The Politics of Power and the Power of Faith: Retracing Martin Wights Legacy

By Aura Sabadus on September 8, 2009

For a student of International Relations, Martin Wig t !omes a!ross as an enigma" #is dis!iples and !ollaborators $ o in!lude notable names su! as #edley Bull, Robert %a!&son or Brian 'orter spea& of a seminal t in&er and erudite s! olar $ ile ot ers su! as Alan %ames !laim t at is influen!e on t e dis!ipline is limited"()* +i,en t e !onfli!ting !onsiderations, t is paper proposes to assess Wig t-s impa!t on t e study of International Relations, $eig ing is lega!y against t e !riti.ue t at as been le,elled at is $or&" /o analysis of Wig t-s international t oug t !an o,erloo& is preo!!upation $it !lassi!al diploma!y understood as t e !ornerstone of international relations" 0 e first part of t is essay $ill t erefore e1amine t e importan!e of !lassi!al diploma!y as a 2!i,ilising a!ti,ity-, in Wig t-s o$n $ords, deeply steeped in 3uropean traditions $ i! tra!e t eir origins to 4 ristian ideals" 0 e dis!ussion $ill see& to e1plain o$ Wig t-s personal !on,i!tions and a!ademi! ba!&ground influen!ed is t oug t and led im to organise t e prin!iples of !lassi!al diploma!y around t ree ma5or traditions6 Realists, Rationalists and Re,olutionists" 0 e se!ond part of t e debate $ill e1plore !riti!s- !laims regarding is inability to ans$er .uestions t at is en.uiry pro,o&es, is !lassifi!ation of t e t ree traditions mentioned abo,e, is 3uro!entri! approa! to international relations and finally !riti!ism regarding t e purported separation of international t eory from politi!al t eory" 0 e !on!lusion $ill briefly re,ie$ t e main strands of t e dis!ussion and assess t e pla!e of Wig t-s $or& in t e $ider !onte1t of International Relations studies" WIGHTS C !TRI"#TI !S T I!T$R!%TI !%L TH$ R& W en analysing Wig t-s $or&s one as to be !onstantly reminded of t e t ree elements t at s aped is international t oug t6 a passionate lo,e of istory, is staun! 4 ristian fait and a ,i,id interest in politi!al p ilosop y" As one of t e founding members of t e 23nglis S! ool-7 a sop isti!ated form of realism $ i! emp asises t e e1isten!e of a so!iety of states at t e international le,el, despite t e e1isting !onditions of anar! y, and $ i! is regulated by &ey institutions su! as 8!lassi!al9 diploma!y, international la$, $ar and t e balan!e of po$er, e dre$ on all t ree strands to propound and defend is t eories" :pinion as been di,ided $it in t e S! ool regarding t e origins of t ese institutions, some notable figures su! as #edley Bull !ontending t at t ey a,e appeared as a result of states- interest in safeguarding t eir sur,i,al, $ ile ot ers, of $ i! Wig t is t e main apologist, argue t at t ey are deeply embedded in t e ideas disseminated by t e mediae,al Respubli!a 4 ristiana" In is ,ie$, !lassi!al diploma!y e,ol,ed out of t e remnants of t e mediae,al e!!lesiasti!al e1! anges(2* to be!ome an institution in its o$n rig t understood as 2t e management of international relations by negotiations-(;* by t e late )8t !entury" But Wig t, 5ust li&e Morgent au, argues t at diplomats are not missionaries and diploma!y must be di,ested of t e !rusading spirit, (<* as t ey aim to re!on!ile interests in,ol,ed in t e relations of go,ernments of so,ereign states"(=* %a!&son !ontends t at $ en interpreting diploma!y as a politi!al and p ilosop i!al t oug t, Wig t raises normati,e and et i!al .uestions $ i! !an only be understood t roug is sop isti!ated interpretation of 4 ristian t eology"(>* As a fres :1ford graduate, Wig t !ame under t e influen!e of t e Re,d ?i!& S eppard, t e ! arismati! ,i!ar of St Martin7in7t e7Fields and later !anon at St 'aul-s 4at edral" 0 e latter-s !on,i!tions made an impa!t upon t e young p ilosop er, elping to ! annel Wig t-s

interest in t e idealist internationalism of t e @eague of /ations based on fait in publi! opinion, international la$ and institutions(A* to$ards pa!ifism seen as t e !ondemnation of ,iolen!e and opposition to t e institutions of t e military and $ar" #o$e,er, by t e end of t e Se!ond World War, Wig t ma&es a surprising ,olte7fa!e, s$apping t e pa!ifist pulpit $it t e realist !amp from $ ere e $ould profess is s!epti!ism about t e progress and perfe!tion of uman&ind" Wit Power Politics first publis ed as a pamp let in )9<>, is ,ie$s be!ome permanently asso!iated $it t e realist s! ool of t oug t as e underlines po$ers- !on!erns to 2see& se!urity $it out referen!e to 5usti!e and to pursue t eir ,ital interests irrespe!ti,e of !ommon interests-"(8* Wig t-s intelle!tual transformation !annot be understood unless one digs deep at is religious roots s aped in t e Augustinian tradition $ i! re!ognises t e permanent pla!e of sin and gra!e in uman affairs"(9* As su! , alt oug indi,iduals, and at a ig er le,el, nations, !an ad,an!e in bot !ulture and te! nology, t ey !annot progress at a moral le,el" Wig t strongly re5e!ts t e perfe!tionism of t e 'elagians, a 4 ristian s! ool of t oug t $ i! professes ope and argues t at umans are !apable of redeeming t emsel,es" ()0* Instead, e settles for t e politi!s of s!epti!ism and traditional 4 ristianity $ i! argue t at uman beings and nations s ould admit t eir inability to progress and t erefore oug t to ma&e t e best of a fla$ed $orld" Follo$ing on from t is basi! idea, e maintains t at e,en t oug states $ill al$ays pursue t eir 8selfis 9 interests, t ey oug t to up old a series of prin!iples $ i! $ill bring a minimum of uman de!en!y to t eir intera!tion" 0 ese are found in t e diplomati! intera!tions bet$een t e parties and !an be summed up as follo$s6 onesty or trut fulness, moderation and restraint, !ourtesy and respe!t for t e ot er side" ())* 0 e prin!iples proposed by Wig t are t us !o erent not only $it t e Augustinian tradition but also $it t e p ilosop y of t e ?ut! 5urist #ugo +rotius, a staun! ad,o!ate of t e golden middle $ay bet$een t e po$er politi!s of Realism and t e utopian ideas of t e Re,olutionists" #o$e,er, as a traditional 4 ristian, Wig t !on!edes t at t ere $ill al$ays be states $ i! $ill eit er e1ploit or disregard t ese prin!iples and e identifies t e former as Ma! ia,ellian and t e later as Bantian" 0 us, Ma! ia,ellians, also &no$n as Realists, $ill insist t at only t e nai,e $ould ta&e t ese prin!iples seriously as states a,e to follo$ t eir goals irrespe!ti,e of t e means pursued" :n t e ot er and, Bantians or Re,olutionists, run in t e opposite dire!tion, re5e!ting t e pra!ti!es and ideas of !lassi!al diploma!y altoget er" Wig t !alls t is style of t in&ing inspired by Bant as 2t e arm! air p ilosop er-s-()2* and argues t at t e Bantian sees politi!al ! ange as 2an ebb and flo$ of pointless ri,alries-"();* Alt oug Wig t soug t to &eep imself aloof from t e sub5e!t e studied, e !onfessed nonet eless is belief in t e et i!al prin!iples inspired by +rotius $ i! e !alled Rationalist"()<* 0 e !lassifi!ation of t e t ree traditions based on t e p ilosop i!al ar! etypes C Ma! ia,elli, +rotius and Bant C and re,ol,ing around moral prin!iples, as $ell as Wig t-s o$n p ilosop i!al t oug t influen!ed by traditional 4 ristianity t at ran !ounter to t e it erto Ameri!an7dominated positi,ist and at eist t in&ing mar&ed t e beginning of a ne$ era in international t eory"()=* 0 ese !ontributions spar&ed ne$ debates $ i! !ould no longer ignore t e et i!al dimension of International Relations" :n t e ot er and, t e same !ontributions need to be balan!ed against t e subse.uent !riti!al $or& on is refle!tions and $ i! raises many diffi!ult .uestions" CRITI'#$ F WIGHTS I!T$R!%TI !%L TH #GHT 0 e !riti!ism le,elled at Martin Wig t and is body of $or& ranges from !omments regarding t e 2t i!&ets of is prose- $ ere 2t e bran! es are so $eig ted do$n $it foliage t at it is diffi!ult to find t e trun&-,()>* to obser,ations regarding is separation of international t eory from politi!al t eory"

It is indeed a diffi!ult tas& to find one-s $ay t roug t e ea,ily7detailed pages of Wig t-s boo&s" 0 e s!ope of is dis!ussion is so broad t at a relu!tant student may easily $ander off to lig ter readings" 'ersonally, I do not see $ y Martin Wig t s ould be eld responsible if t ose less prepared to follo$ is arguments abandon too .ui!&ly" #is immense erudition, indeed is ability to apply istori!al insig t to t e most diffi!ult p ilosop i!al !on!epts as $ell as is perfe!tionism oug t to be !ommended and not dismissed" A general !riti!ism t at $as broug t against Wig t-s p ilosop y refers to in!onsisten!y $ et er t is is refle!ted in is failure to elaborate on t e !on!epts e enun!iates or in is t eory of international relations" Wig t $as !riti!ised for brea&ing off prematurely from attempts to ans$er .uestions t at is en.uiry pro,o&es" For instan!e, %a!&son points out t at alt oug Wig t $rote e1tensi,ely on empires C t e Roman 3mpire, t e mediae,al Respubli!a 4 ristiana and most importantly on t e Britis 3mpire C imperialism does not feature as a 2systemati! !ategory in is international t eory-" ()A* %a!&son furt er !ontends t at Wig t-s $or& ne,er e1plored t e distin!tion bet$een aut enti! international relations and .uasi7international relations $ i! $ould a,e gi,en im t e ! an!e to e1plain t e differen!es bet$een a modern international $orld of so,ereign states and a mediae,al imperial t eo!ra!y"()8* Wig t-s failure to dis!uss t e notion of empire as $ell as is interpretation of international t eory in terms of Western traditions and more spe!ifi!ally in terms of t e pra!ti!es ! ara!teristi! of Britis diploma!y a,e led to furt er !riti!ism t at is prin!iples are not truly uni,ersal and t erefore !annot be re!ommended to ot er go,ernments"()9* #o$e,er, in a !urious t$ist of fortune, Wig t-s Western7influen!ed refle!tions on t e great transformation from Western imperialism to so,ereign states in Afri!a be!ame a self7fulfilling prop e!y in t e sense t at t e ne$ Afri!an states remained on t e map as t ey ad been at t e time of 3uropean rule"(20* As %a!&son furt er !ontends, t ey did not dissol,e into t e indigenous so!ial stru!ture, but retained t e ! ara!teristi!s infused by 3uropean !olonialism"(2)* It is interesting to note ere Bull-s remar&s t at 2states of all regions, !ultures, persuasions and stages of de,elopment (are $illing* to embra!e often strange and ar! ai! diplomati! pro!edures t at arose in 3urope in anot er age- and $ i! 2is today one of t e fe$ ,isible indi!ations of uni,ersal a!!eptan!e of t e idea of international so!iety-"(22* 0 ere is furt er !riti!ism regarding Wig t-s in!onsisten!y in terms of t e ,ie$s e eld" A!!ording to Mi! ael /i!olson, t ere is a 2problem- $it re!on!iling 2Wig t t e po$er politi!ian $it Wig t t e pa!ifist-"(2;* #o$e,er, to ma&e an assertion in su! !lear7!ut terms, $it out attempting to see& t e roots of Wig t-s t in&ing is to miss t e point !ompletely $ en analysing is !ontribution to international t eory" As argued in t e pre,ious se!tion, t e t$o !on!epts !an find !ommon ground t an&s to Wig t-s pessimist 4 ristian beliefs $ i! dismiss t e idea t at umans are !apable of a! ie,ing moral perfe!tion" At system le,el, Wig t re!ognises t e imperfe!tion of states $ i! are seen in realist terms as selfis entities, interested in pursuing 2t eir ,ital interests irrespe!ti,e of !ommon interests-,(2<* but $ i! !an maintain a modi!um of pea!eful relations pro,iding t ey follo$ a set of prin!iples based on a sense of de!en!y" 0o try to remo,e one at t e e1pense of t e ot er $ould mean to unra,el an important dimension $ i! ta&es into !onsideration t ese elements $ en dis!ussing t e t ree traditions of politi!al t in&ing C Realism, Rationalism and Re,olutionist" 0 ere is no .uestion $ et er e s ould be seen in simplisti! bla!& and $ ite terms, for Wig t is a 4 ristian and a po$er politi!ian as $ell as a istorian and a p ilosop er and e su!!essfully do,etails t ese seemingly !onfli!ting strands in is $or&" :ne !riti!ism $ i! !annot be refuted t oug raises t e .uestion $ et er t e t ree Rs e1 aust t e

leading ideas of international t oug t and $ et er an a!!ount of t e t ree traditions really ad,an!es our understanding of international politi!s"(2=* 0 is is $ y %ames !laimed t at Wig t-s !ontribution to international t eory is limited, insisting t at a s! olar $ o does not in,o&e t e t ree traditions s ould not be seen 2as se!ond7!lass-"(2>* Bull belie,es t at Wig t $as 2too ambitious- in attributing to t e Ma! ia,ellians, +rotians and Bantians distin!ti,e ,ie$s not only about $ar, pea!e, diploma!y, but also about 2psy! ology, irony, tragedy, met odology and epistemology-"(2A* #e !riti!ises Wig t for follo$ing in t e footsteps of is mentor at 4 at am #ouse, Arnold 0oynbee, in belie,ing t at t ere is a r yt m in t e istory of ideas $ i! some o$ needs to be establis ed" Bull a!&no$ledges Wig t-s originality nonet eless and insists t at is approa! 2pro,ides an antidote ("""* to t e in7breeding and self7absorption of a!ademi! te1tboo&s and 5ournals-, opening it out to $ider intelle!tual oriDons"(28* Eet Bull and more re!ently /i! olson a,e deplored Wig t-s refusal to ta&e an a!ti,e part in t e t eories e propounds, insisting t at t e purpose of t e studies of International Relations is to impro,e t e uman !ondition and not to stand as 2passi,e spe!tators-"(29* But Wig t, for all is professed aloofness and deta! ment from any politi!al !ommitment !onfesses to is +rotian 2pre5udi!es- $ i! e !laims en!apsulate a 2!i,ilising fa!tor-"(;0* 0 e most po$erful !riti!ism against Wig t-s international t oug t refers to t e 2simplifying distin!tion-(;)* e ma&es bet$een politi!al t eory as a 2t eory of t e good life- and international t eory as a 2residual t eory of sur,i,al-"(;2* 0 ese !omments !annot be understood unless $e ta&e a step ba!& and define politi!al t eory as a systemati! refle!tion on t e relations bet$een states and !itiDens" (;;* Wig t argues t at if $e $ere e,er to a!.uire a good life in a mortal $orld, t en it !an only be t roug t e frame$or& of t e state" By !ontrast $it politi!al t eory, international t eory is merely a t eory of sur,i,al at t e le,el of systems of states des!ribed by Wig t as groups of so,ereign states $ i! re!ognise no politi!al superior and $ i! see& to up old permanent relations" Sin!e t ere is no o,erar! ing aut ority to regulate t ese relations, states struggle to pursue t eir o$n interests and en!e to ensure t eir sur,i,al" In is essay 2Why is there no International Theory? Wig t argues t at $ at is no$ &no$n as international t eory is but 2a tradition of spe!ulation about relations bet$een states, a tradition imagined as t e t$in of spe!ulation about t e state to $ i! t e name of politi!al t eory is appropriated-"(;<* Again, by !ontrast $it politi!al t eory, international t eory is not a self7standing dis!ipline and as su! , Wig t argues, it ad no real proponent, apart from 3dmund Bur&e $ o, e said, 2s$it! ed from politi!al t eory to international t eory-"(;=* %a!&son admits t at t e t$o di,erge at !ertain points, but insists t at t ey are 2bran! es of one o,erall modern t eory of t e modern state and state system-"(;>* In %a!&son-s ,ie$ states are %anus7fa!ed, simultaneously loo&ing in$ard at t eir sub5e!ts and out$ardly at ot er states" #e !ontends t at t ere is not 2t e state- on t e one and and on t e ot er 2t e state system-, but 5ust states $ ose a!tions !an be analysed from bot perspe!ti,es"(;A* Wig t-s !ontention t at politi!al t eory is essentially t e t eory of good life pursued inside t e frame$or& of t e state !an be easily turned on its ead $ en !onsidering totalitarian and failed states $ i! offer anyt ing but a good life to t eir !itiDens" :n t e ot er and, it !an be e.ually argued t at international t eory is not merely a t eory of sur,i,al sin!e issues of global !on!ern su! as t e spread of nu!lear $eapons, !limate ! ange, terrorism, and more re!ently t e e!onomi! do$nturn do not !on!ern states in isolation but are issues on $ ose resolution depends our general good and ultimately our sur,i,al" And finally, Bull raises t e .uestion $ et er t e unity of t e system of states relies on a !ommon morality and !ode $ i! !reate t e basi! rules of !oe1isten!e among states or $ et er it re.uires 2!ommon assumptions of a deeper &ind C religious or ideologi!al-"(;8* If $e $ere to a!!ept Wig t-s

point of ,ie$ ere, $e $ould be rea! ing a dead end sin!e t e idea of religion or ideology as a lin! pin of t e system of states !annot be e1tended to t e 2breadt and lengt - of t e same system" (;9* C !CL#SI ! I argued at t e beginning of t is essay t at Martin Wig t !omes a!ross as an enigma to students of International Relations $ o may feel puDDled at t e !onfli!ting opinions regarding is !ontribution to t e dis!ipline" 0 e debate set out to e1amine $ et er e $as indeed t e seminal t in&er praised by dis!iples and !ollaborators or 5ust a istorian of ideas $ ose influen!e $as limited, as argued by %ames"(<0* Alt oug it !an be !ontended t at Wig t-s !lassifi!ation of t e t ree traditions C Realism, Rationalism and Re,olutionism C does not e1 aust t e leading ideas of international t eory, and t at t e dis!ipline !annot be bo1ed into patterns, is $or& opens ne$ intelle!tual oriDons $ i! ta&e in !onsideration et i!al and normati,e dimensions" By as&ing .uestions about states and systems of states Wig t prepared t e ground for !on!epts su! as !ulture and identity to enter mainstream International Relations t roug t e $or&s of is dis!iples or !riti!s"(<)* Wig t-s lega!y refers not 5ust to is !ontribution in laying t e foundations of t e 3nglis S! ool, is analyti!al interest in !lassi!al diploma!y as t e !ornerstone of international relations, but also to is originality and dept of t oug t and is !ourage to profess 4 ristian7influen!ed ideas in a preponderantly at eist a!ademi! $orld" Writing t e fore$ord to Wig t-s 2Power Politics, Spen!e sums up t e istorian-s !ontribution to IR6 20o t ose broug t up on a diet of post7modernism, Wig t-s intelle!tual !on!erns may seem old7 fas ioned" Eet for t ose $ o re!ognise t e importan!e of !losely reasoned istori!al analysis !ombined $it t eoreti!al per!eption of !onsiderable subtlety, Martin Wig t-s $ritings ("""* pro,ide a se!ure foundation for serious debate on t e nature and s!ope of t e t eory and pra!ti!e of International Relations-"(<2* "I"LI GR%PH& Bull( #" 820029 The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics, ;rd ed" 8@ondon6 'algra,e9 ?unne, 0" 8)9989 Inventing International Society, 8@ondon6 'algra,e Ma!millan9 %a!&son, R" 820089 2From 4olonialism to 0 eology6 en!ounters $it Martin Wig t-s international t oug t- in International Affairs, Fol" 8<, Issue 2 %a!&son, R" 8200=9, Classical and Ma!millan9 odern Thought in International Relations, 8/e$ Eor&6 'algra,e

Morgent au, #" 8200=9 Politics A!ong "ations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, At ed", 8/e$ Eor&6 M!+ra$7#ill9 /i!olson, M", 8)98)9 20 e 3nigma of Martin Wig t-, in Review of International Studies /o" A 'orter, B" 8200A9 20 e international politi!al t oug t of Martin Wig t- in International Affairs, Fol" 8;, Issue < 0 omas, S"M" 8200)9, 2Fait , istory and Martin Wig t6 t e role of religion in t e istori!al so!iology of t e 3nglis s! ool of International Relations-, in International Affairs, Fol" AA, Issue < Wig t, M" 8)9>>9, #i$lo!atic Investigations: %ssays in the Theory of International Politics, 8@ondon6 +" Allen G Hn$in @td9 Wig t, M" 8)99)9, International Theory: The Three Traditions, 8@ondon6 @ei!ester Hni,ersity

'ress9 Wig t, M" 8)9A89, Power Politics, 8@ondon6 Royal Institute of International Affairs9 Wig t, M" 8)9AA9, Syste!s of States, 8@ondon6 @ei!ester Hni,ersity 'ress9 ()* ?unne, 0", 8)9989 p"=< (2* Wig t, M", 8)9AA9 pp"=;7=>, );07);) (;* :1ford 3nglis ?i!tionary :nline6 ttp6II$$$"oed"!om (<* Morgent au, #", 8200=, At ed9 p"==9 (=* %a!&son, R", 8200=9 p"=; (>* Ibid" p=> (A* 0 omas, S"M", 8200)9 in International Affairs, Fol"AA, Issue < (8* Wig t, M", 8)9A89 p">> (9* %a!&son, R", 8200=9 p"== ()0* Id" p"=A ())* Wig t, M",8)99)9 pp")807)88 ()2* Wig t, M", 8)99)9 p")9> ();* Id" p")9A ()<* Id" p"2>8 ()=* 'orter, B", 8200A9 in 20 e international politi!al t oug t of Martin Wig t()>* Bull, #", 8)99)9 in 2International 0 eory- p"11ii ()A* %a!&son, R", 820089 2From !olonialism to t eology6 an en!ounter $it Martin Wig t-s international t oug t()8* Id" ()9* Bull, #", 8)99)9 lo!"!it" (20* %a!&son, R", 820089 lo!"!it (2)* Id" (22* Bull, 820029, pp")A>7AA (2;* /i! olson, M", 8)98)9 20 e enigma of Martin Wig t(2<* Wig t, M", 8)9A89, p">> (2=* Bull, #",8)99)9 in 2International 0 eory-, p"1,iii (2>* ?unne, 0", 8)9989, p"=< (2A* Bull, #", 8)99)9 lo!"!it (28* Id" (29* /i! olson, M", 8)98)9 lo!"!it (;0* Wig t, M", 8)99)9 p"2>8 (;)* %a!&son, R", 8200=9 p" ;9 (;2* Wig t, M", 8)9>>9 p";;

(;;* %a!&son, R", 8200=9 p"<0 (;<* Wig t, M", 8)9>>9 p<0 (;=* Id (;>* %a!&son, R", 8200=9 p";9 (;A* Id (;8* Bull, #", 8)9AA9 in 2Systems of States- p")8 (;9* %a!&son, R", 8200=9 p">) (<0* ?unne, 0", 8)9989 p"=< (<)* Id" p">; (<2* Spen!e, %", 8)9A89 in 2'o$er 'oliti!s- p"A & Written 'y: Aura Sa'adus Written at: (ings College )ondon Written for: Professor *ac+ S$ence #ate written: A$ril ,--.