with Thinking and against HannahArendt

BY CLAUDE LEFORT

Hancritical remarks 1 would liketoproposea few concerning of the totalitarian of the foundation nah Arendt's conception in of The it the third she as part ofTotalOrigins presented system I whenI read thisgreatwork, In the late seventies, itarianism. forand felt close to thethought admiration with wasfilled very I had previously In 1956,theSoviet which oftheauthor. regime, over the proledenouncedas the rule of a statebureaucracy of political Paraitself to be a newform revealed tariat, society. nature after I its totalitarian discovered readingthe doxically, that issuedat theCentral Committee Khrushchev famous report claimedto have observed year thatis, at a timewhenArendt in the of totalitarian of the end the beginning government sinceterror, or Soviet Union.Thispointis notmerely anecdotal, is forArendt but not for me the more exactlymassterror, Arendt's maincriterion oftotalitarianism. However, description of a new kind of regime,whichshe claimed was "unpreceinto the phenomenaof both was a profound dented," insight Nazismand communism. I continue thatArendt to lightan essential to think brought in it a characteristic of a totalitarian whenshe perceived system domination within. she writes, "is never "Totalitarianism," from content to rulebyexternal the and means, namely, through state . . . Thanksto itspeculiar a machinery ofviolence. and ideology in the apparatus the ruleassignedto the ideology of coercion, a meansofdominating totalitarianism has discovered and terrorSOCIAL RESEARCH, Vol. 69, No. 2 (Summer2002)

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In thissense,it eliminates within. the izinghumanbeingsfrom distance between therulers and theruled." The question to be answered is thefollowing: How can domithatideology does nationbe exercised from within? Assuming the meaningof this role, one mustclarify playan important from the details ofherrichinvesnotion. this Detaching question I wouldliketointroduce the ofNazism and communism, tigation in of distinction between arguments developed themainsection of its the three thethird of Arendt's book,namely, chapters part Arendt later added in first edition and thefourth which chapter, she referred to as "the inconclusive order to replace what This new functioned as a conclusion. remarks" thathad before thediffiand Terror," tends to resolve entitled "Ideology chapter, Itis forthis reasonthat had previously confronted. culties Arendt I insist on itsimportance.

I willnowpresent ofthefirst a short overview stageofArendt's role in which she minimizes the bypropaplayed interpretation of which had been the emphasized by strongly ganda, importance was essento scientists. Arendt, According propaganda political themasses She arguedthat to foreign audiences. addressed tially the speechesof the leaders.Indoctrination did not takeliterally But thisclaimdoes to theelitewas moreefficacious. addressed Furnot accountfortheadhesionof the massesto the regime. outfrom a sortofdomination indoctrination thermore, implies reduces on theroleof theideology, whileinsisting side.Arendt, the readerdisto a minimum. content itsdoctrinal Eventually, domination for Arendt themainmeansoftotalitarian covers that oftotalthat thesuccess know In fact, wealready is"organization." individuto organize in their resides itarian movements capacity I will inbourgeois and isolated alswhohadbeenatomized society. theRusshad toatomize Stalin that leaveasideherodd argument

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ian people to make possiblethe projectof totalorganization. Arendtclaims that totalitarianism in power holds the people because of its to Farfrom accordability organize society. together to Marxist or Leninist she preing anyreal importance theory, sents themas useless. She evengoesso faras to saythatthetrue "is not persuasion, but organization, the goal of totalitarianism accumulation of powerwithout the possession of the meansof violence. For thispurpose, theoriginality of ideological content can only be consideredan unnecessary obstacle."Elsewhere Arendt successes of demagogy arguesthatit is "notthe passing that winthemasses, butrather itis thevisible and of reality power to her,the notionof ideology living organization." According tends tobe negligible. Asfor itis "realized racism, every dayin the of a and as tosocialhierarchy political functioning organization"; oftheComintern is moreconvincing than ism,"thefunctioning or mereideology can everbe."As examples ofthe anyargument lackofsignificance to ideology, Arendt to thepergranted points sistence of boththe myth of theJewish (whenmost conspiracy had already been exterminated) and themyth of theTrotJews been defeated). (whenithad already skyist conspiracy Arendt's insistence on organization isjustified: totalitarian rule credence to the idea that all can be in socigives things organized In this the of a machine and sense, itself, ety. image big imposes itis significant thatin theSoviet Union,one ofthemainfigures oftheenemy ofthepeoplewasthe"saboteur." Nonetheless, organization does not accountforthe processof identification that men and womenmakewiththe leader,or forthefeelings they haveof beingincludedin a community, be it thecommunity of the Party or the community of "thepeople as One." Curiously, Arendt does payattention to thisphenomenon in many places: forexample,afterunderscoring the role of organization, she makes reference to thefamous that Hitler to the S.A. speech gave in which he said:"Allthat are I are, me; all that you you through am,I am through youalone."

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has nothing to is that thenotionoforganization Myargument the rulerand the ruled into to integrate do withthe attempt to makea distinction between "One"body. Arendt fails organizaidea of a the tionand incorporation. supposimplies Organization to thenotion refers whereas society, incorporation edlyrational ofa socialprophyofa collective bodyand appealsto a program on is thesaboteur; oftheenemy On theone side,thefigure lactics. the vermin. is the of the it theother side, figure parasite, and Terror" thechapter As I haveindicated, opensa "Ideology of totalitarianism. Here the specificity new wayto investigate to the Arendt a more approach phenomephilosophical adopts themeanoflawand byrethinking thestatus nonbyquestioning that content with She is no longer merely saying ingofideology. her claimis is unprecedented. totalitarian Instead, government all definitions alternative on which ithas "exploded thevery that havebeen basedin political oftheessenceofgovernment philosand lawless between lawful the alternative that is, governophy; that She observes and legitimate between ment, power." arbitrary different from with a kindofgovernment one is confronted quite fromAristotle those on which philosophers, throughMonthe She that of theories politics. writes havebasedtheir tesquieu, it thosethat lawsincluding "defies all positive totalitarian regime theguidanceof without Butit does notoperate has established. and unequivoto for it claims is it nor law, obeystrictly arbitrary from whichall positive callythoselawsof Natureor of History adds: "itis themonThen she tospring." laws havebeensupposed itgoes from far rulethat strous claimoftotalitarian beinglawless lawsreceived all positive from which to thesourceof authority, law totalitarian of When theirultimate speaking legitimation." but suggests to the speechof the rulers, Arendt does not refer ofthe to the submit themselves therulers that authority supreme do in obedienceto thelaw.She claimsthat lawor do whatthey or ofNature" thelawofHistory executes lawfulness "totalitarian forindividorwrong ofright itintostandards without translating with and thatin contrast ual behavior, regime anyconstitutional

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Arendt retains the We see that it does notneed a consensus juris. her book where she wrote in thefirst of idea putforward chapter between rulers effaces or masks thedistance "totalitarianism that and ruled." as an or Natureimposeitself My pointis: How can History unconditional authority? Accordingto Arendt,Historyand or Nature as movement. The lawofHistory Nature are conceived are so thatwhenmen obeythe law they is a law of movement Thereis no longer a transcendence movement. taken up intothis there is no a between and oflaw, consequently longer discrepancy laws. Arendt usesstriking words to lawand positive thesupreme created to light thetransformations bythetotalitarian sysbring of law intomen"or of an tem.She speaksof an "embodiment she mustaccount "identification of man and law."Nonetheless, She claimsthat of thenewnotionof movement. fortheorigins intellectual this new concept is related to the "tremendous a in themiddle ofthenineteenth that occurred century, change" a in as that consisted interpreting everything being stage change with bothMarxist in a process. Thus forher it is in accordance elevates and Darwinist government ideologythat totalitarian and in so doingdiscloses itsvery to thestatus ofa law, movement Totalitarian themovebyincorporating significance. government, ofNature, undertakes to elimmentofHistory or themovement themembers ofthedeclining classes or anyhuman inateforever itdeemsunfit to live.Terror, Arendt executes the beings argues, itself into a of lawofmovement law bytransforming killing. Totalitarian thus does not need a that government principle wouldguidethebehavior ofindividuals. Whereas "virtue" is necin a in "honor" an aristocratic and essary republic, regime, "fear" in tyranny, in the totalitarian evenfearbecomesuseless, system sinceone never knows thereason she or he couldbe treated why as an enemy. On theother hand,everyone oughtto be prepared to assumeboththeroleof excuter and theroleofvictim. This "two-sided Arendt is effected As preparation," says, byideology. wehavealready in thefirst ofherbooksheargues noted, chapters

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thatthecontent of ideology is not important; nowhowever she In both of these both Marxism and Darwinism. takesseriously doctrines she detects a logicalconstruction that reveals their ideological meaning independentof their doctrinalcontent. or from thenotion ofa lawofHistory didnotdraw Although they these Naturethe imperative thatmen become theirexecutors, since "bearthe seeds of totalitarian lawsnonetheless ideology" is "the the essence of which disclose ideology logicof they already an idea."

of an ideology. Let us briefly recallthe threecharacteristics of thehistorical it implies theclaimof a totalexplanation First, to not what is but what with the becomes-, tendency explain process, itis impervious toanyobjections drawn from second, experience; third,it startsfroman axiomatically accepted premiseand which is to saythatit else from thispremise, deduceseverything in therealmof nowhere thatexists with a consistency proceeds reality. theidea into that"what fits Arendt writes It is significant that which is theconthis newroleis itsownlogic,that is,a movement factor to setitin and needsno outside sequenceoftheidea itself and the logical of History She adds, "the movement motion." to each other, to are of the notion supposed correspond process to thelogicof an whatever so that happensaccording happens, is both movement" "thelawof is that idea."What Arendt suggests She sugand also "a lawof thinking." or Nature a lawofHistory to a new of regime corresponds regime geststhatthe totalitarian bears that conclude to is not an It ideology exaggeration thinking. we are conterrorism" the markof "an intellectual whereby the all that eliminates with a wayof thinking fronted arguments - similar that ofgoverning toa way theidea that wouldcontradict enemies. all actualor potential consists ofeliminating

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I wantto claimthatthereis a gap between intellectual and sinceideology in itself has no powerto transterrorism, political one totheother? form How can one the shift from reality. explain to her,each totaliArendt's answer is disappointing. According and accepted tohisrespective tarian leaderwasattached ideology for itwith seriousness. One tookpridein hissupreme gift deadly in the himself and theother "ice-cold (Hitler), prided reasoning" write Arendt on to "mercilessness ofhisdialectics" (Stalin). goes of thewholestructure that "thestringent that permeates logicality thework wasexclusively movement and government totalitarian here the sudden intruwe see and Stalin." ofHitler Unexpectedly ofthe"great men"in History. sionoftheold theory notion ofideology is not that the Arendtian Let me emphasize is required sheargues that theideology clear. Atfirst bythelawof in orderto prepare to playtheroleofboth movement everyone that thelawofmovement later sheclaims executioner andvictim; Arendt tendsto preEven though is derived from theideology. them as ifit blindedmen and forced sentthelawof movement in not believe this it is clear that she does intounending terror, or law. Thus we expect thatshe will argue thatcommunism Rather than this law at the Nazismis guidedbya myth. setting that she shouldhaveadmitted foundation ofa newkindofstate, thepolitical lineoftheparty, the itis invoked tojustify especially of a new world and a man is as the creation new terror, just in theservice invoked oftotal domination. does Arendt insist on thenotionofmovement to suchan Why extent thatit becomesmorepowerful thanthepolitical actors? Thisquestion seemsto me to be tightly linkedto another question:Why does Arendt abstain from reference to the role of any theparty? that thetotalitarian exhibits a "monAssuming regime strous to one must pretension go backto thesourceofauthority," indicate theorganin which thisauthority is invested. In a totalitarian The party, is however, regime powerresidesin the party. not the mainorganization in the socialfield;rather it presents itself as aboveall byreasonofitsmonstrous to be an pretension

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Itscontrol extends toall sectors ofactivity. Wecertainly areentiin motion, tledto saythatit setseverything thatit creates new and that itestablishes theobjectives oftheir develorganizations, Yet these various of movement do not mask opment. appearances thepermanency ofthestructure and thespirit oftheparty. The is itself not takenintothe movement, sinceno eventcan party alteritsnature, the internal and the capituladespite struggles tionsofwhich it is thetheater. The party is a bodyclosedin on in it is not localizable and time. As Orwellso brilitself, space hasan immortal a mystical contheparty noted, liantly body, body This nectedwith itsreal organs, whichare itsvisible hierarchy. in is more a communist striking strange phenomenon certainly in than a fascist which is a communism one, regime signthat goes in achieving In theSoviet further thetotalitarian Union, project. - from a set of microbodies the party succeededin establishing ofanykind in which thepattern of trade unionsto associations strict control over the a substantial carried out community, by no independent or is reproduced so that behavior ofindividuals, action wouldbe possible. spontaneous
*

a people be a unity, as One.

emanation ofthepeopleand also that which causesthepeopleto

of the totalitarian feature the essential movement Bymaking to a Arendt wantsto reduce the notionof movement system, an toward as orientated itsbeginning conceived offrom process in one has to forward one that at each such end, only go step In doingthisshe does notsee whatis masked direction. byher movement of The of movement. oftheideology ideology concept this to is that to events; history open unpredictable attempts deny in ofexistence, makes anychangein thestyle ideology impossible that the ofthinking. While orinways socialrelationships, arguing of oftheproduction lawsis at theservice ofpositive destruction

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the factthat Arendt "One Man of gigantic dimension," ignores ideas totalitarian Inasmuch ofimmobility. "theOne" is thefigure that of the conflicts to all have found the solution claim to ologies in previous times that conflicts world havetorn themodern apart, in the itwouldseem that regime werethesourceof all change, underthe signof a itself is celebrated effects whichmovement ofhistory. refusal "thereignof movedenouncesso vehemently WhenArendt aims not onlyat totalitarian her denunciation ment," regimes centhatarosein thenineteenth and theunderlying ideologies that is characteristic new mode of but also the temporality tury, moveof thefrenzied her of modernsocieties. critique Beyond of the I see her critique itsnaturein terror, mentthatreveals in the faith modernfaithin progress, technological especially even beforethe In Arendt's and scientific thought, progress. had taken idea of the oftotalitarian advent history ideology, very as ithad been conto her, on a newmeaning. history, According of of the narration no longerconsisted ceivedbytheAncients, in the realm claims that She and events. deeds modernity great the thatis,whatever ofaction, necessity imposedbythe escaped As a result, became incomprehensible. lifeprocesses, political disappeared. thought one should pay close and Terror," Whilereading"Ideology in Arendt reminds us oftheclassic to thepassage which attention theregime oflawwas that oflaw. She says traditionally conception that in faceofthebiological fact ofbirth ofstability at theservice the laws aim at Positive introduces protecting community novelty. disturbances thatoccuras a consequenceof change.She from in constitutional aredesigned to laws "Positive writes, government erect boundariesand establishchannels of communication iscontinually between whose men, endangered bythe community each newbirth a newbeginning is born newmenbornin it.With into the world.A newworldhas potentially come intobeing." Thisargument seemsto me to be derived from a triple abstraction.First, Arendt omits as soon as one is born,one is taken that,

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intoa network ofrelationships that bearthemark ofa particular culture. lawisreduced tothefunction ofstabilizing a natSecond, uralevent, as though itwasnotconstitutive ofhuman coexistence as such.Third, as she does that lawsare changeable in admitting ofparticular circumstances amounts consequence onlyto taking into accountdiscrete the of actions, thereby ignoring gestation newsocial relationships, of thinking, newways newrepresentationsof whatis good or evil,of whatisjust or unjust, or right also real or or a wrong, imaginary, possible impossible: gestation in the thickness thatoperates of the social underthejuridicosurface. This abstraction Arendt to elude political triple permits thequestion ofhistory.

All possibilities are not enclosedin the alternative between orcontingency, oraction. The sense necessity anonymous process ofhistory that with should not be confused with begins modernity in a myth thebelief ofprogress. itproceeds from theview Rather, thathistory is irreversible. Arendt rightly rejectsthe idea that movement has a worth in itself, theidea thathenceforth "everyis she so far as to conflate two Nonetheless, thing possible." goes different on the one in side,themovement which phenomena: themotor is definite and theeffects arestrictly controlled so as to excludeanyspontaneity ofmenand submit all sectors ofactivity to thesamenorms; on theother the is charmovement that side, acteristic of democratic societies due to the limitation of state the breakdown of the traditional diffuand the power, hierarchy, sion of individual and thedifferentiation the freedoms between and cultural It is this latter economic, political, juridical, spheres. in discovered a kindofmovement that America, restTocqueville does notgiveconsideration. lessmovement towhich Arendt in theSoviet the of law Union,itis clearthat Regarding regime is a complete destruction ofanylegality as a confor Arendt there

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of the law of history. Thus she sequenceof thefullaffirmation failsto observe the SovietUnion'sendeavor to elaborate a new framework oflaws. Thispart ofherinterpretation islinked tothat ofterror. In theyears that followed theOctoberRevolution, terrorwasexercised notonly theenemies oftheRevolution: against all the parties thathad participated in the revolutionary movement were eliminated,includingMensheviks, revolutionary workers' and socialists, anarchists, committees, movements, youth feminist movements. At the same timethe tradeunionswere made subjectto the ruling and freedom of the presswas party abolished. Asearly as 1918, Leninlaunched theslogan"TheParty - whichis to say,above the laws.Terror above everything" was decreedbyLenintocleartheRussian landofanyharmful insects. the Leninist one that it terror, might Considering say developed in accordance with thedescription that Arendt makesofa frenzied movement thatnever ceases.Nonetheless, lateron thepursuitofterror means for institutionalization. In required juridical and thenmodified 1924 a penal code was elaborated in 1928. Thiscode continued tobe applieduntil theKhrushchev era,so it was in effect forapproximately 30 years.Its famous Article 58 thevarious violations of law) bearsthemarkof an (concerning combination of the lawful and thearbitrary. extraordinary Ratherthan denouncingthe destruction of law,we should of its the Sovietregimedispensed speak perversion. Although witha consensus as Arendt it soughtto underlines, juris, rightly makeitself consistent oflegality. One bymeansoftheappearance wouldbe wrong to reducethis newcode toan instrumental functionthat didnotaffect thecharacteristics oftheregime; rather its was essential in orderto constitute a newsocialorder. production On theone handitpermitted theassignment ofa number ofcivil servants with thespecialcharge ofadministrating which is justice, tosay, terror. it the with a Meanwhile, provided regime regulating which crimes weresubject to definite the sanctions; gridthrough commissars wereallowed toestablish, infact tofabricate, a dossier to each case. these commissars felt Henceforth, corresponding

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ofjusthemselves to be carrying on a trade.The administration One ticeparticipated in thestabilizing ofthesocialorder. process with observes thatthe elaboration of the penal code coincided theformation ofa bureaucratic state. in a bureauOn theotherhand,theaccusedwereenmeshed becamea supposed cratic network. Each person whowasarrested and moreover to collabowhowasobligedto plead guilty, culprit ratewiththe examining proofof his guilt. magistrate bygiving but The repertory of crimes tookintoaccountnot onlyactions ofdoingsomeor supposed theabstaining intentions intentions; in failure to denounce a a the circumstance; thing particular and so forth. The code gavetheimageofa people guilty person, As I havealready submitted to an arbitrary noted, power. entirely in with a fantastic formalism. There arbitrariness hand hand goes wasnothing ofthis kindin theNazi system.
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ofthelawin IfI haveinsisted ofthetreatment on thefeatures witha a communist the SovietUnion,it is to contrast regime from theprinciderive democratic one. Thejudicialprocedures theadministration of In a democratic regime, ples of a regime. to innocence and the of the right a justiceimplies presumption of testiand on the authenticity a debateon the facts defense; is beyond theprosetheroleofa judge whoseauthority monies; in an authority cutionand thecounsel, independent, principle, to that All which is of from state say justiceis administered power. a society with Thismodelis in accordance in thenameofa Third. and interests of conflicting thatmakesa place forthe plurality thathas been an ultimate and thatadmits authority opinions, thelawinto of intrusion Third marks the The established. legally the from does notdetachitself Itslegitimacy socialrelationships. inforand of freedoms of the movement, expression, guarantee of the communist Whatis characteristic mation. regimeis the

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thenthat is aboveeverything, absenceof theThird.If theparty that outside the is outside the also meansthatnothing is, party there is theparty is theincarnation. ofwhich state, Consequently, The relationship in theadministration ofjusticeno neutral actor. the between theaccuserand theaccusedis a dual relationship; sincetheaccuserspeaksin thename of the Thirdis foreclosed derives from a logicof incorporation. This dual relationship party. in the demands tobe reproduced thedualrelationship Moreover, himself with theaccuser. Selfwhohastoidentify accusedsubject, itshighest whenhe or oftheaccusedreaches denunciation point in illustrate this sheisa communist. The Moscow trials, particular, in theinnumerable itis reproduced diaHowever, phenomenon. a commissar and an accused. between writes, logues Solzhenitsyn in the same endless variations. You and "Always repeated leitmotif if are communists." He "What would do we adds, me, you you I spokeofa perversion werein myplace?"It is forthis reasonthat ofthelaw. HannahArendt waswellawareof the unprecedented phenomein searching non thattotalitarianism constituted. Nevertheless, foritsorigin, in theideologies either and thenewconception of that or in theprocess history appearedin thenineteenth century, oftheatomization ofindividuals that lentitself totheatomization ofmasses in thebeginning of thetwentieth she did not century, attention to the new structure of the in the social, pay particularly Soviet Union.She denouncedthemyth oftheOne without conthe scheme of a new order. That is the reason sidering symbolic she has not measured the thatseparates twoforms of why abyss totalitarianism and modern society: democracy.