Colegio de San Juan de Letran

College of Liberal Arts and Sciences Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS

Lecture Three

In many circumstances, it is a frequent comment that people do not know how to read. In fact, students are all too familiar with this complaint as their professors direct it to them. What it means, of course, is not that people (and students in particular) are complete illiterates, but that they are often poor readers. Whatever the source of this attitude, it should be stated here that one of the best remedies and treatment for poor reading habits is a good course on logic, and in particular that part of it which centers on the analysis of propositions. THE QUANTITY OF PROPOSITIONS The key rule for determining the quantity of single (atomic) categorical statements is formulated in this statement: The quantity of the subject term determines the quality of the statement as a whole. In other words, if you want to know whether your statement is universal, particular, or singular, take a close look at the subject term to see whether it is applied to an entire class (to all the members), to only part of the class (some), or to only one member. Thus: 1. Universal subject universal proposition 2. Particular subject particular proposition 3. Singular subject singular proposition The above may be illustrated as follows: 1. All chairs are for sitting. 2. Some chairs are maple. 3. This chair is an antique. For purposes of easy handling, singular propositions in logic are usually treated as though they were universal. The classes of statements are therefore reduced to two: universal and particular. Since many propositions, however, have no definite or indicated sign of quantity (all, each, some few, and so on), we must learn how to classify what logicians call in designate propositions. Note that an undesignated (unspecified/non-standard categorical proposition) proposition is not an additional class or type of statement that exists alongside one that must itself be ultimately classified as universal or particular. Thus when we read, Parents have a responsibility to their children, we should decide for ourselves whether this statement applies to the whole or to only part of the class of parents. As a method of resolving the doubt, use this rather basic criterion: If the predicate refers to the nature of the subject as such, consider the statement to be universal; otherwise, classify it as particular. With reference to the above example (Parents . . .), we have a clear-cut instance of a universal statement. Not so in the example Parents are hard to get along with. Even though a disgruntled adolescent may intend this statement as a generalization, a more objective analysis requires us to restrict it to only part of the class. There is one other point to consider. Statements beginning with an infinitive or a gerund are generally to be taken as universal statements. Since logically (not merely grammatically) you cannot split an infinitive, the subject should be taken as an integral unit, and therefore as a class by itself.

THE QUALITY OF PROPOSITIONS The verb or copula of a statement determines in each case what its quality is that is, whether it is an affirmative or a negative statement. Thus all the statements in column A are affirmative and those in Column B are negative: A S is P. Non-S is P. S is non-P. Non-S is non-P. B S is not P. Non-S is not-P. S is not non-P. Non-S is not non-P.

Note: A negative term (non-S, non-P) does not make a proposition negative, but a negative copula (verb) does. QUANTITY AND QUALITY COMBINED In logic, we combine the quantity and quality of categorical statements in such a way as to formulate four basic types: A, E, I, O. From now on all categorical statements will have to be categorized in this fashion: A E I O Universal Affirmative Universal Negative Particular Affirmative Particular Negative (All bees are winged insects.) (No egg is square.) (Some holes are dangerous.) (Some cars are not cheap.)

Note that in the E proposition, although the copula may appear to be affirmative (No S is P), it is really negative because of the negative force of the word no or none. Thus, although the word no is prefixed to the subject term, it signifies not only universal quantity, but negative quality as well. To express an E proposition one should, accordingly, avoid the defective form: No is not P. The not here is superfluous and should be eliminated. THE QUANTITY OF THE PREDICATE TERM In every proposition we can distinguish three traits: the quantity of the subject term, the quantity of the proposition itself (as determined by the quantity of S), and the quantity of the predicate term. Language seldom permits us to affix a particular quantifier to the predicate term. For example, we never say, All men are some mortals. However, we should not think for this reason that the predicate has no extens ion. Every predicate term does have quantity or extension (universal or particular), and it is just as important to know the quantity of the predicate is simple: 1. The predicate term of an affirmative proposition (A or I) is always to be taken as particular (undistributed). 2. The predicate term of a negative proposition (E or O) is always universal (distributed). A-Proposition: An A-proposition affirms in effect that every S comprises part of the extension of P. Example: Every textbook is intended for purposes of study. E-Proposition: In an E-proposition the predicate (P) is totally excluded from the extension of S, and for this reason P is taken as a universal or distributed term. Example: No true soldier is a coward.

I-Proposition: An I-proposition affirms that an indeterminate portion of the extension of S comprises part of the extension of P. Example: Some coffee is imported. O-Proposition: In an O-proposition the predicate, as taken in its complete extension, is denied of the subject (some S). Example: Some insects are not poisonous.

SUMMARY TYPE OF PROPOSITION A: All S is P. E: No S is P. I: Some S is P. O: Some S is not P. QUANTITY OF-S (S Subject) Universal Universal Particular Particular QUALITY OF-C (C Copula) Affirmative Negative Affirmative Negative QUANTITY OF-P (P Predicate) Particular Universal Particular Universal

SUBJECT Distributed A All S is P. PREDICATE Undistributed I Some S is P. O Some S is not P. E No S is P. PREDICATE Distributed

SUBJECT Undistributed