Medieval Scandals Why study scandals: Studying scandals provides a non-linear approach to history.

ry. The big picture of connected events is lost, but more obscure details are revealed about a particular time period. Scandals symbolize the clash of values: sacred vs. secular, customary practice vs. new institutions, public power of men vs. private power of women.

Types of Scandals: 1. Scandals in which people break a set of genuinely shared rules or values. 2. Scandals based on conflicting set of rules or values. 3. False charges 4. Imaginary scandals These categories are fluid and scandals can belong to more than one type.

Terms:

Carolingians, Capetians, Normandy, Territorial lordship, vassalage, sacred kingship, Rex christianissimus

Politics and society in West Frankland (France): In 1090 CE, France was very politically fragmented. But by 1100, France started showing a distinct identity by Christianity, shared political culture, and marriage alliances. The medieval world was divided among Catholics in the west and Orthodox Christians in the east. A Western Christian acknowledged the Pope in Rome as the head of the Christendom An Eastern Christian acknowledged the Patriarch in Constantinople as the head of Christendom.

The Carolingian Empire: The Carolingians were named after Charlemagne. The Carolingians were centered on continental Europe while the Romans were a Mediterranean Empire. In 843 CE, when Charlemagnes son Louis the Pious died, the Carolingian Empire was split into three parts by his sons (Charlemagnes grandchildren). The Carolingian Legacy left entwined religious and secular powers, a Papal-French alliance, and rule through the lords. Lords were subservient, collecting troops and raising taxes over large territories for the central authority. Lords often become strong enough to detach themselves from central authority.

The tendency in Italy is fragmentation into independent city-states. France and Spain were unified only in name. The Capetians were the successors to the Carolinians. The barons, counts, and dukes elected the first Capetian. The Capetians were extremely weak and based in Paris. Their effective power and authority only extended to Paris and the surrounding areas. Saracens were raiding southern France, the Vikings were raiding the north, and the Magyars were raiding eastern France. The Capetians did not want to hold together politically fragmented French entity. This political fragmentation manifested in weak central authority and the institution of regional autonomy and local power. There were also linguistic differences that added to the fragmentation of France in this time period and Latin was used as the common tongue. Around 1100 CE, the Pope was also weak, but achieving the Popes blessing was prestigious to wage war. The Duchy of Normandy was founded by Vikings. Normandy was a very strong principality by itself. In 1066, William the Bastard later renamed William the Conqueror managed to assemble an army, invade England, and conquer England after grasping victory in the Battle of Hastings. Peasants lived well before the Carolingians and controlled their own economic activities. But the peasants plight grew worse over time with the decline of autonomy. Peasant communities are composed of a few hundred people who rarely left the area of their birth. Peasants are technically free and are not owned by lords, but that did not matter because the lords controlled the economic activity of peasants, where they can live, and permission to marry. The right to bear arms distinguishes lords and peasants. Peasants are not allowed to bear arms. In northern France, several peasant communities tried to organize self-defense against the Vikings, but they were immediately beset upon by local lords because ensuring the subservience of the peasants was the priority and dealing with foreign invaders. Territorial lordship was castle-based and included the ability to raise taxes and gather men for war over their area of control. Lords were said to be Plentitudo potestasis (full of power). By 1090s, the typical peasant could only bring cases in front of the lord and not in front of the King as previously could be done. Vassalage ensured that retainers and armed followers do not secede and establish their own authority. In return for lands, office, armed followers would pay homage to the French king, but in reality held loyalty to his lord. He would pledge fealty. The armed retainer would then find more armed men to serve the lord. Fighting and violence were very important for nobles in this time period.

Raoul de Cambrai is a 12th century poem that is meant to be sung. This was a private war started over when a retainer was not awarded the fief he believed he deserved and this started the blood feud that left all the main characters dead except the French king. Marriage was seen as a sign of peace-making and although marrying for love was known, it was not seen as a positive element in society. Marriage was done for the making of children, who are seen as economic assets. Having bastards is seen as a destabilizing force that can only lead to further trouble. Marriage was done for creating alliances and seen as an exchange of resources. Before the Gregorian reforms, there was no priest involved in marriage and marriage was a secular ceremony. The kings in France were seen as having religious functions beyond their political roles that were beyond the grasp of the lords that served them. There was a belief that arose the Capetian French kings could cure disfiguring skin by the royal touch. This is what distinguished lords and kings in France. A lord did not have the Divine religious component associated with him. Royal Authority was based on a combination of force of arms and religious sanction. Charles Martel (Charlemagnes grandson) saved the papacy and the city of Rome from the Lombards just as Charlemagne once saved Pope Leo and Rome from the Lombards. So this reinforced the French-papal alliance. Charlemagne is crowned Rex christianissimus (The Most Christian King) by the Pope in 800 CE. Charlemagne did not want to be crowned by the Pope because the Pope infused his reliance and power onto Charlemagne. Charlemagne is honored by this title, but now the Pope can support or oppose Charlemagnes decision on the secular judgments of ruling his kingdom if they did not coincide with the Popes aims. This is one of the ways secular and religious power intertwined in Early Medieval society.

Orderic g (1075-1142) Orderic Vitalis was the monk of St.-Evroul and spent his whole life in the monastery. His parents did not want him and left him at the monasterys doorstep. He was an AngloNorman and wrote the Historia ecclesiastica, feeling foreign living and writing in Normandy. Bertrade was first married to Fulk IV, Count of Anjou in 1089 and had a son. But in 1092, Bertrade left her husband and married King Philip I of France. Both King Philip I of France and Bertrade married despite having both of their spouses living. King Philip I refused to leave Bertrade even when threatened with excommunication from Pope Urban II. As punishment for disobeying the pope, King Philip I was prevented from partaking in the First Crusade.

According to Orderic Vitalis, Bertrade was anxious that one of her sons succeed Philip, and sent a letter to King Henry I of England asking him to arrest her stepson Louis after the arts of sorcery and poison failed to kill Louis. There is a connection between physical and moral virtue. Orderic Vitalis wrote that the sinners and corrupt were afflicted with deformed skin, while the righteous were blessed and pure in health.

Terms: Gregorian Reform, Investiture, Peace of God, Philip I, Pope Urban II, Council of Clermont (1095) Marriage, Reform, and Bigamy: The case of King Philip I of France and Bertrade was such a scandal because this scandal exposed the intersection of several 11th century CE changes in European society and culture. This case also exposed a clash that lay between secular elite and clerical conceptions of marriage.

Lordship and the Church: Investiture was land or titles given from a stronger authority to a weaker authority. Lay investiture is when a vassal is awarded middle to high office in the Catholic Church. The Bishops were very economically profitable and generated wealth. Gathering of tithes stayed in the noble family and perpetuated ones position. Bishops and priests had great autonomy in areas far away from the Pope in Rome. Investiture is a relationship of vassalage. There is an abstract conflict between the Catholic Church, secular monarchs, and the local authority. The local authority could abuse those below them justifying ;,l,l

Proprietary Churches: If there were not enough churches in remote areas of Catholic control, kings, lords, and knights built their own to enhance their personal wealth and prestige. Sponsoring churches was done by kings and emperors all the way down to knights. So churches preserved the memory of noble families who were not too wealthy or known too well. Proprietary churches were controlled by lay patrons. The local lord maintained the church appointing priests and gathering revenues that should be going to the coffers of the Catholic Church. In 1078, the Arezzo Cathedral had twenty-four custodians who were descended from the priest of the Cathedral and they controlled the economic resources of this Cathedral. These custodians parceled the tithes.

Simony:

Simon Magus was a magician in the time of the disciples and wanted to buy the power of the Apostles. Simony is the buying and selling of Church offices to followers. The Archbishopric of Narbonne was traditionally bought for the younger sons of a noble family in the Pyrenees. So this family once appointed a ten year old to the Archbishop of Narbonne. Eventually the priests took this case to the pope and were disgusted by the degree of simony.

Gregorian Reform Movement: Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085 CE) was the major proponent of Gregorian Reform Movement and was started by the Catholic Church to end the power of squabbling noble families in Rome. Different noble families fortified different sections of the Roman coliseum against one another. There were papal reforms that forced all Bishops to listen and adhere to the Pope in Rome. Bishops were supposed to act as men of God by leading mass, preaching to their followers, practicing clerical celibacy, and not being the pawns of secular authority.

Truce and Peace of God: The Catholic Church wanted to create a hierarchy where lords and kings were to listen to the clergy. In 989 CE, the Peace of God arose due to the weakness of the Capetian kings. Priests and abbots would lead processions with relics to the castles of lords and demanded that they act as good Christians. This was an attempt to regulate private warfare by forbidding war on Sunday along other days. This showed the growing power of the Catholic Church over the secular weakness of the Capetians. The Catholic Church attempted to control society, influence, and behavior of the warrior nobility. The Catholic Church attempted to fill in the power vacuum left by the Carolingian Empire based on a Carolingian precedent: using the Church officials to run secular administration. This was an increasing trend in the interference of the Catholic Church in daily life especially in social standards and the reform of marriage. The Peace and the Truce of God showed a precedent for the Catholic Church forcing the secular aristocracy to abide by Christian standards. In 1063 CE, the Truce of God set aside certain days of the year when violence was not allowed. The Truce of God focused on preventing conflict between Christian knights.

The Reform of Marriage:

The Gregorian Reform turned marriage into a sacrament rather than a secular ceremony. Consent was necessary along with lifetime monogamy. More so, there was no divorce or remarriage even for widows. There were incest loopholes that forbid marriage between those related up to seven generations. This was a problem for both lords and peasants, but allowed for a reason for divorce.

Robert II (996-1031 CE): Robert II remarried twice and although he was excommunicated twice, knkn For the warrior nobility, marriage was a way to perpetuate ones wealth and dynasty. While the clergy saw marriage as a sacrament in the eyes of God.

Pope Urban II and Council of Clermont: Pope Urban II renewed the excommunication of King Philip I of France. Urban II was a hardline Gregorian reformer. The Council of Clermont was used by Urban II to launch the First Crusade and separate the Catholic Church from the secular world of power and wealth. Making the pilgrimage to Jerusalem and being flagellated in public was done by nobles who had already ensured the succession of their family line.

William of Malmesbury (1095-1143 CE): William of Malmesbury wrote Gesta regum Anglorum to show what behaviors to exemplify and what to avoid. He wrote in an anecdotal and exemplary fashion. X ccx kmv

Terms: Matilda, The Anarchy, Eleanor of Aquitaine, Second Crusade, Angevian Empire Royal Adultery: Pope Urban II renewed the excommunication of King Philip I of France in the Council of Clermont (1095). Adulterous queens (especially Eleanor of Aquitaine) indicated a change in nature of European government and showed public vs. private power of women. Trope is a familiar pattern that keeps reoccurring in history, and during this period, the trope is that courtiers would compete with power with powerful women who held private power through marriage with a powerful monarch and there was a late antique precedent set by the Roman Empress Theodora in the mid-6th century CE. Theodora was very influential on Justinians religious policies and clashed with Justinians male advisors.

Theodoras power came from being the spouse of Justinian. Procopius, one of Justinians advisors, wrote about his resentment of Justinian in his Secret History and also creatively wrote about Theodoras prostitution, deception, and trickery. She poisoned her enemies cowardly rather than heroically killing them in combat. A more recent model was Judith of Bavaria (805-843 CE). She was resented because her power came from her marriage to Louis the Pious, son of Charlemagne. Unlike Theodora, played a public role and signed decrees alongside her husband Louis. She faced adultery accusations by one of the courtiers of Louis and there were a series of witchcraft executions. This seemed to be a common tactic men with lesser power would accuse women who had greater power based on marriage. Women continued to have power under the Capetians as regents and this bolstered their power, which would pass to down to their sons. Queen Adelaide signed 45 documents with the royal seals. She was married to Louis VI, son of King Philip I of France, who was so fat he could not get up to the throne. If there were no sons to inherit the throne, women themselves would rule. Matilda (1102-1167 CE) was appointed queen by Henry I and had experience running a kingdom by managing some of territories of her husband, the Holy Roman Emperor. The male aristocracy greatly opposed this and a prolonged struggle for succession ensued known as the Anarchy (1135-1153 CE). Eventually, Matilda succeeded in establishing her son Henry II as heir, so she held off against her opponents. Queens had informal power and influence during the Middle Ages that was only due to their marriage to a king or to an emperor because they were seen as perpetuating the royal line.

Growth of Government: There was no theory of law or institutional body of governing law before the 12th century CE. In 12th century CE, Henry I and Henry II themselves appointed sheriffs who would make decisions in the kings name. This showed a great change because earlier lords had judicial and legislative power by personally hearing court cases, but now the larger entity of the kingdom can survive with the death of the monarch. These early government institutions were still reliant on the favor of the King and depended on the service provided by a King. This rising class of scribes clashed with the power of Queens and this relegated the Queens power to the biological need to continue the biological line.

Aquitaine: The Duchy of Aquitaine remained independent and developed its own unique culture, despite the rising authority and power of the French kings.

Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122-1204 CE) was the daughter of renowned poets and when her father died, Henry II inherited the Duchy of Aquitaine. The Capetian king Louis VII marries Eleanor of Aquitaine.

The Second Crusade (1145-1149 CE): In 1144, a Muslim warlord named Zangi from Iraq took Edessa, which was part of a young conquered Crusader state. Louis VII and Conrad III launched the Second Crusade and were defeated in the only battle of the Second Crusade at Damascus. Louis VII was incompetent in battle and camped 10 miles away from the nearest water source.

Eleanor and Second Crusade: During the Second Crusade, Eleanor of Aquitaine was praised by the Byzantines who compared her to an Amazonian princess. Over time, there was an estrangement from Louis and this began at Antioch when all the problems of their marriage was crystalized. The Pope annuls the marriage of Louis VII and Eleanor of Aquitaine. Eleanor of Aquitaine recovered her Duchy of Aquitaine while Louis VII received their two daughters. Eleanor of Aquitaine remarries Henry The Young King and is also the Duke of Normandy and Count of Anjou, which gave the English control of western France. He was Rex Anglorum (King of the English) by 1154 and had 4 sons, who would shape future Europe. England and the territory of western France along with Scotland and parts of Ireland formed the Angevian Empire. Henry II and Louis VII sponsored rival factions in their surround areas against one another and this destabilized much of Western Europe. However, young Henry could not wait long enough for his father Henry II to die and launched a rebellion against him. Despite the help of lords of Scotland, Ireland, and Louis VII, Henry II puts down the rebellion and imprisons Eleanor. Young Henrys brothers successfully led the Second Rebellion in 1188-1189 with the help of the Capetian king. Henry IIs resigns and dies in the castle. But the western territories of the Angevian Empire were lost.

John of Salisbury (1120-1180 CE) John of Salisbury was a secretary to the Arch bishop of Canterbury and served as an emissary to the papacy. He brought Policraticus to discuss the power positions and struggles between kings and Popes.

William of Tyre was the Archbishop of Tyre and perfectly positioned to write about the Crusades because he served as emissary to Muslims and Eleanor/Louis VII.

Terms: troubadours, cortezia, Marie of champagne, Chrtien de Troyes, The Matter of Britain, amour courtois Raymond of Antioch: Raymond of Antioch, uncle of Eleanor, wanted to expand his power by gaining the Kings favor and giving him gifts to impress him because Raymond was threatened by the Muslim resurgence. But Louis VII just continued on his way towards Damascus. So William of Tyre and John of Salesbury wrote that Raymond slept with Eleanor, so an accusation of uncle-niece incest. William of Tyre may have tried to soften the course of events because he was more concerned with the Crusades and would not want to anger the French King, who one of the main sponsors of the Crusades. There was a hatred applied to eunuchs and Turkis exemplified the courtiers who hated the private power of royal women and he convinced Louis VII to divorce Eleanor.

Knighthood and the Adultery Fantasy: Adultery features heavily in 12th century romances because many romances incorporate adultery. This is because adultery is a clear violation of social hierarchy, but remains part of the chivalric ideals that were just emerging. Eleanor of Aquitaine was also a patron of culture. Occitania is the region of southern France because of the linguistic divides. But there were linguistic divides even between large groups. But Aquitaine was unable to exert control over Occitania. Linguistic division and political fragmentation were key structures in Aquitaine. The troubadours were poets and entertainers who were lyrical and set to music who traveled from court to court. They also made veiled influences to their noble patrons. Troubadours influenced Chrtien de Troyes. Ermengard of Narbonne was referred to as My lady of Narbonne or Mon Tort Navetz (my lady of wrong) perhaps for not sleeping with a troubadour. She was one of these patrons. Cortezia is a guiding principle and means knowing how to act depending on where one finds himself. This also means practicing modesty, self-restraint, and eloquence. The culture of the troubadours in southern France transferred to north because Eleanor of Aquitanes and Marie of Champagne, daughter of Eleanor, patronage was one of their literary sponsors. They also sponsored translations of troubadour from southern French

dialect to Old French (northern French dialect). She sponsored Chrtien de Troyes and other troubadours and transformed her court in Champagne as a cultural center. As the 12th century progressed, cultural patronage became a sign of prestige and showed that beyond political and economic roles, one felt comfortable enough to sponsor cultural endeavors.

Chretien de Troyes: Virtually nothing is known about Chretien de Troyes and was probably educated by cathedral schools. Before the rise of universities, cathedral schools were important He started his career by translating famous classical poems into Old French and was influenced by Ovid. Ovid was famous for the Art of Love and Metamorphosis and earned the displeasure of the emperor who had him exiled. So the classical influence can clearly be felt in Chrtien de Troyes. But Chrtien de Troyes also gathered oral traditions from Ireland and Wales. Geoffrey of Monmouth was a monk who may have been Welsh and wrote Historia regum Britannum to preserve his traditions against the Anglo-Saxons. He also wrote about the all-known Merlin. The Matter of Britain is the collection of myths and stories surrounding King Arthur and his knights. The historical Arthur was alive in the 6th century CE and was a Roman commander who led the Britons against the Anglo-Saxons at Mount Badon.

Amour courtois: This is the concept of love that emerges in de Troyes work that is for similar to modern sense. A knight would go on a quest that forces sacrifice and makes one a better knight (not necessarily a better Christian) because the journey shows the ennoblement of lovers. The knightly ethos involves loyalty, but not sure to who and self-restraint with moderation and only after sacrifice can the vast term of love can be achieved.

The Knight in a Cart: Lancelot rides a cart and gives up his identity as a knight to do so because one of the major distinctions between peasants and knights is the right to bear arms. Lancelot chose the lowest of dishonors and motivated by the new interpretation of amour courtois. Lancelot is extremely motivated by love because he chose to disregard his knightly status to find the queen, and even his potential succession because there was no mention of children. But Lancelot is also potentially insulting Arthur because people will judge Arthur based on the actions of his subordinates.

There is a paradox with chivalry of whether one can be a good knight or good Christian Lancelot emerges more grateful for life because he forgot his sexual pursuits of the queen and devoted his love to the woman who saved him. Malegants father was very chivalrous almost as much as Arthur, but Malgant does not have any such virtue because he may live by earlier mentality of conquest. Magic is not reliable in this tale because good Christians would not need to rely on such pagan strength.

Terms: primogeniture, aristocratic diaspora, knight-errant, tournaments, William Marshal Popularity of Chretian de Troyes: Chrtien de Troyes was one of the most copied in the medieval world and its popularity was based on the number of copies. The works of Chrtien de Troyes was diffused throughout all Europe beyond France. The quest was the centralized themes of Chrtien de Troyes works and all others who copied him. The interpretation of family changes throughout time. In the Early Middle Ages and Carolingian Era, families were organized into predatory kin groups and organized in a metaphorical family like the Mafia. This fictive kinship to people to whom one does not even have related blood with is done to ensure control in distant lands and territories. Long extended kinship was also done for the sake of conquest and ensure rule of tributaries. These large-family units would ensure that far-flung territories were administered in the interests of a larger name. The restrictions of marriage like being unable to remarry meant that distinct families were formed. This contracted the meaning of family to a restricted member ship and at this time family banners and coat of arms appeared with attachment to an established family identity. There were also changes in the laws of inheritance. Primogeniture was where the eldest son or surviving son would inherit all his families territories and wealth intact. This is also where family trees emerge as an organized unit and from which one would be able to tell his family tree for warrior aristocracy (not peasants). Family trees were also used to claim legitimacy and bastards were only seen as a threat.

Invenes (young men) and knighthood: The younger sons were often left with the responsibilities of finding husbands for their sisters and were largely irrelevant. Younger sons were given as squires to allied families of the same stature and learned how to become knights through the studia militiae. The younger sons were taught that they

would not gain any of their birth familys inheritance and as squires; they would attain the necessary connections to survive on their own. Dubbing also emerged as a way to legitimize knighthood. Some younger sons did not pursue the knighthood, but entered the Church as monks, bishops, or abbots. Others entered the universities while others pursued careers in banking because commercialism was on the rise, but it was considered dishonorable for a younger noble son to enter into such business. Europe did not have enough productive territory or lands for these younger sons. So Europe expands by the Crusades in the Levant and in the 12th century CE, the Spanish Reconquista also began. Although the Reconquista was largely a Spanish effort, many French and German knights also joined the effort to liberate Spain from Muslim control. Also in Eastern Europe, there was a German Drang nach Osten which were the Northern Crusades waged against the pagan lands of Lithuania and Orthodox Russians. There was the aristocratic diaspora that gave the younger sons an opportunity (not guarantee) to conquer a kingdom for themselves. The knights-errant of this period were soldiers of fortune hoping to reap rewards from conquest and loyal to successful lords who granted holdings for loyal service.

Tournaments: Tournaments may have had Roman origins and warrior games were a Roman precedent. Tournaments were a status symbol and could be a path to wealth. The defeated knights were often ransomed by victorious knights and the victorious knight could take the defeated knights armor, weapons, and war horses as spoils.

William Marshal (1147-1219 CE): William Marshal was the 4th son of a minor lord. In 1152, William was a hostage during the Anarchy in England. Williams father took the side of Matilda and Steven captured William, threatening to catapult him over to his fathers castle. Steven was not ruthless enough for such action. Williams father agreed and said he had the hammer and the anvil with which to forge new ones so 4th sons were not really valued. William made his career as a tourney knight and was said to have defeated 500 knights. He became an advisor to Henry II and rose to the echelons of power. The Vita is the source that provides information about William Marshal. The Vita was written by an anonymous source, but showed the prestige that William had because he had his own private biographer. The 1183 conspiracy where William Marshal was charged with adultery of Marie by other household knights of Henry II. William Marshal appeals his innocence and offers trial by combat, so that his guilt or innocence would be decided by the Judgment of God.

William Marshal is pardoned and Henry II did not seem to believe the accusations or believed that William Marshal was too valuable to lose to his enemies. Despite robbing monks with the woman, William Marshal was aware of his obligations as a knight and a Christian, and shows that William retained his morality despite leaving court. The monk was not supposed to have money or property, so William Marshal fulfilled his duty. Christian Knighthood: Christianity played a grand role in chivalric culture. The Catholic Church reconciled the secular warrior nobility and Christianity because the Catholic Church created military orders that legitimized Christian warriors. The nobles saw the Crusades as kmvldkmvkm Miles Christi meaning soldiers of Christ was a new understanding of armed nobility that transcended their previous secular meaning. Pope Gregory VII was the first to attribute the armed nobility of Europe as defenders of the faith. This added an extra dimension to knights as a Christian warriors who fought for the tenants of the Catholic Church, which forged provided the notion of a just authority and just intent necessary for a Christian knight to wage a just war against those believed to be heretics. So nobles know had the backing and support of the Catholic Church to wage their wars.

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Augustine De Civitate Dei (On a City of God): St. Augustine was one of the most influential saints in the Catholic Church. St. Augustine wrote the De Civitate Dei in 410 CE to refute the concept that Christianity led to the downfall of the Roman Empire. City of the God was the Heavenly Kingdom and the papacy, which was unattainable by secular powers. City of Man was the current world. He wrote the Roman civilian-soldier dichotomy where civilians should not be involved in war and the military was subservient to the people. St. Augustine proposed the Just War Theory, where there must be just cause, just intent, and just authority to engage in warfare.

The Church and the milites: St. Martin of Tours (316-397 CE) was well known for tearing off his cloak and giving it to a naked man. St. Martin went from being a soldier in the Roman legions and then retired as a monk. He was especially popular with medieval milites (knights).

Heraclius and the Persian Wars: He waged the first very religious war and the Persians were winning, but eventually Heraclius turned the tide and restored the True Cross. Heraclius used the concept of a just war and there was cooperation against Church and State to wage war against a non-Christian power.

Terms: Gerald of Aurillac, miles Christi, pilgrimage, Cistercians, Bernard of Clairvaux, Military orders Gerald of Aurillac (855-909 CE): He was a count in central France and became a saint because of what he did not do. He founded one monastery, but otherwise he did not abuse his rivals peasants, threaten or appoint his own priests. So he was given sanctity by default. Gerald of Aurillac became a model for pious lay nobles.

Gregory VII against the Empire: Gregory VII waged wars, but he did not have a standing army. Gregory VII went to war against Henry IV and forged an unreliable alliance with the Normans. So Gregory VII decided to call on miles Sancti Petri to defend the Catholic Church. Even if knights in Western Europe fought with the Byzantines against the Muslims, he was also called a miles Sancti Petri.

Pilgrimage: Pilgrimage was an essential part of Christianity and if one went on a pilgrimage, the worst of sins would be forgiven. Ksfkmsdkfmk

The Crusades and Pilgrimage: The Crusades etymology comes from Cruces signati and the Crusaders at first saw themselves as pilgrims. The Peasants Crusades were unpleasant, but thought of themselves as pilgrims. Along the way, they robbed Jews and killed Hungarian peasants, but were massacred by Seljuk Turks. The Crusades allowed for European expansion as part of the aristocratic diaspora, which enabled younger sons to find fame and fortune abroad.

The Cistercians:

The Cistercians were founded in 1098 CE by Stephen Harding. They were much more aesthetic and went out to preach. Nkmvfkmdkf This was a successful order and there were hundreds of monasteries by 1160 CE. They were concentrated in France, but they follow and set up churches along the direction of European expansion.

Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153 CE): Bernard of Clairvaux was the 3rd son of Burgundian nobility. He was a Cistercian monk and his preaching inspired the launch of the 2nd Crusade. Bernard of Clairvaux headed the Cistercian order in his lifetime, which was a respected order that transcended regional and national boundaries with monasteries all over Europe. The widespread Cistercian presence all over Europe provided Bernard with major political clout. He declined offers of a higher position in the Catholic Church in order to maintain an image of a simple servant who served God rather than expecting promotion in the Catholic Church to be served as a pawn that was to be manipulated by secular powers. De laude novae militae (1130s) was addressed to Hugh de Payens and this criticized the secular knight. Bernard of Clairvaux said the secular knight was involved in petty wars and served to enrich himself. Bernard of Clairvaux promoted the concept of a monk-warrior in a Church-sanctioned military order. But Clairvaux destroyed the distinction between those who pray and those who fight. He said that being a good knight was not enough, but a good Christian knight was the ideal to strive for.

The Military Orders: The Knights Templars, Knights Hospitaller, and the Teutonic Knights. At first, these military orders started out as defending pilgrims. By the time of Bernard of Clairvaux, they could assemble standing armies and field 300 knights. These military orders did accept donations, but funded themselves by setting up priories in Western Europe. The Knights Templar was an official ecclesiastical Order by 1129. It was also a strict meritocracy where any member could rise to the title of Grand Master. But the Knights Templar were abolished in 1314 by the French monarch and other European monarchs did the same. The Knights Hospitaler set up a hospital at Jerusalem before the First Crusade and took care of sick pilgrims. They survived as the Knights of Malta. The Teutonic Knights were mostly German knights who focused their attention on Eastern Europe, so as to Christianize pagan lands and increase the lands for settlement.

The Nazis would use the Drang Nach Osten in their propaganda to wage war against the Soviet Union. The military orders erase the older distinction of those who fight, those who pray, and those who work. The Crusades was an outlet for the social menace because many younger sons were recruited to fight against the Muslims and criminals often joined.

Terms: Incallesmento, cavalcata, I grandi, The Ordinances of Justice, Corso Donati Knights and Peasants in Italy: The lords abused and violently terrorized peasants, artisans, and merchants beneath them. Predation was a key feature of noble identity and terrorism was the status quo for those who were unable to defend themselves against armed knights and nobles. There were cultural achievements that were made at a great price to peasants. The peasantry was controlled differently before the Carolingians and the Early Middle Ages. Before the Carolingians, there was no class of nobility that regulated every aspect of living. Peasants were allowed to grow whatever they desired and there was dispersed settlement due to scarce resources. Once the Early Middle Ages began, peasants no longer had autonomy and had brutal nobles for their overlords. Incastellamento can be roughly translated as in castling, which means concentrating settlements around ones castle. Around mid-tenth century CE Lazio, castles were built around the villages. The castles were not built for protection from attackers, but rather reinforced the conception of oppression that the nobility had over the peasants. The peasants had to give their surpluses to their lords and provide whatever other services the lord needed, which was usually construction. Rocca della Strada in Italy reinforced the control of movement of the peasantries and reflected a general trend from tenth century to mid-twelfth century CE. The communes were self-governing and each Italian city had de facto independence. But what distinguished the Italian nobility from other Western European nobles was that Italian nobles resided in urban settlements while other nobles remained in the countryside. Italian nobles from noble lineages ruled from lords to consuls and engaged in fierce competition with one another in cities for power and control. The result of many noble lineages in an urban environment led to civil war. Nobles could control their private fortresses within the city and ruled through tower societies. These towers solidified control of certain neighborhoods within the city and with the protection of private interests, the general well-being was lost. The Tolomei of Sienna were a noble family and they also constructed castles in the countryside in case they were kicked out of the city. The nobles in the countryside would embark on seasonal raiding. The cavalcata was an assembly of armed cavalry that participated in a localized form of warfare that resembled

organized terrorism and robbery of peasants as a source of income. They would raid their own peasants as well as the peasants of their rivals. Languedoc and Tuscany Bertran de Born: Dante cast Bertran de Born in a lower realm of Hell because he was a troubadour and knight who terrorized peasants. He was a minor lord of Languedoc and used violence to control the peasants. He displayed love of terror and war that he inflicted on defenseless peasants.

Peasant Outrage: An armed and illiterate peasant attitude towards the noble is that the lords take everything. There was a status quo that regulated how much a lord could take. Potentes et paupers I menopossenti was how peasants referred to themselves when they spoke and means one who possesses less, which was a Christian value that sometimes evaded oppression.

I grandi: I grandi referred to overbearing pride and arrogance that the nobles seemed to possess in the Early Middle Ages of Italy. Farinata Degli Uberti (1212-1264 CE) personified I grandi because in Florence, he captured half of the city and when he knew he was losing, he set fire to the city. In the Battle of Montaperti, Uberti defeated Florentine factions that opposed him and although supported by powers outside his city, he reentered the city saying he wished to return to his city not destroy it.

The Ordinances of Justice (1293/1295 CE) In the Ordinances of Justice, the Magnate status was awarded to those who had a knight in the family going back 20 years and had to pay a security deposit Palazzo del Podesta was designed as a miniature castle. The moves of removing the private fortresses of noble lineages served for the movement towards civic peace. These ordinances ensured that the guilds of Florence retained control of the city rather than the bickering, conflicting noble families. The ordinances were against bellicose families who threatened the stability and peace of Florence. Such families were barred from holding office and if they persisted in carrying on their crimes, their punishment would be doubled. As time went on, these laws became mitigated because noble families would free their cronies from prison using force. Corso Donati exemplified the noble defiance against the civic society of their

Justice and Tyrani: This was a painting that showed civic government run by unarmed citizens on one side that countered the warring nobles on the other.

Corso Donati Il Batone: He was a war leader and was widely respected all over Italy and his city of Florence. Nevertheless, he was willing to go to war against his own city. His linage won, but would divided over internal squabbles. But the civil war in Florence eventually led to the destruction of Florence. He was able to break into prison and free his cronies out of jail. So even if the followers of noble were found to be guilty, they knew that a powerful lord was able to guarantee their freedom.

Culture of Violence: Violence was used as a tool for domination. But noble violence and arrogance was also a violence of the norms.

Abelard and Heloise: Abelard was so renowned and infamous in his time because he combined intellectual brilliance and arrogance. He argued with powerful men in the 12th century CE and represented a conflict of where he used reason to determine his Christian faith rather than looking at the ancients. Abelard reflected 12th century CE ecclesiastical power politics that shifted and conflicted over whether faith or reason would govern the intellectual development of European society.

Terms: Cathedral schools, Disputatio, Universals, Council of Sens (1141), Cluny Cathedral Schools: Cathedral schools preceded the universities. The criteria for entry into cathedral school were hazy and were meant for those who intended careers in the Catholic Church, but often noble families sent their sons, so they would acquire rudimentary literacy. There was a crash course in Latin and lectures were oral sharing manuscripts. Women were generally excluded, but Heloise represented anomaly because she was educated. The medieval curriculum had the trivium: grammar, dialectic, and rhetoric while quadrivium: Arithmetic, astronomy, geometry, music. The trivium was more popular because the ability to convince and deliberate were considered crucial skills in the Early Middle Ages. But the quadrivium was at a basic state compared to today.

Teaching Methods: Lectio: littera, sensus, sentential Disputatio: dialectic, verbal combat. This was debate and discussion and the ability to prove the opinion. Disputatio offered a formalized method of debate that was meant to uncover and establish truths in theology and science. By the 13th century, it was part of the Quodlibet. The Quodlibet means whatever and is a degree program. Students were required to defend their thesis for two days and two nights. This was a public event and anyone including peasants, other students, and professors could question any part of the thesis.

Logic and Universals: In the early 12th century CE, logic was fairly undeveloped. There were a few translated excerpts from Aristotle and Porphyry that were translated by Boethius. Boethius was one of the last ancient intellectuals. Universals were the general knowledge of individual things. This was an attempt to rebuild the science traditions.

Positions on Universals: Nominalism (Roscelin) argued that there are only individual and particular identities. The only way that universals had meaning was if they were referred to a particular case. Realism (William of Champeaux) did believe in concepts, but individual cases were separated by circumstance. Realists argued that universal terms derive their meaning by reference to real universals (ideas or forms). Conceptualism (Abelard) believed that there were concepts that existed in all broad cases, but they could only be able to exist in individual cases. Aristotle (384-322 BCE) was at the foundation of Western philosophical tradition. When Christians were engaged in the Reconquista, they rediscovered Aristotle and other Greek philosophers. But this lost knowledge was unknown in Abelards day. Besides the letters, Abelard has three works: Sic et Non (Yes or No) is where Abelard tries to answer theological questions. But he shows that if two saints offer diverging opinions on an issue, they must be reconciled. Theologia was burned as heretical at the Council of Soissons. The third work was a dialogue between a Jew and a Philosopher. Unlike most intellectuals of the time, he took a softer stand against Jews, saying that the Jews were merely trying to discover their truth, but he still believed Jews should have no rights and served as a model of what not to do.

Abelards Career:

From 1108-1118, Abelard spent his time in Paris and gathered a popular following. His students were willing to follow him wherever and reflected that teachers make the universities. In 1118, the affair and marriage to Heloise forced him to leave Paris. In 1121, Abelard was condemned as a heretic and in 1141, he died. Abelard fled to St. Denis in 1119 because this was a royal monastery sponsored by the French monarchs and is identified with the French kingdom. Abbot Suger administered the monetary and was close confidant of Louis VI. But Abelard earns the anger of St. Denis because Abelard began to question the legitimacy of the historical background of Saint Denis, who was supposed to be an Athenian monk who walked to Gaul and was beheaded. But Abelards undermining the sainthood of St. Denis angered Abbot Suger, making Abelard leave Paris. Abelard left to Paraclete, which became a site for him to teach. But Abelard gets in trouble there again and this forced him to flee again. But the Paraclete was named not after a saint but after a holy spirit. It would later become a monastery run by Heloise. Abelard fled to St. Gildas in England and tried to reform the monastery because the monks there did not study, but rather drank all day. In the Council of Sens, enough of Abelards opponents died so he was able to come back and in 1136, resumed to teach. But Abelard attracted the attention of St. Bernard of Clairvaux, which led to the Council of Sens. This was supposed to be a debate between St. Bernard and Abelard, but St. Bernard named 19 heretical Tenants against Abelard and furthermore called him an unrepentant heretic among the whole gathered public. There were several counts, dukes, and Bishops who condemned with Abelard and Abelard was not given the chance to debate or defend himself. Pope Innocent II was told what happened and Abelard was sentenced to perpetual silence. Abelard went to the monastery at Cluny and asked for protection from Peter the Venerable. This was the largest monastery in Western Europe and Peter the Venerable was just as popular as St. Bernard of Clairvaux. Peter the Venerable wrote to Pope Innocent II if Abelard could stay there silently. Abelard lived in prayer as a monk for one or two years until he died. Public influence competed between the Cluniacs, which adhered to traditional monasticism and accepted the wealth from the nobles. The Cluniacs spent most of their time praying for the dead and kept to the notion that fallen family members should be remembered while St. Bernard and the Cistercians were a breakaway group and embraced poverty and punishment to feel closer to God. This showcased two different understandings of Christianity. Pope Innocent II owed his control to St. Bernard of Clairvaux and as his debt to Bernard of Clairvaux, and was probably why Pope Innocent II agreed to condemn Abelard. Abelard knew that his actions were wrong, but he learned his mistakes and changed. Abelard got his self-perception as a martyr for truth. He was very well-versed in books and debating, but was unaware of how to engage with people.

The students of Abelard were willing to follow him because Abelard was able to question contradictions rather than blindly accepting them as other teachers did. He taught that questioning was all that was needed and one does not need to have the answers, but just have the ability to question. Abelard angered St. Bernard of Clairvaux because St. Bernard was based off the tenets Abelard was so freely criticizing. St. Bernard was a radical traditionalist, but Abelard brought up questions that threatened these tenets and encouraged individual thought and questioning.

ovmlkdmvlkdfmvkl There was no evidence about the relationship on Abelard and Heloise. Napoleon used the paper of the monastery of Cluny to work his artillery. So the evidence was lost, but this romance may have been a work that reflected stylistic traits. This may have been a compact and Peter the Venerable knew Abelards relationship, but accepted him in order to spite Bernard. Heloise may have written the letters after the death of Abelard.

Heloise: The birth year of Heloise is unknown, but may have been in 1095. Her parents were unknown and he was educated at Argenteuil monastery, which was a royal Capetian monastery near Paris. Abelard referred to Heloise as Nominatissima in the field of literature and was wellversed in classical knowledge. Fulk is uncle and was in the middle ranks of the clergy, but the scholarship is silent about him. She died in 1163 CE and about 10 years after Abelard. But there were many holes in her biography. There were contemporary accounts on the relationship between Abelard and Heloise. One of these poems attacked Abelard who only wanted to sleep with Heloise and the relationship started nonconsexually. Assuming Abelard and Heloise wrote these letters, the Correspondence may have begun 15 years later. Abelard is at St. Gildas and Heloise stayed in charge of the Paraclete. After Abelard was forced to run to St. Gildas, Heloise was also expelled from her monastery for immodesty and was accused of circulating Ovids love poetry. But these accusations came from Bernard of Clairvaux. Abelard was the patron of the Paraclete and Heloise served as kmfksdmfkm

Themes of the Letters:

Abelard was unsympathetic to the problems of Heloise and accused her of complaining constantly, when he himself did the same. But Heloise was conflicted between her contemporary conceptions of Christian love and the love of the ancients. Heloise was infatuated with Abelard because she was trapped between the absolute control of her uncle and Abelard. Abelard and Heloise reflected the ethics of pure intention. Heloise felt that everything that befell them was justified due to the purity of her love for him while Abelard looked for a more earthly answer. Heloise said that marriage was an exchange of resources, but she was his lover and this showed the problems of marriage because the 11th century CE definition was clashing with current developments of Early Middle Ages. The conflicting social roles often showed how conceptions were changing. The image of Heloise and Abelard were often built up by Catholic patriarchal preconceptions. Some 19th century CE Catholic clergy believed that these letters were forgeries because they could not believe that women in the Early Middle Ages could write. The scholars view of Abelard and Heloise is also shaped by the conditions and circumstances affecting their own time period. History is an ongoing project and will never be a finished product. The interpretation of events will always be differently analyzed over and over again by the changing nature of scholarly interest.

Terms: Pope Joan, The Golden Legend, Papal procession Pope Joan: An Urban Legend: Pope Joan was a myth that developed anxieties surrounding the Gregorian Reform and clerical masculinity when the Catholic Church enforced the rules of cleric celibacy. Pope Joan also may have appeared out of fear and anxiety around the issue of hereditary succession of the papacy. The sources on Pope Joan were continuously written on by Dominican sources in the 13th century CE. Dominican sources were useful to scholars because they wrote the sources from which they got their information. In 1255CE, the Chronicle of Metz written by the Dominican Jean de Mailly was the earliest mention of a female pope. Etienne de Bourbon entered a Catholic religious order in France around 1220 CE. He worked as a preacher and inquisitor throughout France. In 1260 CE, he wrote De septem donis Spiritus Sancti, which was his works for preachers that were used to describe the various sects and superstitions of his time.

In 1277, Martinus Polonus was a 13th century Bishop and chronicler. He placed the figure of Pope Joan between the pontificates of Leo IV and Benedict III who was known as John Anglicus. She was described as a talented and learned woman who disguised herself as a man and rose through the Church hierarchy. But she was impregnated and delivered her child during the papal procession from St. Peters to the Lateran lane (along the Via Sacra). After Pope Joan died, future Popes always turned from the shunned street between the Colosseum and St. Clements Church because of the abhorrence of such an event. In 1297 CE, Jacopo de Voragine wrote the Golden Legend, which was a collection of hagiographies that acted as a medieval bestseller.

St. Margaret/Pelagius: Margaret/Pelagius was a transvestite abbess/abbot, which was written on in the Golden Legend. But the Golden Legend should not be looked at as an authentic history document. The Golden Legend was one of the most popular works of the Early Middle Ages before the printing press. It is a collection of saints lives and contained stories on how one should and should not act. The Golden Legend was used by Catholics to refute Protestants during the Reformation. The Golden Legend has a large collection of unverifiable facts, stories, and information from unknown sources. The Golden Legend was a hodgepodge of both fact and fiction.

How does Pope Joan change: The story of Pope Joan was circulating as an oral story in the city of Rome around the 12th century CE. The years of her pontificate was unknown, but was around 1100. Martinus Polonus wrote that she was English by nation, from Mainz by birth. The Dominicans would provide the source from which they got their information. After 1140, the route of the papal coronation changed because instead of marching from Lateran Palace to St. Peters and back again, but changed to avoid the Oratory of the Potessa around the Church of San Clemente supposedly where Pope Joan died in childbirth The route of papal coronation followed the route of older Roman triumphs.

The Sedes Stercorata: The origin of the Sedes Stercorata was strange in shape because it was in the form and image of Roman imperial prestige. The Sedes stercorata was a throne with a hole in the seat. After the catastrophe of Pope Joan, certain Church officials would check the newly elected Pope to verify that he was indeed a man.

The examiner who verified the manliness of the Pope would have informed the gathered people that the new Pope had been selected and at this point the new Pope was handed the keys of St. Peter. This ceremony continued until the 16th century CE. The Pope prays, says a mass, and then goes back to St. Peters along the Via Sacra (Sacred Way). The Pope concludes by saying a mass for the people of Rome. The papal prossessio marched along the city of Rome and passersby littered the streets of Rome from all over Latin Christendom. The prossessio contained a mix of symbols of papal humility with rituals evoking imperial coronations. The Pope was the only one who was able to wear the pallium because the pallium symbolized the office of the pontificate. As early as the 6th century CE, the pallium was only allowed to be used only in the Church. From early times, there were extensive restrictions that limited the use of the pallium.

A New Ritual: In the 1290s, there was a change of tradition where the least of deacons would feel the private parts of a Pope to ensure this was a Pope. The papacy denied this as rumor, but the sources kept retelling this story. The least of deacons would ensure that the newly chosen Pope was a man by checking for secondary male organs.

Interpretations: The Council of Elvira in 306 CE was the first known council of the Church in Spain from which the canons have survived. 19 Bishops and 24 priests assembled with the intention of restoring order and discipline in the Church. The canons that the Council of Elvira decided on were severe and imposed rigorous discipline for various sins. Members of the clergy were expected to lead pure and holy lives. No reconciliation with the Church was allowed for certain sins and harsh punishments for lesser sins. The myth of Pope Joan may have resulted as an anti-papal satire. There was resentment of papal bureaucracy as the Catholic Church consolidated social control over the people of Rome. The Catholic Church reinforced clerical celibacy and the myth of Pope Joan served as a rumor that mocked the new rituals imposed by the Church. The Church wanted to create a new image of pure ecclesiastical masculinity that many found contestable and difficult to adopt by clergy members. In small villages and outlying communities, priests and other clerical positions were inherited from father to son, so the ban on marriage caused a lot of anxiety for priests.

The papacy was not allowed to have children out of fear for the papacy becoming a hereditary succession.

Terms: Vita apostolica, Priesthood of all believers, Litteratus/illitteratus The Search for the Vita Apostolica: In the wake of the Gregorian reforms, what does it mean to be a Christian? There was a search for the vita apostolica to live ones individual life like the apostles and imitating their lives by devoting oneself to prayer, preaching the Gospels, embracing poverty, and setting a good example of Christian. But this often clashed with the monolithic, ever-expanding power of the centralized Catholic Church. This was the clash of perception of who is a Christian. The tension increased as whether to follow ones individual faith by living by the vita apostolica or following the tenants and laws set forth by the Catholic Church. The pontificate of Gregory VII opposed investiture stronger and clerical corruption more than any other previous Pope. Gregory VII asked more from secular lords to fortify the power of the Catholic Church.

Henry IV and the Saxon Revolt: Henry IV wrote that Pope Gregory VII was a false Pope, and Gregory VII also returned kind compliments. Gregory VII clashed with Henry IV because Henry IV interfered in matters of the Church through the appointment of his own Bishops. The entire reign of Henry IV was marked by apparent efforts to consolidate imperial power, but was rather a balancing act between maintaining the loyalty of the nobility and the support of the Pope. Henry IV was determined to enlarge his national boundaries and expanded onto the lands of Saxony. This led to a period of political destabilization.

Milan and Patarenes: There was a dispute between the Bishop of Milan and a group named the Patarenes, who were probably merchants and poor peasants who moved in from the countryside. The Bishop of Milan tried to expand the powers of the Church and institute control over secular aspects of the city. Gregory VII sided with the Patarenes and said that the Bishop of Milan purchased his position. But this opened the question that if a Bishop was null and void, the validity of previous sacraments no longer held meaning. Pope Gregory VII sanctioned the leaders of the Patarnes as Vexillifer Sancti Petri. Only the sacraments performed by the Patarnes were considered legitimate.

There was a clash over who determined the legitimacy of the clergy between the Pope and the laity.

The Donatists: In late antique North Africa, the Donatists were angered at the behavior of some Catholic clergy because certain Catholic priests handed over the Gospels and Church property to the secular Roman authority during the great Christian purge. The Donatists labeled such men as traditores. The question was raised after Constantine established Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire of who were the real questions: the ones who cooperated with the secular Roman authority to survive or the Donatists who were unquestionably loyal and uncompromising in their faith. The Donatists set up their own Church structure. But the Donatists raised the question of the validity of sacraments and who were the real Christian priests.

1122 CE: Concordat of Worms There was an imperial and papal compromise between secular European sovereigns and the Church over political control within their domains. The Pope gave away to the secular authority, and this was seen as betrayal by radical reformers who believed the Catholic Church was not wholly purged of secular influence. But moderate Church reformers supported this compromise and sided with the Pope.

New Religious Orders: In the 12th century CE, there were many new monastic orders and military orders that endangered the previous notion that a good Christian simply joined a monastery. The Catholic Church in the early 12th century CE was in an age of spiritual anarchy because the need to practice extreme asceticism was seen as a precaution. There were many hermits and wandering preachers that drew away income and the number of souls away from the Catholic Church. Many common people admired the pious example set by zealous individuals instead of the decadent and bureaucratic Church clergy. The conflict was between personal Christian faith and institutionalized religion over who set a better example of the Christian faith. So this was a time where one questioned where religious authority should lie and how should one assess religious fervor into purity of faith.

Peter Waldo (1150-1215 CE): Peter Waldo was a Lyonnais merchant and was a major city of trade that connected the cities of France and Italy.

Peter Waldo heard the Vita of Saint Alexis and experienced a moment of spirituality. Once Peter Waldo heard that one should sell his possessions, embrace poverty, and preach the Gospels, he committed himself solely to God. Peter Waldo paid for the translation of the Scriptures into the vernacular tongue. This shocked Lyon and was a direct challenge to the Latin-speaking Catholic Church. Peter Waldo was a usuer before his spiritual experience because he would lend out money and then collect that money with interest some time later. Peter Waldo was concerned with the way he made his living.

The Papacys Response: Although translation of the Scriptures was not illegal, Peter Waldo attracted the attention of the Catholic Church. Peter Waldo was called to the Third Lateran Council and gave his confession of faith. This was done to determine whether Waldo was a heretic or was someone they could work with. The theology of Waldo followed the approved tenants of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church was defensive about the rise of personal Christian ascetics and forbid Waldo to preach. Waldo said he would not preach, but once he returned to Lyon, he began to preach. Peter Waldo set the precedent that one had to go out to preach in order to demonstrate ones faith. In 1184, Waldo and his followers were condemned by the Pope. Later he was excommunicated and driven out of Lyon. This was simply a clash between authority of the Pope against individual ascetics and not that of theology. There was no difference between the theological standpoints of the followers of Waldo and that of the Catholic Church. The Waldensians gave rudimentary biblical instruction, reading, and writing in the vernacular language. The Waldensians preached against other heretical groups and never broke with Catholic Church theology. Nevertheless, the Waldensians became incredibly critical of clerical vice of the Catholic Church as they became more persecuted and hunted down by the Catholic Church. The Waldensians became like the 12th century CE Donatists and said that sinful priests were unable to save souls and the Catholic Church was unable to save the souls of peoples by the time of Peter Waldos death. So such sinful priests were unable to administer sacraments.

The Profit Economy: In the 12th century CE, there was a revival of trade and signs of young market economy.

There were fears of money breaking down previously established ties as merchants amassed the wealth of nobility and gained power as a separate stratum in society.

Priesthood of All Believers: The Catholic Church allowed any baptized Catholic could administer sacraments if a Catholic priest or Bishop was not there. The Waldensian schools suggested that no churches were necessary and offered Bible instruction. The Waldensians said that good Christians could be their own priests and there was no need to pay tithes to the Catholic Church.

Medieval Literacy: Almost all people in the Early Middle Ages were illiterate. There was a distinction between the literratus and illiteratus. Those literate were often clerics for religious instructions although there were merchants who were literate; the rest of the laity was illiterate. Once the Catholic Church realized that the Scripture was being translated into the vernacular languages, all translation efforts became forbidden.

The Waldensian Network: The Waldensians made pocket-sized Bibles that Waldensians were able to hide and easily carry as walking preachers. The Waldensians never established a formal hierarchy and although there were few walking Waldensian preachers, this served to reaffirm isolated communities of Waldensian presence. The Waldensians gave religious instruction in the language of the specific laity they were visiting. The Waldensians established long-lived communities in France, southern Germany, and Northern Italy. But the persecution forced the Waldensians into Switzerland and the Pyrenees into isolated places there known as the Waldensian Valleys. The Waldensians were one of the few groups to survive until the Protestant Reformation and many joined the Protestants in Geneva. Early Protestants believed that the Waldensians went back to the times of the Apostles. But the Waldensians were a product of 12th century CE Europe and served as a barrier of Papal authority over individual faith.

Conclusions: There were mixed responses to dissent on the conflict between individual faith and Church-dictated belief as proper Christian belief.

However all these groups wanted to live the Vita apostilcata and looked toward the saints for models of virtue and purity.

Lateran IV and the Papal Monarchy: The Gregorian Reforms resulted in increased bureaucratization and independence. The Gregorian Reforms wanted to strengthen the papacy against secular authorities and purge the Catholic Church of moral inadequacies. Papal reform allowed the expansion of papal power within Italy and Latin Christendom.

The Early Medieval Papacy: In the Early Medieval Papacy, the Pope did not really communicate with secular authorities. The Byzantines controlled Rome and the Pope in Rome was limited scope of movement because they would languish in Byzantine dungeons if they vocalized any opposition towards the Byzantine presence. Pope John XII was the head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 955-964 CE. His pontificate became infamous for the alleged depravity and worldliness by which it conducted affairs.

The basis of Papal Authority: The Petrine Theory was the basis of Catholic doctrine that said papal primacy rested in Rome because Christ bestowed the keys of the kingdom onto Peter, who was believed to be the first Pope of Rome. Petrus also meant stone and showed that the true foundation of Christianity lay in Rome. Matthew 16:18-19 said And I tell you, you are Peter, and on this rock, you will build my church. This was a self-aggrandizing concept that the Popes of Rome used to solidify their image as single representatives of proper Christian faith.

Basis of Papal Power in Italy: In the 6th century CE, Justinian reconquered the Italian peninsula, but the Lombards migrated from the north and divided Italy between Roman and Lombard holdings. In 751 CE, the Lombards killed the exarch of Ravenna and the papacy appealed to the Franks to help fight off the Lombards in 756 CE. Peters Patrimony designated the landed possessions and revenues of various kinds that belonged to the Pope at Rome. In 321 CE, Constantine the Great declared that the Church was qualified to hold and transmit property.

The Papal States:

The Papal States had restricted control of Rome and the surrounding areas. But the Pope could not enforce authority over areas in Northern Italy because secular powers vied for control of them. Nevertheless, ongoing generations of Popes gradually reasserted their claims.

The Roman Baroni: The Roman Baroni were noble families from Rome and Lazio who were settled in cites and the countryside. The Roman Baroni desired to seek a monopoly of Church offices and accomplished political control of the Church through nepotism. Nepotism is a form of favoritism that is granted in politics regardless of politics and the Baroni would often bribe their way into the Church.

The College of Cardinals: After the Gregorian Reforms, the College of Cardinals rose to prominence. In 1059 CE, the Catholic Church established that secular authorities were forbidden to choose or depose Popes, but the College of Cardinals was solely responsible for electing the Popes. The Cardinals also emerged as being able to serve as Papal legates to travel Latin Christendom as diplomats and enforcers of the Gregorian Reforms, making sure the Church mandates were being followed at a local level. The Cardinals also served as an advisory board.

The Papal Curia: The Papal curia was a full-time staff of 500-600 people. This was much larger than secular authorities who only had 100-200 people. Each of the Popes personal staff also had his own staff under him. There were cardinals, merchants, scribes, guards, and other pedestrian jobs. However, there was endemic corruption within the Papal Curia that interfered with the enforcement of the Gregorian Reforms. Nevertheless, this was the most efficient, permanent bureaucracy in Western Europe. In the 12th century CE, all papal letters were written in the same style with an address, narration, disposition, sanction, and blessing. The letter was sealed with the rota and the monogram. Subscriptions would include the Pope and other clerics. There was a dating clause with a plica (fold) with tax marks and the silk bolla. The silk bolla with the name of popes Peter and Paul certified that the letter was authentic and from the Pope. The sophistication of this format was used to prevent forgeries because secular authorities tried to forge and circumnavigate court cases, taxation rights, and land disputes to their favors. This system had flaws, but was generally speaking.

The Pope used the sophistication to expand and reinforce their power. The letters and correspondences of secular authorities were discarded once they had been memorized or served their purpose. Papal registers were copies of all correspondences that were sent out. The Papal registers had their own unique, authentic marks to verify its authentic.

Canon Law: Canon Law was Church law that was separate from civic law. Gratian or these people who called themselves Gratian tried to address the problems of a long-lasting religious institution and systemized the solutions to particular problems that may have faced the Church in the future. The Liber extra in 1234 CE was the only source on canon law for a very long time. Pope Gregory IX was put in place by a Roman noble family and very much a product of the noble culture.

Pope Innocent III: Pope Innocent III (Lothar dei Signi) ruled a pontificate from 1198-1216 CE. He came from the ranks of the Roman Baroni. His family home was in Segni and his family owned enclaves around Lazio. The Torre dei Segni in Rome was from one of the homes owned by Innocent III. Pope Innocent III launched Crusades against the Orthodox Christians and other nonChurch sanctioned religious orders, but he also had secular rule over the Papal states and instituted his rule over the land of the Papal States Pope Innocent III put on tournaments despite the fact that tournaments were banned by Canon Law. The politics of presence by Pope Innocent III required constant awareness and concentrated loyalties win in the territories of the Papal States prevented noble families from gathering resources against the pope. Pope Innocent III instilled his control over the disputed area of the Papal States. In the 12th century, this region had de facto independence. But there was gradual submission as civil war weakened. Once this region submitted, the signs of Papal power further grew in strength.

Fourth Lateran Council (1215 CE): The Fourth Lateran Council was called by Pope Innocent III in 1215 CE and was the great ecclesiastical assembly of the century. 400 bishops, 800 priests, and representatives of all the princes of Europe attended. The canons of the Fourth Lateran Council reinforced the concept of the Trinity. All that God created was good, but chose to become evil. But that man had turned evil because of

the Devils suggestion. They also suggested that Jesus Christ is both the priest and the sacrifice, whose body and blood are contained in the sacrament of the altar. hgvds The Fourth Lateran Council also condemned and excommunicated every heresy that set against the Catholic faith that included rejection of the Trinity and of the sacrament. Secular authorities were now forced to hunt down heretical groups and bring them under the jurisdiction of the Church. Those who embarked to fight heresy would have received the same forgiveness and indulgence as those who had embarked on the Crusades. Bishops were now forced to visit parishes at least twice a year if heretics are rumored to reside there. Those Bishops who did not abide by this were also punished. All Christians were forced to confess all their sins privately to his own priest. The Church wanted to curb the excessive and sinful behavior of Church officials because this would cleanse the Church of corruptible and un-Christian elements. Orthodox Christians were separated from the fabric of Latin Christendom. Jews and Muslims in Latin Christendom were distinguished from other proper Christians by wearing certain clothes. Only Church sanctioned religious orders were allowed to spread the word of God. There was a trend to both limit secular interference in the affairs of the Church and prevent local religious interference in secular affairs for the purity of the Church. The Church established that tithes be paid to the Church and if the secular lords took the tithes from themselves, they would have to pay the Church a greater sum. Bastards dkflvkfdlmv The Fourth Lateran Council still tried to reinforce clerical celibacy and prevent drunkenness because a drunken priest was unable to perform sacraments or lead masses. Clerical education was also reinforced because ignorance of Latin was preventing proper recital. The clergy was supposed to set an example to the laity and so corruption had to be curbed and extinguished.

Ordering the life of the Laity: The Fourth Lateran Council defined who was a Christian and said that a Christian was supposed to be obedient to the Pope and that meant everyone on Earth had to submit to the authority of the Pope. Pope Innocent III also enforced pastoral care, where priests had to hear confession at least once a year and priests had to check on the behavior of the laity to prevent unChristian behavior. He also tried to prevent corruption for burials, which was a serious problem across Western Europe.

Pope Innocent III also promoted the concept of purgatory, which was between Heaven and Hell and reserved for people who had no grave sins and where their sins would be able to be worked off. Purgatory was not the final state because on Judgment Day all those in purgatory would be brought back to life in the same way that they died in. The stances of marriage were relaxed from 7 degrees to 3 degrees. But a Catholic Christian was also defined by exclusion because heretics were now viewed as traitors. Pope Innocent III defined heresy as treason against God because heretics deviated the laity from proper belief that was set by the pope, who was the representative of God on Earth. External enemies were defined because Jews had to wear yellow stars and had to wear distinguished clothing. Before the 12th century CE, Jews owned land and were appointed as judges in Western Europe. But Pope Innocent III forbid the Jews from having any power over any Christian person and Jews were put into the positions of usuers. So this was how Jews earned careers in banking. The Franciscans and Dominicans orders were established by the 4th Lateran Council. Both orders preached this papal-based Christianity to the laity. The 4th Lateran Council also forbids the establishment of new orders with the exception of the ones sanctioned by the Catholic Church.

The Mendicant Orders: St. Francis lived life as a sinning soldier and had a religious experience. Kek The Poor Clares were the women of the Franciscan orders, but they were confined to convents. A story developed about the 4th Lateran Council. The meaning of the dream showed hoe

Conclusion: The Papacy was established as the undisputed leader of Christendom even to the regions far from Rome. The definition of a Catholic also solidified as an identity that excluded all foreign elements.

Terms: Empire of Constantinople, Dualism, Manichaeism Crusades Against Christians: Crusades against other Christians were prompted because the definition of a Latin Christian identity solidified through exclusion.

Latin Christians meant that un-Christian elements were to be repressed in Latin Christendom and Catholics on Crusade would lead external expansion.

Hattin and the Rise of Saladin: In 1187 CE, Saladin beat the Crusaders at the Horns of Hattin. Saladin provided the leadership and strength necessary for the divided Arabs to unite against the Crusader kingdoms. Although Saladin was known for being remarkably merciful, he executed any Knights Hospitaller and Knights Templar captured by his forces. Shortly after, Jerusalem was recaptured by the Muslims. The fall of Jerusalem shocked 12th century Europe. After the Horns of Hattin, the Crusaders merely held footholds along the coastline of the Levant. This initiated the 3rd Crusade where although Richard the Lion Hearted won his battles, he was unable to retake Jerusalem and only managed to secure the safety of the Christian pilgrims who travelled to Jerusalem. After the 3rd Crusade, subsequent Crusaders tried to invade Egypt and seize Cairo, which the Crusaders believed the Muslims would prefer to have than Jerusalem. The Ayyubids in Egypt were powerful and successfully resisted the Catholic invaders.

Christian Responses: After Pope Innocent III entered his pontificate, he declared that crusading was a universal duty. But if one did not have the funds to travel and fight in the Holy Land, he added an additional Crusading taxation to the original tithe. Those on campaign were not required to pay the tax. He also levied extra taxes on the clergy and paying taxes to the Catholic Church was a Christian duty. The 4th Crusade was the responsibility of the northern French dukes, counts, and barons. The Venetians supported the transport ships for the 33500 Crusaders and departed to take Cairo and exchange it for Jerusalem. The Crusaders agreed to pay 94000 marks to the Venetians. This was a colossal effort and reinforced Venice as the daughter of the papacy. Venice sold weapons and conducted business with the Saracens. This was a planned, concerted effort unlike the 1st Crusade. The Crusaders were short 24000 marks, but the Venetians agree that if they helped reclaim the port of Zara for the Venetians, which was just conquered by the Hungarians. 2000 Christians abandoned the 4th Crusade because they did not desire to harm and kill Christians.

The Crusaders mercilessly slaughtered thousands of Christians and soon disputed among themselves, which resulted in many more knights leaving the 4th Crusade. The debt was paid off, but at this time another opportunity appeared for the Venetians. A deposed imperial heir of Byzantium in Venice appeared and promised to pay the Venetians and to heal the schism between the Greek and Latin Churches. Pope Innocent III was unwilling to help the imposed Byzantine heir, but the Venetians were blinded by the riches of Constantinople and transported the Crusaders to Constantinople. The Venetians carrying the Crusaders arrived in Constantinople. The Byzantines were not excited to see Latin Christians because relations had deteriorated severely with the passing of time. The gates of Constantinople were closed and a hostile populace began to raid and riot against the quarters of Italian merchants. The relationship between Pope Innocent III and Crusaders of the 4th Crusade quickly deteriorated as the Crusaders were completely being diverted from the original task. The momentum of the 4th Crusade died down as desertions and deaths soon increased. The Crusaders in front of Constantinople claimed that the Byzantines were enemies of God and worse than Jews, showing the extent of deteriorated relations between Latin and Greek Christendom.

The Sack of Constantinople: The Crusaders butchered the population of Constantinople and sacked the city for 3 days. There was massive destruction and looting of all Christian monuments and wealth of Constantinople. Then the Crusaders burned the city down. The Crusaders then set up the Latin Empire of Constantinople, which immediately began efforts to convert the Greek Orthodox Christians to Catholicism. The Catholic Church combined heretics as a unified threat that came from the Near East and threatened to drag Latin Christendom into chaos. The Venetians stole artwork and Christian monuments, but in addition to this received land in Crete and Greece.

Pope Innocent IIIs Response: Pope Innocent III forbid the attack of Zara and excommunicated the Crusaders, then accepted the attack, and finally condemned the attack after he learned of the atrocities committed by the crusading knights. Pope Innocent III did not renew the excommunication of the Crusaders, but rather encouraged them to start converting the populace of Greece Christendom into Catholics. In 1261 CE, the Byzantines from Nicaea once again retook Constantinople.

Origins of the Albegensian Crusade:

The Catholic Church saw the Cathars as a heretical anti-Church structure that was able to challenge institutionalized Catholicism. The Catholic Church then began a campaign to spread a hysterical fear of heresy all over Latin Christendom. Catharism was accepted by scholars as being a unified movement that spread from Turkey to France. The Cathars believed themselves to be Christians, but the Papacy saw the Cathars as dangerous heretics.

Mani (216-276 CE) and his Creed: Mani tied together previous traditions of Judaism and Christianity to form a unique syncretic faith. Mani viewed himself as the heirs to the prophets of the monotheistic faiths. Mani established the elect and believers. The elect were celibates and ascetics and the believers were the ones who sustained the elect by providing materially Manichaeism believed in a radical division between evil and good principle. The struggle on Earth was all about the tension between evil and good. Mani was an anti-Materialist and the world was inherently evil. Mani believed that the world was fundamentally evil and that one had to free ones soul from the Earth. Manichaeism faced harsh persecution after Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire. So Manichaeism almost died off in Europe. However, Manichaeism survived for centuries in Persian and Eastern Asia.

St. Augustine and the Manicheans: St. Augustine was a Manichean before he converted to Christianity and wrote on his years as a follower of Manichaeism. The papacy identified the Cathars as Manicheans who went underground to escape Christian persecution, so now the Catholic Church resurrected this ancient foreign disease that had to be killed or all of Latin Christendom risked contamination.

A fear of contagion: Heresy was seen as a foreign disease and the Cathars were perceived as a militant threat to Catholicism. The initiative and effort to exterminate was set by Pope Innocent III and the Cathars fought in self-defense. Pope Innocent III claimed that his emissary was killed in France and responded with the Albegensian Crusade to destroy the Cathars. There were debates whether Cathars were the survivors of Manichaeism or were influenced by ideas from the Near East.

Conclusions:

Crusading was installed as a core element in Latin Christianity. The papacy viewed the Cathars as a foreign invasion that came from the Near East and it was to be destroyed because of the threat it posed towards proper belief. Although the Catholic Church today has apologized for the Crusades, heresy is still vehemently condemned by the Church today.

Terms: Council of Lombers (1165), Boni homines, Massacre of Beziers, Simon de Montfort Catharism appeared in the same area where troubadours culture was found. But Catharism appealed to the masses because Cathars were viewed as a better, home-grown alternative to faith over the distant and corrupt Catholic Church in Rome. The Albegensian Crusade began a colonial project of destruction and occupation by the Northern French knights.

Antecedents: Wandering Preachers Henry of Lausanne and Peter of Bruys were products of 12th century religious anarchy. The information on Henry of Lausanne came from Bernard of Clairvaux, who was very biased against him. He was born in Geneva and appeared in 1116 to preach the reform movement, where he said people must take care of themselves and not only pay the Church. Le Mans closed its doors to the Church Bishop and Henry of Lausannes was elected to be the community spiritual leader over the official clergy of the Catholic Church. He also converted the prostitutes of Le Mans to Christianity and made them give up their sinful trade. But Pope innocent III applauded these efforts, so the definition of heresy was not a well-defined boundary. Henry of Lausannes attacked the reforms of marriage, denying that marriage was a sacrament and the Church had no part in marriage. He appealed to the pre-Gregorian, secular notion of meaning. He also attacked the need to pay the Church a tithe. Henry of Lausannes denied that music, clergy, or Church was necessary and preached for the simplification of Christian faith. Henry of Lausannes appeared in 1135 when he was taken to Pope innocent III when he was caught preaching against the organized Church. He was then assigned to the abbey of Bernard of Clairvaux. But he wandered away from the abbey and once again appeared in southern France in 1144/1145. Henry of Lausannes preached that salvation lay in the hands of simple Christians, but Bernard of Clairvaux was sent to meet and confront Henry of Lausannes in a verbal joust. But Henry of Lausannes avoided confrontation with Bernard Clairvaux, but Bernard of Clairvaux wrote about the impoverished status of the Catholic Church in southern France. He wrote that the spiritual state of Languedoc was churches without people, people without priests, and Christians without Christ.

Henry of Lausannes died shortly after he was recaptured and brought back to the abbey of Bernard. Peter of Bruys appeared in Narbonne and preached the same message of Henry of Lausannes, desiring to see a radical simplification of religion. Peter of Bruys strongly condemned the veneration of the cross and wanted to destroy any symbols that reflected the suffering of cross. This reinforced the concept of Christ as a man and not part of the Divinity. Apparently, Peter of Bruys was thrown into the fire by an angry crowd after he threw wooden crosses into the fire. According to Peter the Venerable, Henry of Lausannes and Peter of Bruys met and exchanged ideas at some point. The message of Henry of Lausannes and Peter of Bruys answered and addressed the problems facing the laity because they had strong followings and showed resentment to the Church. Although Peter the Venerable and Bernard of Clairvaux disliked each other, they forgot their differences and united ranks to fight the threat of heresy.

The Council of Lombers (1165 CE): This was an informal council. The Bishops of southern France called the Council of Lombers because they wanted to condemn people known as boni homines as heretics. This was a public gathering where the Bishops confronted the boni homines (honorable men). The Bishops accused the boni homines as being heretics and provided them charges that showed their heretic beliefs. These Bishops hoped that the secular authorities would arrest these boni homines. Instead, the boni homines went as far as to condemn the Bishops as heretics and stated they were the real Christians. The boni homines said that the Old Testament as a whole was produced by an evil God and said that only the Acts of the Apostles were true Christian works. The boni homines did not hide their antagonism for the Catholic Church and defended their beliefs. The secular authorities refused to take action against the boni homines.

Boni Homines: The boni homines were not an institutionalized group, but were people who had cortezia (modesty, humility, and self-restraint) and were respected in their local communities. So they were peace-makers and arbitrators at first who oversaw secular meetings and outgrowths of their own southern French society. Boni homines are given their titles by their communities and not imposed or chosen by the Church. They soon picked up the message of Henry of Lausanne and Peter of Bruys to take a decisive stand against the Catholic Church and soon embraced Catharism.

Cathar Beliefs: Sanctity and salvation came from ones own purity and priests were unnecessary to demonstrate faith. The Cathars increasingly saw the Catholic Church as the Antichrist and vocalized that they were in fact the true Christians opposing this monster. They were dualists and believed in a good and bad God. The bad God created the material world. They practiced extreme asceticism, but chose to stay in their local communities or traveled widely to preach their message.

The Albegensian Crusade: Once Pope Innocent III ascended to the throne of Peter, he forced RaimonVI to solve the problem of heretics. But he soon believed that Raimon VI supported the heretics and excommunicated him for failure of killing the heretics fast enough. The delegate of Innocent III Peire de Castelnau was killed and used this to justify the Crusade. He considered Raimon VI worse than the heretics because he was seen as the defender of Crusader. The Cistercians preached the Albegensian Crusade throughout all of Europe in 1209. The benefits of embarking of this Crusade would be the same as going on the one in the Holy Land. Around 40000 Crusaders gathered along the Rhone River in the East. The first town reached was Beziers. There was a brief siege where the pages and squires of the drunken knights decided to storm the walls. But the knights saw that commoners had taken the city and soon began to sack and take spoils from the city for themselves. The squires and pages set fire to the city and the horrific slaughter exterminated the population of the city. When asked how to distinguish heretics from Catholics, the head of the Cistercian order said they should all be killed and God would know the true Christians. Even all the animals in Beziers were killed. Pope Innocent III was not worried by the massacre of Beziers because he had lost patience with the disobedience in southern France. The massacre of Beziers was a deviance from medieval warfare and reflected a dark chapter of medieval history.

Simon de Montfort: Simon de Montfort participated in the 4th Crusade, but left that Crusade because he was disgusted at the sack of Zara. He was the leader of the Albegensian Crusade who was an English lord and was made a new lord of Carcassone. But he was killed in 1218 CE.

After twenty years of savage, barbaric warfare, Raimon VII made peace with King Louis in the Peace of Paris of 1229 CE. The Cathars would be turned over to the authorities for execution. The lands of Languedoc (southern France) were given to the crown and the lords of Northern France would rule over these lands. They then instituted a feudal society and the unique culture that fostered the troubadours was eradicated. In addition to this, Raimon VII had to pay a giant war indemnity. The Peace of Paris led to the idea of Inquisition because the secular northern lords would support the Church-sanctioned religious orders in their efforts to Christianize the lands of Languedoc from former heretics.

Conclusions: Catharism was an organic part of southern French (Languedocian) society and not the imported influence from abroad as previously thought. The Albegensian Crusade was a colonial conquest of southern France by the lords of northern France.

Terms: Inquisitio, Ad Abolendam, Pope Gregory IX, Montsegur The Inquisition: The development of papal monarchy, the persecuting mentality, consolidation of secular power, and expansion of papal authority led to the Inquisition. The Inquisition arose from the need to form uniform procedure to exterminate heresy. The medieval Inquisition was less centralized than the Spanish Inquisition. Even today, Catholic popes have apologized for the Inquisition. Persecution was seen as a means to enforce social cohesion. But there was also a nonviolent process where Dominicans (the Church order most associated with the Inquisition) were sent out to argue and debate with heretics and Jews. In the mid-12th century CE, Abelard was excommunicated twice and condemned as a heretic, so there were no firm precedents from this time period for the Inquisition. Abelard was given freedom of movement and ended his days in the abbey at Cluny. Although there were different responses to heretics at this time, violence was usually not the first resort.

The Codex Justinianus: The Codex Justinianus was compiled in 528-530 CE. Justinian compiled all the laws of the Roman Empire and presented them as the definitive statements of Roman law. Justinian stated that no alterations or changes were to be made after the Codex Justinianus was compiled.

From the 12th century CE, the Codex Justinianus was the foundation of medieval European law on the European continent.

The legal basis: Inquisitio: The inquistio differed from accusatio. The accusatio was a procedure used in the Early Middle Ages and placed the defendant at great risk because one could not make an accusation unless one is absolutely sure. The inquistio allowed one to make an unanimous denunciation of a person for a crime and one is not responsible for false accusations. But in the inquistio, judges were able to initiate a court case based on publica fama (a term between rumor and evidence) and one was considered guilty until proven innocent. In the inquistio, one never saw his accusers and proving ones innocence was difficult. The process of inquisition empowered the courts to act with less constraint, but also made the courts easier to manipulate for individual interest.

Ad abolendam (1179 CE): In Ad abolendam, the inquistio was made mandatory by Pope Lucius III when before the inquistio was at the individual discretion of Bishops. The Bishops now visited isolated communities more often and increased the pressure of Bishops to religiously police the laity. Secular authorities were also required to aid the Catholic Bishops in fighting heresy. Many princes and kings were willing to aid the Church because this gave secular authorities the pretext necessary to expand their power. In the Liber Augustalis, Frederick II of southern Italy forbid heretics from inheriting property and took away all their human rights because they were excluded from society. Frederick II did not deal with a particular threat, but was a theoretical fear that allowed him to expand his power by removing those deemed as heretics outside of human society.

Ille humano generis (1231 CE): Pope Gregory IX directed the Dominicans to establish an Inquisitorial tribunal in southern Germany and that this structure was to be independent of secular authority, but was directly subject to papal authority. The Dominicans were now established as specialists to hunt down heretics and police the laity. The Inquisitors were issued manuals that described procedures to hunt down heretics. An encyclopedia of different heretical beliefs standardized and categorized heretics into established groupings. In 1241 CE, the first Inquisition was carried out in Toulouse and inquisitorial archives were established to document the war against heresy.

Procedure: The Inquisition began with a public announcement and a grace period where heretics could come forth without fear of punishment and the grace period was generally honored and abided by the Inquisitors. If the grace period did not draw out the heretics, the Inquisitors posted citations and would be forced to appear before the Inquisitors. A skilled Inquisitor would have sought to extract a testimony or confession from the heretic. The process of sentencing would have been conducted in a public place once the heretics were rounded up. The heretics would be executed either in mass or one by one. The Inquisitors distinguished between the followers of heresy and the leaders of heresy. But the Inquisition did not make any secular social distinction. The followers of heresy were often fined, but rarely executed, while the leaders were unquestionably killed.

Montsegur: Heresy-hunting Montsegur in the Pyrenees was the last Cathar stronghold. After a 10 month siege in 1244 CE, 225 Cathars were burnt alive after they refused to recant their beliefs. There were stories of Cathars who committed suicide rather than allow themselves to be killed by the Albegensian Crusaders.

Resistance to the Inquisitors: In 1242 CE, 2 Inquisitors were murdered along with their staffs in Languedoc. They also burned the Inquisitorial archives so that future Inquisitors would not have basis for punishment. Apparently, these murders were ordered by Raimon VI who harbored and secretly supported the boni homines. In 1300 CE, there was an anti-Inquisitorial riot in Bologna after Bon Pedro was accused, falsely executed, and denied last rites as a Catholic believer. Although the Inquisition was difficult to allude, many northern Italian towns and cities expelled the Inquisitors throughout the 13th century CE.

Conclusions: The Inquisitions were not centralized as the later Spanish and Roman Inquisitions, so fighting back against Inquisitional excess was possible. The Inquisition was part of the drive to establish a social conformity and cohesion of Latin Christendom to clear contaminating elements within its boundaries.

Terms: Montaillou, Jacques Fournier, Emaanuel LeRoy Ladurie Inquisition Sources:

Inquisition records are difficult to use and are a product of the Inquisition. So there exist discrepancies in the questions asked, the answers given, and the accuracy of translation between Latin and the native language that was provided during an interrogation. The perils of a priori assumption are the series of preconceived notions and assumptions that threaten to distort truth of history.

Montaillou: Montaillou was a small, isolated farming community in the Pyrenees. The mountainous terrain of the Pyrenees allowed Cathars to survive and hide out for a substantial amount of time against papal authorities.

The Authies The Authies were two brothers who were the last boni homines. In 1296 CE, the Authies went to Lombardy to be initiated into Catharism as members of the Cathar elite after they had supposedly rediscovered some Cathar manuscripts. The Cathars created a formal, dense support network to survive the Albegensian Crusade and papal persecution. Around 1300 CE, there was a Cathar revival and the Authies brothers jumpstarted a Cathar revitalization in the area around the Pyrenees. The Cathars endured, but they were executed in 1310 CE.

Bishop Jacques Fournier: Bishop Jacques Fournier was head of a Cistercian abbey before being named Bishop of Pamiers. He took a more aggressive stance towards the eradication of the Cathars than his predecessors and launched an Inquisition from 1318-1321 CE. One of the reasons that guided Cathar revival was because Fournier had increased taxes and enforced that revenue went into the Church. Fournier tried to run a impartial, organized, and honest Inquisition and also clamped down on witnesses who bore false witness. Bishop Jacques Fournier was appointed to the position of cardinal, but then became Pope Benedict XII. The Fournier Register consisted of 2 volumes, but one is missing. The Fournier Register is preserved in the Vatican Library and consisted of 578 interrogations. The interrogations included suspects and official Cathars. The testimony was always written in third-person. The Fournier Register provided answers to the guided questions that Fournier asked to the questioned person. There were also witnesses testimony and retractions available from the archives of the Inquisition. But the dialects of Occitania were different and some information may have been lost in translation.

Emmanuel LeRoy: Emmanuel LeRoy was born in 1929 and joined the French Communist Part until the Hungarian uprising in 1956. He was part of the Annaliste school which incorporated culture and non-political versions of history. The Mediterranean by Fernand Braudel described a total history of the Mediterranean that included climate and geography, which removed human beings from the center of history. The Royal Touch by Marc Bloch described the society of the Capetians and detailed the political culture of France in the Early Middle Ages. The Annaliste school forwarded a mentalite, a world view that people of the time held and the fundamental way people of that time viewed the world. They focused on the aspects of continuity rather than sudden breaks and changes. Montaillou was published in 1975 and was a very popular and intellectually accessible to the public because French intellectuals wrote for a broader audience. Boyle as head of the Vatican Library and criticized Montaillou. Boyle was a paleontologist and followed the texts closely and had his own criticisms. Boyle was cautious not to make assumptions on aspects not verified by the Fournier Register. Boyle accused that Montaillou ignored the language problems of the Fournier Records and ignored the impact of individuals. He also claimed that Montaillou distorted the testimonies of some of those questioned and distorted the evidence to suit his purpose to reconstruct the past. Montaillou destroyed the individual integrity of the people of the Fournier Register and constructed a modern interpretation of the past rather than the actual past.

Problems of History: History is an ongoing project and Annaliste School added an additional component to the study of history. History was not an unchanging truth. Eric Wolf said that the past is a foreign place and whatever artificial reconstruction of the past is made; an artificial reconstruction will never do the past full justice. No source provides a pure picture of the past. Our own a priori assumptions distort the accuracy of these sources.

Terms: Joan of Arc, Hundred Years War Joan of Arc was an illiterate peasant girl with no connections to the French court or noble aristocracy. Joan of Arc rose as a military and political leader because the early 14th century CE was a period of tremendous political and intellectual uncertainty.

The Black Death devastated Europe, but subsequent generations of Europeans were plagued with reoccurrences of mutated pestilences. There was also a rise of charismatic female prophets that revived as the central Church authority and control weakened over the laity.

The Great Schism (1378-1417 CE): In 1378 CE, the Catholic Church split when the King of France did not approve of the newly elected Italian Pope who was put forward by the Roman Baroni, so he elected his own at Avignon. So Latin Christendom was divided in allegiance to two Popes who claimed total authority of the Church. The Babylonian Captivity was one of the reasons that caused the Great Schism. In 1309 CE, Pope Clement V moved the papacy to Avignon because this allowed Philip IV a great deal of influence of the Pope. In 1377 CE, Pope Gregory XI made the decision to return the papacy to Rome. After his death, an Italian Pope was elected, which was disapproved by the French monarch and the cardinals because of his short-temperedness. So the cardinals and French monarch elected a new Pope who reigned in Avignon. This specific election of an anti-Pope was different from the others because the cardinals elected the new anti-pope. Earlier anti-Popes were usually established by a secular authority to challenge the Pope of Rome, who had the backing of the cardinals and clergy in Rome, but now this was clearly not the case. The Great Schism fragmented religious authority in Latin Christendom and secular Europe was forced to choose sides and often negotiated more favorable deals with a particular Pope. The Great Schism resulted in a massive failure of leadership, and this undermined the Church as being the unifier of Latin Christendom because the decades during which the Great Schism lasted fostered divided loyalties. Once the Great Schism ended, the male clergy of Church feared these charismatic female mystics who had loyalty and prestige, but no official position in the Catholic Church. The Church feared that these female mystics would establish their own Church. Although the Great Schism was over, secular influence was empowered enough to reject the authority of the Pope of Rome.

Rise of female Prophets: There was a rise of female Prophets who were true Catholic believers and wanted to heal the Great Schism and return the papacy to Rome. Two such female prophets were Birgitta of Sweden and Catherine of Sienna who sought to reconcile the Church into the hands of one Pope who would rule from Rome. The female mystics set a precedent that would allow for the emergence of Joan of Arc.

The Hundred Years War (1337-1453 CE): The Hundreds Years War was a dynastic conflict between Plantagenets (English dynasty descended from Henry II) and the Valois (successor dynasty of the Capetians who died out in 1321 CE) over the territory of northern France. Initially, the English devastated the French forces with decisive victories at Crecy (1347 CE), Poitiers (1356 CE), and Agincourt (1415 CE), which broke French will to resist the English onslaught.

Political Divisions in France: In 1420 CE, Charles VI was the king of the French and had the support of the Duke of Orleans and Armagnac. The French crown had great difficulty in maintaining their territories. In 1420 CE, Henry V was the king of the English and had the support of the Duke of Burgundy. Shortly before the birth of Joan of Arc, Henry V won a crushing victory over the French at Agincourt. The Battle of Agincourt resulted in the Treaty of Troyes, where the English acquired northern French and the territories to which they laid claim along with even Paris. The French rejected the unfavorable treaty and renewed the conflict. Henry VI and Charles VII both declared themselves the kings of France. But Henry VI felt empowered enough from past English victories, but Charles VII still had support. In 1428 CE, the siege of Orleans exploited the hesitance of the French army. Since Paris was in English hands, the French king and court relocated to Chinon. John of Arc appeared in the French court one day and said that a voice from God told her to liberate Orleans from the English siege. John of Arc was subjected to a series of test by court officials to verify her holiness and purity for virginity and sanctity.

John at Orleans: Charles VII had his own supernatural experience and he himself gave Joan a force of 1012000 men with a formal command in French army. Joan of Arc had no previous military experience, but successfully broke the siege in 1429 CE. Joan of Arc led her troops from the front and this inspired the French troops to fight the English. Orleans inspired a moral victory for the French because the English had crushed the battle in all other previous military engagements. Charles VII was crowned in Rheims properly as former Capetian kings were and this verified the status of Charles VII as the sole ruler of France.

The Capture and Execution of John of Arc: Joan of Arc was captured in September of 1430 CE during a minor skirmish with the Burgundians. The Burgundians ransomed her to the English. The English performed a formal trial to execute John of Arc as a heretic that lasted from April to May in 1431 CE. During the trial by the Inquisition, the voices that John of Arc heard were attributed to demons rather than God. Charles VII was fairly indifferent and ungrateful to the trial of Joan of Arc. She was also accused of being a transvestite because she dressed as a man in her public life. Joan of Arc was executed in May 30, 1431 CE. From 1436-40 CE, a false Joan arose from France and she also led successful military campaigns against the English. So Joan of Arc revitalized French morale and confidence to defeat the English. In 1450 CE, the French monarchy cleared the name of Joan of Arc and Pope Clement XII admitted to the injustice of the trial of Joan of Arc and stated that she was a true Catholic. Joan of Arc was revived in modern times and became a symbol for France to endure harsh losses from foreign conquerors. After World War I, Joan of Arc was canonized as a patron saint of France in 1920 CE.

Conclusions: Joan was a characteristic female saint of her time period, who did not just suddenly arise to become the savior of France. But she also struck a proto-nationalist nerve among the French, so the war between the French and the English was also one of national identity.