ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

During the projects visits we had the opportunity to have first hand interaction with the following personnel whose guidance has been very effective and helpful. M/s Thermax for Sewage Treatment Plant at Bhagwati Nagar Jammu Er. Ankit Khajuria Er. Mengi- ERA

At Kalla Brick Kilan R. S. Pura Mr. Subash

At Barrage Site S. Karamjit Singh , Foreman

At M/s Valecha Engg. for Concrete mix plant Gulkar Ahmad Er. K. S. Sambyal (Retd. S. E.)

We are highly thankful to all of them for their kind approach and proper guidance for fulfillment of our project report. We are also grateful to Civil Engg. Deptt. & Management of Polytechnic for providing us with necessary guidance and inputs. NITS

Students of Vth Sem- Civil (A) NITS

NITS POLYTECHNIC
INDIRA NAGAR, MIRAN SAHIB, JAMMU List of Students of 5th Semester Civil Engg. Deptt. who attended the visits on various sites w.e.f. 20.10.2013 to 31.10.2013
S.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. NAME ATIF IQBAL KELU NITISH GANDHRAL SHIVAM SAWHNEY ANUJ CHOUDHARY PARVINDER SINGH GROUP EXAMINATION ROLL NO.

IFTIKHAR AHMED MOOMIN SADEEQ NITISH SETHI GOURAV SHAMBYAL NITIN THAKUR AADIL TAQI SHAHNAWAZ AHMAD BHATTI NITEN PARIHAR RAJESH KUMAR SOHAIL ASLAM ANIL JAWALIA RESHAB ANAND KUMAR SARANG ABHISHEK SHARMA SURFAZ ASHRAF MANJEET SINGH MOHD MAQBOOL SHAN. A. ALI. ZAFRI GULSHAN SINGH TAMANDEEP SINGH RAJANDEV SINGH RAJESH SHARMA SOURAB SINGH RAKESH SHARMA

GROUP - B

GROUP - A

SAMIR SOHAIL

31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67.

BOBEL CHADGAL SATVIR SINGH DEVINDER BALJYOT SINGH SAHIL SHARMA TARUN SHARMA ANEES NOTRA BABAR AHMED WANI WAQAR AHMED KHAN MANJOT SINGH MOHD. RASHID CHARANJEET SINGH TUSHAR GUPTA TALIB HUSSAIN MANJUL DUTTA GOURAV KHAJURIA RISHAV SHARMA PALVI SALATHIA AKESHYMA MANHAS MATHAR FAROOQ VISHAL GORKA ABHAY SHARMA SHUBAM SHARMA ROHIT SHARMA JAVED ABASS NAIK SHAKEEL UR REHMAN BALI RISHAB KALHA KASHIF HUSSAIN ADREES AHMED AHANGER GULSHAN KUMAR NAVEEN KAPAHI AQIB JAVED AHANGER SHAMSHER SINGH

GROUP - D

GROUP - C

DETAILS OF MINOR PROJECT CIVIL A VTH SEM

Study on Sewerage Treatment Plant 30 MLD. Study on construction of Barrgae on River Tawi D/S side. Study on manufacture of Bricks. Study of concrete production plant of M/S Valicha Engg. for construction of fly over from Bikram Chowk ro Satwari.

All the students of Civil-A comprising of 60 students made visit to various sites as mentioned earlier and have submitted their respective project reports and compiled all the reports in one file.

Teachers Er. Sanjeev Kumar Er. Vijay Singh Er. Manmeet Singh

PROJECT INTERACTION

PROJECT INTRODUCTION
Minor Project was conducted for 10 days w.e.f. 20.10.2013 to 31.10.2013 for 5th Semester Civil Section-A and during these days the various sites visited and studied in detail are as under: 1. Study on Sewerage Treatment Plant 30 MLD Capacity. 2. Study on Working of Concrete Mix Plant. 3. Study on Construction of Barrage on River Tawi. 4. Study on Manufacture of Bricks The study of all these projects gave us an immense insight into details con their manufacture and use. The importance of all these units can be briefly explained as follows: Sewage Treatment Plants are generally constructed now a days all over the world and they not only help in environmental balance but also help in agriculture work by manufacturing of manure & fertilizers. Concrete mix plant have become a necessity to achieve maximum progress in quantity as well as quality. Bricks Kiln produces bricks which are the major component of building construction. These projects were selected for the benefit of students because of the fact that without these civil engineering becomes incomplete.

Study on Sewerage Treatment Plant 30 MLD Capacity

PROJECT PHOTOGRAPHS

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

SALIENT FEATURES OF THE SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT

The sewage treatment scheme offered has some distinct advantages over conventional activated sludge process. The scheme is proven, under a variety of operating conditions, and is highly flexible in operation. 1. Small space requirement The concept of compact MB based sewage treatment plants is used so that expensive land requirement is reduced. A conventional treatment requires large space, and large operating force. The MBBR based plants individually occupy much less space, making the plants more manageable.

2. Lower operating power requirements The system utilizes aeration tanks of much smaller size, thereby reducing the overall power requires in aeration the raw sewage. Since the bio-reactor depth is more, efficient transfer of oxygen takes place, there by reducing the overall power consumed in treatment.

3. Simplicity in operation and maintenance The system adopted has much less moving parts (only pumps and blowers, and centrifuge). Further there is no moving part inside the bio-reactor. This gives the advantages of continuously running the bio-reactor system, under widely fluctuating conditions. All the maintenance on the mechanical systems can be done with normal skilled mechanics available. The system is unique in operation, such that, only inlet and outlet parameters (i.e. raw sewage BOD/COD/TSS/TP and treated sewage BOD/COD/TSS/TP etc) need to be analyzed. Since the bio-reactor is self sustaining, there is no requirement of recycling the bio mass from the secondary clarifier. Hence, analysis such as MLSS / MLVSS / SVI (sludge volume index) /F /M ratio etc. is not required to be done. This greatly reduces the analytical load on the plant chemist/ supervisor, and makes the system very simple to operate and control.

10

4. E-coli (coli form) reduction The bio-reactor system adopted in STPs is provided with removal of diseases causing E-coli bacteria. The outlet BOD of the bio-reactor system being very low (in other words hardly any food is available to the E-coli), most of the coli form are killed in the reactor itself. Remaining coil form are killed by nominal chorine dosing. The treated sewage outlet coli form count will conform to WHO standards with such low chorine doses. This will also ensure much residual chlorine. that there is not

This makes the system more suitable for the

disposal.

5. Sludge Handling The sludge generated in the bio - reactor is totally digested. Since the F/M ratio in the bio - reactors is very low, the excess sludge generated is lower than compared to the conventional ASP system. The present system does not envisage any sludge digestion (since the sludge is aerobically stablised in the bioreactors itself ) making the system more suitable to be installed under such climate conditions. The excess sludge is separated in the secondary clari settler is collected in a sludge sump and pumped to the sludge thickener for gravity thickening. Then it is pumped to centrifuge for mechanical dewatering. The centrifuge and overflow from thickener is collected in the raw sewage sump for further treatment. The dewatering sludge centrifuge is disposal.

11

PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The raw sewage is first received in the existing raw sump and is pumped to the treatment units for processing in three distinct parts: 1. Pre-treatment ,which comprises of screening and grit removal, 2. Biological treatment comprising of moving bed aerobic bioreactors, followed by clarification and 3. Tertiary treatment comprising of addition of chorine to remove the E-coll. Detailed description of each steps of treatment is given below:

1. PRE-TREATMENT Inlet chamber The sewage pumped from the raw sewages sump is received in the inlet

chamber. The quiescent flow conditions are achieved in the inlet chamber & flow is then divided into two equal streams (1working+1 standby).

Screen and Grit Removal The Raw Sewage then follows though Screens for removal of floating matter. Removal of such floating / coarse matter is essential because it can otherwise choke pipelines/ pumps etc, and hinders the normal operation of the treatment plant. The mechanical coarse screen (1 working &1 Standby is

provided made of steel bars , placed at equal intervals. The inclination of bars is kept such that ranking become easy &followed by .A mechanical fine screen (1working &1 Standby is also provided. The screening of coarse screen are

conveyed through the discharge hopper &chute up to the suitable loading point from where it can be transported using trolley by client. The screened sewage is now made to pass through the grit chamber. The grit present in the raw sewage represents sand /dirt collected in the sewerage system. This must be removed, in order to keep the channels / pipes clean . Grit has high high settling velocity, and can be easily removed in the Grit Chamber .The 2 Nos. Grit separators provided here are of Mechanical Type (1working &1 standby ).As the sewage is made to pass through this system the grit settles on the floor. The grit shall be collected in a trolley to be provided by client.

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2.

BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT The main pollutants in the raw sewage are represented in the form of Bio

chemical Oxygen Demand and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) . The bacterial ability to synthesize the organic matter to harmless end products like di-oxide and water molecules is utilized to treat the raw sewage. The bio-reactions are carried out in controlled environment in the bioreactor. The bio-reactors comprises of a tank ,fitted with aeration grid. The bacterial activity needs dissolved oxygen, to synthesize the organic matter. This is supplied by passing air in form of small bubbles. The air is passed at the bottom of the tank, so that complete volume of tank is utilized. Oxygen dissolves in liquid, which can now be used by the bacteria. The bacterial population is present on the medial, which forms an integral part of the reactor system. The media is made of small plastic elements. Millions of such pieces are presents in the reactor. A very large surface area is available for the bacterial population to grow. The bacteria grow on the plastic medial, by using the organic content in the raw sewage, and the dissolved oxygen available. Due to constant aeration, the media is set in whirling motion, so that continues mixing takes place.

3)

TERTIARY TREATMENT The sloughed biomass must be removed before the treated sewage can be

disposed off. Hence solids will be separated in Secondary Claritubesettlers. The secondary claritubesettler is equipment in which the Bio-Mass removed & suspended solids are settled & scraped mechanically. The treatment sewage id then treated with chlorine to kill the E-Coli coli forms, so that becomes fit for disposal .The chlorine being a very strong oxidizing agent ,a small dose id enough to achieve desired levels of dis infection.

4)

SLUDGE HANDLING The sludge formed in the process of bio-degradation is collected in the

Sludge Sump &is pumped to the Thickener for Gravity Thickening . The thickened sludge is then pumped to the Centrifuge for mechanical dewatering. The Centrate from centrifuge & overflow Sump. from Thickener will be collected in Raw Sewage

13

MOVING BED BIO REACTOR (MBBR) TECHNOLOGY Domestic wastewater is difficult to treat using conventional Activated Sludge Process, without having very large tanks and long hydraulic retention time to degrade the waste. Although Activated Sludge Process has been a proven alternative, in the current inquiry it is not possible to install the same due to limitation of space. (ASP will need almost 10 times higher space than what is currently available). With renewed focus on reduction of E-coli in the wastewater, Fluidised Aerobic-Bio Reactor / Moving Bed based sewage treatment plants with a very nominal Chlorination is the most successful and. cost effective technology. Advanced Technology of Fixed Film biological processes having large surface area for bio-mass to grow have been used in the past to reduce both the reactor volumes as well as retention times. Further developments in this field have led to development of fluid bed technology in which the fixed film media are. made of small plastic materials which are freely moving & non-clogging. The basic idea behind the Moving Bed Reactor development is to have a continuous operating non-clogging bio film reactor which (1) Requires no backwashing, (2) Has low head loss and (3)Has High specific bio film surface area. This was achieved by having the biomass to grow on small carrier elements that move along with the water in the reactor. The movement within the reactor is generated by aeration in the aerobic reactor. These bio-film carriers are made of special grade plastic having density close to that of water. Apart from making the plant compact, the fluid bed reactor employing fixed film principle, of the attached growth process makes the plant more user- friendly because it does not require sludge recycle i.e. synonymous with conventional ASP. The absence of sludge recycle frees the operator from the enormous task of measurement and monitoring MLSS levels in the tank and adjusting recycle ratios continuously.

14

Thermax have developed this process after conducting a lot of pilot plant studies on various effluents including sewage, successfully. A lot of development has taken place in understanding the process and in optimizing various parameters with respect to the carrier media size, material, density, shape, area per meter .cube volume of the reactor, roughness of surface, fluidizing velocity etc. for a variety of industrial and domestic effluents of varying BOO / COD levels as also natures of effluents.

A number of treatment facilities where Moving Bed Reactor technology is include small Sewage Treatment Plants, City Sewage Treatment Plants for population in lakhs, industrial sewage treatment plant for food waste, textile waste etc. This technology is gaining strength in various countries and our survey has confirmed that we are on the right path so far as the technology selection is concerned. In fact, in this particular case, where space being' the limitation, we were compelled to look at this technology. However in our opinion it can be universally used, due to its versatility in making the plants compact and energy efficient. Due to fixed film nature these plants can accept shock loads much better than those employed for suspended growth process. Moving Bed Reactors are generally tall (5 m and above) thereby reducing the cross-sectional area further.

15

Study on Working of Concrete Mix Plant

16

PROJECT PHOTOGRAPHS

17

CONCRETE MIX PLANT AT VALECHA ENGG. FLY OVER SITE, BHAGWATI NAGAR, JAMMU SALIENT FEATURES 1. Mixer Capacity : 0.75m3 / Batch 30m3/ hour 2. 3. Transit Mixer Capacity Components : : 7.5 m3 a. Bins for different size aggregates b. C.A. & F.A. c. Hopper for Cement d. Admixture plant e. Water supply 4. 3. Concrete production : M 20, 25, 30, 35 & 40

Lab. Tests for Quality Control A. Tests on Aggregates:

Sleving Flakiness & Elongation Index Gradation Impact Value Aggregate Abrasion value

B. Tests on Cement:

Normal Consistency Initial & Final setting time Compressive strength Fineness of Cement

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C. Tests on Concrete:

Slump Test - Workability Compressive Strength 7 days/28 days

D. Soil Testing:

CBR Standard Proctors Test Liquid Limit & Plastic Limit Field Density Test

E. Tests on H2O :

4. Make

pH value Chlroide Sulphite Nitrite : BHAI New Delhi

19

LAYOUT OF CONCRETE MIX PLANT

CONTROL PANEL

CEMENT

FA

CA

H2O

MIXER

Admixture

LAB TESTING AGGREGATES CEMENT MIX DESIGN PLANT OFFICE

Unloading / Discharge concrete

MACHINERY & EQUIPMENT WORK YARD

WORK SITE (TRANSIT MIXERS)

ENTRY

EXIT

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INTRODUCTION: Ready Mix Concrete (RMC) is a specialized material in which the cement aggregates and other ingredients are weigh-batched at a plant in a central mixer or truck mixer, before delivery to the construction site in a condition ready for placing by the builder. Thus, `fresh' concrete is manufactured in a plant away from the construction site and transported within the requisite journey time. The RMC supplier provides two services, firstly one of processing the materials for making fresh concrete and secondly, of transporting a product within a short time. It is delivered to the worksite, often in transit mixers capable of mixing the ingredients of the concrete just before the delivery of batch. This results in a precise mixture, allowing specialty concrete mixtures to be developed and implemented on construction sites. The second option available is to mix the concrete at the batching plant and deliver the mixed concrete to the site in an agitator truck, which keeps the mixed concrete in correct form. In the case of the centrally mixed type, the drum carrying the concrete revolves slowly so as to prevent the mixed concrete from "segregation" and prevent its stiffening due to initial set. However, in the case of the truckmixed concrete, the batched materials (sand, gravel and cement) are carried and water is added just at the time of mixing. In this case the cement remains in contact with the wet or moist material and this phase cannot exceed the permissible period, which is normally 90 minutes. The use of the RMC is facilitated through a truck-mounted 'boom placer' that can pump the product for ready use at multi-storied construction sites. A boom placer can pump the concrete up 80 meters. RMC is preferred to on-site concrete mixing because of the precision of the mixture and reduced worksite confusion. It facilitates speedy construction through programmed delivery at site and mechanized operation with consequent economy. It also decreases labour, site supervising cost and project time, resulting in savings. Proper control and economy in use of raw material results in saving of natural resources. It assures consistent quality through accurate computerized control of aggregates and water as per mix designs. It minimizes cement wastage due to bulk handling and there is no dust problem and therefore, pollution-free.

21

Ready mix concrete is usually ordered in units of cubic yards or meters. It must remain in motion until it is ready to be poured, or the cement may begin to solidify. The ready mix concrete is generally released from the hopper in a

relatively steady stream through a trough system. Workers use shovels and hoes to push the concrete into place. Some projects may require more than one production run of ready mix concrete, so more trucks may arrive as needed or additional batches may be produced offsite and delivered. However there are some disadvantages of RMC to, like double handling, which results in additional cost and losses in weight, requirement of go downs for storage of cement and large area at site for storage of raw materials. Aggregates get mixed and impurities creep in because of wind, weather and mishandling at site. Improper mixing at site, as there is ineffective control and intangible cost associated with unorganized preparation at site are other drawbacks of RMC. There are always possibilities of manipulation; manual error and mischief as concreting are done at the mercy of gangs, who manipulate the concrete mixes and water cement ratio. OBJECTIVE: The main objective to choose this topic is that an engineer should have the knowledge of advantages of RMC and disadvantages of Site mixed concrete. As RMC is being widely used in bigger and medium size of projects today, Engineer should be aware of the technicality of the RMC and the operational work, to ensure the quality of work and the Site Engineer should know what are the steps to be taken to check the concrete in RMC, what is required to be specified for RMC, what is the information required to be supplied by the RMC supplier, what checks are necessary by the consumer before ordering RMC, what are the checks needed at site prior and after to receipt of RMC. NECESSITY: Normally the concrete operation carried out in India, is of site mixed, which is having some disadvantages which are shown below: Quality Assurance not guaranteed.

22

Constant control on aggregates for size, shape & grading not exercised on site. Arbitrary batching and mixing by volume. Strict water-cement ratio not exercised. Wastage of materials. Retarded speed. Concreting operations prolonged beyond day light without proper lighting. Manual operation. Speed restricted depending on mixers. Restricted spaces. Storages of aggregates and cement. Blocking of roads / approaches Dust pollution RMC is the perfect solution for the above disadvantages and offers the

following advantages by its usage, which makes it necessary as a part of the construction: Generally speaking, the quality of concrete will be superior than site mixed concrete. However, it will greatly depend on the controls and checks exercised at site and at RMC producer's plant. There is a considerable wastage of materials on site due to poor storage conditions and repeated shifting of the mixer location. This is prevented if RMC is used. In most cities, the plot area is barely sufficient to store reinforcement steel, formwork, concrete and other construction materials. Using RMC can cause less congestion and better housekeeping on the site resulting in efficient working environment. Obtaining RMC at site can reduce supervision and labour costs which would otherwise be required for batching and mixing of concrete at site. Many sites in cities, house their work force on the site itself to reduce the time and cost of daily travel. This creates unsafe and unhygienic conditions on the site as well as for the surrounding areas. This will reduce to a certain extent if RMC is utilized.

23

Fluctuation of raw material prices and their availability has always caused delays and problems of inventory and storage for site producers of concrete. This is totally avoided when RMC is used.

Availability of labour gangs intermittently has always posed problems to concrete producers on site. This can now be avoided. Besides these labour gangs are difficult to supervise and control as they are only interested in completing the concreting operations as fast as possible. This results in addition of excess water and inadequacies in batching/mixing.

A problem of inspection, checking and testing of all concrete materials on site is avoided. However, to a certain extent these checks and tests may be required to be done at RMC producers' plant.

Concrete mix design and its control due to variations of material properties is avoided as RMC producers are responsible for the same and supply concrete as specified by the purchaser as per the requirements of the construction site.

In public places it creates fewer nuisances. Congested roads and footpaths are often blocked by carelessly stored concrete materials. RMC allows a much better flow of road traffic as well as pedestrian movement.

It improves the environment and around the site. Nuisance due to stone dust and cement particles is reduced considerably. To a certain extent even noise pollution is reduced.

The modern RMC plants have an automatic arrangement to measure surface moisture on aggregates this greatly helps in controlling the water to cement ratio (w/c) which results in correct strength and durability.

RMC plants have proper facilities to store and accurately batch concrete admixtures (chemical and mineral). To improve properties of concrete both in plastic and in hardened stage this accuracy is useful.

In general, RMC plants have superior and accurate batching arrangements than the weigh batchers used on site. RMC plants have superior mixers than the rotating drum mixers generally used for mixing concrete materials at site. RMC plants have efficient batching and mixing, facilities which improve both quality and speed of concrete production.

24

Temperature control of concrete in extreme weather conditions can be exercised in a much better manner than done at site. RMC helps encourage" mechanization and new technologies like pumped concrete bulk transportation of cement production of self-compacting concrete and high strength high performance concrete.

New materials like micro silica and fibers can be safely used in RMC which in conventional concrete may pose problems. Introduction of RMC improves the rate of supply of concrete in the formwork and thereby automatically improves quality of formwork, layout of reinforcement steel and its detailing and safety / strength of scaffolding and staging.

HISTORY: The Idea of Ready Mix Concrete (RMC) was first introduced by Architect Jurgen Heinrich Magens, he got his patent of RMC in Germany in 1903. In 1907, he discovered that the available time for transportation could be prolonged not only by cooling fresh concrete but also by vibrating it during transportation. So this gave rise to a concrete which is made in the off site. The first concrete mixed off site and delivered to a construction site was effectively done in Baltimore, United States in 1913, just before the First World War. The increasing availability of special transport vehicles, supplied by the new and fast growing automobile industry, played a positive role in the development of RMC industry. The first concept of transit mixer was also born in 1926 in the United States. In 1939, the first RMC plant was installed in United Kingdom and in 1933, first specifications on RMC was published in United Kingdom. Between the years 1950 and 1980 considerable growth of RMC took place in the United States with the maximum supply of 31 million cubic meters in the year 1974. However, on an average RMC supplies were 25 million cubic meters per year between 1974 to 1980. By 1990, in the United Sates there were 3700 RMC producers existing and 75% of cement consumed by the construction industry was being utilized by RMC producers. In 1990 RMC plant in Japan were consuming nearly 70% of the total cement produced. In Malaysia, RMC plants utilized nearly 16% of the total cement consumed in the year 1990. In UK, 43% of the total cement consumed is being used by RMC plants.

25

RMC IN INDIA: In India RMC was first initially was used in 1950 during the construction sites of Dams like Bhakra Nangal, Koyna. At the construction the transportation of concrete is done by either manually or mechanically using ropeways & buckets or conveyor systems. RMC at Pune in the year 1991. However, due to various pit falls and problems this plant did not survive for long and was closed. Within a couple of months in the year 1993, two RMC plant were set up in Mumbai to commercially sell RMC to the projects where they were installed. Unitech Construction set up one plant at Hiranandani Complex and Associated Cement Companies set up another plant at Bharat Diamond Bourse Commercial Complex. These plants were later allowed to sell RMC to other projects also. Thus RMC was successfully established sometime after 1994 in India. RMC producers from outside India soon became interested in the Indian market and therefore two very well known producers set their foot on the Indian soil i.e. Fletcher Challenge Ltd. From New Zealand and RMC Ready Mix of UK. As per the available record up to 2003, there are around 76 RMC plant in 17 cities with a total capacity of around 3875 CuM/hr, producing 3.8 million CuM of concrete per year.

Table: Number of RMC plants and their capacities in leading metropolitan citiesof India. Metro Mumbai & Navi Mumbai Bangalore Delhi No. of Plants 15 13 11 Capacity (M3/hr) 835 550 660

26

SCOPE OF RMC IN INDIA: Though delayed, but not very much, there a ready mixed concrete industry is developing and expanding at a fast pace in the country on a large scale. Over the period, due impetus to this development has been provided by various frontline construction and cement companies as well as technological bodies. The World Bank's India Cement industry Restructuring Project" under which a technical study report on the development of market for bulk cement in India was made in 1996, proved to be positive development towards modernization of cement distribution system in India, including setting up Ready mix concrete Plants. The objective of this technical study was to formulate an action plan for the development of market for bulk cement in large cement centres in India and for gradual shift. From the traditional mode of transportation in bags to bulk

transportation through setting up of ready mixed concrete plants in different parts of the country. The recommendation of the action plan provided a useful guidance towards expanding bulk cement market thus paving a way for installation or ready mixed concrete plants in India. According to Cement Manufacturers Association, RMC is being increasingly recommended for all major public construction work such as highways, flyovers. In cities like Bangalore and Chennai, even small house builders have started displaying a marked preference for RMC instead of cement. According to the experts, there is lot of scope for the development and growth of RMC in India. It can grow to consume 40-45 percent of cement by 2015 through setting up of RMC plants in various consumption centres. For the healthy growth of industry, RMC industry in India has to fine-tune its own practices to following practices elsewhere in the advanced countries where RMC industry has been operating successfully. European Ready Mixed Concrete Organization (ERMCO) has defined the broad objectives to be achieved in design, management and operation of RMC which remain same as that of designing, and execution of concrete construction projects. The marketing of RMC should no more be in terms of strength grades only, but a combination of strength durability classification as per the Concrete Codes which improves the sell ability of RMC in terms of the requirements of the projects. Appropriate environmental, safety and health regulations for the working force need to be kept in mind in the management and operation of RMC.
27

MATERIALS REQUIRED FOR RMC: AGGREGATE: Aggregates are the important constituents in concrete. They give body to the concrete, reduce shrinkage and effect economy. Earlier, aggregates were considered as chemically inert materials but now it has been recognised that some of the aggregates are chemically active and also that certain aggregates exhibit chemical bond at the interface of aggregate and paste. The mere fact that the aggregates occupy 70-80 per cent of the volume of concrete, their impact on various characteristics and properties of concrete is undoubtedly considerable. To know more about the aggregates which constitute major volume in concrete. Aggregates are divided into two categories from the consideration of size Coarse aggregate Fine aggregate

The size of the aggregate bigger than 4.75 mm is considered as coarse aggregate and aggregate whose size is 4.75 mm and less is considered as fine aggregate. SAMPLING PROCEDURE FOR AGGREGATES USED IN CONCRETE: All aggregates are to be sampled properly before taking them for testing. The purpose of sampling is to get representative material for testing the wrong sampling of aggregate may lead to any of the following: Consuming of bad quality of aggregates in concrete by accepting the bad quality of materials at site Disputing with the suppliers. There is a definite procedure for sampling of aggregates. The procedure is explained below: Collect the aggregate sample from different locations at different depths from the site immediately after unloading the aggregates from the trucks. Collect the samples at least from 10 to 15 locations. Thoroughly remix the sample collected from various places & depths of the trucks or from the stocks. Make a cone from the sample. Flatten the cone sample to form a circle of uniform thickness. Divide the cone into four equal quarters. Discard any two diagonally opposite segment of quartered sample.

28

Collect the remaining sample & remix. Take this remixed aggregate for testing. The material so sampled only should be taken for testing. The Indian

standards recommend to sample the aggregates as above. However it recommends collecting samples from different sub lots which are not practical as it takes long time to build up the lots at site. Hence the method suggested above may be conveniently adopted at site. CEMENT: Cement is a binder material which sets and hardens independently, and can bind other materials together. Cement is made up of four main

compounds tricalcium silicate (3CaO SiO2), dicalcium Silicate (2CaO SiO2), tricalcium acuminate (3CaO Al2O3), and tetra-calcium aluminoferrite (4caco Al2O3 Fe2O3).tetra-calcium aluminoferrite (4CaO Al2O3 Fe2O3). In an abbreviated notation differing from the normal atomic symbols, these compounds are designated as C3S, C2S, C3A, and C4AF, where C stands for calcium oxide (lime), S for silica and A for alumina, and F for iron oxide. Small amounts of uncombined lime and magnesia also are present, along with alkalis and minor amounts of other elements. ADMIXTURE: A substance added to the basic concrete mixture to alter one or more properties of the concrete; i.e. fibrous materials for reinforcing, water repellent treatments, and colouring compounds Air-entraining admixtures (mainly used in concrete exposed to freezing and thawing cycles) Water-reducing admixtures, plasticizers (reduce the dosage of water while maintaining the workability) Retarding admixtures (mainly used in hot weather to retard the reaction of hydration) Accelerating admixtures (mainly used in cold weather to accelerate the reaction of hydration) Super plasticizer or high range water-reducer (significantly reduce the dosage of water while maintaining the workability) Miscellaneous admixtures such as corrosion inhibiting, shrinkage reducing, colouring, pumping etc.

29

Role of Admixture in Ready Mix Concrete: The role of admixture is ready mixed of concrete is same as that in normal concrete. However, admixture used in RMC is modified to meet the requirement of pumpable concrete and other properties of concrete. The types of admixture used in RMC are generally termed as Super plasticizers. namely Plasticizers The history of admixture is as old as history of concrete. There are several types of admixture available in market. But few admixtures and Super plasticizers are of recent interest. These of admixture were initially developed in Japan and German around 1970. IN India use of admixture was recognized after 1985.In 1990 admixture started to gain Importance after introducing Ready Mixed Concrete. The importance of admixture was further recognized after revision on of IS: 456 - 1978. The earlier versions of IS 456 have permitted to use w/c ratio as high as 0.65 in RCC works. The Revised IS 456-2000 has Restricted the w/c ratio to 0.55 for mild exposure and 0.50 for moderate exposure ,0.45 for severe and very severe exposure and 0.40 for extreme weathering conditions. The restriction on w/c ratio has made the use of admixture all the more compulsory ingredient of concrete. Admixture is used in RMC are of following types: Chemical admixture Mineral admixture Chemical and mineral admixture Increasing workability Accelerate or retard the setting time of concrete. Reduce segregation and bleeding in concrete. Improve pump ability.

In RMC admixture mainly perform the following functions:

FLY ASH: Fly ash is a by-product from coal-fired electricity generating power plants. The coal used in these power plants is mainly composed of combustible elements such as carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (nitrogen and sulphur being minor elements), and non combustible impurities (10 to 40%) usually present in the form of clay, shale, quartz, feldspar and limestone. As the coal travels through the high-temperature zone in the furnace, the combustible elements of the coal are burnt off, whereas the mineral impurities of the coal fuse and chemically

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recombine to produce various crystalline phases of the molten ash. The molten ash is entrained in the flue gas and cools rapidly, when leaving the combustion zone (e.g. from 1500C to 200C in few seconds), into spherical, glassy particles. Most of these particles fly out with the flue gas stream and are therefore called fly ash. The fly ash is then collected in electrostatic precipitators or bag houses and the fineness of the fly ash can be controlled by how and where the particles are collected. Fly ash use improves concrete performance, making it stronger, more durable, and more resistant to chemical attack. Fly ash use also creates significant benefits for our environment. The size of fly ash ranges from 1.0 to 100 micron & the average size is around 20 microns. It is found that particle size below 10 microns contributes towards early. Development of strength (7& 28 days). The particle size of fly ash between l0 & 40 microns Contributes towards the development of strength between 28 days & 1 year. The particle size above 45 microns does not contribute towards development of strength even after 1 year and for all practical purpose they should be considered only as sand. The fly ash is generally used in the concrete in the following ways. As partial replace for cement. As partial replacement for sand. As simultaneous replacement for both cement and sand. It is found that fly ash replacement from l0 to 30% increases the

development of Strength up to 3 month or even more depending on the fineness of fly ash & its reaction with Calcium hydroxide released during primary hydration of cement. Addition of fly ash as per replacement of cement improves the workability of concrete for the same water content. This means that the water content can be reduced for fly ash based concrete. This reduced water cement ratio to some extent can offset for initial gain of Strength can range from 10 to 25 % of the difference in strength between the strength of Normal concrete & fly ash concrete. Fly ash as a partial replacement for sand is uneconomical and sometimes it is inevitable in pumping concrete especially when coarser types of fine aggregates are used in concrete. It is also found that partial replacement of fly ash marginally increases the strength Concrete due to filler effect in the initial stages and due to pozzolanic action in 28 days.Simultaneous use of fly ash as a partial replacement of cement and sand is good Proposal to increase strength, workability & pump ability of concrete.

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WATER The pH value of water should be in between 6.0 and 8.0 according to IS

456-2000. Effect of Mixing Sea Water in Concrete: The sea Water generally contains salinity of about 3.5% in which about

80% is sodium chloride. Many researchers have been conducted to study the corrosion problem of steel Embedded in concrete where sea water is used as mixing water in concrete nevertheless the Indian standard is adamant & do not permit using sea water for mixing or curing in reinforced Concrete constructions, but allows for using of sea water only for PCC work that too under unavoidable circumstances. Quality of Water for Curing Concrete Members: Generally the water that is fit for mixing of water in concrete is also fit for curing. However where appearance is important, water containing impurities which cause stains should not to be used. The most important elements that cause stains in the concrete are iron, and organic matters. It is also found that even sea water also causes stains in concrete. Hence water containing iron, organic matters and also sea water should not be used for curing of concrete when appearance is also set as criteria for the acceptance of concrete. Quality of Water for Curing Concrete Cubes: The water that is fit for mixing and curing of water for concrete is also fit for curing of cubes which are cured under water. However the curing water should ot to be allowed to remain in stagnant condition in water tanks for long time. As a guideline the water tanks shall be cleaned twice a week or when ph value of water reaches a value more than 9. The cleaned Water tanks shall be refilled with fresh water every time. The cleaning of water is necessary to remove algae and fungus materials developed inside the water tanks which otherwise alters the setting and strength gaining properties of Concrete. The low results of such cubes may call for in situ tests resulting in consequential Delay of the project.

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EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED: BATCHING PLANT: The principal functional elements of every stationary concrete production Plantcomprises of the following: Storage of materials - Silos, containers and bins Batching arrangement Measuring and recording equipment Mixing equipment Control systems Electrical, hydraulic and pneumatic drives Conveying systems (belt / screw conveyors)

Storage of Materials i) Cement Cement is generally stored in silos. The loading of cement is done with the help of pneumatic blower systems either installed on bulk carriers or a separate system available at the plant. If baggage cement is used then the cement is loaded using a compressed air loader and a splitter unit. Cement is weighed separately, and is transported from the silo into a mechanical or electro mechanical weigher by means of a screw conveyor. ii) Water Water is generally stored in tanks located close to the plant. It is accurately measured by a water gauge and microprocessor controlled system. The modern plants have new litronic MFM 85 moisture recorders. These recorders actually measure the moisture present in sand while the entire batch flows past. A recording unit calculates the average moisture value of the sand and passes on the information to the batching control unit to allow corrective action to be taken. The system operates to an accuracy of as low as 0.2% relative moisture. Consistency of the mix is generally checked by visual observation later confirming it with a workability test like the slump test. However, in modern plants consistency of theconcrete mix is checked by a remote recording system which is automatic, easy and more accurate. If concrete is very dry (stiff) the electrical resistance of the batch is measured and if the concrete is wet the motor output is measured.

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Accurate maintenance of the workability (consistency) of one cubic meter batch of concrete may depend on as little as one litre or less of water. It is scarcely conceivable that such a production process could be controlled without actually measuring the workability and later correcting the consistency. iii) Aggregates The storage of aggregates is done in various way depending on the type of plant. There are basically three types of plants generally in use. Vertical Production Plant In this the aggregates are stored above the batching and mixing elements, in one or more silos. These plants are not suitable for relocation at short intervals of time. As the aggregates are stored in silos it is relatively easy to protect the aggregates from very low temperature in winter period. Horizontal Production Plant They can be again broadly classified into four types i) Star pattern aggregate storage ii) Storage in tall silo iii) Storage in pocket silo iv) Inline aggregate storage silos The star bin storage of aggregates is most popular in India mainly because of climate conditions. The aggregates can be stored exposed to ambient temperature in different compartments forming a star type pattern. A storage capacity of up to 1500 CuM is possible in this type. The star pattern aggregates are stored in four to six compartments. They are bulked at a 45 degree flow angle against the batching plant's bulkhead and partition wall of the compartments using a boom type dragline loader. The drag-line operations are either fully manual, semi automatic or fully automatic. Fully automatic dragline loader system operator. The star bin type plant requires more space and as the aggregates are stored in open they heat up at high ambient temperatures and freeze at very low temperatures. These types of plants are not suitable in extreme weather conditions. In silo type storage additional investment for loading equipment such as hopper, bucket elevator or conveyor belt plus rotary distribution are required.

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They have large active storage (up to 500 CuM) in a small areas. Loading is fully automatic, aggregates are well protected in extreme climatic conditions and storage is very clean.

MIXING ARRANGEMENTS There are various types of concrete mixers used on the concrete production plant. The two basic types are free fall mixers and power mixers. Most of our indigenously manufactured plants have free fall mixer. Free fall mixer consists of a rotating drum with blade fixed on the drum's interior. As the drum rotates, the material inside is lifted and dropped. The drum is loaded and emptied by changing the direction of rotation, dropping a flap or tipping it. Most of the imported plants have power mixer. The power mixer sets in motion the materials positively. The materials get thoroughly mixed by rotating arms. These mixers have shorter mixing time; give better homogeneity,

consistency and strength to the concrete. Besides, they have better facility for inspection. The following are the most common designs. Table: Most common designs
Power Meter Capcity CuM (Compacted Concrete) 3 3.5 3 3 Output CuM/hr (Compacted Concrete) Mixing Tie (sec) 30 15 120 --120--150 120 ----140 Max. Aggregate Size (mm)

Single Shaft Twin Shaft Pan Type Pan Type with additional agitator

150 190 64 64

If mixing is to be done on difficult concrete mixes, additional agitator is provided. The pan type mixer with additional agitator or two agitators is claimed to be far in advance of any if other mixer. Using additional agitators almost halves the mixing time. The additional agitator is driven by a separate hydraulic system and can be set to any speed between 0 to 200 revolutions per minute.

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CONTROL SYSTEMS Almost all imported production plants offer automatic systems for control functions. These are required for better quality control, higher economy and superior working conditions. Fully automatic plant control systems with multiple inputs for up to 120 mixes or template control system are usually housed in a container or control room of the plant. Micro processor controlled production plants represent the state of the art in the developed countries. These controls are operated from main desk. It also has material availability monitor and printer plus an additional batching monitor. The entire plant can be operated by just one person. Microprocessor control besides having fully automatic running facility offers number of additional features like statistical data recording and processing, a printer unit, moisture adjustment arrangement, customer address, memory etc. All you need to do is push the required mix template into the slot and press the "start" button and the control system does the rest. Aggregate and cement weighment, moisture correction, overrun correction and additive weighment are done accurately to give the concrete mix of desired strength and workability. The built in trouble shooting programs are most valuable and have a high reliability factor. Even upto 1500 mixes of different types can be stored along with names and addresses of the consumer and other data which is required to be stored in the computer for operation of the plant. The mix data with quantity can be if required printed by the printer which is very useful for invoicing the consumer for the concrete supplied to them.

TRANSPORTATION EQUIPMENT: TRANSIT MIXER There are developments taking place all over the world for different types of concrete equipments. However, the transit mixer is one of the most .popular equipments out of several modes available. In India too, a number of transit mixers are in use all over the country which are mainly mounted on Indian truck chassis. The mixer drum is either manufactured in India or is improved. However, in general, the hydraulic system is improved. There are several types and capacities of transit mixers available as given below:

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Table: Capacities of transit mixers Normal Capacity Hydraulic Mixer Water tank capacity Mixer trucks Drive of 4 to 12 CuM Separate engine or driven by truck engine 192 to 2000 litres Twin axles for 4 CuM capacity Three axles for 6 to 7 CuM capacity Three/ four axles for 8 to 10 CuM capacity Semi trailer for 10 to 12 CuM.

In India 4 Cum. Truck mixers are popular while the 6 and 7 Cum. Truck mixers mounted on a 3 axle chassis enjoy a leading position on all world markets as it has a favorable cost- performance ratio, large selection of chassis, good

maneuverability and is more suited to general batch size requirements.

MIXING PROCESS: Thorough mixing of the materials is essential for the production of uniform concrete. The mixing should ensure that the mass becomes homogeneous, uniform in colour and consistency. There are three methods adopted for mixing Ready Mix Concrete. Following are the three types of mixing process of RMC 1. Transit Mixed (or "truck-mixed") Concrete 2. Shrink Mixed Concrete 3. Central Mixed Concrete

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TRANSIT MIXED (OR "TRUCK-MIXED") CONCRETE While ready mixed concrete can be delivered to the point of placement in a variety of ways, the overwhelming majority of it is brought to the construction site in truck mounted, rotating drum mixers. Truck mixers have a revolving drum with the axis inclined to the horizontal. Inside the shell of the mixer drum are a pair of blades or fins that wrap in a helical (spiral) configuration from the head to the opening of the drum. This configuration enables the concrete to mix when the drum spins in one direction and causes it to discharge when the direction is reversed. To load, or charge, raw materials from a transit mix plant or centrally mixed concrete into the truck, the drum must be turned very fast in the charging direction. After the concrete is loaded and mixed, it is normally hauled to the job site with the drum turning at a speed of less than 2 rpm. Since its inception in the mid-1920, the traditional truck-mixer has discharged concrete at the rear of the truck. Front discharge units, however, are rapidly becoming more popular with contractors. The driver of the front discharge truck can drive directly onto the site and can mechanically control the positioning of the discharge chute without the help of contractor personnel. Currently, because of weight laws, the typical truck mixer is a 7 to 8.5 m 3. The drums are designed with a rated maximum capacity of 63% of the gross drum volume as a mixer and 80% of the drum volume as an agitator. Generally, ready mixed concrete producers, load their trucks with a quantity at or near the rated mixer capacity. Fresh concrete is a perishable product that may undergo slump loss depending on temperature, time to the delivery point on the job site, and other factors. Water should not to be added to the mix unless the slump is less than that which is specified. If water is added, it should be added all at once and the drum of the truck mixershould be turned minimum of 30 revolutions, or about two minutes, at mixing speed. The ASTM C 94, Specification for Ready Mixed Concrete, indicates that the concrete shall be discharged on the job site within 90 minutes and before 300 revolutions after water was added to the cement. The purchaser may waive this requirement, when conditions permit.

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In certain situations, air-entraining, water reducing, set-retarding or highrange water reducing admixtures may need to be added to concrete prior to discharge to compensate for loss of air, high temperatures or long delivery times. The ready mixed concrete producer will assist the purchaser in such circumstances.

Fig. Truck Mixed Transit

Fig. Central Mixed Transit

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MERITS OF RMC: Better quality concrete is produced. Elimination of storage space for basic materials at site. Elimination of Procurement / Hiring of plant and machinery. Wastage of basic materials is avoided. Labour associated with production of concrete is eliminated. Time required is greatly reduced. Noise and dust pollution at site is reduced. Organization at site is more streamlined. Durable & Affordable No storage space required either for raw materials or for the mix. Lower labour and supervisory cost. No wastage at site. Environment friendly. Availability of concrete of any grade.

DEMERITS OF RMC: Need huge initial investment. Not affordable for small projects (small quantity of concrete) Needs effective transportation system from R.M.C to site. Traffic jam or failure of vehicle creates problem if proper dose of retarder is not given. Labours should be ready on site to cast the concrete in position to vibrate it and compact it.

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CONCLUSION:
The concrete quality produced in RMC plant is highly consistent with low deviation order. It provides a high degree of overall strength of hardened concrete and the performance of the structure at a later date. RMC operations are highly mechanized and fully controlled through electronic controls and hence reduce the probability of errors in various operations. It is also environment friendly and brings down pollution due to dust at construction can also be accelerate with the use of RMC. The use RMC in civil construction is widely adopted throughout the world. The beginning made in India is in tune with the developments outside and RMC uses provide numerous benefits to the consumers. Conventional approach to durable concrete structures, namely specifying maximum water cement ratio, minimum cement content and cement type, is now always satisfactory, especially under aggressive environmental condition. Site manufactured concrete cannot assure the same quality of concrete and that from controlled ready mix batching plant backed by advanced technology and project management. The advantages of RMC are particularly evident in construction projects with aggressive exposure conditions. Ready mix concrete has gained acceptance in Indian industry due to several advantages including quality control and overall economy. RMC plants are proliferating, especially in urban regions, not only because of the space restrictions around construction site but also due to the realisation of the advantages by engineers and construction industry.

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Study on Construction of Barrage on River Tawi

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PROJECT PHOTOGRAPHS

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GENERAL REPORT
NAME OF WORK: Design and construction of Auto Mechanically Operated Gated Barrage having approx. length of 370 mtr. and height of 4 mtr. with Sluice/Stop Log Gates Across River Tawi 1 Km. D/S of Main Tawi Bridge with RCC Base, Spill way, Gang Way, Guide Bunds etc. for creation of pondage at Belicharana, Jammu INTRODUCTION: Ranbir Canal takes off from the left bank of River Chenab U/S of old Akhnoor Bridge having gross command area of 67000 Ha & CCA of 38608 Ha covering 489 villages. As per the Indus water treaty of 1960, discharge of the Ranbir Canal has been restricted to 1400 cusecs only during Kharif season. Out of 1400 cusecs only 1000 cusecs can be used for irrigation purposes. Over the years, the Agricultural area outside the command of Ranbir Canal has increased considerably and because of restrictions imposed by Indus water treaty, the irrigation requirement of the additional areas cannot be met with the limited availability of water in the Ranbir Canal. The left out areas in the far off reaches shall be provided water from Barrage. In order to provide water to villages at far off places beyond the tail end of distribution system of Ranbir Canal. The new scheme of Barrage with separate head works and new distribution system (i. e. existing water courses / khals) will be created beyond distribution of Ranbir Canal. However the channels of Ranbir Canal shall be used for carrying the additional supplies of Tawi Water from Belicharana. Taking a step forward in this direction it is proposed to divert 170 cusecs of water from River Tawi to Ranbir Canal O/s of Tawi Bridge at Belicharana Jammu in order to irrigate an additional agricultural area of 1280 ha (3199 acres) mostly located at tail ends of distributaries of Main Ranbir Canal covering 13 villages. In order to ensure smooth and uninterrupted supply of 170 cusecs of water from River Tawi. It is proposed to create pondage of 4 mtrs. height with fully gated Barrage. The Barrage shall be located at approximately 1040 mtrs. Downstream of Tawi Bridge where the River bifurcates into two main channels popularly known as Nikki Tawi and Waddi Tawi with a large Island in between. This shall be the ideal sight for construction of Barrage because of the minimum width of River i.e. 370 mtrs. (237 mtrs. in Nikki Tawi and 133 mtrs. in
44

Waddi Tawi) available which is required to be used for creation of pondage. The Barrage shall comprise of 6 Nos. Sluice Gates and 25 Nos. Stop log gates with upstream and downstream glacis. The barrage shall be designed for maximum flood discharge of 4}30,000 cusecs and shall be opened before the onset of monsoon season (before the month of July) for a period of 3 months. During monsoon season, sufficient depth of water is available in the river and therefore the water can be augmented in the Ranbir Canal even during this period when the gates of barrages shall be opened. In order to carry additional discharge of 170 cusecs through Ranbir Canal, there will be hardly a rise of 0.40 mtrs. level above the full supply level which is well within the free board of 0.60 mtrs. However, as preventive measure banks of the canal shall be raised by constructing parapets in pIum concrete. The replacement of worn out old canal structures is being taken care of in the ongoing project of Modernization of Ranbir Canal, approved by Planning Commission, vide their letter no. 2(331)/97/I&CO dated 21.05.1998 and revised in the year 2007. The River Tawi is a perennial one having adequate lean season discharge at Tawi Bridge which is more than 170 cusecs required for augmentation of Ranbir Canal and therefore the proposal is viable. The width of River Tawi varies from 300 mtrs. at Tawi bridge site to 600 mtrs. at 1000 mtrs. downstream Near Central Island which bifurcates the river into two channels. The river shall be trained upstream of proposed Barrage by raising earthen embankment and the width of river of stream of Island shall be restricted to the extent that the highest flood discharge passes without over topping the banks. The earthen embankment on the left bank shall be constructed in front of the existing one and land in-between the embankments shall be reclaimed to the extent of 120 kanals (6.02 acres) by filling of river bed material. The cost of embankments and other allied works shall be met out of master plan of River Tawi. The right bank shall also be protected by way of' construction of earthen embankment thereby reclaiming land to be extent of 28 kanals. Besides this Island portion shall also be protected. Recharging of wound water will also .be important aspect of creation of pondage and beautification. The reclamation of land will also be an added benefit of the project apart from the main goal of irrigating additional Agriculture area of 1280ha. (3199 acres).

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INDUS WATER TREATY: As per the provision of Indus water treaty of 1960, a total pondage of 0.62 MAF (million acres feet) can be created in tributaries of Chenab river. After the construction of proposed barrage in River Tawi, which is one of the tributaries of river Chenab, a pondage of only 0.0011 MAF, as per calculation given below, shall be created which is well within the preview of Indus Water Treaty : Average width of river Average depth of pondage Length of pondage uls barrage Therefore pondage created = = = = = = HISTORY AND NECESSITY : At present, Canal Irrigation in most of the areas of Jammu District is being provided by Ranbir Canal and its network of distributaries. The canal was constructed in the year 1905 and takes off from left bank of river Chenab just u/s of old Akhnoor bridge. It passes through four Tehsils of Jammu District viz Jammu R.S.Pura, Bishnah and Samba (now under Samba District). The length of Main Canal is 60 kms and that of distribution system is about 400 Kms. The Canal system has a gross command area of 67000ha and CCA of 38,608 ha. The Main Ranbir Canal has been designed to carry a maximum discharge of 1400 cusecs, which includes 150 cusecs for silt ejection and 250 cusecs for Hydropower-generation, because of restrictions imposed by Indus water Treaty of 1960. Therefore it cannot irrigate any additional agricultural area being cultivated by the farmers. Over the years, the new agricultural areas outside the command of the canal have increased considerably but due to non availability of assured irrigation through canal system these areas have been left to the mercy of rain fall forcing the farmers to grow crops like maize, bajra, moong, oil seeds which require less water. But whenever rain fall fails and is scanty these crops get damaged resulting in starving like conditions for the farmers whose livelihood is solely dependent on agriculture. If these areas are provided with canal irrigation the same cropping pattern as being adopted in the areas under the command of Ranbir Canal can be augmented 01501 as the land is very fertile 300+600/2 = 450m 0+4/2 = 2 mtrs. 1570 m 450x2x1570=1413000 M3 14143000 x 35.3 x 10-6 43560 0.0011 MAF

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and suitable for growing crops viz. Paddy, Maize, vegetables and Wheat, during Kharif and Rabi season respectively. 1280 ha (3199 acres) of area located at tail reaches of distribution of Ranbir Canal has been identified which are deprived of irrigation through canal system, with a view to serve the people in the democratic setup of our country, it is imperative to explore the sources to provide assured irrigation to the areas like the aforementioned" virgin ones which will not only increase the agricultural production but will also go a long way in improving the socio economic conditions of the people. GENERAL FEATURES AND AVAILABILITY OF WATER IN RIVER TAWI The river originates at a height of 4330m at Kali Kundi Seojdhar Kailash South west of Bhaderwah in Doda District and flows through a distance, of 137kms upto Jammu situated at 32-35 to 33-50'. North latitude and 74-35' to 75-45' East longitude. The total catchment of river is about 2168 sq kms out of which a small catchment of 250sq kms is snow fed which makes it a perennial river. The lean season discharge at Tawi bridge is adequate which is more than 170 cusecs, the quantity required for diversion to augment the Ranbir canal at Belicharana at about 1 Km D/s of Tawi bridge. The discharge of River Tawi during monsoon season has been recorded about 2800 cumecs (1 lakh cusecs )whereas, the highest recorded flood discharge is 12169 cumecs (4.30 lacs cusecs) in the year 1988, similarly the Tawi bridge has been designed for a discharge of, 4.30 lacs cusecs which is the 50 years frequent flood discharge. D/S of Tawi bridge, the river bifurcates itself into two main channels popularly known as Nikki Tawi (on left side) and Waddi Tawi (on right side) with, a large island in between. These two, Tawis rejoin to form a single channel uls of their confluence with the river Chenab in Sialkot (Pakistan). An assessment of discharge passing through the two Tawis is necessary for design of puca floor supporting the gated barrage with glacis. Various X-sections of two Tawis have been taken. Knowing the bed slope and assuming a value of 'n' (the rugosity coefficient) in the manning's formula, it has been ascertained that for the same flood levels, the Nikki Tawi draws about 65% of the total flood discharge, whereas the remaining 35% passes through the Waddi Tawi, "At low discharge, the Waddi Tawi is practically dry while Nikki Tawi draws the entire discharge.

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The bed of the river d/s Tawi Bridge is constituted of coarse sand, gravel and stones of 20-30cm dia. The average bed slope is 1 in 350. The tests have been carried out on the bed material samples to ascertain the silt factor. The value of slit factor as obtained from the lab tests which varies from 8.79 to 11.86. The width of the river varies from 300m at Tawi bridge to 600m near the start of central island bifurcating the main river into two channels. The river has a waterway of 300m to 50Qm U/S of Tawi Bridge. PROPOSALS: In order to ensure smooth and uninterrupted diversion of 170 cusecs of water from river Tawi for: augmentation of Ranbir Canal 0/5 of Tawi bridge at Balicharana, it is proposed to create a pondage of 14,13000m3 (0.0011 MAF) by obstructing the flow of Nikki Tawi and Waddi Tawi by way of construction of Auto mechanical cum manually operated fully gated barrage of 4.00m height. The water shall be diverted/regulated through existing gates on left bank of Nikki Tawi to the Ranbir Canal. The main components of the proposal are detailed as under : A) CONSTRUCTION OF AUTO MECHANICALLY CUM MANUALLY

OPERATED FULLY GATED BARRAGE : The barrage shall be located tentatively at 1040m d/s of Tawi, Bridge where the river stands bifurcated into two main channels popularly known as Nikki Tawi on left side and Waddi Tawi on right side with a large island in between. This shall be the ideal site for construction of the barrage because of minimum width of river i.e. 370m (237m in Nikki Tawi and 133m in Waddi Tawi) available at this location which is required to be obstructed for creation of pondage. The island between the two channels, being on high contour shall obviate the necessity of construction of barrage in the stretch of approx 150m across the river covered by this island. Therefore total length of barrage to be" constructed shall be 370m (237 in Nikki Tawi and 133m in Waddi Tawi), The Auto mechanical cum manually operated gates 6 No sluice gates and 25 no. stop log gates across Nikki Tawi and Waddi Tawi. 33 no. piers shall be constructed in M-25 with u/s and d/s RCC glacis / bed. The size of stop logs shall be 10m {length)x4m (height) and sluice gates of size (L) 6mx9m (H) as per design requirement. The Auto Mechanical cum manually operated gates shall be made of superior non corrosive steel. The floor of the Barrage Bay/Scour Bay

48

shall be constructed in cement concrete of grade M-20 with reinforcement. The total length of impervious floor works out to 22m with u/s and u/s cut offs 5.00M deep when designed by Khosla's theory so as to keep the exit gradient within. permissible limit. The length of floor on U/s of the barrage shall be 22m whereas the length of floor O/s of Barrage shall be 46.125m. The floor on D/s of Barrage shall be depressed by 0.5m to a create a cistern with water cushion 50 as to dissipate the energy and reduce the impact of falling Jet so that water passes over the barrage during winter floods. Sheet piling has been proposed to arrest under seepage and to raise the water table The thickness of the floor has been designed to withstand the seepage pressure due to pondage of 4m ht. The thickness of lm has been provided for the RCC floor on u/s of barrage where the seepage pressure shall be countered by weight of water above the floor. The thickness of floor shall be maximum at just d/s of barrage and gets reduced gradually as the residual seepage pressure reduces along the length of O/s floor. A thickness of 2.75m has been provided for the d/s floor. The u/s 5 Nos. block protection comprising of lm thick cement concrete blocks has been proposed to be laid in the length of 5.00' m U/s of start of impervious floor. The U/s and O/s cutoffs have been designed as per the scour depth calculated based on the highest Flood discharge of 4.30 lacs cusecs observed in the year 1988 as the floor of the barrage being permanent has to withstand the highest flood discharge without any damage. The gates shall be erected and held in position with the help of RCC piers provided in the reinforced cement concrete floor. These stop logs have been designed to withstand the maximum winter/monsoon flood discharge of 80,000 cusecs, 4.30 lacs cusecs respectively and shall be opened before the monsoon flood season (i.e. before the respective month of July) for a period of three months. During the monsoon season, sufficient depth of water is available in the Nikki Tawi and therefore the water shall be diverted through the 4 no gates provided for the purpose into the Ranbir Canal even during this period even when the barrage stands opened. The project report of the weir amounting to Rs. 25.00 Crores was proposed and sanctioned by CWC vide letter No. 41(4)/ PS-:1/2009, 5617'

dated:01.02.2010 for MS Steel trussed Weir with Aluminum stop logs of 3.5 Mtr. Height with 1 No. side bund. Keeping in view the Hydrology and behavior of river
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Tawi and discussion/ deliberation at different levels and with experts. It was felt by the Department that a pucca RCC structure will have to be constructed across Nikki and Waddi Tawi in a length of around 370mtr. and which should with stand discharging highest flood of previous year i.e. 1988 (4.30 Lacs cusecs) Hence the construction of fully gated Barrage was conceived and the project reframed. The city drainage nallah entering into river Tawi shall have to be treated separately by the agencies executing the sewerage treatment plant (UEED/ MCJ/ Sewerage Drainage Deptt.). B) RIVER PROTECTION WORKS: The Lum Sum provision for construction of wall and strengthening of crated bund in between Nikki Tawi and Waddi Tawi u/s of super Passage has been kept. C) TREATMENT OF RANBIR CANAL AND ITS DISTRIBUTARIES TO CARRY ADDITIONAL DISCHARGE: The existing canal section of Ranbir canal at Belicharana has been designed to carry a discharge of 20.50 umecs (723 cusecs with a free board of O.6m above full supply level (F.S.L.). If the additional discharge of 170 cusecs is carried through the existing canal section. There will hardly be a rise of 0.40 in the F.S.L. which is well within the free board of 0.60m. However as a further preventive measure, the banks of the canal shall be raised by constructing parapets of size 0.45m x 0.45m in plum concrete 1:3:6. The cost of the intake shall be met out from the available state plan. The replacement of existing old worn out structures is being taken care of in the ongoing project of modernization of Ranbir Canal approved by planning commission vide their letter no.2(331) /97/1& C. O. dated 21.05.1998 and revised in the year 2007. The areas to be irrigated are mostly located at the tail end reaches of distributaries of Ranbir Canal. In order to irrigate these areas the additional water shall be released from main Ranbir Canal into these distributaries as per the quantum of the area. At present rotational irrigation (Warabandi) through these distributaries is being adopted during the peak kharif season because of limited quantity of water available in the main Ranbir Canal in view of the restrictions imposed by Indus water treaty. Therefore the existing canal section of

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distributaries need increase to carry the additional discharge but the frequency of release of water in the distributaries shall be increased to meet the additional requirement in some villages. But in some new water courses and distribution system shall be constructed to supply the water to new area. NEW AREAS PROPOSED TO BE IRRIGATED: 1280 ha (3199 acres) of area has been identified to be irrigated by diversion of 170 cusecs of water from river Tawi to main Ranbir Canal. The location of the area and villages to be covered is as under: S.No. Name of Disty Name of Village Total area to be Irrigated in Acre. 1 2 3 0-11 0-15 0-17 Mogowali, Pindi Sarocha Kalau Arnia Changiya, Kotekuba, Pindi Charka Kalan, Kothi Charka ,Lalu pur, Trewa ,Jabowal Khurd , Jagwal Klan, Chak Jogrian, Kudwal, Total 3199 i.e. 1286 Ha 480 650 2069

CROPPING PATTERN: The soil in the area to be irrigated is predominantly clayey loam and is most suitable for raising the principal crops (viz. Paddy & Wheat etc.). ' The proposed cropping pattern keeping in view the existing being adopted in the areas under the command of Ranbir Canal is as under : Kharif Crop 1) 2) 3) Paddy Maize Vegetable 76% 07% . 17%

51

Zaid 1) Vegetables : 100%

Rabi Croes 1) 2) Wheat Vegetable 60% 40%

CROP WATER REQUIREMENT:-The total quantity of water required during the peak kharif season based on 10 days crops water requirement issued by District Agriculture Officer, Jammu (a copy enclosed as Annexure "A") and as per the proposed cropping pattern works out to be 170 cusecs in the month of June and July. Statement showing area to be irrigated and crop water requirement is enclosed as annexure B BENEFITS: After the completion of the project on ground 1280 ha (3199 acres) of land shall be brought under assured irrigation thereby producing additional food grains to the tune of 2477 tones / year with a net annual benefit of 2187.91 lacs. The statements showing net value of produce before and after canal irrigation are enclosed as Annexure - 'C & 0' respectively. This will go a long way in improving the socio-economic conditions of the people of the area. Moreover, approx 200 kanals of land on left / right bank of river Tawi O/s of Tawi bridge shall be reclaimed. The total cost of this land is approximate 4000.00 lacs. The reclamation of this land shall be an added benefit of the project apart from the main goal of irrigating agricultural area of 1280 Ha (3199 acres) COMPLETION TIME: Project shall be completed within 24 months after the release of funds. TOTAL COST: The total cost of project works out to Rs.7002 lacs includes Civil and Mechanical Components

52

Study on Manufacture of Bricks

53

PROJECT PHOTOGRAPHS

54

INTRODUCTION
In the modern age, that the building stone not easily and cheaply available. The are difficulty or handle due to their heavy weight. Moreover, they are costly in construction as they involved high transportation and dressing charges. All these factors necessitated the evolution of some artificial material of construction in the form of clay blocks of uniform size and shapes, known as Bricks which have been used for constructing engineering structures since ancient time because of their adequate strength, durability and good appearances. BRICKS: The artificial material of construction in the form of clay blocks of uniform size and shapes are known as bricks. Bricks are moulded in the form of rectangular block of suitable size and shape from clay while it is in plastic condition. They are then dried in the sun and

subsequently burnt, if required to make them strong, hard and durable. Since brick can be easily moulded to any uniform size and shapes as required and can be made available cheaply and abundantly, they are considered as on of the best construction materials. Size and Weight of Standard Bricks: According to IS:1077:1970, there are the following sizes of the bricks: Length (i) (ii) 19cm 19cm Width 9cm 9cm Height 9cm 4cm (i.e. 19cm x 9cm x9cm) (i.e. 19cm x 9cm x4cm)

The above sizes will have nominal dimensions (when used in masonary 20cm x10cm , 5cm, including the thickness of the mortar joints one side of the brick. The weight of the brick is 3.2 Kg approximately.

55

The common burnt clay bricks shall be classified on the basis of their minimum compressive strength. The brick of compressive strength 50kg/cm 3 shall be

classified as 50. Each brick is further divided into tow sub classes A and B,, based on tolerances and shape and written as 50A and 50B Structural materials obtained from clays fall into two broad categories: (i) Building bricks and tiles, which can withstand moderate temperatures upto 400C, but they are normally used for service at ambient temperatures. This category includes roof tiles, floor tiles (glazed and unglazed) and white ware glazed tiles available in many colours. (ii) Refractory bricks, which are heat resistant and with. stand furnace temperatures. These products are made from a mixture of clays, with or without the addition of sand. Some unwanted carbonaceous or organic impurities are also present. The ingredients are mixed and moulded in various ways, dried and finally burnt.

BRICKS AND TILES Raw Materials: The clay or shale constitute the main raw materials. Clays are a mixture of kaolin with sand. Kaolin abounds in kaolinite of the formula

AI2O3.2SiO2.2H2O. Other minerals have the formula, Al2O2.mSiO2.nH2O, where m=2 or 3 and n=2 or 4, They generally contain carbonaceous material, some TiO2 and Fe2O2. The clays which contain more of organic carbonaceous material are darker in colour. Fe2O3 imparts red colour to clay. Dry clays are non-plastic. They have to be brought to a plastic state for moulding purposes. The clay particles possess the property of water adsorption, which stands in good stead for this purpose. The adsorbed water forms a film around the tiny flales of clays and they are so oriented that movement under pressure is facilitated, thereby developing plasticity or mouldability.

Thus plasticity is an important property of clay. It can be defined as the ability to

56

form a plastic mass or dough which can be moulded into any shape or form and is rigid enough to retain the particular form. The shape is made permanent. strong and brittle on firing. The amount of water required to attain plasticity is characteristic of a clay. There is a certain minimum water content below which it, does not behave as a plastic material and crumbles on moulding. This is called plastic limit. There is a maximum amount of water above which the mould cannot retain its shape i.e. it tends to flow and become sticky. This point is called liquid limit. The difference between plastic limit and liquid limit is called plasticity index or range. This range varies somewhat with the nature of clay. The exact amount of water added within this range depends on the type of moulding process employed. The soft mud process requires the maximum amount of water near the liquid limit. The semi-dry process requires the least amount of water, somewhere near the plastic limit. The stiff mud process uses water in between the two limits. MANUFACTURING PROCESS: The sequence of during manufacture is outlined below: (i) Selection and 'wining' of clay: Wining is term used for obtaining clay from a pit. (ii) Preparation of clay: This pertains to removing of pebbles, grinding, sieving and homogenizing of clay. (iii) Moulding: As outlined above, three processes of moulding structural clay products are practiced. Moulding is done under pressure or by extrusion in the stiff-mud process. This process is generally used in mechanized plants. In the soft-mud process sufficient water is added to the clay to give the consistency of soft paste, which is generally pressed manually into wooden moulds. Sometimes machine moulding is also done. The semi-dry process is used for special high grade products and requires high pressure for moulding. Sometimes the soft. mud and stiff-mud bricks are pressed again in order to straighten the edges, remove surface roughness and stamp a design or mark on the surface.

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(iv)

Drying: Depending on the moulding process the bricks contain 8 to 30 percent free water, which is removed. Drying is either natural or artificial. Natural drying is carried out under shade by allowing free flow of air. Artificial drying is done in an oven or tunnel in the temperature range of 45-125C. The product is green brick. Slight shrinkage takes place during drying.

(v)

Burning: This is carried out in kilns. The down draught, the up-draught and tunnel kilns have been used. The temperature primarily depends on the characteristics of clay and the nature of product. In the initial stages the temperature of the kiln is low, of the order of 300 0C and is slowly raised to 10000C or 11000C as required. At 5000C to 6000C the combined water of the clay is driven out according to the reaction. AI2O3.2SiO2.2H2O. AI2O3.2SiO2 + 2H2O Above 9000C fusion of vitrification takes place. The ultimate firing temperature depends on end use of a brick. In general, the higher the firing temperature the greater the strength and lower the porosity. The latter also depends on the method of moulding,

The normal firing temperatures an: Common Brick , 10000C to 11000C Tiles, 11000C to 25000C Engineering bricks (generally moulded by semi-dry process), 1200 to 13000C.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ORDINARY BUILDING BRICKS: The normal size of bricks is 8 x 4 x 2 . The bricks should be rectangular, with plane face edges and right angles. A good brick should be sound, hard and uniformly burnt as shown by its texture and metallic ring (sound) produced when it is struck with hammer or another brick. It should not break when dropped from a height of about 4 feet on another brick.

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Red colour of the bricks is due to Fe2O3 supplemented by oxidising atmosphere in the furnace. On firing at temperatures above 1100C the colour fades due to the formation FeO.

Some of important properties of the bricks are crushing strength water absorption weather resistance density.

These properties arc influenced by the nature of raw materials and manner of burning. Under practical conditions wide variation in properties are found, therefore generally an average value from tests on five bricks is taken. For example, the average compressive strength of bricks is 15-20 MN/m2, certain bricks may have as much as 100 MN/m2 and no brick should have less than 9 MN//m2

Two types of tests are conducted for water absorption. i) 24 hours submersion tests. Maximum water absorption is 166 percent and average is 14 percent. ii) 5-hours boiling test. Maximum water absorption of 23% is permissible; average ranges between 20 to 21.5 percent, The density of the bricks ranges between 1.8 to 2.0 g per cm 3.

COMPARISON OF BRICKS MADE BY DIFFERENT PROCESSES : The soft mud and stiff mud bricks possess fairly homogenous structure and texture. The former are more homogeneous. The stiff bricks may some time suffer from laminations and separations may occur between (laminations). The semi-dry process bricks possess granular structure. They require burning at higher temperature to ensure cohesion by verification.

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Tiles: Special tiles are made for roofing, pavements, flooring and walls etc. Even their combined requirement is relatively small, They are made by stiff-mud process. Roofing tiles are more common. They are nearly two inches thick. They are used for making roofs leak proof and more insulating in order to reduce the effect of environmental temperature vagaries. They are laid on the roof with bitumen, Hollow bricks and tiles are also made for special purposes.

Sewer Pipes: They are made from plastic clays, including fire clay, in all types of shapes and forms required for small sewer channels, The stiff-mud process is used. They are fired in the kiln at 1150 to 1200C and common salt is sprinkled on them. The salt reacts with the clay and forms an impervious layer of sodium aluminium silicate at the surface. This is called "salt glazing" as the surface is cover('d with a sort of glaze.

REFRACTORIES Refractories arc non-metallic materials that can withstand high temperatures met in various types of furnaces, flues and ovens. They also serve to confine heat and transfer heat. Some times they are used to store heat as well. In chemical industry they may be used for corrosion resistance and in building industry for facade purposes. More than half the production of refractories is used in iron and steel industry. The requirements of a good refractory are: (i) thermal endurance i.e., resistance to the action of heat under furnace conditions (ii) Resistance to the chemical action of the material being heated. For example, in the case of metallurgical furnaces it should resist the action of molten metal, molten slag and hot gases. (iii) Resistance to physical conditions of load, abrasion and temperature changes. The specific requirements of each industry are different and depend on the chemical reactions involved in each step and the nature of process in general. For example the requirements of different sections of a single blast furnace are different. In copper smelting operation the refractory should withstand the action of molten metal and basic slag, while in acid bessemer and acid open hearth
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sudden

process, resistance to acid slag is required. Refractories used for regenerators, recuperators and flues are required to resist the chemical action and abrasive action of dust bearing gases (N2, CO and H2). The refractories used in recuperators must possess high thermal conductance for heat exchange, while in regenerators it should possess high specific heat in order to store the heat. But both these properties are not requires in flues. It will be seen that the demands not only differ from one industry to another, but are different in different Parts of the same furnace. Let us take another example, say of a reverberatory furnace, which is most common. The requirements of hearth, walls and flues in this furnace are all different. The hearth has to withstand the physical load and chemical action of the hot material, walls and roof arches have to conserve heat and withstand internal stresses due to heating and cooling. The flues have to withstand the impingement attack and to some extent chemical action of high velocity dust bearing gases at moderately high temperatures. To meet the above exacting requirements the refractory -should possess certain properties and conform to certain specifications and tests. The important properties of this class of materials .arc: high softening temperature. low coefficient of thermal expansion, refractoriness under load thermal endurance resistance to spalling high or low specific heat and high or low thermal conductivity according to requirements

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COMPOSITION OF GOOD BRICK EARTH

1.

ALUMINA: It is the chief constituent of every kind of every kind of clay. A good brick earth should contain about 20% to 30% of alumina. This constituent imparts plasticity to earth so that it can be easily molded.

2.

SILICA: It exists in clay either as free or in combined from. As free sands, it is mechanically mixed with clay and in combined from; it exists in chemical composition with alumna good brick earth should contain 50% to 60% of silica. The presence of silica prevents cracking shrinkage and warping of raw bricks.

3.

LIME: A small quantity of lime not exceeding 5% is desirable in good brick earth. It should be present in a very finely powdered state because even small particles of the size of pinhead cause flak age of the bricks. This prevents shrinkage of raw brick.

4.

OXIDES OF IRON:A small quantity of oxide of iron to the extent of about 5% to 6% is desirable in good brick earth. It helps lime to fuse sand. It also imparts red colour to the brick.

5.

MAGNESIA:A small quantity of magnesia in brick earth imparts yellow tint to the brick and decreases shrinkage. But in excess magnesia leads to the decay of bricks.

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PREPARATION OF GOOD BRICK EARTH

The brick earth is prepared in the following steps:

1.

Selection of site and un-soiling: The site for taking out earth shall be selected after giving due consideration to the suitability of soil. After selecting the site, the top layer of the soil contains root of grass, vegetation, other organic matters etc. and is therefore, rejected.

2.

Digging and Cleaning:The soil below 20 cm. is dug out preferably before rains. It is then cleaned off stones, pebbles, vegetable matters etc. All the lumps of soil should be broken into powder form.

3.

Weathering:The loose soil thus obtained after cleaning is exposed to weather for softening. The period of weathering varies from few weeks to full season, depending upon the type of soil and the time available.

4.

Blending: The weathered soil is then loosened. The deficient ingredients to be added are placed in layers at the top of heap of the weathered soil. The whole mass is then thoroughly mixed. Blending indicates intimate or harmonious mixing of all the ingredients of soil to be used as brick earth.

5.

Tempering:In the process of tempering, the clay is bought to proper degree of hardness and it is made fit for next operation of moulding. The water is required quantity is added to clay and the hole mass is kneaded or under the feet of men or cattle. The tempering should be done extensively to obtain homogenous mass of clay or uniform character.

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MOULDING
The clay, which is prepared as above, is then sent to the next operation of Moulding. Moulding is done in two ways: 1. HANDS MOULDING: In hand Moulding the bricks is molded by hand. It is adopted where manpower is cheap and is readily available for manufacturing process of bricks on a small scale. The moulds are rectangular boxes; which are open at the top and the bottom. They may be of wood or steel. The wooden moulds are prepared from well seasoned wood. The longer sides are kept slightly projecting to serves as handles. The brick shrinks during drying and burning .Hence the moulds are made larger then the size of fully brunt bricks these are made longer by about 100/0 to 12% in all directions Hands moulding of bricks is done in two ways: a) Ground moulded bricks: The ground is first made level and fine sand is sprinkled over it. The mould is dipped in water and placed over the ground. The Lump of tempered clay is taken and it is dashed in the mould in such a way that it fills all the comers of the mould. The extra clay is removed either by wooden strike or frame with wire. The mould is then lifted up and raw brick is left on the ground. The lower faces of ground moulded bricks are rough and it is not possible to place frog on such bricks. A frog is the mark of depth about 10mm to 20mm, which is placed on raw bricks during moulding is adopted. b) Machine moulded bricks: The process of moulding these bricks is just similar as in ground moulding. But in this case, the moulder stands near the table of size about 2mX 1 m. The clay, mould, water pots, stock board, strikes and pallet boards are placed on this table. The Bricks are moulded on the table and sent for the further process of drying. The efficiency of the moulder decreases gradually because of standing at the same place for long duration. The cost of brick moulding also increases when table moulding.

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2.

MACHINE MOULDING:The moulding of brick done by machines is called machine moulding. It proves too economical when bricks in huge quantity are to be manufactured at the same spot in a short time. It is helpful for moulding hard and strong clay. These machines are classified into two types:

a)

Plastic Clay Machine: This machine contains a rectangular opening of size equal to the length and width of a brick. The pugged clay is placed in the machine and as it comes out through the openings and is cut into strips by wires fixed frames. As the bricks are cut by wires and are also known as wire cut bricks.

b)

Dry CIay machine: In these machines the strong clay is first converted into powder form. A small quantity of water is then added to form a stiff plastic paste. Such paste is placed in the moulded and pressed bricks and they do not require drying. They can be sent directly for the process of building. The wire cut and pressed bricks have regular shape, sharp edges and comers. The have smooth External surfaces. They carry distinct frogs and exhibit dense texture.

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DRYING OF BRICKS
DRYING: The moulding bricks are dried before they are taken for the next operation of burning. For drying the bricks are laid longitudinally in stocks of width equal to two bricks. A stock consists of eight or ten tiers. The bricks are laid along and across the stock in alternate layer. The bricks should be allowed to dry till they become leather hard or bone-dry with moisture content of about 2% or so. The bricks may be dried by two methods: a) Natural drying Artificial drying

Natural Drying:The process of drying bricks in open air is known as open air. drying or natural drying. In natural drying, when the moulded bricks become dry enough to be handled, they are laid on their edges on a raised and sanded ground to dry for one or two days until they become hard for stacking. They are then arranged on their edges, in rows in the form of a stack with spaces not less than I0 mm between them for the tree circulation of air. The best form of a stack, which has its breadth equal to two bricks, laid longitudinally, the alternate layers being along across the stack, the height of each layer should be equal to eight or ten layers of bricks on edge.

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BURNING OF BRICK
This is very important operation in the manufacture of bricks. It imparts hardness and strength to the bricks and makes them dense and durable if bricks should be burnt properly. The burning of bricks is done either in clamps or In kilns. The clamps are temporary structures and they are adopted to manufacture bricks on a small scale to serve local demand or specific purpose. The kilns are permanent and they are adopted to manufacture large number of bricks. The burning of bricks is done in two ways: 1. CLAMP BURNING: The process of burning bricks in clamp is known as clamp burning. CLAMP:A temporary structure in which bricks are burnt ones in a time is known as clamp. Following procedure is adopted in the construction of a clamp: A piece of ground is selected. Its shape in plan is generally trapezoidal. The floor of clamp is prepared in such a way that short end is slightly in the excavation and the wider end is raised in at an angle of about 15 degree from ground level. The brick ball in mud is constructed on the shortened end and a layer of fuel is laid on the prepared floor. The fuel may consists of Grass, cow dung, husks of rice or ground nuts etc. the thickness of layer is about 70cm to 80cm. A layer consisting of four or five layers of raw bricks is then put up. The bricks are laid on edges with small spaces between them for circulation of air

2)

KILN BURNING: The process of burning bricks in a flame kiln or bhatta" is called a kiln burning. Kiln is a large oven used to burn bricks. Kilns are of two types: Intermittent Kilns Continuous Kilns

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a)

INTERMITTENT KILNS: These kilns are intermittent in operation, which means that they loaded, fired cooled and unloaded. In these kilns the supply of bricks is not continuous. These kilns may be rectangular or circular in plan. They may be over ground or underground.

b)

CONTINUOUS KILNS: These kilns are continuous ill operation. This means that loading, firing cooling and unloading are simultaneously in these kilns. These kilns are of three types: Bull's trench kiln Hoffman's kiln

B D O O R R I C K S

B R I C K S

B R I C K S

B R I C K S

B R I C K S

B R I C K S

B R I C K S

FIG. INTERMITTENT KILN

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BULL'S TRENCH KILN: These kilns may be of rectangular, circular or oval shape in plan. As the name suggests the kiln is constructed in a trench excavated in ground. It may be fully underground or partially projecting above the ground. The ramps of earth should be provided on outside of walls. The outer and inner walls are to be constructed of bricks. The openings are generally provided in the outer wall to act as flue holes. The clamp in the form of iron plates are used to divide the kilns in suitable section. This is the most widely used kiln in India and it gives continuous supply of bricks. The bricks are arranged in such a way that flues are formed. The fuel is placed and is ignited through the holes after covering top surface with earth and ashes to prevent the escape of heat. The flue holes are provided in sufficient number on top to insert fuel when burning is in progress. Usually two moveable iron chimneys are employed in advance of section being fired. Hence the hot gases leaving the chimneys worm of the bricks in the next section. Each section requires about one day to burn. When a section has been burnt the flue holes are cooled and it is allowed to cool down gradually the fire is advance to next section and chimneys are moved forward. The bulls trench kiln is working continuously as all the operation loading burning, cooling and unloading us carried out simultaneously.

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CONCLUSION:
Minor Project was completed in a phased manner with positive results. All the students learned new techniques and got knowledge about all the relevant technology

BIBLIOGRAPHY MINOR PROJECT:

Books On: 1. Sanitary Engineering 2. Concrete Technology 3. Construction Materials 4. Irrigation Engineering 5. Khannas Practical Civil Engineering Handbook

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