
compressors.


WORK AIDS
WORK AID 1: RESOURCES USED TO DETERMINE DYNAMIC
COMPRESSOR ACCEPTABILITY

Work Aid 1A: Calculation Procedures
Convert the inlet and discharge pressure to psia.

P
1
= ( ) + ( ) = ( ) psia

P
2
= ( ) + ( ) = ( ) psia

Convert the inlet and discharge temperature to R.

T
1
= ( ) + ( ) = ( )R

T
2
= ( ) + ( ) = ( )R

The polytropic head is given by:
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
1 -
P
P
1 - n
n

RT Z
=
H
1
2
1)/n - (n
1 avg p



To calculate Z
avg
:
From Table 1in Work Aid 1B
.
P
c
= ( ) psia

T
c
= ( ) R

At the inlet

) (
) (
) (
= =
P
P
=
P
c
1
r

) ( =
) (
) (
=
T
T
=
T
c
1
r

) ( =
Z1
from Figure 9 in Work Aid 1B

At the outlet

) ( =
) (
) (
=
P
P
= Pr
c
2

) ( =
) (
) (
=
T
T
= Tr
c
2




9 Figure from ) ( =
Z2
in Work Aid 1B

) ( =
2
) ( + ) (
=
2
Z
+
Z
=
Z
2 1
avg

To calculate (n-1)/n

|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|

P
P
=
T
T
1
2
1)/n - (n
1
2

=
(n -1)/ n
( )
( )
( )
( )
|
\
|
.
|
|
\
|
.
|

) ( =
) ( ln
) ( ln
=
n
1) - (n



To calculate gas constant (R)

) ( =
) (
) (
=
MW
R
= R
univ

Refer to Table 1 for the molecular weight of ethane.

The polytropic head equation becomes
ft ) ( =
1 -
) (
) (

) (
) (
) )( )( ( =
1
P
P
1 n
n
RT Z H
) (
1)/n (n
1
2
avg p
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

To calculate the inlet flow (ACFM)
) ( =
) (
520
) (

) (
14.7
) ( =
Z
520
T
P
14.7
SCFM = ACFM
1
1
1
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|



To calculate polytropic efficiency

) ( =
) (
) 1)/( - (
=
1)/n - (n
1)/k - (k
=
p

To calculate the gas horsepower
( )
hp ) ( =
)(33000) (
) )( (
=
(33000)
lb/min Rate Flow x ) (H
= GHP
p

To calculate the brake horsepower
( ) ( )
bhp ) ( =
=
losses mechanical ghp = bhp
+
+



Work Aid 1B: Pertinent Data

Nomenclature

H
p
= Polytropic head
Z
avg
R = Gas constant
T
1
= Inlet temperature
P
1
= Inlet pressure
P
2
R
univ
= Universal gas constant
MW
gas
= Molecular weight of a gas
p = Polytropic efficiency
k = Isotropic exponent
C
p
= Specific heat at constant pressure
C
v
= Specific heat at constant volume
r = Compression ratio
ACFM = Actual cubic feet per minute
SCFM = Standard cubic feet per minute
Z = Compressibility factor
MC
p
= Molar specific heat at constant pressure
MC
v
= Molar specific heat at constant volume



Charts for Determining
Compressor Performance
Characteristics
Table 1. Critical Constants of Gases

Critical Constants

Compound

Formula
Mol. Wt.
M
Pressure
psia P
c

Temp.
R T
c

Acetylene C
2
H
2
26.036 905.0 557.4
Air N+O
2
28.966 547.0 238.7
Ammonia NH
3
17.032 1,657.0 731.4
Benzene C
6
H
6
78.108 714.0 1,013.0
1,2-Butadiene C
4
H
6
54.088 653.0 799.0
1,3-Butadiene C
4
H
6
54.088 628.0 766.0
N-Butane C
4
H
10
58.120 550.7 765.6
Isobutane C
4
H
10
58.120 529.1 734.9
N-Butene C
4
H
6
56.104 583.0 755.6
Isobutene C
4
H
6
56.104 579.8 752.5
Butylene C
4
H
6
56.104 583.0 755.6
Carbon dioxide CO
2
44.010 1,073.0 548.0
Carbon monoxide CO 28.010 510.0 242.0
Chlorine Cl
2
70.914 1,120.0 751.0
Ethane C
2
H
4
30.068 708.3 550.1
Ethyl alcohol C
2
H
5
OH 46.069 927.0 629.6
Ethylene C
2
H
4
28.052 742.1 509.8
N-Hexane C
6
H
14
86.172 439.7 914.5
Helium He 4.003 480.0 510.0
Hydrogen H
2
2.016 188.0 60.2
Hydrogen sulfide H
2
S 34.076 1,306 672.7
Methane CH
4
16.042 673.1 343.5
Methyl alcohol CH
3
OH 32.042 1,157.0 924.0
Nitrogen N
2
28.016 492.0 227.2
N-Octane C
8
H
18
114.224 362.1 1,025.2
Oxygen O
2
32.00 730 278.2
N-Pentane C
5
H
12
72.146 489.5 845.9
Isopentane C
5
H
12
72.146 483.0 830.0
Propane C
3
H
8
44.094 617.4 666.2
Propylene C
3
H
6
42.078 667 657.4
Sulfur dioxide SO
2
64.060 1.142 775.0
Toulene C
7
H
8
92.134 611 1,069.5
Water H
2
O 18.016 3,206 1,165.4
Hydrogen chloride HCl 36.465 1,199.2 584.5



Figure 8. Compressibility Factors at Low Reduced Pressure


WORK AID 2: RESOURCES USED TO DETERMINE POSITIVE-
DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSOR ACCEPTABILITY
Work Aid 2A: Calculation Procedures

Convert the suction and discharge pressure to psia.

P
1
= ( ) + ( ) = ( ) psia

P
2
= ( ) + ( ) = ( ) psia

Calculate the compression ratio:

R =
1
2
P
P
R =
( )
( )
( ) =

Convert the inlet temperature to R.

T
1
= ( ) + ( ) = ( )R


Calculate the volumetric efficiency, using Figure 9 in Work Aid 2B.
VE = 100 - R - L - C
|
|
.
|
\
|
1 R
Z
Z
1/k
d
s

( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) =
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
VE
1 100 VE
1

Calculate the compressor displacement.
( )
1728
n L m a 2A
DISP
s

=

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1728
DISP

=
2

( ) = DISP


Calculate the compressor capacity.
VE DISP
Z
Z
T
P
0.0509 Q
s
std
s
s
=

( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) = 0.0509 Q

( )
Q =

Calculate the compressor brake horsepower.
( )
m c
1/k k
1
x
1
x 1 R
1 k
k
x Q x 43.67 bhp
=

( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
1 1
1
1
43.67
1

|
|
.
|
\
|

=

( ) =



Work Aid 2B: Pertinent Data
Hydrogen Sulfide
Z
s
........................ 1.015
Z
std
...................... 0.99
Z
d
........................ 1.022
k........................ 1.320
Nomenclature
A = Cross-sectional area of cylinder, sq. in.
a = Cross-sectional area of piston rod, sq. in.
C = percent clearance as a decimal fraction of displaced volume
D = Displacement, ACFM (actual cubic feet/minute)
DISP = Cylinder displacement in cubic feet per minute (cfm)
HP = Isentropic horsepower
k = Isentropic volume exponent at operating conditions (the specific
heat ratio for ideal gas, C
p
/C
v
)
L = Loss correction factor
L
s
= Length of stroke, in.
m = Number of cylinders (for each stage)
n = Speed, strokes/minute, or rpm of crankshaft
c
= Compression efficiency
m
= Mechanical efficiency
P
d
= Discharge pressure in psia
P
s
Q = Capacity in million standard cubic feet per day (mmscfd) at 14.7 psia
and 520R
R = Pressure ratio across the cylinder (discharge pressure divided by
suction pressure, psia)
T
d

= Discharge temperature, R
T
s
= Suction temperature in R
VE = Volumetric efficiency


Z
d
= Compressibility factor at discharge conditions
Z
s
Z
std
= Compressibility factor at standard conditions

Figure 9. Loss Correction Factor for Reciprocating Compressor



GLOSSARY
adiabatic
compression
A compression process in which no heat is added or removed.
best efficiency
point (BEP)
The point on the performance curve of a centrifugal compressor
at which the efficiency is at a maximum.
brake horsepower
(bhp)
The total horsepower that is required to drive a compressor.
Brake horsepower is equal to the sum of the gas horsepower
and the mechanical losses.
compressibility
factor, Z
The actual volume of a gas divided by the volume of the same
weight of ideal gas at the same molecular weight, temperature,
and pressure. Also,
RT
PV
Z =
displacement The volume of the space swept by the pistons(s). The
theoretical maximum capacity of a reciprocating compressor.
dynamic
compression
The compression of a gas with continuous flow due to the
interaction between a vane and a gas.
efficiency,
isentropic
For a compression process, the ideal work that is required
divided by the actual work that is imparted to the gas.
efficiency,
polytropic
For a compression process, the minimum work along a
polytropic path divided by the actual work imparted to the gas.
enthalpy A thermodynamic quantity that is the sum of the internal energy
of a body (U) and the product of its volume (V) multiplied by the
pressure (P). Also called heat content.
entropy A quantity that is the measure of the amount of energy in a
system that is not available for doing work. A small change in
entropy (DS) is equal to DQ/T, where DQ is a small increment of
heat added or removed and where T is the absolute
temperature.
gas horsepower The total energy that is imparted to the gas in a compressor and
that includes the losses due to gas friction but that does not
include mechanical friction losses.
head, isentropic The energy per unit weight of gas that is applied during an ideal
compression process in which no heat is lost.
head, polytropic The ideal energy per unit weight of gas that is applied during
polytropic compression.
isentropic
compression
Ideal compression along a path of constant entropy under
adiabatic conditions (no heat lost).


isothermal
compression
Compression at constant temperature. Heat must be removed
during the compression process.
major axis The longer of the two axes with respect to which an ellipse is
symmetrical.
mechanical
efficiency
The work that is applied to the gas divided by the brake
horsepower. The difference, or loss, is due to mechanical
friction.
mode shape The shape that a part takes in oscillation at a specific frequency.
Mollier diagram A diagram that shows the relationship between enthalpy,
entropy, temperature, and pressure for a particular gas.
multiplane
balancing
Any balancing procedure that requires unbalance correction in
more than two correction planes.
performance curve A curve that is supplied by the manufacturer and that shows the
relationship between capacity, produced head, required
horsepower, and efficiency.
polytropic
compression
The type of compression that most closely follows the actual
path of centrifugal compressor compression.
separation margin The difference in speed between the minimum and maximum
operating speeds and the nearest rotor critical speed. The
separation margins are expressed as a percentage of minimum
and maximum operating speeds.
volumetric
efficiency
The actual inlet volume of gas to a positive-displacement
compressor divided by the theoretical displacement.

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Determining Compressor Acceptability

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Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional

Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.

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