Introduction To Geology Plate Tectonics, Structural Geology Drifting Continents and Spreading Seas

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition
by Stephen Marshak 2011 W.W. Norton & Company
Chapter 3 Drifting Continents and Spreading Seas
Lecture 3: Drifting Continents and Spreading Seas
Prepared by:
Ronald L. Parker, Senior Geologist

Fronterra Geosciences, Denver, Colorado
A Changing Earth
It is commonly known today that Earth changes. This was not always apparent, or wellwell-known. Plate tectonics, the unifying theory of Earth processes:
Is a relatively new development in scientific thinking. Has evolved and strengthened up to the present day. Owes much to work by Alfred Wegener in the early 1900s.
Shallow sea
Paleoequator
Ron Blakey
Dry land
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak
2011, W. W. Norton
Chapter 3: Drifting Continents and Spreading Seas
Alfred Wegener
German meteorologist and polar explorer. Wrote The Origins of Oceans and Continents in 1915.
He suggested land masses slowly move (continental drift). He hypothesized a former supercontinent, Pangaea. These were based on strong evidence.
Fit of the continents Glacial deposits far from polar regions Paleoclimatic belts Distribution of fossils Matching geologic units
Fig. 3.1a
2011, W. W. Norton
PowerPoint slides prepared by Ronald L. Parker, Fronterra Geosciences, 700 17th Street, Suite 900, Denver, CO, 80202

Plate Tectonics
Wegeners idea was the basis of a scientific revolution.
Earth continually changes.
Continents move, split apart, and recombine. Ocean basins open and close.
In the past, Earths surface has looked very different.
Fig. 3.1b
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak 2011, W. W. Norton Chapter 3: Drifting Continents and Spreading Seas
Plate Tectonics
The scientific revolution began in 1960.
Harry Hess (Princeton) proposed seasea-floor spreading.
As continents drift apart, new ocean floor forms between. Continents converge when ocean floor sinks into the interior.
By 1968, a complete model had been developed.

Continental drift, seasea-floor spreading, and subduction. Earths lithosphere is broken into ~20 plates that interact.
Fig. 3.11
In this lecture:
What were Wegeners observations? Paleomagnetism: the key proof of continental drift Observations that led Harry Hess to seasea-floor spreading
Basalt, an extrusive igneous rock, contains iron-bearing (Fe) minerals that preserve magnetic signals.
2011, W. W. Norton

Before Wegener
Geologists thought:
The oceans and the continents were permanently fixed. The face of Earth had not changed throughout time.
Wegener proposed ideas that were radical at the time.

Continents do change position over time. A vast supercontinent, Pangaea, had once existed. What was Wegeners evidence for continental drift?
2011, W. W. Norton
Continental Fit
Wegener noted the continents seem to fit together. He argued that the fit could not be coincidental. Present shorelines make a rough fit. The continental shelf edges make a better fit (Bullard, 1965).
Fig. 3.2
Bullard defined the edge of each continent as the edge of the continental shelf.
2011, W. W. Norton
Glacial Evidence
Evidence of Permian glaciers found on four continents. Some of this evidence is now near the equator. Plotted on a map of Pangaea, glacial deposits converge.
Former South Pole
Striation
Pangaea reconstruction
Present day
Fig. 3.3a

Paleoclimatic Evidence
Placing Pangaea over the Permian South Pole: Wegener predicted rocks preserving climate belts.
Tropical coals Tropical reefs Subtropical deserts Subtropical evaporites
Fig. 3.3b
Fossil Evidence
Identical fossils found on widely separated landmasses.
MesosaurusA freshwater reptile GlossopterisA subpolar plant with heavy seeds
Fig. 3.3c
Fossil Evidence
Identical fossils found on widely separated land.
LystrosaurusA nonswimming, landland-dwelling reptile. CynognathusA nonswimming, landland-dwelling mammal mammallike reptile.
These organisms could not have crossed an ocean. Pangaea explains the distribution.
Fig. 3.3c

Matching Geologic Units

Distinctive rock assemblages match across the Atlantic.
Geologic structures Rock types Rock ages
Fig. 3.4a
Matching Geologic Units

Mountain belts connect across the Atlantic.
Appalachians Caledonides
Fig. 3.4b
2011, W. W. Norton
Criticisms of Wegeners Ideas

Wegener had multiple lines of strong evidence. Yet, his idea was debated and ignored. WHY?
He couldnt explain how or why continents moved. Wegener died in 1930. Lacking an advocate, the drift hypothesis faded.
New evidence from the oceans revived his ideas.
Evidence from beneath the sea was key to proving that Alfred Wegeners ideas were correct.

Earths Magnetic Field

Flow in the liquid outer core creates the magnetic field.
It is similar to the field produced by a bar magnet. The magnetic pole is tilted ~11.5 from the axis of rotation.
Fig. 3.5a
Magnetic Poles
The magnetic pole intersects Earths surface just like the geographic pole does.
Magnetic N pole and magnetic S pole both exist. Magnetic poles are located near geographic poles. Magnetic poles move constantly.
Fig. 3.5b
The Earths Magnetic Field

Geographic and magnetic poles are not parallel. A compass points to magnetic N not geographic N. The difference between geographic N and magnetic N is called declination. It depends upon:
Absolute position of the two poles
Geographic north Magnetic north
Longitude Declination can be 180o between the two poles.
Fig. 3.5c

The Earths Magnetic Field

Curved field lines cause a magnetic needle to tilt. This property is called inclination. It depends on:
Normal or reverse polarity Latitude
Fig. 3.5d
2011, W. W. Norton
Palaeomagnetism
Rock magnetism can be measured in the laboratory. Study of fossil magnetism is called paleomagnetism. Iron (Fe) minerals in rock preserve information about the magnetic field at the time the rocks formed.
Declination and inclination preserved in rocks often vary from present latitude / longitude. Instruments used in paleomagnetism record changes in position. This data is used to trace continental drift.
Fig. 3.6a
2011, W. W. Norton
Palaeomagnetism
Iron minerals archive the magnetic signal at formation. Hot magma
High Temp Tempno magnetization
Thermal energy of atoms is very high. Magnetic dipoles are randomly oriented.
Fig. 3.6b

Palaeomagnetism
Iron minerals archive the magnetic signal at formation. Cooled magma
Low Temp Temppermanent magnetization
Thermal energy of atoms slows. Dipoles align with Earths magnetic field. Magnetic dipoles become frozen in alignment with field.
Fig. 3.6b
Palaeomagnetism
Iron minerals archive the magnetic signal at formation. Groundwater
Iron can be dissolved and carried in groundwater. IronIron -bearing minerals can grow on aquifer sediments. Iron minerals preserve magnetic field information.
Fig. 3.6c
2011, W. W. Norton
Polar Wandering
Layered basalts record magnetic changes over time. Inclination and declination indicate change in position.
Fig. 3.7a

Polar Wandering
Each continent had a separate polar wandering path. Two possibilities:
The location of the magnetic pole is not fixed. The lava flows, themselves, have moved.
These curves align when continents are assembled.
Fig. 3.7c
Apparent Polar Wandering

Polar wandering is now known to be an artifact.
Not the signature of a wandering pole on a fixed continent The signature of a fixed pole on a wandering continent
Apparent polar wandering is strong evidence for drift.
Fig. 3.7b
SeaSea -Floor Bathymetry

Before World War II, we knew little about the sea floor. EchoEcho -sounding (sonar) allowed rapid seasea-floor mapping. Sonar data was collected as ships travelled the ocean. Bathymetric maps revealed unexpected findings.
Fig. 3.8a

The Ocean Floor

Oceanographers were surprised to discover that:
A midmid-ocean mountain range run through every ocean. DeepDeep -ocean trenches occur near volcanic island chains. Submarine volcanoes poke up from the ocean floor. Huge fracture zones segment the midmid-ocean ridge.
These observations are all explained by plate tectonics.
Fig. 3.8b
The Ocean Floor

Sonar mapping delineated bathymetric features.
Mid-ocean ridges MidDeepDeep -sea trenches Oceanic islands Seamounts Guyots
Fig. 3.9a,b
2011, W. W. Norton
The Ocean Floor

Todays view of the ocean floor reveals the location of:
Mid-ocean ridges MidDeepDeep -ocean trenches Oceanic transform faults
Fig. 3.9a
10

The Oceanic Crust

By 1950, we had learned much about oceanic crust. Oceanic crust is covered by sediment.
Thickest near the continents Thinnest (or absent) at the midmid-ocean ridge
Oceanic crust is mafic (basalt and gabbro).

No granitic rocks No metamorphic rocks
Heat flow is much greater at the midmid-ocean ridges.
Fig. 3.9b
2011, W. W. Norton
The Oceanic Crust

Belts of concentrated subsea earthquakes were found. The earthquakes were surprising. They were limited to:
Parts of oceanic fracture zones MidMid -ocean ridge axes Deep ocean trenches
Fig. 3.10
SeaSea -Floor Spreading

In 1960, Harry Hess published his Essay in Geopoetry.
Sediment thickens away from ridges. Earthquakes at midmid-ocean ridges indicate cracking.
Cracked crust splits apart. High heat flow from molten rock rises into the cracked crust.
Fig. 3.11
11


Hess called his theory seasea-floor spreading.
Upwelling mantle erupts at the midmid-ocean ridges (MORs). New crust moves away from ridges, gathering sediment. At trenches, the seasea-floor subducts back into the mantle.
Instantly provided a mechanism for continental drift.

Continents move apart as seasea-floor spreading occurs. Continents move together as seasea-floor is subducted.
Fig. 3.11
Evidence for SeaSea-Floor Spreading

Magnetism in seasea-floor rocks varies farther from MOR.
Stripes of positive (stronger) and negative (weaker) magnetic intensity Recorded in seasea-floor basalts
Fig. 3.12a,b
2011, W. W. Norton
Evidence for SeaSea-Floor Spreading

Magnetic anomalies map as stripes of positive and negative intensity. Magnetic stripes form a pattern. The pattern is symmetric on either side of the MOR.
Fig. 3.12c
2011, W. W. Norton
12

Magnetic Reversals
Layered lava flows reveal reversals in magnetic polarity.
The magnetic field sometimes flips; we dont know why. A reversed N magnetic pole is near the S geographic pole.
Reversals are geologically rapid. Can be used as time markers.
Fig. 3.13a, Geology at a Glance

Magnetic Reversals
Age-dating rock gives the timing of polarity reversals. AgeA magnetic reversal time scale has been assembled. Reversals occur at uneven intervals.
Longer intervals (500 to 700+ Ka) are called chrons. Shorter intervals (~200 Ka) are subchrons.
Chrons for the last 4.5 Ma are named for scientists.
Fig. 3.13b

Polarity reversals explain magnetic anomaly stripes. Positive anomaly anomalysea ea-floor rock normal polarity. Negative anomaly anomalysea ea-floor rock reversed polarity. Magnetic anomalies are symmetric across the MOR.
Fig. 3.14a,b
13


SeaSea -floor spreading explains the stripes.
Magnetic polarity reversals are imprinted in seasea-floor rock as the sea floor continues to spread. We can determine rates of seasea-floor spreading.
Mid-Atlantic Ridge ~2 cm/yr MidEast Pacific Rise ~ 10 cm/yr
Fig. 3.14c

The width of the magnetic anomaly stripes:
Is proportional to the duration of the chrons Is related to the spreading rate
Faster spreading = wide stripes Slower spreading = narrow stripes
Fig. 3.14d

SeaSea -floor rocks worldwide have been sampled by drilling.
Age increases with distance from MORs. Sediment thickens with distance from MORs. The reversal chronology has been extended to 170 Ma.
Millions of years (Ma) before present

Fig. 3.15a,b
14

Useful Web Resources

Teachers Domain PBS Video Clip on Alfred Wegener
www.teachersdomain.org/resource/ess05.sci.ess.earthsys.wegener1/
Science Discoverys 100 Greatest Discoveries: Continental Drift

science.discovery.com/videos/100science.discovery.com/videos/100 -greatest greatest-discoveries discoveries-shorts shorts-continental continental-drift.html
Dr. Christopher Scoteses Paleogeographic Maps

www.scotese.com/
Dr. Ronald Blakeys Paleogeographic Maps

www2.nau.edu/rcb7/globaltext2.html
NASA Science Earths Inconstant Magnetic Field

http://science1.nasa.gov/sciencehttp://science1.nasa.gov/science -news/science news/science-atat-nasa/2003/29dec_magneticfield/
USGS National Geomagnetism Program FAQs

http://geomag.usgs.gov/faqs.php
Science Discoverys 100 Greatest Discoveries: SeaSea-Floor Spreading

http://science.discovery.com/videos/100http://science.discovery.com/videos/100 -greatest greatest-discoveries discoveries-shorts shorts-sea sea-floor floor-spreading.html
Earthguide Online Classroom Seafloor Spreading Animation

http://earthguide.ucsd.edu/eoc/teachers/t_tectonics/p_seafloorspreading.html
2011, W. W. Norton
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Introduction To Geology Plate Tectonics, Structural Geology Drifting Continents and Spreading Seas

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Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

by Stephen Marshak 2011 W.W. Norton & Company

Chapter 3 Drifting Continents and Spreading Seas

Lecture 3: Drifting Continents and Spreading Seas

Ronald L. Parker, Senior Geologist

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 3: Drifting Continents and Spreading Seas

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 3: Drifting Continents and Spreading Seas

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 3 Drifting Continents and Spreading Seas

In the past, Earths surface has looked very different.

By 1968, a complete model had been developed.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 3: Drifting Continents and Spreading Seas

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 3 Drifting Continents and Spreading Seas

Wegener proposed ideas that were radical at the time.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 3: Drifting Continents and Spreading Seas

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 3: Drifting Continents and Spreading Seas

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 3 Drifting Continents and Spreading Seas

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 3 Drifting Continents and Spreading Seas

Matching Geologic Units

Matching Geologic Units

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 3: Drifting Continents and Spreading Seas

Criticisms of Wegeners Ideas

New evidence from the oceans revived his ideas.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 3 Drifting Continents and Spreading Seas

Earths Magnetic Field

The Earths Magnetic Field

Longitude Declination can be 180o between the two poles.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 3 Drifting Continents and Spreading Seas

The Earths Magnetic Field

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 3: Drifting Continents and Spreading Seas

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 3: Drifting Continents and Spreading Seas

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 3 Drifting Continents and Spreading Seas

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 3: Drifting Continents and Spreading Seas

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 3 Drifting Continents and Spreading Seas

These curves align when continents are assembled.

Apparent Polar Wandering

Apparent polar wandering is strong evidence for drift.

SeaSea -Floor Bathymetry

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 3 Drifting Continents and Spreading Seas

The Ocean Floor

These observations are all explained by plate tectonics.

The Ocean Floor

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 3: Drifting Continents and Spreading Seas

The Ocean Floor

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition