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ORIGIN OF LIFE

There are different theories about the origin of life on the earth.
Theory of special creation
According to this theory, the life was created by super natural power of the god. This
theory is based on religious faith.
According to Hindu Mythology, the god of creation is Brahma. He created universe and
human beings.
According to Christian thought the god created universe, earth, plants, animals, and
man within seven days.
Theory of spontaneous generation
According to this theory, the life originates spontaneously from the non-living things. For
example the frog, toad, snake originated from mud. The insects and flies originated from
the fruit juices and the microorganisms originated from air and water.
Theory of Biogenesis
According to this theory, the life originated from preexisting life but not spontaneously.
Francis Redi and Louis Pasteur prove this
Reddi's Experiment (1688 AD)
He was an Italian biologist. He kept dead fish, snake, and meat in wide mouthed flasks
and left them opened. He again placed same things in other flasks and sealed the
mouth. He observed little white worms and larvae in opened flasks but absent in sealed
flasks. He concluded that the life can arise from pre-existing life only, means some
preexisting life went in open-mouthed flasks then worms and larvae were developed in
open mouthed flask.
Louis Pasteur's Experiment (1862 AD)
He was French microbiologist. He conducted an experiment to prove theory of
biogenesis.
He poured nutrient solution into the flask.
He bent the neck of the flask in the shape of S using heat.
The liquid was boiled for several minutes so that the bacteria were either killed or
driven out of flask.
The solution was then cooled. The dust particles remained trapped at the bend of
the tube. The solution remained sterile for months.
When the neck was broken and flask was tilted, liquid came in contact with dust
or microorganisms. Bacterial colonies or moulds appeared in the flask within a
few days.
Biochemical Theory (Modern Theory)
The scientific theory proposed by A.I. Oparin in 1923 and J.B.S. Hal Dane in 1928 is called
biochemical theory or modern theory or Oparine and Haldane's Theory. According to
this theory, the life originated through a series of bio chemical reactions.
Origin of earth
About 4600 million years ago, the earth originated. The earth was a molten fireball
having temperature of about 4000 to 8000 C. The earth began to cool down and the
volume decreased. During the process, the heavier elements settled towards the centre
forming the crust of the earth and the lighter elements remained on the outer surface-
forming atmosphere. In the atmosphere, there were free atoms like C, H, O, N etc. The
free atoms combined forming molecules like O2, N2, and H2.
O+O.. O2 / N+N.. N2 / H+H... H2
Origin of Inorganic Molecules
Then these molecules started to combine to form inorganic molecules.
H2+O2 H2O H2+N2 NH3
C+O2.. CO/CO2 C+H2.. CH4
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Origin of Simple Organic Molecules
The inorganic molecules combined to form
simple organic molecules.
H2O + CH4. Sugar/Fatty
Acid/Glycerol
H2O+NH3+CH4. Amino
Acid/Nitrogen Base
Origin of Complex Organic Molecules
The organic molecules again combined
together to form complex molecules
Sugar + Sugar
Starch/Glycogen/Cellulose etc.
Fatty acid +
Glycerol Fats
Amino Acid +Amino
Acid Protein
Nitrogen Base + Sugar + Phosphoric Acid Nucleotides'
Nucleotide + Nucleotide Nucleic Acid (DNA/RNA)
On further cooling water vapor condensed into rain and thunderstorm occurred. UV rays
and electric discharge enhanced these reactions.
The nucleic acid combined with protein and
nucleoprotein particle formed. It was self-replicating
particle and was first living particle 'the virus'.
Origin of Primitive Cell
The complex organic molecules aggregated together forming colloidal mass called
coacervate. The nucleic acid controlled the activities of coacervate and the fats formed
a layer around it. This structure is called Eobiont. It was first cell like structure. The eobiont
absorbed food materials from the surrounding. It was heterotroph, prokaryotic cell, and
present day bacteria.
Origin of Heterotrophs and Autotrophs
Later on, some of the eobiont became able to make food by using chemical energy. So
they became chemoautotroph.
CO2+H2S.. C6H12O6 + H2O + S
Some other eobionts developed chlorophyll molecules, which trapped solar energy to
manufacture food from CO2 and H2O. They became photoautotroph.
CO2+H2S.. C6H12O6 + H2O + O2
In this way, photosynthetic organisms were originated on the earth. On other hand the
heterotrophs modified and different types of animals evolved. They started to consume
autotrophs and used O2 to break down food material to release energy.

MILLER AND UREY'S EXPERIMENT
To prove Oparin and Haldance biochemical theory of origin of life Miller and Urey in 1952
conducted an experiment. They designed an apparatus containing glass tube, flask,
and gas chamber. They kept NH3, CH4, H2, CO in gas chamber and water is boiled in the
flask to produce water vapor. The energy was supplied by heating and by electric
sparks.

The condenser was used to cool reaction. They run the experiment for a week. Finally,
they analyzed the products formed within the tube. They found different organic
compounds like fatty acid, amino acid, sugar, glycerol etc in the tube. Then they proved
Oparin and Haldance's theory of origin of life through a series of chemical reaction
among the inorganic gases under the influence of temperature, electric discharges, and
cooling.
Fig: Miller and Urey's Apparatus
Chlorophylls
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EVOLUTION
The orderly and gradual change in object from one form to another form is called
evolution. The orderly and gradual change in living things is organic evolution like plant
evolution and animal evolution. The orderly and gradual change in non-living things is
called inorganic evolution like the evolution of earth and stars.
Evolution of Man

Evolution of Early Mammal
About 210 million years ago, the early mammal
evolved from the reptiles. They were small rat like
animals having long snout. The Dinosaurs were
also evolved from it.
Evolution of Primates
About 65 million years ago, primates evolved
from the early mammal. The primates have long snout long and busy tail. It was
insectivorous. It was like present day tree shrew. At that, time dinosaurs were extinct.
Evolution of Anthropoid Ape
About 36 million years ago anthropoid ape evolved from primates. They were ancestors
of monkey, ape, and man. From the primates new world monkey diverged about 50
million years ago. The nose of the new world monkey's nose was very flat, nostrils were
directed upward, and tail is long and prehensile.
Evolution of Hominid
About 24 million years ago, the hominid evolved from anthropoid ape. The hominid was
ancestors of man and ape. About 25 to 30 million years ago from the anthropoid ape old
world monkey diverged. The old world monkey's nose is raised, the nostrils directed
downward and the tail is short and non-prehensile.
Evolution of Ramapithecus and Sivapithecus (the earliest ancestor of man)
About 10-14 million years ago, Ramapithacus and Sivapithecus evolved from the
hominid. They were earliest ancestors of man. The Ramapithecus was found in Asia and
Africa. Its tooth was found in Butwal of Nepal. The Sivapithecus was found in Asia.
About 4-10 million years ago Apes diverged from the hominid. They include Chimpanzee,
Gorilla, Orangutan, and Gibbon.
Evolution of Australopithecus
About 5 million years ago, the Australopithecus was evolved from the Ramapithecus and
Sivapithecus. They were first human like animal. Their brain capacity was 400 600 cc. It
could walk upright and about 3 5 ft tall and 40 50 Kg in weight. The Australopithecus
has two species. They are A. Africans and A. robustus.
Evolution of Homo erectus
About 1.7 million years ago, Homo erectus evolved from A. africanus. The Homo erectus
includes Java man found in Dubai and Pecking Man found in China.
The Java man's cranial capacity was 900 cc. It was 5 ft tall and used fire, tools. The
locomotion was bipedal. The chin was absent.
The Peking man's cranial capacity was 1075 cc.
It was supposed that Homo erectus was evolved from Homo habilis about 2 million years
ago and the Homo habilis was evolved form A. Africanus. The Homo habilis cranial
capacity was 700 cc. It was about 4-5 feet tall, bipedal, the chin was absent.
Evolution of the Cro-Magnon man
About 3400 years ago, the Cro-Magnon man evolved from Homo erectus. The Cro-
Magnon man was like modern man. Their cranial capacity was 1600 cc. They were 5 ft
tall, have prominent chin, broad or flat forehead, raised nose, superior intelligence. They
made weapons, lived in caves and he was artist.
Evolution of Neanderthal man
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About 70-40 thousand years ago, The Neanderthal man Homo sapiens neanderthalensis
diverged from Homo erectus. Their cranial capacity was 1450 cc. They resemble to
modern man. They were 5 ft tall, chin was absent, they used tools for hunting used
animal hides as clothes, capable of communicating, and they made tradition to bury
dead bodies.
Evolution of Modern man
The modern man (Homo sapiens) evolved about 10000 years ago from the Cro-Magnon
man. The modern man has changed from cave dwelling hunting life to the crop raising
life. It started cultivated plants, domesticated animals, and brought about the Cultural
Revolution with its superior intelligence.
Differences between Ape and Man
Ape Man
The apes have semi erect body
The vertebral column is curved
The bipedal locomotion need support
of forelimb
The fore limb is longer than hind limb
The thumb does not extend up to the
base of fore finger.
They have flat nose
Canine incisor teeth are longer and
thicker
The chin is absent
The eye brow ridges are heavy and
prominent
They have short neck embedded in
shoulder
The body is covered with hairs
The man has erect body
Vertebral column is straight
The bipedal locomotion do not need
support of fore limb
The fore limb is shorter than the hind limb
The thumb extends up to the base of fore
finger
They have raised nose
The canine and incisor teeth are shorter

The chin is prominent
The Eye brow ridges are not so prominent

They have long neck
Fewer amounts of hairs are present on the
body.
Homology of Man

Similarities in chromosome number of apes and man is called homology.
The chromosomes number of apes is 48.
The chromosome number of man is 46.
Similar amount of DNA.
Banding pattern of chromosome is similar.
Chromosome number 3, 6 have similar banding pattern
Banding pattern means arrangement of DNA in chromosome.
THE EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION
To convince about the truth of evolution there are several evidences, which support the validity of
evolution
(A) STRUCTURAL AND ANATOMICAL EVIDENCES
The types of organs like homologous organs, analogous organ and vestigial
organs provide the evidences about structure.
Homologous organ
The organs, which are similar in structures and origin, called homologous
organ. For e.g. human hand, Birds wing, bats wing, Horse's front foot are
homologous organ.
Analogous Organ
The organs, which are not similar in structure and origin but function is same are called
analogous organ. For e.g. Bird's wing and insect's wing, Fishes eye and mollusk's eye
The analogous organs are developed due to similar habitat in evolutionary process.
Vestigial Organ
The useless and reduced organ are called vestigial organs are called vestigial organ. In human
body, there are about 200 types of vestigial organ. For eg. Nictitating membrane, Vermiform
appendix, Canine teeth, Caudal Vertebrae, Some snakes have vestige of limbs, Fishes lived in
dark caves have reduced eyes.
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(B) ANATOMICAL EVIDENCES
The arrangement of different types of system like blood vessels, alimentary canal, skeletal system,
excretory system etc is similar in vertebrates. Thus, the anatomy suggests in favor of organic
evolution showing that the anatomical similarities become more and more complex progressively
as one proceeds from lower animals to higher animals. All the varieties of animals have inherited
the anatomical similarities from a common ancestor.
(C) PALEONTOLOGICAL EVIDENCES
The paleontology deals with the study of fossils thus pale ontological evidences are the evidences
of evolution from the fossil record suggesting that the evolution occur from simple form to the
complex form.
a) Archaeopteryx
The most favorable evidence, which prove pale ontological
evidence, is a kind of fossil bird named Archaeopteryx. This provides
connecting link between reptiles and birds suggesting that the birds
might have been evolved from reptiles. It represented the
characteristics of both a bird and the reptile. It possessed following
characters
It had a beak like a bird but the beak contained teeth like reptiles.
Its forelimbs were modified into wings like birds but claws on its wing
like reptiles.
It had feathers like birds but also had scales like reptiles. It had
feathery tail like birds but had vertebrae like reptiles. Therefore, it is proved that the birds were
evolved from reptiles and therefore the birds are called glorified reptiles.
b) Horse's Phylogeny
The evolutionary history of horse is termed as horse's phylogeny. The first horse (Eohippus) was small.
The food had four toes. The time passed on and the modern horse is evolved named Equus having
one toe and the size is large and high.
The major modifications occur in the course of evolution of modern horse are
Increase in the body size. Increase of length and mobility of neck. Reduction in the number of toes
from four to one. Specialization of teeth for grinding grass. Fusion of metatarsals and metacarpals.
(D) PHYSIOLOICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL EVIDENCES
(i) Similarity in chemical composition
In all the living forms four major elements like C, H, O, N form organic compounds. In all the living
organisms C, H, O combine to form carbohydrates and fats and with N to form proteins. The
protoplasm in all living organism have the same composition. The basic unit of life is cell. Therefore,
from above it can be concluded that living organisms might have evolved from a common
ancestor.
(ii) Precipitation test (Serological Test)
The precipitations tests are used to determine and confirm the natural relationship due to the
similarity of blood proteins. The degree of similarity between plasma proteins of various animals can
be tested by the antigen-antibody technique.
When the blood of man is mixed with the blood of monkey cat and dog, it gives high precipitation
and when it is mixed with blood of orangutan, it gives less precipitation.
When the blood of dog and cat is mixed together, it gives less precipitation. It proves that the cat
and dog are closely related than the man and the man is closely related with the orangutan than
cat and dog.
(iii) Enzymes and hormones
In large group of animals, there are similar types of enzymes and hormones are available. For
example, the hormone like insulin and Thyroxin are similar and produced by all the vertebrates. The
enzymes like lipase, amylase, trypsin are similar and produced by all the vertebrates. It suggests
that they have common ancestry.
(E) GENETIC EVIDENCES
Genetic deals with the heredity and variation of animals and plants. The DNA and RNA are called
nucleic acids having genetic units found from virus to mammals with similar composition. The DNA
has a double helical structure and is composed of similar type of nucleotides arranged in a linear
fashion. Similarly, RNA is single stranded. The principles of genetic and its application are also quite
similar in all organisms. The small segment of DNA represents gene in all the living life. This evidence
also proves that the similarity among all the living organisms.