Design For Six Sigma Versus Traditional New Product Development

Design For Six Sigma versus Traditional New Product Development: Just Hype or Fundamentally Different?
Dr ! "lanton #odfrey$ Dean and Dr Timot%y # &lapp$ Professor &ollege of Textiles$ Nort% &arolina State 'niversity
In the past few years there have been many stories about Six Sigma Quality fueled by rather remarkable publicity about the success of General Electric, oneywell, and other companies! "ost companies focused their efforts on cost savings and cycle#time reductions $%able &', but a few expanded their efforts into design, often called ()SS or (esign for Six Sigma $*orgtsen, +,,+'! -ase studies have appeared in numerous .ournal articles and even in the /all Street 0ournal and the 1ew 2ork %imes! Is there something fundamentally different about ()SS or is it .ust the most recent evolution of new product development methods3 (esign for Six Sigma is a rigorous approach to designing products and services and their enabling processes from the beginning to ensure that they meet and exceed customer expectations and outperform competitive products and services! (esign for Six Sigma has in part become a design methodology of choice because of the extraordinary success some companies, such as General Electric, have had with its implementation! %he resulting publicity has influenced many corporate leaders! ()SS has helped create in many companies a successful corporate environment based on data driven decision#making! (ata driven decision#making has moved the decision point from experience and 4gut feel4 toward facts! %he need for data driven decision#making is most critical in the new product development process when product characteristics are defined! Experience and gut feeling have positive aspects but they are inefficient when5 $&!' the 67( organi8ation works far from the market and lacks an understanding of customer needs and re9uirements, and $+!' turnover of staff hampers the organi8ation:s experience base! 6eal data and efficient measurement methods give unbiased facts where assumptions and opinions are eliminated! %he challenge is to measure, analy8e and interpret relevant data using suitable tools and methods, to make management decisions, create design specifications, and to develop processes to produce goods and services that meet and exceed customer expectations and give an edge in the competitive market place! It is not surprising that there is debate about difference in the (esign )or Six Sigma $()SS' and traditional 1ew ;roduct (evelopment $1;(' processes! <lmost all companies implementing ()SS have built it on top of their existing new product development process! %raditional 1;( processes include Stage Gate $-ooper, +,,&' and ;roduct and -ycle#time Excellence $;<-E' $"cGrath, &==>'! GE has formali8ed its ()SS process and patented their process for implementing ()SS $"artin, +,,&'! Some have integrated several new ideas into their existing new product development process and called the resulting new process ()SS! )or example, )ord "otor -ompany has used inventive problem solving, axiomatic design, and ()SS concurrently $Smith, +,,&'! %o further complicate the matter, many of the tools used in ()SS are not new! Some companies as part of their new product development processes have used most of these tools! <nother complication in discussing new product development is that in most companies there is not one standard process! %here are often different processes in different divisions! %here are different processes for developing software and hardware! %here are different processes for developing new services and products! )urthermore, many companies do not have standardi8ed new product development processes even in divisions or product lines! (ifferent teams of developers may use 9uite different
development processes! %herefore, one of the main differences we see in ()SS is the formali8ation of the development process with standardi8ed tools and a structured development process that is taught in similar way across the company! %his new process is often used for products and services and for both software and hardware! It is often also used for process design! %he details of the application may vary, but the organi8ation applies the steps of the process in a similar, structured way! < second ma.or difference is the use of sophisticated statistical tools! "ost of these tools are not new, but they have not been widely used in the new product development process by many companies! ?ther non# statistical tools are also formali8ed and used in the process in a structured way! < third ma.or difference is the intense structured training all design teams receive in the ()SS process! %his is 9uite different from the usual practice of introducing one new tool or method at a time and giving complete freedom to design teams on which methods and tools they use and when in the process they use these tools and methods! %he training is usually four or five weeks spread across four to six months! %he design and development teams are trained as teams while developing a new product or service! %he first wee( is focused on D)F*N)! (uring this week the emphasis is on market research and Quality )unction (eployment $Q)('! < preliminary )ailure "ode and Effects <nalysis $)"E<' is usually completed! ?ne of the main goals of this week is to create a basic product or service definition along with the ob.ectives and a first draft of the driving customer re9uirements called the -ritical to Quality list $-%Qs'! %he teams also start weighting the -%Qs using information from customer surveys, competitive analyses, and knowledge of the market and market trends! (uring the first week the team also completes a first draft of a detailed pro.ect plan, the first draft of a functional process diagram, and the product or service functional block diagrams! %he second wee( is +)!S',)! (uring this week the instructors present a formal, but brief, introduction to probability and statistics with an emphasis on variability and the components of variation! "any of the measurements used in the first week to characteri8e customer needs and wants and competing product performance are 9uestioned! "any of the basic assumptions used in preliminary design decisions have used existing measurements or measurements provided by key suppliers! %hese are 9uestioned and a formal "easurement Systems <nalysis $"S<' is performed for critical areas! (uring this week it is not unusual for the design team to experience some uncomfortable surprises! %hey often find that measurements they have been using for several past designs are so unreliable as to be totally useless! %he t%ird wee( is !N!-./)! (uring this week many standard statistical methods are introduced $or for some designers reviewed'! %hese include one and two#sample t#tests, -hi#S9uare and ) tests for comparing two variances, and *artlett:s and @evine:s tests for comparing multiple variances! <nalysis of Aariance methods $<1?A<' are also introduced for comparing multiple means! -orrelation and regression are introduced to begin exploring functional relationships! %he focus of much of this work can be explained by a simple formula5 2 B f$C', where 2 is the -ritical to Quality $-%Q' identified earlier as a priority and C is a vector of input variables thought to be related through a function f to the performance of 2! @et:s illustrate this idea with a simple example! Suppose the breaking strength of a warp yarn is one of our -%Qs! %he breaking strength may be a function of many different possible variables5 type of fiber, linear denisty, twist, processing, si8ing, etc! %he
designer wants to identify not only which variables $the Cs' determine the final breaking strength $the 2', but the designer also wants to know the functional relationship $f'! %he designer is also interested in eliminating those input variables $the Cs' that have little relationship and can be ignored! %he designer is also interested in making many comparisons and design decisions! Statistically comparing both the differences in averages and variances of different input conditions or variables allows the designer to make fact#based decisions! <nother ma.or difference in ()SS and traditional product development processes is the emphasis not .ust on the product or service design but also on the processes by which these products or services will be produced! (esign for "anufacturability or <ssembly methods $()" and ()<' are incorporated as are their service process counterparts $design for operations'! (uring the <1<@2DE week the fact that there are always numerous design alternatives is stressed! In traditional product development too often the first idea is pursued or ideas selected by opinion rather than by formal, structured statistical tests! (uring this week a simulated process capability study is usually performed! %he fourt% wee( is D)S*#N! (uring this week many of the key design decisions are made! %he main statistical methods taught and used during this week are experimental designs! *oth reliability prediction and reliability estimation are included, and a formal )"E< is completed! It is during this week that the design team members learn how to select the optimum $or near optimum' levels for the critical input variables $the Cs' to optimi8e the outputs $the 2s'! )or most products and services, there are a number of -%Qs $the 2s'! Sometimes there are conflicts, and the design teams have to make compromises among the -%Qs! Esing our example above, the maximum breaking strength available for our warp yarn may be in a yarn with poor dyeability characteristics! It is during this week that the design teams learn many new tools to help them make trade#off decisions! %hey end the week with a plan for completing the specifications of all of their -ritical to Quality variables $the 2s' and for the critical input variables $the Cs'! %he fift% wee( is 0),*F.! (uring this week many of the analy8e methods and tools reappear as prototypes are tested and compared to ob.ectives and competing product designs! < ma.or part of the week is developing the control plans and standard operating procedures that will be handed off to the operating forces who will produce, deliver and perhaps install and maintain the product or service! <dvanced techni9ues used by many organi8ations at this stage include accelerated life testing, process simulations, and reliability predictions! Some organi8ations will also develop the reliability estimation plan during this step and decide what data will be collected, the sample in the tracking study, and the persons responsible for analysis of the data and reliability growth plan! In each week of training, a similar teaching method is used! 1ew concepts, methods, and tools are introduced and immediately examples and case studies are used to show how these methods and tools are used! Software tools support all of the exercises! %he exercises are first done following step#by#step examples by the instructor, and then small groups work together on the next exercises! %hen the actual design and development teams work together on their own product and process developments! Sometimes during *lack *elt ()SS training there are only one or two people from a pro.ect! %hen these people have the responsibility of training their other team members $sometimes called Green *elts' in the weeks between their own classes!
<lthough some organi8ations have implemented ()SS as an evolutionary step in their continuing improvement of their new product development process, there are some fundamental differences! )or most organi8ations, ()SS is far more documented, formali8ed, and structured than their former development process! %here is a far more formali8ed emphasis on understanding customers: needs and wants and determining the -ritical to Quality variables $the -%Qs'! < formali8ed process is used for collecting data on existing products, competitive products, and trends! )ar more sophisticated statistical tools are used # all with standardi8ed, easy#to#use software support! %raining is done in a learn#do#do#do fashion with actual development pro.ects being carried out during the training! %he design teams are expected to have a much broader role ranging from the early market research through concepts, basic designs, detailed designs, production process, design transfer, operating procedures, and field tests and support! In summary, companies with an informal, unstructured new product development process will see ()SS as a revolutionary approach for developing new products! -ompanies with a formal new product development process will view ()SS as the next step for improving their new product development process! In either case, ()SS can be successfully deployed in an organi8ation to reduce the risk of new product failures and thereby increase the efficiency and speed at which new products are developed! ,)F),)N&)S *orgsten, 0onas E! $+,,+', >s in 1ew ;roduct (evelopment, "asters %hesis, %he 6oyal Institute of %echnology, Sweden! -ooper, 6!G, $+,,&', /inning at 1ew ;roducts# <ccelerating the ;rocess from Idea to @aunch, Frd Edition, ;erseus ;ublishing, -ambridge "assachusetts! "artin, <rlie 6ussell et al! $+,,&', System for Implementing a (esign for Six Sigma ;rocess, ES ;atent 1umber >,+GF,&&G! "cGrath, "! E, $&==>', Setting the ;<-E in ;roduct (evelopment, 6ev! Ed, *utterworth# eineman, *oston, "assachusetts! Smith, @arry 6! $+,,&', 4Six Sigma and the Evolution of Quality in ;roduct (evelopment,4 Six Sigma )orum "aga8ine, Aolume &, 1umber &, 1ovember +,,&, pages +H#FG!
!'TH1,S (r! <! *lanton Godfrey, 0oseph (! "oore (istinguished Eniversity ;rofessor (ean, -ollege of %extiles 1orth -arolina State Eniversity 6aleigh, 1- +I>=G blantonJgodfreyKncsu!edu (r! %imothy G! -lapp, ;rofessor %extile Engineering, -hemistry, and Science (epartment 1orth -arolina State Eniversity 6aleigh, 1- +I>=G timothyJclappKncsu!edu
Ta2le 3 Fortune 455 companies using Six Sigma 6"orgsten$ 75578
-ompany Grade -omment )ord General Electric -itibank *ank of <merica *oeing "otorola "cNesson *?(u;ont 0ohnson and 0ohnson @ockheed "artin oneywell <merican Express (ow -hemical 6aytheon %6/ 0ohnson -ontrols F" Sun Solectron <bbott laboratories %extron (ana <pplied "aterials Eaton 1avistar 1orfolk Southern "ellon )inancial 1-6 )irst (ata (%E Energy LL L L LL Esing Six Sigma since &===! 1ew initiative in e#business! 1ew initiative but also in new product development! ;refer suppliers to use it and take part in seminars ofthe topic!
LLL )abulous successM
LLL %he innovators, but 1okia seems to perform well without! LL LL L LL L LL LL L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L Implemented &=== to optimi8e their logistics operations! "any millions savedM Enknown how well implemented the methodologyreally is! @ean#Six Sigma effort without stage gate process! Six Sigma and business transformation! O&!G billion on E*I% +,,F, accumulatedM Saved O&,, million +,,,M )ormer GE employee becomes -E? and brings Six SigmaM Enknown how well implemented the methodology really is! 1ew initiative by innovative companyM Sun Sigma is software and an internal management program! )ocus on 9uality but unsure how this is done! Enknown how well implemented the methodologyreally is! Enknown how well implemented the methodology really is! Enknown how well implemented the methodologyreally is! (iversified manufacturer reduces defects! Enknown how well implemented the methodology really is! Initial stage initiative in transportation business! 6eaches Six Sigma level but no further information! Six Sigma initiative in manufacturing! (ivision implementation of the methodology! Six Sigma reliability in delivering electricity!
LLL <llied signal learned GE and then became oneywell!
LLL %he *aldridge winner adopted the methodology &==FM
*) Goodrich Eastman -hemical <rvin "eritor ?wens -orning I%% Industries "ead *ethlehem Steel 2ork Int %hermo Electron (anaher
L L L L L L L L L L
Six Sigma not used in new product development! 1ew approachM <utomobile supplier .oins )ord and adopts Six Sigma! Six Sigma combined with supply chain management! Aalue based Six Sigma! 1ew approach that does not yet include product development! Six Sigma helps steel producer but not in productdevelopment! @ean Sigma in air condition business! ;roductivity increase by Six Sigma! Six Sigma combined with lean manufacturing! <utomobile supplier .oins )ord and adopts SixSigma! (ramatic expansion of Six Sigma in +,,&! @aunched in +,,& bottom line results are all readyimproving! Secret initiative in military business!
%enneco <utomotive LL Quest (iagnostics -aterpillar L L
1orthrop Grumman L
L @owest level of implementation, LL moderate level, and LLL highest level! RETURN TO TOP
Design for Six Sigma (DFSS) focuses on developing products that meet customer needs with very low defect levels.
DESIGN FOR SIX SIGMA

Kenneth Crow DRM Associates
200 D!" #ssociates #ll rights reserved. "ay $e used with attri$ution. %ther use prohi$ited.
Six Sigma initiatives have achieved recent popularity $ecause of their $ottom line focus versus previous &'" initiatives which often tended to $e unfocused. (eneral )lectric* one of the leaders in Six Sigma programs defines its +ey elements as, Critical to Quality, #ttri$utes most important to the customer Defect, Failing to deliver what the customer wants rocess Ca!a"ility, -hat your process can deliver #ariation, -hat the customer sees and feels Sta"le O!erations, )nsuring consistent* predicta$le processes to improve what the customer sees and feels Desi$n for Si% Si$&a, Designing to meet customer needs and process capa$ility
Design for Six Sigma (DFSS) is the application of Six Sigma principles to the design of products and their manufacturing and support processes. -hile DFSS can apply to the design or a product* manufacturing process* $usiness process or service* our focus in the paper is the development of new products. .n one respect* DFSS is the repac+aging of many /uality tools and techni/ues appropriate for product development into a framewor+. &his framewor+ contains many of the same elements as the #dvanced 0roduct 'uality 0lanning (#0'0) process used in the automotive industry. %ften the acronyms D"#D1 (define* measure* analy2e* design and verify) or .D%1 (identify* design* optimi2e and validate) are used to descri$e the Design for Six Sigma process. #S'3s Six Sigma 4ody of 5nowledge covering Design for Six Sigma (DFSS) lists the following su$headings, 'uality Function Deployment ('FD) !o$ust design and processes (includes functional re/uirements) Failure "ode and )ffects #nalysis Design for 6 (DF6) Special design tools.
(eneral )lectric defines the principles of DFSS as the following, 7. 2. 9. :. ;. Disciplined 8&' flowdown 8ontrolled design parameters 0roduct performance modeled and simulated Designed for ro$ust performance and produci$ility Functionally integrated product development
. 'uality <designed in= &he following represents our more specific list of elements of the DFSS framewor+,
&! >nderstand real customer needs through voice of the customer (1%8)
analysis.
+! >se /uality function deployment ('FD) to translate customer needs

into critical technical characteristics of the product and ultimately into critical to /uality (8&') characteristics of the product and process. F! Focus on designing for the lifecycle to minimi2e lifecycle costs with DF"#* value analysis and target costing?D&8 and to enhance relia$ility with design for relia$ilty and DF&. :. "ista+e@proof the product and process. G! 0erform failures modes and effects analysis (F")#) or anticipatory failure determination (#FD) to identify potential failures and ta+e corrective action to mitigate or prevent those failures. F")# and #FD apply to $oth the design of the product and the design of the process. >! Develop capa$le manufacturing processes and select processes that are capa$le of meeting the design re/uirements* especially with 8&' parameters. I! >se design of experiments (D%)) or &aguchi "ethods to optimi2e parameter values and reduce variation* in other words* develop a ro$ust design. A. 1erify and validate the the product design will meet customer needs with peer reviews* chec+lists* design reviews* simulation and analysis* /ualification testing* production validation testing* focus groups and mar+et testing. B. "easure results with DFSS scorecardC estimate sigma @ do results meet /uality targetD &he Design for Six Sigma process is supported $y our 0roduct Development &ool+it.
>nderstanding the 1oice of the 8ustomer (1%8) is a critical first step in developing a successful product.
#OICE OF '(E C)S'OMER

"y Kenneth Crow DRM Associates
0roduct Development Forum E0D 4ody of 5nowledge
INTRODUCTION
Quality can be defined as meeting customer needs and providing superior value! "eeting customer needs re9uires that those needs be understood! %he 4voice of the customer4 is the term to describe the stated and unstated customer needs or re9uirements! %he voice of the customer can captured in a variety of ways5 direct discussion or interviews, surveys, focus groups, customer specifications, observation, warranty data, field reports, etc!
Focus (roups
8ustomer .nterviews
CAPTURING THE VOICE OF THE CUSTOMER

'uality Function Deployment 0aper
Steps for 0erforming 'FD
'FD 8ase Study
?nce a product plan is established which defines the target market and customers, the next step is to plan how to capture these customer:s needs for each development pro.ect! %his includes determining how to identify target customers, which customers to contact in order to capture there needs, what mechanisms to use to collect their needs, and a schedule and estimate of resources to capture the voice of the customer $pro.ect plan for product definition phase'! <s opportunities are identified, appropriate techni9ues are used to capture the voice of the customer! %he techni9ues used will depend on the nature of the customer relationship as illustrated below!
0roduct Definition
!e/mts Def. F 0roduct 0lng 8onsulting 'FD F 1%8 &raining
'FD )xperience
D!" #ssociates
%here is no one monolithic voice of the customer! -ustomer voices are diverse! In consumer markets, there are a variety of different needs! Even within one buying unit, there are multiple customer voices $e!g!, children versus parents'! %his applies to industrial and government markets as well! %here are even multiple customer voices within a single organi8ation5 the voice of the procuring organi8ation, the voice of the user, and the voice of the supporting or maintenance organi8ation! %hese diverse voices must be considered, reconciled and balanced to develop a truly successful product! %raditionally, "arketing has had responsibility for defining customer needs and product re9uirements! %his has tended to isolate Engineering and other development personnel from the customer and from gaining a first hand understanding of customer needs! <s a result, customer:s real needs can become somewhat abstract to other development personnel! ;roduct development personnel need to be directly involved in understanding customer needs! %his may involve visiting or meeting with customers, observing customers using or maintaining products, participating in focus groups or rotating development personnel through marketing, sales, or customer support functions! %his direct involvement provides a better understanding of customer needs, the customer environment, and product useP develops greater empathy on the part of product development personnel, minimi8es hidden knowledge, overcomes technical arrogance, and provides a better perspective for development decisions! %hese practices have resulted in fundamental insights such as engineers of highly technical products recogni8ing the importance to customers of ease of use and durability rather than the latest technology! /here a company has a direct relationship with a very small number of customers, it is desirable to have a customer representative$s' on the product development team! <lternately, mechanisms such as focus groups should be used where there are a larger number of customers to
insure on#going feedback over the development cycle! -urrent customers as well as potential customers should be considered and included! %his customer involvement is useful for initially defining re9uirements, answering 9uestions and providing input during development, and criti9uing a design or prototype! ow many customers should be talked to3 %he number depends on complexity of the product, diversity of market, product use, and the sophistication of customers! %he goal is to get to the =,#=GQ level in capturing customer needs! 6esearch for a range of products indicates that, on average, this is +, customers! /ho do we talk to3 -urrent customers are the first source of information if the product is aimed at current market! In addition, its important to talk with potential customers! ;otential customers are the primary source of information if the product is aimed at new market! In addition, talk with competitorRs customers! %hey provide a good source of information on strengths on competitor:s products and why they don:t buy from us! @ead customers are a special class of coustomers that can provide important insights, particularly with new products! @ead customers are those customers who are the most advanced users of the product, customers who are pushing the product to its limits, or customers who are adapting an existing product$s' to new uses! (uring customer discussions, it is essential to identify the basic customer needs! )re9uently, customers will try to express their needs in terms of ?/ the need can be satisfied and not in terms of / <% the need is! %his limits consideration of development alternatives! (evelopment and marketing personnel should ask / 2 until they truly understand what the root need is! *reakdown general re9uirements into more specific re9uirements by probing what is needed! -hallenge, 9uestion and clarify re9uirements until they make sense! (ocument situations and circumstances to illustrate a customer need! <ddress priorities related to each need! 1ot all customer needs are e9ually important! Ese ranking and paired comparisons to aid to prioriti8ing customer needs! )undamentally, the ob.ective is to understand how satisfying a particular need influences the purchase decision! In addition to obtaining an understanding of customer needs, it is also important to obtain the customer:s perspective on the competition relative to the proposed product! %his may re9uire follow#up contact once the concept for the product is determined or even a prototype is developed! %he 9uestion to resolve is5 ow do competitive products rank against our current or proposed product or prototype3
ORGANIZING CUSTOMER NEEDS

?nce customer needs are gathered, they then have to be organi8ed! %he mass of interview notes, re9uirements documents, market research, and customer data needs to be distilled into a handful of statements that express key customer needs! <ffinity diagramming is a useful tool to assist with this effort! *rief statements which capture key customer needs are transcribed onto cards! < data dictionary which describes these statements of need are prepared to avoid any mis#interpretation! %hese cards are organi8ed into logical groupings or related needs! %his will make it easier to identify any redundancy and serves as a basis for organi8ing the customer needs! In addition to 4stated4 or 4spoken4 customer needs, 4unstated4 or 4unspoken4 needs or opportunities should be identified! 1eeds that are assumed by customers and, therefore not verbali8ed, can be identified through preparation of a function tree! Excitement opportunities $new capabilities or unspoken needs that will cause customer excitement' are identified through the voice of the engineer, marketing, or customer support representative! %hese can also be identified by observing customers use or maintain products and recogni8ing opportunities for improvement!
ABOUT THE AUTHOR

NE11E% <! -6?/ is ;resident of (6" <ssociates! is firm focuses on improving product development and the implementation of strategies and practices such as integrated product development, time#to# market, and business process re#engineering for the high technology, capital e9uipment, consumer products, medical e9uipment, automotive, aerospace and defense industries! e is a recogni8ed expert in the field of integrated product development and 9uality function deployment with over twenty#five years of experience organi8ing and guiding product development improvement programs and assisting product development teams! e led a consortium to identify +G, best practices or product development and developed a benchmarking and assessment methodology based on these best practices! e has worked internationally with many )ortune G,, companies! e has written articles and papers, contributed to books, presented at conferences, and conducted workshops in <ustralia, 1orth <merica, Europe and <sia on product development, manufacturing, and 9uality function deployment! e is a certified 1ew ;roduct (evelopment ;rofessional! e is a founding member and past ;resident of the Society of -oncurrent Engineering and is a member of the ;roduct (evelopment
"anagement <ssociation and the Engineering "anagement Society! )or further information, contact Nen at (6" <ssociates, +>&F Aia ?livera, ;alos Aerdes, -< =,+ISP by phone at $F&,' FII#GG>=P by fax at $F&,' FII#&F&G or by email at kcrowKaol!com!
'uality function deployment ('FD) captures the voice of the customer (1%8)* creates a product plan and deploys product re/uirements
C)S'OMER*FOC)SED DE#E+O MEN' ,I'( QFD

0roduct Development Forum 'FD, -hat* -hy and GowD
INTRODUCTION
Quality must be designed into the product, not inspected into it! Quality can be defined as meeting customer needs and providing superior value! %his focus on satisfying the customer:s needs places an emphasis on techni9ues such as Quality )unction (eployment to help understand those needs and plan a product to provide superior value! Quality )unction (eployment $Q)(' is a structured approach to defining customer needs or re9uirements and translating them into specific plans to produce products to meet those needs! %he 4voice of the customer4 is the term to describe these stated and unstated customer needs or re9uirements! %he voice of the customer is captured in a variety of ways5 direct discussion or interviews, surveys, focus groups, customer specifications, observation, warranty data, field reports, etc! %his understanding of the customer needs is then summari8ed in a product planning matrix or 4house of 9uality4! %hese matrices are used to translate higher level 4what:s4 or needs into lower level 4how:s4 # product re9uirements or technical characteristics to satisfy these needs! /hile the Quality )unction (eployment matrices are a good communication tool at each step in the process, the matrices are the means and not the end! %he real value is in the process of communicating and decision#making with Q)(! Q)( is oriented toward involving a team of people representing the various functional departments that have involvement in product development5 "arketing, (esign Engineering, Quality <ssurance, "anufacturingT "anufacturing Engineering, %est Engineering, )inance, ;roduct Support, etc! %he active involvement of these departments can lead to balanced consideration of the re9uirements or 4what:s4 at each stage of this translation process and provide a mechanism to communicate hidden knowledge # knowledge that is known by one individual or department but may not otherwise be communicated through the organi8ation! %he structure of this methodology helps development personnel understand essential re9uirements, internal capabilities, and constraints and design the product so that everything is in place to achieve the desired outcome # a satisfied customer! Quality )unction (eployment helps development personnel maintain a correct focus on true re9uirements and minimi8es misinterpreting customer needs! <s a result, Q)( is an effective communications and a 9uality planning tool!
Steps for 0erforming 'FD
'FD 8ase Study
0roduct 0lng "atrix )xample 7
0roduct 0lng "atrix )xample :
'FD Software and )xamples 'uality Function Deployment ('FD) -or+shop 1oice of the 8ustomer (1%8) -or+shop 0D &ool+it ('FD Software)
0roduct Definition
!e/mts Def. F 0roduct 0lng 8onsult %ther 'FD 4oo+s F Hin+s
CAPTURING THE VOICE OF THE CUSTOMER

%he process of capturing the voice of the customer is described in the
E0D 4ody of
0roduct definition is a critical starting point in the development of any new product.
ROD)C' DEFINI'ION
Step@$y@step guide to performing /uality function deployment ('FD)
ERFORMING QFD S'E -. S'E

0roduct Development Forum E0D 4ody of 5nowledge 'uality Function Deployment ('FD) 0aper 'FD, -hat* -hy and Gow
Q)( uses a series of matrices to document information collected and developed and represent the team:s plan for a product! %he Q)( methodology is based on a systems engineering approach consisting of the following general steps5
7. Derive top@level product re/uirements or technical characteristics from customer needs (0roduct 0lanning "atrix). 2. Develop product concepts to satisfy these re/uirements. 9. )valuate product concepts to select most optimum (8oncept Selection "atrix). :. 0artition system concept or architecture into su$systems or assem$lies and flow@down higher@ level re/uirements or technical characteristics to these su$systems or assem$lies. ;. Derive lower@level product re/uirements (assem$ly or part characteristics) and specifications from su$system?assem$ly re/uirements (#ssem$ly?0art Deployment "atrix). . For critical assem$lies or parts* flow@down lower@level product re/uirements (assem$ly or part characteristics) to process planning. I. Determine manufacturing process steps to meet these assem$ly or part characteristics. A. 4ased in these process steps* determine set@up re/uirements* process controls and /uality controls to assure achievement of these critical assem$ly or part characteristics.
'FD 8ase Study
'FD Software and )xamples
0roduct Definition
'FD )xperience
'uality Function Deployment ('FD) -or+shop 1oice of the 8ustomer (1%8) -or+shop
%he Q)( process described below is supported by our ;roduct (evelopment %oolkit, which includes Q)( software! %he matrices and the specific steps in the Q)( process are as follows!
Gather Customer Needs

7. 0lan collection of customer needs. -hat sources of information will $e usedD 8onsider customer re/uirement documents* re/uests for proposals* re/uests for /uotations* contracts* customer specification documents* customer meetings?interviews* focus groups?clinics* user groups* surveys* o$servation* suggestions* and feed$ac+ from the field. 8onsider $oth current customers as well as potential customers. 0ay particular attention to lead customers as they are a $etter indicator of future needs. 0lan who will perform the data collection activities and when these activities can ta+e place. Schedule activities such as meetings* focus groups* surveys* etc. 2. 0repare for collection of customer needs. .dentify re/uired information. 0repare agendas* list of /uestions* survey forms* focus group?user meeting presentations. 9. Determine customer needs or re/uirements using the mechanisms descri$ed in step 7. Document these needs. 8onsider recording any meetings. During customer meetings or focus groups* as+ JwhyJ to understand needs and determine root needs. 8onsider spo+en needs and unspo+en needs. )xtract statements of needs from documents. Summari2e surveys and other data. >se techni/ues such as ran+ing* rating* paired comparisons* or conKoint analysis to determine importance of customer needs. (ather customer needs from other sources such as customer re/uirement documents* re/uests for
'FD 8onsulting
'FD Software (0D &ool+it)
D!" #ssociates
proposals* re/uests for /uotations* contracts* customer specification documents* customer meetings?interviews* focus groups* product clinics* surveys* o$servation* suggestions* and feed$ac+ from the field. :. >se affinity diagrams to organi2e customer needs. 8onsolidate similar needs and restate. %rgani2e needs into categories. 4rea+down general customer needs into more specific needs $y pro$ing what is needed. "aintain dictionary of original meanings to avoid misinterpretation. >se function analysis to identify +ey unspo+en* $ut expected needs. ;. %nce needs are summari2ed* consider whether to get further customer feed$ac+ on priorities. >nderta+e meetings* surveys* focus groups* etc. to get customer priorities. State customer priorities using a 7 to ; rating. >se ran+ing techni/ues and paired comparisons to develop priorities.
Product P a!!"!#
7. %rgani2e customer needs in the 0roduct 0lanning "atrix. (roup under logical categories as determined with affinity diagramming. 2. )sta$lish critical internal customer needs or management control re/uirementsC industry* national or international standardsC and regulatory re/uirements. .f standards or regulatory re/uirements are commonly understood* they should not $e included in order to minimi2e the information that needs to $e addressed. 9. State customer priorities. >se a 7 to ; rating. 8ritical internal customer needs or management control re/uirementsC industry* national or international standardsC and regulatory re/uirements* if important enough to include* are normally given a rating of J9J. :. Develop competitive evaluation of current company products and competitive products. >se surveys* customer meetings or focus groups?clinics to o$tain feed$ac+. !ate the companyLs and the competitorLs products on a 7 to ; scale with J;J indicating that the product fully satisfies the customerLs needs. .nclude competitorLs customer input to get a $alanced perspective. ;. !eview the competitive evaluation strengths and wea+nesses relative to the customer priorities. Determine the improvement goals and the general strategy for responding to each customer need. &he .mprovement Factor is J7J if there are no planned improvements to the competitive evaluation level. #dd a factor of .7 for every planned step of improvement in the competitive rating* (e.g.* a planned improvement of goiung from a rating of J2J to J:J would result in an improvement factor of J7.2J. .dentify warranty* service* or relia$ility pro$lems F customer complaints to help identify areas of improvement. . .dentify the sales points that "ar+eting will emphasi2e in its message a$out the product. &here should $e no more than three maKor or primary sales points or two maKor sales points and two minor or secondary sales points in order to +eep the "ar+eting message focused. "aKor sales points are assigned a weighting factor of 7.9 and minor sales points are assigned a weighting factor of 7.7. I. &he process of setting improvement goals and sales points implicitly develops a product strategy. Formally descri$e that strategy in a narrative form. -hat is to $e emphasi2ed with the new productD -hat are its competitive strengthsD -hat will distinguish it in the mar+etplaceD Gow will it $e positioned relative to other productsD .n other words* descri$e the value proposition $ehind this product. &he +ey is to focus development resources on those areas that will provide
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B.
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77.
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the greatest value to the customer. &his strategy $rief is typically one page and is used to gain initial focus within the team as well as communicate and gain concurrence from management. )sta$lish product re/uirements or technical characteristics to respond to customer needs and organi2e into logical categories. 8ategories may $e related to functional aspects of the products or may $e grouped $y the li+ely su$systems to primarily address that characteristic. 8haracteristics should $e meaningful (actiona$le $y )ngineering)* measura$le* practical (can $e determined without extensive data collection or testing)and glo$al. 4y $eing glo$al* characteristics should $e stated in a way to avoid implying a particular technical solution so as not to constrain designers. &his will allow a wide range of alternatives to $e considered in an effort to $etter meet customer needs. .dentify the direction of the o$Kective for each characteristic (target value or range* maximi2e or minimi2e). Develop relationships $etween customer needs and product re/uirements or technical characteristics. &hese relationships define the degree to which as product re/uirement or technical characteristic satisfies the customer need. .t does E%& show a potential negative impact on meeting a customer need @ this will $e addressed later in the interaction matrix. 8onsider the goal associated with the characteristic in determining whether the characteristic satisfies the customer need. >se weights (we recommend using ;@9@7 weighting factors) to indicate the strength of the relationship @ strong* medium and wea+. 4e sparing with the strong relationships to discriminate the really strong relationships. 0erform a technical evaluation of current products and competitive products. Sources of information include, competitor we$sites* industry pu$lications* customer interviews* pu$lished specifications* catalogs and $rochures* trade shows* purchasing and $enchmar+ing competitor3s products* patent information* articles and technical papers* pu$lished $enchmar+s* third@party service F support organi2ations* and former employees. 0erform this evaluation $ased on the defined product re/uirements or technical characteristics. %$tain other relevant data such as warranty or service repair occurrences and costs. Develop preliminary target values for product re/uirements or technical characteristics. 8onsider data gathered during the technical evaluation in setting target values. Do not get too aggressive with target values in areas that are not determined to $e the primary area of focus with this development effort. Determine potential positive and negative interactions $etween product re/uirements or technical characteristics using sym$ols for strong or medium* positive or negative relationships. &oo many positive interactions suggest potential redundancy in product re/uirements or technical characteristics. Focus on negative interactions @ consider product concepts or technology to overcome these potential trade@offs or consider the trade@offLs in esta$lishing target values. 8alculate importance ratings. "ultiply the customer priority rating $y the improvement factor* the sales point factor and the weighting factor associated with the relationship in each $ox of the matrix and add the resulting products in each column. .dentify a difficulty rating (7 to ; point scale* five $eing very difficult and ris+y) for each product re/uirement or technical characteristic. 8onsider technology maturity* personnel technical /ualifications* resource availa$ility* technical ris+* manufacturing capa$ility* supply
chain capa$ility* and schedule. Develop a composite rating or $rea+down into individual assessments $y category. 7;. #naly2e the matrix and finali2e the product plan. Determine re/uired actions and areas of focus. 7 . Finali2e target values. 8onsider the product strategy o$Kectives* importance of the various technical characteristics* the trade@offs that need to $e made $ased on the interaction matrix* the technical difficulty ratings* and technology solutions and maturity. 7I. "aintain the matrix as customer needs or conditions change.
Co!ce$t De%e o$me!t

7. Develop concept alternatives for the product. 8onsider not only the current approach and technology* $ut other alternative concept approaches and technology. >se $rainstorming. 8onduct literature* technology* and patent searches. >se product $enchmar+ing to identify different product concepts. Develop derivative ideas. 0erform sufficient definition and development of each concept to evalaute against the decision criteria determined in the next step. 2. )valuate the concept alternatives using the 8oncept Selection "atrix. Hist product re/uirements or technical characteristics from the 0roduct 0lanning "atrix down the left side of the 8oncept Selection "atrix. #lso add other re/uirements or decision criteria such as +ey unstated $ut expected customer needs or re/uirements* manufactura$ility re/uirements* environmental re/uirements* standards and regulatory re/uirements* maintaina$ility ? servicea$ility re/uirements* support re/uirements* testa$ility re/uirements* test schedule and resources* technical ris+* $usiness ris+* supply chain capa$ility* development resources* development $udget* and development schedule. 9. 8arry forward the target values for the product re/uirements or technical characteristics from the 0roduct 0lanning "atrix. #dd target values as appropriate for the other evaluation criteria added in the previous step. #lso $ring forward the importance ratings and difficulty ratings associated with each product re/uirement or technical characteristic from the 0roduct 0lanning "atrix. Eormali2e the importance rating $y dividing the largest value $y a factor that will yield J;J and post this value to the J0riorityJ column. !eview these priorities and consider any changes appropriate since these are the weighting factors for the decision criteria. Determine the priorities for the additional evaluation criteria added in the prior step. Hist concepts across the top of the matrix. :. 0erform engineering analysis and trade studies. !ate each concept alternative against the criteria using a J7J to J;J scale with J;J $eing the highest rating for satisfying the criteria. ;. For each rating* multiply the rating $y the J0riorityJ value in that row. Summari2e these values in each column in the $ottom row. &he preferred concept alternative(s) will $e the one(s) with the highest total. . For the preferred concept alternative(s)* wor+ to improve the concept $y synthesi2ing a new concept that overcomes its wea+nesses. Focus attention on the criteria with the lowest ratings for that concept (J7LsJ and J2LsJ). -hat changes can $e made to the design or formulation of the preferred concept(s) to improve these low ratings with the product conceptD 8ompare the preferred concept(s) to the other concepts that have higher ratings for that particular re/uirement. #re there ways to modify the preferred concept to incorporate the advantage of another
conceptD
Su&s'stem(Su&assem& '(Part De$ o'me!t Matr")

7. >sing the selected concept as a $asis* develop a design layout* $loc+ diagram and?or a preliminary parts list. Determine critical su$systems* su$assem$lies or parts. 8onsider impact of su$systems* su$assem$lies or parts on product performance or with respect to development goals. -hat parts* assem$lies or su$systems present maKor challenges or are critical to the success and operation of the productD -hat critical characteristics have a maKor effect on performanceD 8onsider performing failure mode and effects analysis (F")#)C failure mode* effects and criticality analysis (F")8#)C or fault tree analysis (F&#) to help pinpoint critical items and their critical characteristics from a relia$ility?/uality perspective. 2. .f there will $e multiple Su$system?Su$assem$ly?0art Deployment "atrices prepared* deploy the technical characteristics and their target values to the appropriate matrices. 8arry forward the important or critical product re/uirements or technical characteristics from 0roduct 0lanning "atrix ($ased on importance ratings and team decision) to the Su$system?Su$assem$ly?0art Deployment "atrix. &hese Jproduct needsJ $ecome the JwhatLsJ for this next level matrix. -here appropriate* allocate target values (e.g.* target manufacturing cost* mean@time $etween failures* etc.) to the Su$system ? Su$assem$ly ? 0art Deployment "atrices. %rgani2e these product re/uirements or technical characteristics $y assem$ly(ies) or part(s) to $e addressed on a particular deployment matrix. .nclude any additional customer needs or re/uirements to address more detailed customer needs or general re/uirements. Eormali2e the .mportance !atings from the 0roduct 0lanning "atrix and $ring them forward as the 0riority ratings. !eview these priority ratings and ma+e appropriate changes for the su$systems* su$assem$lies or parts $eing addressed. Determine the the 0riority for any needs that were added. 9. 8onsidering product re/uirements or technical characteristics* identify the critical part* su$assem$ly or su$system characteristics. State the characteristics in a measura$le way. For higher@level su$systems or su$assem$les* state the characteristics in a glo$al manner to avoid constraining concept selection at this next level. :. Develop relationships $etween product needs (product@level technical characteristics) and the su$system ? su$assem$ly ? part technical characteristics. >se ;@9@7 relationship weights for strong* medium and wea+ relationships. 4e sparing with the strong relationships. ;. Develop preliminary target values for su$system ? su$assem$ly ? part characteristics. . Determine potential positive and negative interactions $etween the technical part characteristics using sym$ols for strong or medium* positive or negative relationships. &oo many positive interactions suggest potential redundancy in critical part characteristics. Focus on negative interactions @ consider different su$system ? su$assem$ly ? part concepts* different technologies* tooling concepts* material technology* and process technology to overcome the potential trade@off or consider the trade@off in esta$lishing target values. I. 8alculate importance ratings. #ssign a weighting factor to the relationships (;@9@7). "ultiply the customer importance rating $y the improvement factor (if any)* the sales point factor (if any) and the relationship factor in each cell of the relationship matrix and add the
resulting products in each column. A. .dentify a difficulty rating (7 to ; point scale* five $eing very difficult and ris+y) for each su$system ? su$assem$ly ? part re/uirement or technical characteristic. 8onsider technology maturity* personnel technical /ualifications* $usiness ris+* manufacturing capa$ility* supplier capa$ility* and schedule. Develop a composite rating or $rea+down into individual assessments $y category. Determine if overall ris+ is accepta$le and if individual ris+s $ased on target or specification values are accepta$le. #dKust target or specification values accordingly. B. #naly2e the matrix and finali2e the su$system?su$assem$ly?part deployment matrix. Determine re/uired actions and areas of focus. 70. Finali2e target values. 8onsider interactions* importance ratings and difficulty ratings.
Design to cost (D&8) training provides the s+ills and tools to design a new product to a cost target
DESIGN 'O COS' ,ORKS(O

DRM Associates
200 D!" #ssociates
D!" #ssociates
/0 IN'ROD)C'ION
Eew 0roduct Development &raining 1alue #nalysis -or+shop
&raining )xperience
Design to 8ost 8onsulting &arget 8osting? Design@to@8ost 0aper 0roduct Development Forum E0D 4ody of 5nowledge
)ffect of 0roduct Development on 8ost &raditional #pproach to 0roduct 8ost "anagement &arget 8ost #pproach F 8omparison Design to 8ost (D&8) as a 4asis to #chieve a &arget 8ost # 8omprehensive #pproach to D&8 #chievement During the Five Development 0hases, o !e/uirements Definition o 8oncept Development o #ssem$ly Design o 0art Design?Selection o 0rocess Design
10 ROD)C' ECONOMICS )conomics of 0roduct Development !elationship of 0roduct 8osts* Development 8osts F 1olume )lements of 8osts and Hife 8ycle 8osts (H88) Eonrecurring Development 8osts and !ecurring 0roduction 8osts &radeoffLs 4etween !ecurring F Eonrecurring 8osts %$taining F >sing "anufacturing and Supplier 8ost Data )xperience 8urves Exercise - New Product Business Case
20 DE#E+O ING A DESIGN 'O COS' O-3EC'I#E 4 'RACKING COS'S Determining a &arget 8ost?Design to 8ost %$Kective From the &arget 0rice o Determining Supply 8hain "argins* Distri$ution 8osts* -arranty 8osts* 8orporate #llocations F 0rofit o &arget 8ost -or+sheet F )xample #llocating F &rac+ing &arget 8osts?Design to 8ost %$Kectives >sing 0roduct 8ost "odels and 8ost &a$les to &rac+ &arget 8osts?Design to 8ost #chievement 4asic 0roduct 8ost "odels @ 4%" 8ost !oll@ups and Spreadsheets 8reating and !efining a 0redictive 8ost "odel 8ommercial 8ost "odel &ools 1alidating 8ost 0roKections 8ost &rac+ing and 0erformance "onitoring &arget 8ost &rac+ing -or+sheet Hife 8ycle 8ost 8osts F 8ost "odels
50 D'C D)RING REQ)IREMEN'S DEFINI'ION !e/uirements are the >ltimate 8ost Driver Start with the 8ustomer 1alue 0roposition 8onKoint #nalysis @ Determine -hat is of 1alue to the 8ustomer
Focus on 8ustomer Eeeds @ Functionality vs. #fforda$ility o >sing 'uality Function Deployment to 4alance !e/uirements and 8ost o >sing 'uality Function Deployment to >nderstand 8ost Drivers o >sing 'uality Function Deployment to 4alance Specification 1alues and 8ost 8ustomer Function Diagram to #$stract !e/uirements and #ssess 8ompleteness )valuating !e/uirements 4ased on Gigh 8ost to Function !atio
60 D'C D)RING CONCE ' DE#E+O MEN' >se of Function #nalysis to )xplore 8oncept !e/uirements and !educe 8osts 1alue )ngineering F the Function #nalysis?1alue #nalysis "ethodology o Function Analysis Exercise I o Function 8ost "atrix F 1alue #nalysis "atrix o Function #nalysis System &echni/ue (F#S&) o Function Analysis Exercise II .mportance of )xploring 8oncept #lternatives 4rainstorming and %ther 8reativity &echni/ues &!.M and &heory of .nventive 0ro$lem Solving &rimming and Simplification 8oncept )valuation and 8oncept Selection "atrix Simplification and the .mpact of #rchitecture on D&8
70 D'C D)RING ASSEM-+. DESIGN Function #nalysis with #ssem$ly Design &he 0ower of 8onsidering #ssem$ly Design #lternatives Design for #ssem$ly (DF#) o DF# 0rinciples F (uidelines o &he 5ey DF# 0rinciple @ Simplification o DFA Exercise I o #voiding Eon@!ecurring 8osts with Standardi2ation o "ista+e@0roofing #ssem$ly o #ssem$ly 0rocess and DF# 0rinciples Gandling and %rientation Hocation a nd.nsertion Noining and Fastening #dKustment F Finishing o DFA Exercise II Design for &est @ Developing an )conomic &est Strategy
80 D'C D)RING AR' DESIGN9SE+EC'ION Function #nalysis with 0art Design )valuating "aterial and 0rocess #lternatives &rade@offs of Eonrecurring and !ecurring 8osts with &ooling Eear Eet Shape 0arts Standardi2ation and Simplification
Design for "anufactura$ility (DF") o )valuating "aterial and 0rocess #lternatives o 0roduction !ate F 8ost &rade@offLs, "aterials* "anufacturing F &ooling o DF" 0rinciples F (uidelines @ "achining* Sheetmetal* .nKection "olding F 0-4Ls o DFM Exercise !educing 8osts with )arly Supplier .nvolvement F )ffective Supplier 0artnership 0urchasing #ctions to !educe 8ost "inimi2ing Supply 8hain and Hogistics 8osts
70 D'C D)RING ROCESS DESIGN 0rinciples of 0rocess Design for How 8ost &he !ole of 1alue )ngineering in 0rocess Design F .mprovement 8ost !eduction through #utomation and .ntegration !e@engineering the Development and 0roduction 0rocesses )liminating Eon@1alue@#dded #ctivities "inimi2ing 8ost &hrough "aximi2ing 0rocess 8apa$ility o 8entering the "ean and )sta$lishing !ealistic &olerances o # "inimum 8ost Strategy 8ost .nspection F &est %ptimi2ing &olerances for How 8ost
80 AC(IE#ING DESIGN 'O COS' 8hallenging Oour #ssumptions DTC Exercise #chieving D&8 @ Summary $y Development 0hase
:0 D'C ROCESS AND ORGANI;A'ION )sta$lishing a Design to 8ost 0rogram &he Design@to@8ost and DF"?# 0rocess Design !eviews #voiding Hocal %ptimi2ation and (lo$al Su$optimi2ation @ %rgani2ational .ssues >se of 0roduct Development &eams to #chieve 8ost &argets !oles and !esponsi$ilities Supplier !oles in Design to 8ost )ssential "etrics to &rac+ &arget 8ost #chievement
<0 IM +EMEN'A'ION 4 S)MMAR. &he 70 Steps to Design@to@8ost Deploying a Design to 8ost 0rogram to Oour 4usiness?0roKect %vercoming .mpediments and #pplying Hessons Hearned Developing an #ction 0lan to 8lose the (ap Sources of Further .nformation
'uestions and #nswers
/=0 D'C EXERCISE >O 'IONA+?

1alue analysis* function analysis F F#S& are methods for improving a productLs value proposition.
%ptional )xercises #naly2ing 8ompany .tem(s) on Hast Day
#A+)E ANA+.SIS AND F)NC'ION ANA+.SIS S.S'EM 'EC(NIQ)E

A@a!te@ "y Kenneth Crow DRM Associates
THE CONCEPT OF VA*UE
%he value of a product will be interpreted in different ways by different customers! Its common characteristic is a high level of performance, capability, emotional appeal, style, etc! relative to its cost! %his can also be Design@to@8ostexpressed as maximi8ing the function of a product relative to its cost5
0aper
1alue P (0erformance Q 8apa$ility)?8ost P Function?8ost
Aalue is not a matter of minimi8ing cost! In some cases the value of a product can be increased by increasing its function $performance or 1alue #nalysiscapability' and cost as long as the added function increases more than its -or+shop added cost! %he concept of functional worth can be important! )unctional worth is the lowest cost to provide a given function! owever, there are less tangible 4selling4 functions involved in a product to make it of value to a D!" #ssociates customer!
&arget 8osting
INTRODUCTION TO VA*UE ANA*+SIS

@awrence "iles conceived of Aalue <nalysis $A<' in the &=SG based on the application of function analysis to the component parts of a product! -omponent cost reduction was an effective and popular way to improve 4value4 when direct labor and material cost determined the success of a product! %he value analysis techni9ue supported cost reduction activities by relating the cost of components to their function contributions! Aalue analysis defines a 4basic function4 as anything that makes the product work or sell! < function that is defined as 4basic4 cannot change! Secondary functions, also called 4supporting functions4, described the manner in which the basic function$s' were implemented! Secondary functions could be modified or eliminated to reduce product cost!
<s A< progressed to larger and more complex products and systems, emphasis shifted to 4upstream4 product development activities where A< can be more effectively applied to a product before it reaches the production phase! owever, as products have become more complex and sophisticated, the techni9ue needed to be adapted to the 4systems4 approach that is involved in many products today! <s a result, value analysis evolved into the 4)unction <nalysis System %echni9ue4 $)<S%' which is discussed later!
THE VA*UE ANA*+SIS METHOD

In all problem solving techni9ues, we are trying to change a condition by means of a solution that is uni9ue and relevant! If we describe in detail what we are trying to accomplish, we tend to describe a solution and miss the opportunity to engage in divergent thinking about other alternatives! /hen trying to describe problems that affect us, we become locked in to a course of action without reali8ing it, because of our own bias! -onversely, the more abstractly we can define the function of what we are trying to accomplish, the more opportunities we will have for divergent thinking! %his high level of abstraction can be achieved by describing what is to be accomplished with a verb and a noun! In this discipline, the verb answers the 9uestion, 4/hat is to be done34 or, 4/hat is it to do34 %he verb defines the re9uired action! %he noun answers the 9uestion, 4/hat is it being done to34 %he noun tells what is acted upon! Identifying the function by a verb# noun is not as simple a matter as it appears! Identifying the function in the broadest possible terms provides the greatest potential for divergent thinking because it gives the greatest freedom for creatively developing alternatives! < function should be identified as to what is to be accomplished by a solution and not how it is to be accomplished! ow the function is identified determines the scope, or range of solutions that can be considered! %hat functions designated as 4basic4 represent the operative function of the item or product and must be maintained and protected! (etermining the basic function of single components can be relatively simple! *y definition then, functions designated as 4basic4 will not change, but the way those functions are implemented is open to innovative speculation! <s important as the basic function is to the success of any product, the cost to perform that function is inversely proportional to its importance! %his is not an absolute rule, but rather an observation of the consumer products market! )ew people purchase consumer products based on performance or the lowest cost of basic functions alone! /hen purchasing a product it is assumed that the basic function is operative! %he customer:s attention is then
directed to those visible secondary support functions, or product features, which determine the worth of the product! )rom a product design point of view, products that are perceived to have high value first address the basic function:s performance and stress the achievement of all of the performance attributes! ?nce the basic functions are satisfied, the designer:s then address the secondary functions necessary to attract customers! Secondary functions are incorporated in the product as features to support and enhance the basic function and help sell the product! %he elimination of secondary functions that are not very important to the customer will reduce product cost and increase value without detracting from the worth of the product! %he cost contribution of the basic function does not, by itself, establish the value of the product! )ew products are sold on the basis of their basic function alone! If this were so, the market for 4no name4 brands would be more popular than it is today! <lthough the cost contribution of the basic function is relatively small, its loss will cause the loss of the market value of the product! ?ne ob.ective of value analysis or function analysis, to improve value by reducing the cost#function relationship of a product, is achieved by eliminating or combining as many secondary functions as possible!
VA*UE ANA*+SIS PROCESS

%he first step in the value analysis process is to define the problem and its scope! ?nce this is done, the functions of the product and its items are derived! %hese functions are classified into 4basic4 and 4secondary4 functions! < -ost )unction "atrix or Aalue <nalysis "atrix is prepared to identify the cost of providing each function by associating the function with a mechanism or component part of a product! ;roduct functions with a high cost#function ratio are identified as opportunities for further investigation and improvement! Improvement opportunities are then brainstormed, analy8ed, and selected! %he ob.ective of the )unction -ost "atrix approach is to draw the attention of the analysts away from the cost of components and focus their attention on the cost contribution of the functions! %he )unction -ost "atrix displays the components of the product, and the cost of those components, along the left vertical side of the graph! %he top hori8ontal legend contains the functions performed by those components! Each component is then examined to determine how many functions that component performs, and the cost contributions of those functions! (etailed cost estimates become more important following function analysis, when evaluating value improvement proposals! %he total cost and percent
contribution of the functions of the item under study will guide the team, or analyst, in selecting which functions to select for value improvement analysis! < variation of the )unction#-ost "atrix is the Aalue <nalysis "atrix! %his matrix was derived from the Quality )unction (eployment $Q)(' methodology! It is more powerful in two ways! )irst, it associates functions back to customer needs or re9uirements! In doing this, it carries forward an importance rating to associate with these functions based on the original customer needs or re9uirements! )unctions are then related to mechanisms, the same as with the )unction#-ost "atrix! "echanisms are related to functions as either strongly, moderately or weakly supporting the given function! %his relationship is noted with the standard Q)( relationship symbols! %he associated weighting factor is multiplied by customer or function importance and each columns value is added! %hese totals are normali8ed to calculate each mechanism:s relative weight in satisfying the designated functions! %his is where the second difference with the )unction#-ost "atrix arises! %his mechanism weight can then be used as the basis to allocate the overall item or product cost! %he mechanism target costs can be compared with the actual or estimated costs to see where costs are out of line with the value of that mechanism as derived from customer re9uirements and function analysis!
FUNCTION ANA*+SIS S+STEM TECHNI,UE

)unction <nalysis System %echni9ue is an evolution of the value analysis process created by -harles *ytheway! )<S% permits people with different technical backgrounds to effectively communicate and resolve issues that re9uire multi#disciplined considerations! )<S% builds upon A< by linking the simply expressed, verb#noun functions to describe complex systems! )<S% is not an end product or result, but rather a beginning! It describes the item or system under study and causes the team to think through the functions that the item or system performs, forming the basis for a wide variety of subse9uent approaches and analysis techni9ues! )<S% contributes significantly to perhaps the most important phase of value engineering5 function analysis! )<S% is a creative stimulus to explore innovative avenues for performing functions! %he )<S% diagram or model is an excellent communications vehicle! Esing the verb#noun rules in function analysis creates a common language, crossing all disciplines and technologies! It allows multi#disciplined team members to contribute e9ually and communicate with one another while addressing the problem ob.ectively without bias or preconceived
conclusions! /ith )<S%, there are no right or wrong model or result! %he problem should be structured until the product development team members are satisfied that the real problem is identified! <fter agreeing on the problem statement, the single most important output of the multi#disciplined team engaged in developing a )<S% model is consensus! Since the team has been charged with the responsibility of resolving the assigned problem, it is their interpretation of the )<S% model that reflects the problem statement that:s important! %he team members must discuss and reconfigure the )<S% model until consensus is reached and all participating team members are satisfied that their concerns are expressed in the model! ?nce consensus has been achieved, the )<S% model is complete and the team can move on to the next creative phase! )<S% differs from value analysis in the use of intuitive logic to determine and test function dependencies and the graphical display of the system in a function dependency diagram or model! <nother ma.or difference is in analy8ing a system as a complete unit, rather than analy8ing the components of a system! /hen studying systems it becomes apparent that functions do not operate in a random or independent fashion! < system exists because functions form dependency links with other functions, .ust as components form a dependency link with other components to make the system work! %he importance of the )<S% approach is that it graphically displays function dependencies and creates a process to study function links while exploring options to develop improved systems! %here are normally two types of )<S% diagrams, the technical )<S% diagram and the customer )<S% diagram! < technical )<S% diagram is used to understand the technical aspects of a specific portion of a total product! < customer )<S% diagram focuses on the aspects of a product that the customer cares about and does not delve into the technicalities, mechanics or physics of the product! < customer )<S% diagram is usually applied to a total product!
CREATING A FAST MODE*

%he )<S% model has a hori8ontal directional orientation described as the ?/#/ 2 dimension! %his dimension is described in this manner because ?/ and / 2 9uestions are asked to structure the logic of the system:s functions! Starting with a function, we ask ?/ that function is performed to develop a more specific approach! %his line of 9uestioning and thinking is read from left to right! %o abstract the problem to a higher level, we ask / 2 is that function performed! %his line of logic is read from right to left! %here is essential logic associated with the )<S% ?/#/ 2 directional orientation! )irst, when undertaking any task it is best to start with the goals
of the task, then explore methods to achieve the goals! /hen addressing any function on the )<S% model with the 9uestion / 2, the function to its left expresses the goal of that function! %he 9uestion ?/, is answered by the function on the right, and is a method to perform that function being addressed! < systems diagram starts at the beginning of the system and ends with its goal! < )<S% model, reading from left to right, starts with the goal, and ends at the beginning of the 4system4 that will achieve that goal! Second, changing a function on the ?/#/ 2 path affects all of the functions to the right of that function! %his is a domino effect that only goes one way, from left to right! Starting with any place on the )<S% model, if a function is changed the goals are still valid $functions to the left', but the method to accomplish that function, and all other functions on the right, are affected! )inally, building the model in the ?/ direction, or function .ustification, will focus the team:s attention on each function element of the model! /hereas, reversing the )<S% model and building it in its system orientation will cause the team to leap over individual functions and focus on the system, leaving function 4gaps4 in the system! < good rule to remember in constructing a )<S% "odel is to build in the ?/ direction and test the logic in the / 2 direction! %he vertical orientation of the )<S% model is described as the / E1 direction! %his is not part of the intuitive logic process, but it supplements intuitive thinking! / E1 is not a time orientation, but indicates cause and effect! Scope lines represent the boundaries of the study and are shown as two vertical lines on the )<S% model! %he scope lines bound the 4scope of the study4, or that aspect of the problem with which the study team is concerned! %he left scope line determines the basic function$s' of the study! %he basic functions will always be the first function$s' to the immediate right of the left scope line! %he right scope line identifies the beginning of the study and separates the input function$s' from the scope of the study! %he ob.ective or goal of the study is called the 4 ighest ?rder )unction4, located to the left of the basic function$s' and outside of the left scope line! <ny function to the left of another function is a 4higher order function4! )unctions to the right and outside of the right scope line represent the input side that 4turn on4 or initiate the sub.ect under study and are known as lowest order functions! <ny function to the right of another function is a 4lower order4 function and represents a method selected to carry out the function being addressed!
%hose function$s' to the immediate right of the left scope line represent the purpose or mission of the product or process under study and are called *asic )unction$s'! ?nce determined, the basic function will not change! If the basic function fails, the product or process will lose its market value! <ll functions to the right of the basic function$s' portray the conceptual approach selected to satisfy the basic function! %he concept describes the method being considered, or elected, to achieve the basic function$s'! %he concept can represent either the current conditions $as is' or proposed approach $to be'! <s a general rule, it is best to create a 4to be4 rather than an 4as is4 )<S% "odel, even if the assignment is to improve an existing product! %his approach will give the product development team members an opportunity to compare the 4ideal4 to the 4current4 and help resolve how to implement the differences! /orking from an 4as is4 model will restrict the team:s attention to incremental improvement opportunities! <n 4as is4 model is useful for tracing the symptoms of a problem to its root cause, and exploring ways to resolve the problem, because of the dependent relationship of functions that form the )<S% model! <ny function on the ?/#/ 2 logic path is a logic path function! If the functions along the / 2 direction lead into the basic function$s', than they are located on the ma.or logic path! If the / 2 path does not lead directly to the basic function, it is a minor logic path! -hanging a function on the ma.or logic path will alter or destroy the way the basic function is performed! -hanging a function on a minor logic path will disturb an independent $supporting' function that enhances the basic function! Supporting functions are usually secondary and exist to achieve the performance levels specified in the ob.ectives or specifications of the basic functions or because a particular approach was chosen to implement the basic function$s'! Independent functions describe an enhancement or control of a function located on the logic path! %hey do not depend on another function or method selected to perform that function! Independent functions are located above the logic path function$s', and are considered secondary, with respect to the scope, nature, level of the problem, and its logic path! <n example of a )<S% (iagram for a pencil is shown below!
#dapted from an example developed $y N. Nerry 5aufman
%he next step in the process is to dimension the )<S% model or to associate information to its functions! )<S% dimensions include, but are not limited to5 responsibility, budgets, allocated target costs, estimated costs, actual costs, subsystem groupings, placing inspection and test points, manufacturing processes, positioning design reviews, and others! %here are many ways to dimension a )<S% model! %he two popular ways are called -lustering )unctions and the Sensitivity "atrix! -lustering functions involves drawing boundaries with dotted lines around groups of functions to configure sub#systems! -lustering functions is a good way to illustrate cost reduction targets and assign design#to#cost targets to new design concepts! )or cost reduction, a team would develop an 4as is4 product )<S% model, cluster the functions into subsystems, allocate product cost by clustered functions, and assign target costs! (uring the process of creating the model, customer sensitivity functions can be identified as well as opportunities for significant cost improvements in design and production! )ollowing the completion of the model, the subsystems can be divided among product development teams assigned to achieve the target cost reductions! %he teams can then select cost sensitive sub#systems and expand them by moving that segment of the model to a lower level of abstraction!
%his exposes the detail components of that assembly and their functionTcost contributions!
INTEGRATING ,FD -ITH FAST

< powerful analysis method is created when )<S% is used in con.unction with Q)(! Q)( enables the uses of the Aalue <nalysis "atrix! <n example of a value analysis matrix for the pencil example is shown below!
%he steps for using these two methodologies are as follows5

7. 8apture customer re/uirements and perform 'FD product planning with the product planning matrix. &ranslate customer needs into directly into ver$@noun functions or use a second matrix to translate technical characteristics into ver$@noun functions. 2. 0repare a F#S& diagram and develop the product concept in conKunction with the 'FD concept selection matrix. !eview the ver$@noun functions in the 'FD matrix and assure that they are included in the F#S& diagram. !evise ver$@noun function descriptions if necessary to assure consistency $etween the 'FD matrix and the F#S& diagram. 9. Dimension the system in the F#S& diagram into su$systems?assem$lies?parts. &hese are generically referred to as mechanisms. :. Develop value analysis matrix at system level. &he JwhatLsJ or system re/uirements?function in the value analysis matrix are derived from either a customer (vs. technical) F#S& diagram or $y selecting those function
statements that correspond to the customer needs or technical characteristics in the product planning matrix. &he importance rating is derived from the product planning matrix as well. ;. 8omplete the value analysis matrix $y relating the mechanisms to the customer re/uirements?functions and calculate the associated weight. Summari2e the column weights and normali2e to create mechanism weights. #llocate the target cost $ased on the mechanism weights. &his represents the value to the customer $ased on the customer importance. 8ompare with either estimated costs $ased on the product concept or actual costs if availa$le. . .dentify high cost to value mechanisms ? su$systems $y comparing the mechanism target costs to the mechanism estimated?actual costs
< product or system such as an automobile contains a great many components and would result in an extremely complex )<S% model! %he complexity of the process is not governed by the number of components in a product, but the level of abstraction selected to perform the analysis! /ith an automobile, a high level of abstraction could contain the ma.or subsystems as the components under study, such as5 the power train, chassis, electrical system, passenger compartment, etc! %he result of the )<S% model and supporting cost analysis might then focus the team:s attention on the power train for further analysis! "oving to a lower level of abstraction, the power train could then be divided into its components $engine, transmission, drive shaft, etc!' for a more detailed analysis! In other words, the concept of decomposition is applied to a )<S% model! %he initial )<S% model will stay at a high level of abstraction! Starting at a higher level of abstraction allows for uncluttered macro analysis of the overall problem until those key functions can be found, isolated, and the key issues identified! If a function is identified for further study, we note that with a 4U4 below the function box! < supporting )<S% diagram is then created for that subsystem function! %his process of decomposition or moving to lower levels of abstraction could be carried down several levels if appropriate! ?nce high cost to value mechanisms are identified in the initial system value analysis matrix, the next step is to focus more attention on those mechanisms and associated functions! (imensioning groups the functions together into those associated with a particular subsystem, assembly or part! %he )<S% diagram can be expanded into a lower level of abstraction in the area under investigation! %he steps involved are as follows5
7. >se 'FD to translate higher@level customer needs to su$system technical characteristics. 2. 8reate F#S& diagram at lower level of a$straction for targeted mechanism?su$system. 9. 0repare a F#S& diagram F develop the product concept in conKunction with the 'FD concept selection matrix :. Dimension the system in the F#S& diagram into assem$lies?parts or identify the assem$lies?parts needed to perform the given function.
;. Develop value analysis matrix at a lower level of a$straction for the targeted su$system. &he JwhatLsJ or system re/uirements?function in the value analysis matrix are derived from either a customer (vs. technical) F#S& diagram or $y selecting those function statements that correspond to the customer needs or technical characteristics in the su$system planning matrix. . 8omplete the value analysis matrix and identify high cost to value mechanisms $y comparing the mechanism target costs to the mechanism estimated?actual costs
VA*UE IMPROVEMENT PROCESS

;erforming value analysis or producing the )<S% model and analy8ing functions with the value analysis matrix are only the first steps in the process! %he real work begins with brainstorming, developing and analy8ing potential improvements in the product! %hese subse9uent steps are supported by5
&he 'FD 8oncept Selection "atrix is a powerful tool to evaluate various concept and design alternatives $ased on a set of weighted criteria that ultimately tie $ac+ to customer needs. 4enchmar+ing competitors and other similar products helps to see new ways functions can $e performed and $rea+s down some of the not@ invented@here paradigms. 0roduct cost and life cycle cost models support the estimating of cost for the Function@8ost and 1alue #nalysis "atrices and aid in the evaluation of various product concepts. &echnology evaluation is leads us to new ways that $asic functions can $e performed in a $etter or less costly way. 8oncept development should involve people with a +nowledge of new technology development and an open mind to identify how this technology might relate to product functions that need to $e performed. "ethods such as the theory of inventive pro$lem solving or &!.M are useful in this regard. Design for "anufactura$ility?#ssem$ly principles provide guidance on how to $etter design components and assem$lies that are more manufactura$le and* as a result* are lower in cost.
Aalue <nalysis or )unction <nalysis provide the methods to identify the problem and to begin to define the functions that need to be performed! <s we proceed in developing a )<S% model, implicit in this process is developing a concept of operation for the product which is represented by all of the lower order functions in a )<S% diagram! -oncept alternatives will be developed through brainstorming, benchmarking other products performing similar functions, and surveying and applying new technology! Since multiple concepts need to be evaluated, we want to use a higher level of abstraction for the )<S% model to provide us with the greatest flexibility and a minimum level of effort! %rade studies and technical analysis will be performed to evaluate various product concepts! < concept selection matrix is a good tool to summari8e a variety
of different data and support making a decision about the preferred concept! <ll of these steps may be iterative as a preferred concept evolves and gets more fully developed! In addition, there should be a thorough evaluation of whether all functions are needed or if there is a different way of accomplishing a function as the concept is developed to a lower level of abstraction! /hen a )unction -ost or Aalue <nalysis "atrix is prepared, functions that are out of balance with their worth are identified, further challenging the team to explore different approaches!
SUMMAR+
Aalue analysis and its more robust cousin, )unction <nalysis System %echni9ue, are important analysis tools! %hese methodologies lead to improved product designs and lower costs by5
0roviding a method of communication within a product development team and achieving team consensus Facilitating flexi$ility in thin+ing and exploring multiple concepts Focusing on essential functions to fulfill product re/uirements .dentifying high cost functions to explore improvements
&his paper presents an approach and the factors that must $e considered in designing for the product life cycle.
DESIGN FOR '(E +IFE C.C+E

)or many durable goods, there are a variety of other design considerations related to the total product life cycle! )or consumable products, some of these life cycle factors may be of lesser importance! @ife cycle factors that may need to be addressed during product design include5
&esta$ility?.nspecta$ility !elia$ility?#vaila$ility "aintaina$ility?Servicea$ility Design for the )nvironment >pgradea$ility .nstalla$ility Safety and 0roduct Hia$ility Guman Factors
Design for "anufactura$ility
Design for the )nvironment
!o$ust Design
D!" #ssociates
%he relative importance of these factors and their orientation will vary from industry to industry and product to product! owever, there are general design principles for these life cycle re9uirements that will be generally applicable to many items! < basic integrated product development concept is the parallel design of support processes with the design of the product! %his parallel design re9uires early involvement and early consideration of life cycle factors $as appropriate' in the design process! owever, in many organi8ations, consideration or design of the support processes is an after#thought and many of these developmental activities are started after the design of the product is well under way if not essentially complete!
DESIGN FOR TESTABI*IT+ ( INSPECTABI*IT+

%est and inspection processes can consume a significant amount of effort and the development or ac9uisition of test e9uipment can re9uire considerable time and expense with some products! Early involvement of the test engineering or 9uality assurance functions can lead to design choices that can minimi8e the cost of developing or ac9uiring necessary e9uipment and the effort to test or inspect the product at the various
stages of production! < starting point is to establish a common understanding between Engineering, their customers, and other functional departments regarding the re9uirements for product 9ualification, product acceptance after manufacture, and product diagnosis in the field! /ith this understanding, a design team can begin to effectively design products and test and inspection processes in parallel! Increasingly complex and sophisticated products re9uire capabilities and features to facilitate test and acceptance of products and diagnosis products if a defect is identified! Specific principles which need to be understood and applied in the design of products are5
>se of (eometric Dimensioning and &olerancing ((DF&) to provide unam$iguous representation of design intent Specification of product parameters and tolerances that are within the natural capa$ilities of the manufacturing process (process capa$ility index 8p and 8p+) 0rovision of test points* access to test points and connections* and sufficient real estate to support test points* connections* and $uilt@in test capa$ilities Standard connections and interfaces to facilitate use of standard test e/uipment and connectors and to reduce effort to setup and connect the product during testing #utomated test e/uipment compati$ility 4uilt@in test and diagnosis capa$ility to provide self test and self@ diagnosis in the factory and in the field 0hysical and electrical partitioning to facilitate test and isolation of faults
In addition, test engineering should be involved at an early stage to define test re9uirements and design the test approach! %his will lead to the design or specification of test e9uipment that better optimi8es test re9uirements, production volumes, e9uipment cost, e9uipment utili8ation, and testing effortTcost! igher production volumes and standardi8ed test approaches can .ustify development, ac9uisition, or use of automated test e9uipment! %he design and ac9uisition of test e9uipment and procedures can be done in parallel with the design of the product which will reduce leadtime! (esign of products to use standardi8ed e9uipment can further reduce the costs of test e9uipment and reduce the leadtime to ac9uire, fabricate, and setup test e9uipment for both 9ualification testing and product acceptance testing!
DESIGN FOR RE*IABI*IT+

6eliability consideration has tended to be more of an after#thought in the development of many new products! "any companies: reliability
activities have been performed primarily to satisfy internal procedures or customer re9uirements! /here reliability is actively considered in product design, it tends to be done relatively late in the development process! Some companies focus their efforts on developing reliability predictions when this effort instead could be better utili8ed understanding and mitigating failure modes, thereby!developing improved product reliability! ?rgani8ations will go through repeated $and planned' designTbuildTtest iterations to develop higher reliability products! ?verall, this focus is reactive in nature, and the time pressures to bring a product to market limit the reliability improvements that might be made! In a integrated product development environment, the orientation toward reliability must be changed and a more proactive approach utili8ed! 6eliability engineers need to be involved in product design at an early point to identify reliability issues and concerns and begin assessing reliability implications as the design concept emerges! Ese of computer#aided engineering $-<E' analysis and simulation tools at an early stage in the design can improve product reliability more inexpensively and in a shorter time than building and testing physical prototypes! %ools such as finite element analysis, fluid flow, thermal analysis, integrated reliability prediction models, etc!, are becoming more widely used, more user friendly and less expensive! (esign of Experiments techni9ues can provide a structured, proactive approach to improving reliability and robustness as compared to unstructured, reactive designTbuildTtest approaches! )urther, these techni9ues consider the effect of both product and process parameters on the reliability of the product and address the effect of interactions between parameters! )inally, the company should begin establishing a mechanism to accumulate and apply 4lessons learned4 from the past related to reliability problems as well as other producibility and maintainability issues! %hese lessons learned can be very useful in avoiding making the same mistakes twice! Specific (esign for 6eliability guidelines include the following5
Design $ased on the expected range of the operating environment. Design to minimi2e or $alance stresses and thermal loads and?or reduce sensitivity to these stresses or loads. De@rate components for added margin. 0rovide su$system redundancy. >se proven component parts F materials with well@characteri2ed relia$ility. !educe parts count F interconnections (and their failure opportunities). .mprove process capa$ilities to deliver more relia$le components and
assem$lies.
DESIGN FOR MAINTAINABI*IT+ ( SERVICEABI*IT+

-onsideration of product maintainabilityTserviceability tends to be an after#thought in the design of many products! ;ersonnel responsible for maintenance and service need to be involved early to share their concerns and re9uirements! %he design of the support processes needs to be developed in parallel with the design of the product! %his can lead to lower overall life cycle costs and a product design that is optimi8ed to its support processes! /hen designing for maintainabilityTserviceability, there needs to be consideration of the trade#offs involved! In high reliability and low cost products or with consummable products, designing for maintainabilityTserviceability is not important! In the case of a durable good with a long life cycle or a product with parts sub.ect to wear, maintainabilityTserviceability may be more important than initial product ac9uisition cost, and the product must be designed for easy maintenance! In these situations, basic design rules need to be considered such as5
.dentify modules su$Kect to wear or greater pro$a$ility of replacement. Design these modules* assem$lies or parts so that they can $e easily accessed* removed and replaced. >se /uic+ fastening and unfastening mechanisms for service items. >se common handtools and a minimum num$er of handtools for disassem$ly and re@assem$ly. "inimi2e servicea$le items $y placing the most li+ely items to fail* wear@out or need replacement in a small num$er of modules or assem$lies. Design so that they re/uire simple procedures to replace. >se $uilt@in self@test and indicators to /uic+ly isolate faults and pro$lems. )liminate or reduce the need for adKustment. >se common* standard replacement parts. "ista+e@proof fasteners so that only the correct fastener can $e used in re@assem$ly. "ista+e@proof electrical connectors $y using uni/ue connectors to avoid connectors $eing mis@connected.
(esign for "aintainability guidelines have much in common with (esign for "anufacturability guidelines! In addition, service and support policies and procedures need to be developed, service training developed and conducted, maintenance manuals written, and spare parts levels established! <s these tasks are done in parallel with the design of the product, it reduces the time to market and will result in a more satisfied customer when inevitable problems arise with the first delivery of a new product!
Failure modes and effects analysis (F")#) is methodology to analy2e and mitigate potential failures.
FAI+)RE MODES AND EFFEC'S ANA+.SIS >FMEA?

0roduct Development Forum
I!troduct"o!
-ustomers are placing increased demands on companies for high 9uality, products! %he increasing capabilities and functionality of many products are making it more difficult for manufacturers to maintain the 9uality and reliability! %raditionally, reliability has been achieved through extensive testing and use of techni9ues such as probabilistic reliability F")# -or+shop modeling! %hese are techni9ues done in the late stages of development! %he challenge is to design in 9uality and reliability early in the development 0D &ool+it (F")# cycle! Software)
E0D 4ody of reliable 5nowledge
)ailure "odes and Effects <nalysis $)"E<' is methodology for analy8ing potential reliability problems early in the development cycle where it is easier D!" #ssociates to take actions to overcome these issues, thereby enhancing reliability through design! )"E< is used to identify potential failure modes, determine their effect on the operation of the product, and identify actions to mitigate the failures! < crucial step is anticipating what might go wrong with a product! /hile anticipating every failure mode is not possible, the development team should formulate as extensive a list of potential failure modes as possible! %he early and consistent use of )"E<s in the design process allows the engineer to design out failures and produce reliable, safe, and customer pleasing products! )"E<s also capture historical information for use in future product improvement!
T'$es o. FMEA/s
%here are several types of )"E<s, some are used much more often than others! )"E<s should always be done whenever failures would mean
potential harm or in.ury to the user of the end item being designed! %he types of )"E< are5
System @ focuses on glo$al system functions Design @ focuses on components and su$systems 0rocess @ focuses on manufacturing and assem$ly processes Service @ focuses on service functions Software @ focuses on software functions
FMEA Usa#e
istorically, engineers have done a good .ob of evaluating the functions and the form of products and processes in the design phase! %hey have not always done so well at designing in reliability and 9uality! ?ften the engineer uses safety factors as a way of making sure that the design will work and protected the user against product or process failure! <s described in a recent article5
J# large safety factor does not necessarily translate into a relia$le product. .nstead* it often leads to an overdesigned product with relia$ility pro$lems.J Failure #nalysis 4eats "urpheyLs Haw Mechanical Engineering * Septem$er 7BB9
)"E<:s provide the engineer with a tool that can assist in providing reliable, safe, and customer pleasing products and processes! Since )"E< help the engineer identify potential product or process failures, they can use it to5
Develop product or process re/uirements that minimi2e the li+elihood of those failures. )valuate the re/uirements o$tained from the customer or other participants in the design process to ensure that those re/uirements do not introduce potential failures. .dentify design characteristics that contri$ute to failures and design them out of the system or at least minimi2e the resulting effects. Develop methods and procedures to develop and test the product?process to ensure that the failures have $een successfully eliminated. &rac+ and manage potential ris+s in the design. &rac+ing the ris+s contri$utes to the development of corporate memory and the success of future products as well. )nsure that any failures that could occur will not inKure or seriously impact the customer of the product?process.
Be!e."ts o. FMEA
)"E< is designed to assist the engineer improve the 9uality and reliability of design! ;roperly used the )"E< provides the engineer several benefits! <mong others, these benefits include5
.mprove product?process relia$ility and /uality .ncrease customer satisfaction )arly identification and elimination of potential product?process failure modes 0rioriti2e product?process deficiencies 8apture engineering?organi2ation +nowledge )mphasi2es pro$lem prevention Documents ris+ and actions ta+en to reduce ris+ 0rovide focus for improved testing and development "inimi2es late changes and associated cost 8atalyst for teamwor+ and idea exchange $etween functions
FMEA T"m"!#
%he )"E< is a living document! %hroughout the product development cycle change and updates are made to the product and process! %hese changes can and often do introduce new failure modes! It is therefore important to review andTor update the )"E< when5
# new product or process is $eing initiated (at the $eginning of the cycle). 8hanges are made to the operating conditions the product or process is expected to function in. # change is made to either the product or process design. &he product and process are inter@related. -hen the product design is changed the process is impacted and vice@versa. Eew regulations are instituted. 8ustomer feed$ac+ indicates pro$lems in the product or process.
FMEA Procedure
%he process for conducting an )"E< is straightforward! %he basic steps are outlined below!
7. Descri$e the product?process and its function. #n understanding of the product or process under consideration is important to have clearly articulated. &his understanding simplifies the process of analysis $y helping the engineer identify those product?process uses that fall within the intended function and which ones fall outside. .t is important to consider $oth intentional and unintentional uses since product failure often ends in litigation* which can $e costly and time consuming. 2. 8reate a 4loc+ Diagram of the product or process. # $loc+ diagram of the product?process should $e developed. &his diagram shows maKor components or process steps as $loc+s connected together $y lines that indicate how the components or steps are related. &he diagram shows the logical relationships of components and esta$lishes a structure around which the F")# can $e developed. )sta$lish a 8oding System to identify system elements. &he $loc+ diagram should always $e included with the F")# form. 9. 8omplete the header on the F")# Form wor+sheet, 0roduct?System* Su$sys.?#ssy.* 8omponent* Design Head* 0repared 4y* Date* !evision
(letter or num$er)* and !evision Date. "odify these headings as needed.
:. >se the diagram prepared a$ove to $egin listing items or functions. .f items are components* list them in a logical manner under their su$system?assem$ly $ased on the $loc+ diagram. ;. .dentify Failure "odes. # failure mode is defined as the manner in which a component* su$system* system* process* etc. could potentially fail to meet the design intent. )xamples of potential failure modes include, 8orrosion Gydrogen em$rittlement )lectrical Short or %pen &or/ue Fatigue Deformation 8rac+ing
. # failure mode in one component can serve as the cause of a failure mode in another component. )ach failure should $e listed in technical terms. Failure modes should $e listed for function of each component or process step. #t this point the failure mode should $e identified whether or not the failure is li+ely to occur. Hoo+ing at similar products or processes and the failures that have $een documented for them is an excellent starting point. I. Descri$e the effects of those failure modes. For each failure mode identified the engineer should determine what the ultimate effect will $e. # failure effect is defined as the result of a failure mode on the function of the
product?process as perceived $y the customer. &hey should $e descri$ed in terms of what the customer might see or experience should the identified failure mode occur. 5eep in mind the internal as well as the external customer. )xamples of failure effects include, .nKury to the user .nopera$ility of the product or process .mproper appearance of the product or process %dors Degraded performance Eoise
)sta$lish a numerical ran+ing for the severity of the effect. # common industry standard scale uses 7 to represent no effect and 70 to indicate very severe with failure affecting system operation and safety without warning. &he intent of the ran+ing is to help the analyst determine whether a failure would $e a minor nuisance or a catastrophic occurrence to the customer. &his ena$les the engineer to prioriti2e the failures and address the real $ig issues first. A. .dentify the causes for each failure mode. # failure cause is defined as a design wea+ness that may result in a failure. &he potential causes for each failure mode should $e identified and documented. &he causes should $e listed in technical terms and not in terms of symptoms. )xamples of potential causes include, .mproper tor/ue applied .mproper operating conditions 8ontamination )rroneous algorithms .mproper alignment )xcessive loading )xcessive voltage
B. )nter the 0ro$a$ility factor. # numerical weight should $e assigned to each cause that indicates how li+ely that cause is (pro$a$ility of the cause occuring). # common industry standard scale uses 7 to represent not li+ely and 70 to indicate inevita$le. 70. .dentify 8urrent 8ontrols (design or process). 8urrent 8ontrols (design or process) are the mechanisms that prevent the cause of the failure mode from occurring or which detect the failure $efore it reaches the 8ustomer. &he engineer should now identify testing* analysis* monitoring* and other techni/ues that can or have $een used on the same or similar products?processes to detect failures. )ach of these controls should $e assessed to determine how well it is expected to identify or detect failure modes. #fter a new product or process has $een in use previously undetected or unidentified failure modes may appear. &he F")# should then $e updated and plans made to address those failures to eliminate them from the product?process. 77. Determine the li+elihood of Detection. Detection is an assessment of the li+elihood that the 8urrent 8ontrols (design and process) will detect the 8ause of the Failure "ode or the Failure "ode itself* thus preventing it from
72.
79.
7:. 7;.
reaching the 8ustomer. 4ased on the 8urrent 8ontrols* consider the li+elihood of Detection using the following ta$le for guidance. !eview !is+ 0riority Eum$ers (!0E). &he !is+ 0riority Eum$er is a mathematical product of the numerical Severity* 0ro$a$ility* and Detection ratings, !0E P (Severity) x (0ro$a$ility) x (Detection) &he !0E is used to prioriti2e items than re/uire additional /uality planning or action. Determine !ecommended #ction(s) to address potential failures that have a high !0E. &hese actions could include specific inspection* testing or /uality proceduresC selection of different components or materialsC de@ratingC limiting environmental stresses or operating rangeC redesign of the item to avoid the failure modeC monitoring mechanismsC performing preventative maintenanceC and inclusion of $ac+@up systems or redundancy. #ssign !esponsi$ility and a &arget 8ompletion Date for these actions. &his ma+es responsi$ility clear@cut and facilitates trac+ing. .ndicate #ctions &a+en. #fter these actions have $een ta+en* re@assess the severity* pro$a$ility and detection and review the revised !0ELs. #re any further actions re/uiredD
7 . >pdate the F")# as the design or process changes* the assessment changes or new information $ecomes +nown.
0aper descri$es the concept of achieving ro$ust product designs with design of experiments (D%)).
RO-)S'
ROD)C' DESIGN '(RO)G( DESIGN OF EX ERIMEN'S

7BBA D!" #ssociates #ll rights reserved. "ay $e printed for reading* reference F distri$ution with attri$ution. %ther use prohi$ited.
Ro&ust Des"#!
< robust product is one that works as intended regardless of variation in a product:s manufacturing process, variation resulting from deterioration, and variation in use! 6obust design can be achieved when the designer understands these potential sources of variation and takes steps to desensiti8e the rpoduct to these potential sources of variation! 6obust design can be achieved through 4brute force4 techni9ues of added design margin or tighter tolerances or through 4intelligent design4 by understanding which product and process design parameters are critical to the achievement of a performance characteristic and what are the optimum values to both achieve the performance characteristic and minimi8e variation! /hen the operation of the product or achievement of a performance characteristic can be mathmatically related to a product or process design parameter, optimum product and process design parameters can be calculated! /hen these relationships are unknown, design of experiments $(?E' can aid in determining these optimum parameter values and, thereby, developing a more robust design!
1aria$ility !eduction
0rocess 8apa$ility F 0roduct Design !educing 1ariation During Design 'uantifying 1aria$ility 0aper !o$ust &olerance #nalysis -or+shop Design of )xperiments -or+shop
Des"#! o. E)$er"me!ts
(esign of Experiments is based on the ob.ective of desensiti8ing a product:s performance characteristic$s' to variation in critical product and process design parameters! Genichi %aguchi developed the concept of 4loss to society4! In this concept, variability in critical design parameters will increase the loss to society which is an expanded view of the traditional, internally#oriented cost of 9uality! %his is a 9uadratic relationship of increasing costs $loss to society' as these critical design parameter values vary from the desired mean value of the parameter! %o consider 9uality implications during design, the design process can be segmented into three stages! %he first stage, system design, establishes the functionality of the product, the physical product envelope, and general specifications! %he second stage, parameter design, establishes specific values for design parameters related to physical and functional specifications! It is during these first two stages that the designer has the greatest opportunity to reduce product costs through effective functional design and parameter specification! %he third stage, tolerance design, establishes the acceptable tolerances around each parameter or target! %he third stage typically will add costs to the product through efforts to ensure compliance with the tolerances associated with product parameters!
D!" #ssociates
Since an organi8ation cannot cost#effectively inspect 9uality into the product, it must focus on minimi8ing variability in the product through product and process design and control of processes! owever, some variability is uncontrollable or very difficult to control! %his difficult to control variation is referred to as noise! 1oise is the result of variation in materials, processes, the environment and the product:s use or misuse! ;roducts need to be designed so that they are robust # their performance is insensitive to this naturally occurring, difficult to control variation! (esign of Experiments techni9ues provide an approach to efficiently designing industrial experiments which will improve the understanding of the relationship between product and process parameters and the desired performance characteristic! %his efficient design of experiments is based on a fractional factorial experiment which allows an experiment to be conducted with only a fraction of all the possible experimental combinations of parameter values! ?rthogonal arrays are used to aid in the design of an experiment! %he orthogonal array will specify the test cases to conduct the experiment! )re9uently, two orthogonal arrays are used5 a design factor matrix and a noise factor matrix, the latter used to conduct the experiment is the presence of difficult to control variation so as to develop a robust design! %his approach to designing and conducting an experiment to determine the effect of design factors $parameters' and noise factors on a performance characteristic is represented below!
%hese experimental results can be summari8ed into a metric called the signal to noise ratio which .ointly considers how effectively the mean value $signal' of the parameter has been achieved and the amount of variability that has been experienced! <s a result, a designer can identify
the parameters that will have the greatest effect on the achievement of a product:s performance characteristic! %he design parameters or factors of concern are identified in an inner array or design factor matrix which specifies the factor level or design parameter test cases! %he outer array or noise factor matrix specifies the noise factor or the range of variation the product will be exposed to in the manufacturing process, the environment or how the product used $conditions it is exposed to'! %his experimental set#up allows the identification of the design parameter values or factor levels that will produce the best performing, most reliable, or most satisfactory product over the expected range of noise factors or environmental conditions! <fter the experiments are conducted and the signal to noise ratio determined for each design factor test case, a mean signal to noise ratio value is calculated for each design factor level or value! %his data is statistically analy8ed using analysis of variation $<1?A<' techni9ues! Aery simply, a design factor with a large difference in the signal noise ratio from one factor setting to another indicates that the factor or design parameter is a significant contributor to the achievement of the performance characteristic! /hen there is little difference in the signal to noise ratio from one factor setting to another, this indicates that the factor is insignificant with respect to the performance characteristic! /ith the resulting understanding from the experiments and subse9uent analysis, the designer can5
.dentify parameter values which maximi2e achievement of performance characteristic and minimi2e the effect of noise* there$y achieving a more ro$ust design. .dentify parameters that have no significant effect on performance. .n these cases* tolerances can $e relaxed and cost reduced. .dentify parameter values which reduce cost without affecting performance or variation.
%hese steps take initial effort, but can reduce cost and improve the performance of the product! In the past, the designer selected design parameters and tolerances and made system design trade#offs in an intuitive manner, sometimes supported by limited analysis and trial and error experimentation! owever, an overall framework was lacking to make these decisions! (esign of Experiments techni9ues offer a framework for developing a more rigorous understanding of the relationship between product and process parameters and the achievement of a performance, reliability or 9uality characteristic, thereby leading to improved design decisions! %hese techni9ues present a comprehensive approach experimental design, analysis, and product
and process design decision#making!

Design For Six Sigma Versus Traditional New Product Development

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Design For Six Sigma Versus Traditional New Product Development

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Design For Six Sigma versus Traditional New Product Development: Just Hype or Fundamentally Different?

Ta2le 3 Fortune 455 companies using Six Sigma 6"orgsten$ 75578

LLL )abulous successM

LLL <llied signal learned GE and then became oneywell!

LLL %he *aldridge winner adopted the methodology &==FM

%enneco <utomotive LL Quest (iagnostics -aterpillar L L

DESIGN FOR SIX SIGMA

+! >se /uality function deployment ('FD) to translate customer needs

#OICE OF '(E C)S'OMER

0roduct Development Forum E0D 4ody of 5nowledge

CAPTURING THE VOICE OF THE CUSTOMER

Steps for 0erforming 'FD

'FD 8ase Study

!e/mts Def. F 0roduct 0lng 8onsulting 'FD F 1%8 &raining

ORGANIZING CUSTOMER NEEDS

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

C)S'OMER*FOC)SED DE#E+O MEN' ,I'( QFD

0roduct Development Forum 'FD, -hat* -hy and GowD

Steps for 0erforming 'FD

'FD 8ase Study

0roduct 0lng "atrix )xample 7

0roduct 0lng "atrix )xample 2

0roduct 0lng "atrix )xample 9

0roduct 0lng "atrix )xample :

!e/mts Def. F 0roduct 0lng 8onsult %ther 'FD 4oo+s F Hin+s

CAPTURING THE VOICE OF THE CUSTOMER

Step@$y@step guide to performing /uality function deployment ('FD)

ERFORMING QFD S'E -. S'E

'FD 8ase Study

'FD Software and )xamples

Gather Customer Needs

'FD Software (0D &ool+it)

Co!ce$t De%e o$me!t

Su&s'stem(Su&assem& '(Part De$ o'me!t Matr")

DESIGN 'O COS' ,ORKS(O

'uestions and #nswers

/=0 D'C EXERCISE >O 'IONA+?

%ptional )xercises #naly2ing 8ompany .tem(s) on Hast Day

#A+)E ANA+.SIS AND F)NC'ION ANA+.SIS S.S'EM 'EC(NIQ)E

0roduct Development Forum E0D 4ody of 5nowledge

THE CONCEPT OF VA*UE

1alue P (0erformance Q 8apa$ility)?8ost P Function?8ost

INTRODUCTION TO VA*UE ANA*+SIS

THE VA*UE ANA*+SIS METHOD

VA*UE ANA*+SIS PROCESS

FUNCTION ANA*+SIS S+STEM TECHNI,UE

CREATING A FAST MODE*

#dapted from an example developed $y N. Nerry 5aufman

INTEGRATING ,FD -ITH FAST

%he steps for using these two methodologies are as follows5

VA*UE IMPROVEMENT PROCESS

DESIGN FOR '(E +IFE C.C+E

0roduct Development Forum E0D 4ody of 5nowledge

Design for "anufactura$ility

Design for the )nvironment

DESIGN FOR TESTABI*IT+ ( INSPECTABI*IT+

DESIGN FOR RE*IABI*IT+

DESIGN FOR MAINTAINABI*IT+ ( SERVICEABI*IT+

FAI+)RE MODES AND EFFEC'S ANA+.SIS >FMEA?

0roduct Development Forum

(letter or num$er)* and !evision Date. "odify these headings as needed.

ROD)C' DESIGN '(RO)G( DESIGN OF EX ERIMEN'S

INTRODUCTION TO VAUE ANA+SIS

THE VAUE ANA+SIS METHOD

VAUE ANA+SIS PROCESS

DESIGN FOR TESTABIIT+ ( INSPECTABIIT+

DESIGN FOR REIABIIT+

DESIGN FOR MAINTAINABIIT+ ( SERVICEABIIT+