Noah D.

Manring
e-mail: ManringN@missouri.edu

Taha S. Al-Ghrairi
e-mail: alghrairi.taha@gmail.com Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Department, College of Engineering, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211

Designing a Hydraulic Continously Variable-Transmission (CVT) for Retrofitting a Rear-Wheel Drive Automobile
This research shows that an existing rear-wheel drive vehicle may be easily retrotted with a continuously variable-transmission for the purposes of reducing the overall fuel consumption of the automobile. The retrot-ability of this transmission is the primary advantage that it exhibits over other continuously variable-transmissions. By retrotting this vehicle with the transmission components that are shown in this paper, the existing vehicle transmission continues to be used with the exception of the driveshaft which is replaced by the hydraulic continuously variable-transmission itself. Using a standard model for the vehicle dynamics, this paper presents a detailed analysis for the speed ratios of all gears, and shows how to specify the size of the hydraulic pump and motor to insure a safe pressure level of operation. To illustrate the usefulness of this method, an actual transmission is designed for the 1997 Ford Ranger, and the range of adjustability for the transmission is evaluated by seeking to hold the engine speed constant for a ramped speed output of the vehicle. In conclusion, this research shows that the design methodology is valid and that only minor errors in engine speed are observed during low ground velocities for the vehicle. [DOI: 10.1115/1.4025119]

Sean D. Vermillion
Mechanical Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843 e-mail: sdvermillion@tamu.edu

Introduction
Background. Continuously variable-transmissions have been used in the automotive industry for many years. The motivation for using a continuously variable-transmission in an automobile is to achieve a continuously variable-transmission of power, which allows the internal combustion engine to operate at its most efcient operating point for a given power requirement. Studies have shown that these transmissions are able to reduce fuel consumption by up to 60% [1]. Although continuously variabletransmissions have been in existence for many years, and although they show tremendous promise for reducing fuel consumption, they are nevertheless too expensive to receive widespread acceptance in the market. Much of this is due to the fact that most continuously variable technology is of the electric type, and the components for these transmissions are not affordable. For instance, consider the price difference between the Toyota Corolla and its comparable compact electric-hybrid the Toyota Prius. The cost differential between these two cars is in excess of $8000 which makes the continuously variable design cost prohibitive for most consumers. In order to increase the penetration of continuously variable technology into the automotive market, the environmental protection agency (EPA) has been sponsoring programs for the development of hydraulic hybrid-vehicles [2]. The EPA deems a hydraulic continuously variable-vehicle as being more cost effective than an electric continuously variable-vehicle; however, the hydraulic designs have not proven themselves to be acceptable due to the high level of audible noise that they generate especially when operating at high pressures. In other words, the benets of increased fuel efciency and lower rst-time buying costs have not been enough to persuade consumers to live with the noise that is associated with a hydraulic continuously variable vehicle. In

this state of affairs only the electric continuously variable-vehicle is sold for passenger use, and only a few of these are purchased by individuals who have enough wealth to put environmental concerns ahead of their pocketbook. In other words, the electric continuously variable-vehicle market is a niche market that serves the interests of only a few. This paper is being written to consider another niche market for continuously variable vehicles. In particular, the feasibility of retrotting an existing rear-wheel drive vehicle with a hydraulic continuously variable-transmission is explored to provide environmentally conscious individuals with an option to upgrade their vehicles without paying the high cost associated with an electric continuously variable-design. While this current solution does not address the noise issue associated with the hydraulic transmission, it does address the cost issue by using less expensive hydraulic components and by using the existing mechanical transmission in the vehicle with its associated differential gear at the nal drive. The proposed transmission in this paper simply replaces the drive shaft in the vehicle with a hydraulic continuously variabletransmission, thus creating a continuously variable-transmission of power that is capable of signicantly reducing the fuel consumption of the automobile. In other words, if the end user is willing to endure the traditional noise levels that are associated with the hydraulic continuously variable-transmission, the continuously variable-transmission proposed in this paper can signicantly reduce fuel consumption costs for that individual while simultaneously serving to preserve the environment from the side effects of burning excess petroleum based fuels.

Contributed by the Power Transmission and Gearing Committee of ASME for publication in the JOURNAL OF MECHANICAL DESIGN. Manuscript received January 24, 2013; nal manuscript received July 10, 2013; published online September 18, 2013. Assoc. Editor: Qi Fan.

Literature Review. As previously mentioned, automotive continuously variable-transmission research has been aimed operating the internal combustion engine at a point of maximum efciency for a given power demand. This research has been roughly divided between electric continuously variable-technologies and hydraulic continuously variable-technologies. Examples of electric continuously variable research include work done by Pffner et al. [3] in which a numerical method is DECEMBER 2013, Vol. 135 / 121003-1

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used to model the transmission and to optimize the engine efciency. This work does not model the transmission in detail but considers the efciency characteristics of the engine. The efciency of the transmission is assumed to be 100%. Pffner concludes that fuel consumption may be reduced by as much as 5% using the proposed method of control. Mapelli et al. [4] have considered a transmission similar to that of Pffner; however, they have given greater attention to the losses in the transmission itself. This work does not present a comparison of the continuously variable vehicle with a more conventional design and so it is difcult to know whether or not any improvements have been made. Kessels et al. [5] provide more detail in the description of their electric continuously variable-vehicle which consists of two motor-generators with power electronics being used to regulate battery power input and output. By considering the efciency of all components, Kessels and colleagues conclude that it may not always be best to operate the engine at its point of maximum efciency for a given power demand since global optimal vehicle efciency may not correspond with this operating point. Ehsani et al. [6] have provided a more comprehensive textbook for considering the fundamental building block of electric continuously variable vehicles. Hydraulic continuously variable-transmissions have been studied by Kumar and Ivantysynova [7] in which a continuously variable pump and motor are used with an accumulator to provide a capacity for storing braking energy as well as optimizing the efciency of the engine. This work concludes that the hydraulic continuously variable-design can reduce the fuel consumption of a comparable electric continuously variable-transmission by over 16%. A fair amount of work has also been done on hydraulic hybrid-technologies at the University of Missouri. Dirck [8] has modeled a simple hydraulic hybrid which utilizes a parallel discrete-transmission to show that the fuel consumption of a typical automobile may be reduced by 37% for city driving and 14% for highway driving. Vermillion [9] has modeled a more complex hydraulic continuously variable-transmission which utilizes a pressure compensated pump, and a variable displacement motor while considering the efciency characteristics of the hydraulics. In his work, Vermillion has shown that fuel consumption may be reduced by just 1.28% in the city, and by over 22% for highway driving. Al-Ghrairi [10] has shown that the transmission modeled by Vermillion can be designed within a compact space while ensuring that all transmission components, including complex gear arrangements, can satisfy the safety-factor requirements that are typical of modern machine design practice. All of this work, among others, has been very useful for considering barriers that may be encountered when implementing continuously variable-transmission-technology. Most of the work described in this literature has focused on the control of the continuously variable-transmission with an objective to either

optimize the engine efciency or to optimize the overall vehicle efciency. While this is the ultimate objective for these transmissions; this work has assumed that the transmission design is easily achieved and therefore the design of intermediate pumps, motors, and gearing is almost entirely neglected. This present paper is aimed at considering the overall design of the transmission components themselves. In other words, this paper teaches the reader how to specify the gears, the pump, and the motor in order to achieve a satisfactory level of adjustment for the overall transmission. The application for this design is given by a rear-wheel drive automobile in which the existing transmission components continue to be utilized. Objectives. This research shows that an existing rear-wheel drive vehicle may be easily retrotted with a continuously variable-transmission for the purposes of reducing the overall fuel consumption of the automobile. The retrot-ability of this transmission is the primary advantage that it exhibits over other continuously variable-transmissions. By retrotting this vehicle with the transmission components that are shown in this paper, the existing vehicle transmission continues to be used with the exception of the driveshaft which is replaced by the hydraulic continuously variable-transmission itself. Using a standard model for the vehicle dynamics, this paper presents a detailed analysis for the speed ratios of all gears and shows how to specify the size of the hydraulic pump and motor to insure a safe pressure level of operation. To illustrate the usefulness of this method, an actual transmission is designed for the 1997 Ford Ranger, and the range of adjustability for the transmission is evaluated by seeking to hold the engine speed constant for a ramped speed output of the vehicle. In conclusion, this research shows that the design methodology is valid and that only minor errors in engine speed are observed during low ground velocities for the vehicle.

Transmission Description
Figure 1 shows a schematic of the hydraulic continuously variable-transmission as it is arranged within an automobile in a retrotted conguration. In this schematic, four automobile tires are shown in each quadrant of the gure; however, only the rear tires are driven by the transmission. In other words, this vehicle is a rear-wheel-drive machine. The internal combustion engine is shown between the two front tires which is the traditional location for the engine. The standard automotive transmission is downstream of the engine and its discrete and shift-able speed ratio is symbolized by Nt. On the output shaft of the standard transmission, a spur gear is shown to split the power transmission between a mechanical path and a hydraulic path. This spur gear is shown in a simple conguration; however, it should be mentioned that a compound spur gear is likely to be used in order to achieve the

Fig. 1

Schematic of the hydraulic continuously variable-transmission

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needed speed ratios for this gear. The mechanical power path is shown in Fig. 1 to be a simple shaft that rotates at an angular velocity x1. The hydraulic power path is a standard hydrostatic transmission, which comprised variable displacement pump and a xed displacement motor. The shaft speed of the pump is shown in Fig. 1 by x2 and the shaft speed of the motor is shown by xh. As shown in Fig. 1, the mechanical and hydraulic power paths are reconnected by a planetary gear as indicated by the R symbol in the gure. The output shaft of the planetary gear is then connected to a standard differential, which then transmits power to each rear-wheel axle. It is important to note that this transmission does not include an energy storage component and that it is not capable of regenerating brake energy. The transmission shown in Fig. 1 achieves its improved efciency by operating the internal combustion engine at an optimal operating point and thereby increasing fuel efciency by as much as 60% [1]. If an energy storage device was included, additional improvements would be realized. The important feature of this transmission layout is that the continuously variable-transmission can serve as a retrot design for the vehicle. In other words, the main drive shaft between the standard mechanical transmission and the differential can be dropped out of the vehicle, and replaced with the continuously variable-transmission comprised a spur gear, mechanical shaft, a hydraulic transmission, and a planetary gear. This paper will describe how this transmission can be designed to achieve the advantages of a continuously variable-transmission, without replacing other main power and power-transmitting components of the automobile.

coefcient for the vehicle, A is the effective frontal areal of the vehicle, Cr is the dimensionless rolling-resistance coefcient, and g is the gravitational constant. From a static analysis of the tires, it may be shown that the force exerted on the automobile in the horizontal direction is given by F2 T R (2)

where the factor of 2 indicates that there are two tires, each being turned with a torque T. Similarly, if it is assumed that the tires do not slip, it may be shown that the vehicle velocity in the horizontal direction is give by v Rx (3)

where x is the angular velocity of each tire. By substituting Eqs. (2) and (3) into Eq. (1), the following equation of motion for the automobile may be written as follows:   dx qCd A 3 2T R x2 Cr mgR (4) mR2 dt 2 The input to this equation is the torque, T, which will be delivered from the vehicle engine to each tire through the vehicle transmission. The analysis and modeling of the transmission will be carried out in Transmission Analysis section of this paper.

Transmission Analysis Automobile Modeling

Figure 2 shows a schematic of an automobile that will be used as the basis for the analysis, design, and control of the hydraulic continuously variable-transmission. In this gure, the vehicle is shown to travel on a at surface to the left at a velocity v. The mass of the vehicle is shown by the symbol m and a force F between the rear tire and the road is shown to move the vehicle forward. The torque and speed of the tire are shown by the symbols T and x, and the tire radius is given by the symbol R. In the following paragraph, the dynamic motion of the vehicle will be modeled. Summing forces acting on the vehicle in the horizontal direction, the following equation of motion may be written:   dv qCd A 2 v Cr mg (1) m F dt 2 where the second term on the right represents the wind resistance which is proportional to the square of the velocity v, and the third term on the right represents the rolling resistance of the vehicle due to the vehicle weight. These terms are standard vehiclemodeling terms that may be accessed in the literature [6]. In Eq. (1), q is the density of air, Cd is the dimensionless drag General. This section will be used to analyze the transmission components for the hydraulic continuously variable-transmission shown in Fig. 1. The objective of this analysis will be to identify the overall speed ratio between the engine and the tires of the vehicle and to illustrate how this speed ratio can be made into a continuously variable type through the adjustment of the swashplate angle for the pump. This analysis will be conducted by considering each transmission component in its turn and by assuming that all transmission components are 100% efcient. Mechanical Transmission. Figure 1 shows a mechanical transmission connected to the engine that is adjustable between a discrete set of speed ratios. For a typical automotive application, there are ve different speed ratios that may be selected. The conveyance of power through the mechanical transmission may be written as T3 Nt Te 0 and Nt x3 xe 0 (5)

where Te and xe are the torque and speed from the engine, and T3 and x3 are the torque and speed delivered to the central gear on the spur gear set. In Eq. (5), the symbol Nt represents the adjustable speed ratio for the mechanical transmission. Spur Gear. Figure 1 also shows a spur gear connected to the mechanical transmission. As was mentioned earlier, this gear most likely needs to be of the compound gear type to achieve the needed speed ratios and therefore Fig. 3 is presented to illustrate this gear in a more realistic arrangement. Figure 3 is drawn as viewed from the rear of the vehicle looking toward the engine where r1, r2, r31 , and r32 are the pitch radii for each gear. Note that the center distances between the hydraulic and mechanical paths of the gear train are shown by the symbols Ch and Cm, respectively. To satisfy kinetic equilibrium and kinematic relations, in may be shown that T3 n2 T2 n1 T1 0; n2 x3 x2 0 and n1 x3 x1 0 (6) DECEMBER 2013, Vol. 135 / 121003-3

Fig. 2 Automobile schematic

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Fig. 3

Schematic of the compound spur gear

where the speed ratios are given by n1 r31 r1 and n2 r32 r2 (7)

These speed ratios will be designed and specied in a later portion of this paper. Hydraulic Transmission. The hydraulic transmission is shown in Fig. 1, being comprised a displacement controlled pump, and xed displacement motor. It may be shown that the input and output torque for the hydraulic transmission are given by ^ and T2 Vp Pa Th Vm P (8)

power transmission is accomplished; therefore, optimal control for this parameter becomes a very important topic for achieving the transmission objective. The automatic control for this parameter is beyond the scope of this present research, however, this paper provides a mathematical description of the plant to be controlled. Follow on research will be aimed at the control problem itself. Planetary Gear. As shown in Fig. 1, the planetary gear is used to reconnect the hydraulic and mechanical path of the continuously variable-transmission and to distribute the combined power to the differential. A schematic for the planetary gear is shown in Fig. 4 as observed from the back of the vehicle while looking toward the engine. This gure shows the hydraulic path on the left-hand side and the mechanical path on the right-hand side. The planetary gear is in the middle. The hydraulic path is connected to the planetary gear by meshing gears with the outside ring. The pitch radii for these two gears are shown in Fig. 4 by the dimensions rh and rR. The mechanical path is connected to the planetary gear by meshing gears with a less obvious gear that is attached to the arm of the planetary gear. The arm for the planetary gear is shown in Fig. 4 by four spokes which are pinned to four planet gears. The gear that is attached to the arm is shown in Fig. 4 by the dashed pitch-circle with a radius rA and is located behind the plant gear itself. The gear for the mechanical path is shown by the pitch-circle radius rm. As in Figs. 3 and 4 shows the center distances between the hydraulic and mechanical paths of the gear train using the symbols Ch and Cm, respectively. To model the power transmission though the planetary gear, a simplied schematic for this gearing unit is shown in Fig. 5. This schematic more clearly identies the sun, arm, planet, and ring. For simplicity, only one spoke of the arm and only one planet are shown in this gure. In the bottom four quadrants of Fig. 5, partial free-body diagrams are shown for each component in the planetary gear set. The following analysis will evaluate the static equilibrium of each component. The rst component to consider is the sun gear. Summing moments on the sun about the xed point O and setting them equal to zero produces the following equation for the rotational equilibrium of this component: Ts Fs rs 0 (12)

where P is the working pressure of the transmission, Vp is the ^ is the normalmaximum volumetric displacement for the pump, a ized swash-plate angle of the pump which ranges between 61, and Vm is the volumetric displacement of the motor [11]. Similarly, the speed of the pump and motor, respectively, may be written as follows: x2 Q ^ Vp a and xh Q Vm (9)

where Q is the volumetric ow rate from the pump to the motor. By algebraically eliminating P and Q from Eqs. (8) and (9), respectively, the conveyance of power through the hydraulic transmission may be written as T2 Nh Th 0 and Nh x2 xh 0 (10)

where the speed ratio for the hydraulic transmission is given by Nh Vp ^ a Vm (11)

It is important to note that a pressure limitation exists within the hydraulic circuit due to stress limits in the design, and that Eq. (10) does not explicitly account for this limitation. Equation (8) will be used to account for this in the design section of this paper. Equation (11) shows that the speed ratio for the hydraulic transmission is controlled by altering the swash-plate angle of the pump. The intelligent control of this swash-plate angle is the mechanism by which the improved efciency for the overall 121003-4 / Vol. 135, DECEMBER 2013

where Ts is the applied torque to the sun gear, Fs is the reaction force between the sun gear and the planet gear, and rs is the pitch radius for the sun gear. Similarly, for the partial Transactions of the ASME

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Fig. 4 Schematic of the planetary gear

Fig. 5

Partial free-body diagrams for the components within the planetary gear

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free-body-diagram of the arm shown in Fig. 5, summing moments on the arm about the xed point O and setting them equal to zero produces the following equation for the rotational equilibrium of the arm: Ta Fa ra 0 (13)

T1 nm Ta 0 and nm x1 xa 0

(21)

where Ta and xa are the torque and speed of the arm gear of the planetary gear set and the speed ratio between the planetary gear set and the mechanical transmission is given by nm rm rA (22)

where Ta is the applied torque to the arm, Fa is the reaction force at the pin joint between the arm and the planet gear, and ra is the radial dimension shown in Fig. 5. Continuing this analysis, Fig. 5 shows a partial free-body-diagram for the planet gear. It is important to note that the planets do not convey power themselves and as such they undergo no rotational torque. They are idlers. In this case, summing forces on the planet in the vertical direction and setting them equal to zero produces the following equilibrium equation for the planet: 2Fs Fa 0 (14)

and where the dimension rm and rA are shown in Fig. 4. Similarly, Fig. 4 shows a hydraulic path of power, which is connected to the outer ring of the planetary gear set, using another gear with a pitch radius given by rh. Considering the equations of static equilibrium between these two gears, and the conservation of power, it may be shown that Th nh Tr 0 and nh xh xr 0 (23)

Finally, summing moments on the ring gear shown in Fig. 5, and setting them equal to zero, produces the following equation for the rotational equilibrium of the ring: Tr Fs rr 0 (15)

where Th is the torque delivered by the hydraulic transmission, xh is the angular velocity of the output shaft of the hydraulic transmission, and the speed ratio between the planetary gear set and the hydraulic transmission is given by nh rh rR (24)

where Tr is the applied torque to the arm, Fs is the reaction force between the planet gear and the ring gear, and rr is the internal pitch radius for the ring gear. Assuming that the applied torque to the sun gear is known, the following results may be obtained by a simultaneous solution for Eqs. (12)(15): Fa and Ta na Ts 0; Tr nr Ts 0 (17) 2 Ts ; rs Fs 1 Ts rs (16)

and where the dimension rh and rR are shown in Fig. 4. Equations (21) and (23) may be used to describe the transmission of power from the planetary gear set to the mechanical and hydraulic power paths, respectively. Differential Gear. The differential gearbox shown in Fig. 1 is used to distribute power from the planetary gear to the rear wheels of the vehicle. Satisfying the kinematic and conservation-ofpower requirements, it may be shown that torque and speed distribution through the differential gear is described as follows: 2T nd Ts 0 and nd x xs 0 (25)

where the speed ratios for the arm and ring are given, respectively, as na 2 ra rs and nr rr rs (18)

where the speed ratio for the differential is given by nd and the angular velocity and torque at the wheels is given by x and T, respectively. Summary. Equations (5), (6), (10), (17), (20), (21), (23), and (25) contain 16 different equations with 16 unknowns if it is assumed that the axle torque and speed, T and x, are known. These equations can be simultaneously solved to produce the following speed and torque relationships for the output shaft of the engine: 1 n N  d t n2 nh nr n n n 1 Nh 1 m a n1 nm na   Te n n n n n n 1 2 h r Nh 1 m a 2T n1 nm na nd Nt xe  x

Note that these speed ratios are also shown in Fig. 5. Throughout the remaining analysis, the forces Fa and Fs will not be referred to; however, the torque results in Eq. (17) are very important and will be used extensively. To conclude the analysis for the planetary gear, it is important to consider the net power that is being transferred by the gears. Assuming that the power is transferred without any losses due to friction, the conservation of power within the gear set may be written as Ts xs Ta xa Tr xr 0 (19)

(26)

Substituting the torque from Eq. (17) into this result produces the following expression for the conservation of power in the planetary gear set: xs n a xa n r xr 0 (20)

In summary, Eqs. (17) and (20) may be used to describe the kinetic and kinematic behavior of the planetary gear set. Figure 1 shows a mechanical path of power, which runs parallel to the hydraulic transmission and connects the spur gear to the arm gear of the planetary gear set. Considering the equations of static equilibrium between the mechanical-path gear and the arm gear, and the conservation of power, it may be shown that 121003-6 / Vol. 135, DECEMBER 2013

As shown in this analysis, the continuously adjustable speed ratio for the hydraulic transmission, Nh, is used to alter the overall speed ratio for the transmission thus producing a continuously variable-transmission for the vehicle. If this speed ratio is set to zero, and n1 nm na 1, it can be shown that the transmission performs as a standard transmission without any alteration to its original design. Other intermediate results from this analysis are presented in the following paragraph. For the output shaft of the mechanical transmission, the speed and torque relationships are given by the following results: Transactions of the ASME

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x3  x

1 nd  ; n2 nh nr n1 nm na Nh 1 n1 nm na   T3 n n n n n n 1 2 h r Nh 1 m a 2T n1 nm na nd

(27)

adjustability of the overall speed ratio for the modied continuously variable-transmission, it would be desirable for a maximum pump swash-plate angle to produce a 625% adjustment for the overall speed ratio of the transmission. By inspecting Eq. (26), and assuming that Eq. (34) is satised, it may be shown that a proper amount of adjustment is achievable if the following design constraint is enforced: n2 nh nr 1 4 (35)

For the input shaft to the pump of the hydraulic transmission, the speed and torque relationships are given by x2 1 n n  2 d ;  n2 nh nr x n1 nm na Nh 1 n1 nm na T2 nh nr Nh 2T nd (28)

For the mechanical shaft that runs parallel to the hydraulic transmission, the speed and torque relationships are x1  x 1 n  d ; n2 nh nr nm na Nh 1 n1 nm na T1 n n m a 2T nd (29)

The acceptability of this constraint will be examined in Results and Discussion section of this paper. In addition to these requirements, Eqs. (8) and (30) may be used to size the volumetric displacement of the motor based upon the maximum amount of torque that the motor will be required to generate during normal operation of the vehicle. This result is given by Vm 2Tmax nh nr Pmax nd (36)

For the output shaft of the hydraulic motor, the speed and torque relationships are xh 1 n n  2 d Nh ;  n2 nh nr x n1 nm na 1 Nh n1 nm na Th nh nr 2T nd (30)

For the ring of the planetary gear, the speed and torque relationships are given by xr  x 1 n n n  2 d h Nh ; n2 nh nr n n n 1 Nh 1 m a n1 nm na Tr n r 2T nd (31)

For the arm of the planetary gear, it may be shown that the speed and torque relationships are given by the following: xa 1 n  d;  n2 nh nr x n 1 Nh a n1 nm na Ta n a 2T nd (32)

where Tmax is the maximum torque that will be generated at the tire of the vehicle and Pmax is the maximum uid pressure that can be safely generated within the hydraulic transmission without causing a machine failure. As previously stated, it assumed that the volumetric displacement of the pump Vp is equal to the volumetric displacement of the motor Vm. The maximum torque at the tire may be obtained using the vehicle model of Eq. (4). Normally, this torque is observed during high accelerations of the vehicle in which case wind and rolling resistance are negligible compared to the vehicle inertia. Finally, from a packaging point of view, the power transmission paths of the spur gear and the planetary gear must align. This is absolutely required for the mechanical power path, since a rigid shaft must be used to connect these two transmission points. Although, it is not as important to align the transmission points for the hydraulic power path since a uid conduit is being used rather than rigid shaft; nevertheless, it is convenient to align these points and therefore the following design constraints will be enforced for the gear center distances: Cm r1 r31 rA rm ; Ch r2 r32 rR rh (37)

And nally, for the sun of the planetary gear, it may be shown that the speed and torque relationships are given by xs nd ; x Ts 1 2T nd (33)

In the section that follows, this transmission will be designed in light of various constraints and design goals.

Transmission Design
In designing the continuously variable-transmission that can be easily retrotted to the rear-wheel drive automobile, it can be shown from the overall speed ratio in Eq. (26) that the unmodied transmission is described by a situation where Nh 0 and n1 nm na 1 (34)

See Figs. 3 and 4 for these dimensions. For the purposes of illustrating a realistic design, a 1997 Ford Ranger was considered as a test bed and an effort was made to satisfy the design constraints of Eqs. (34) through (37). Figure 6 is presented to show the design that was generated for the spur gear and the planetary gear based upon the vehicle and design information presented in the Appendix. Notice, these two gears look substantially different than their conceptual counterparts shown in Figs. 3 and 4; however, they are functionally identical. Although the hydraulic transmission is not shown in Fig. 6, it should be mentioned that a pump and motor with a displacement of 20 cc/rev can easily t within the space limitations of the hydraulic path. Furthermore, the overall transmission size is relatively small and can easily t within the existing space on the underside of the Ford Ranger. In other words, the design can easily be retrotted to an existing vehicle.

Therefore, Eq. (34) should be enforced for the overall design of this transmission. Furthermore, if we assume that the volumetric displacement of the pump and motor is identical, Eq. (11) may be used to show that the hydraulic transmission speed ratio is simply given by ^, where a ^ is the normalized swash-plate angle for the Nh a pump which may vary between 61. In order to insure adequate Journal of Mechanical Design

Results and Discussion

This section of the paper will be used to evaluate the performance of the transmission by observing the dynamic characteristics of the transmission during a ramp increase in vehicle speed. To do this, it will be convenient to nondimensionalize the time-varying parameters by using the following denitions: DECEMBER 2013, Vol. 135 / 121003-7

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Fig. 6 Schematic of an example transmission design for a 1997 Ford Ranger (all dimensions are in millimeters)

^; x xo x

^; T To T

^e; x e xe o x

^e ; Te Teo T

t s^ t (38)

^e x

! Nt ^ x ^ 11 4a

^e and T

!1 Nt ^ T ^ 11 4a

(41)

where the quantities with subscript o are nominal values of the parameter and quantities with carets are nondimensional and of order one. In this equation, s is a characteristic dimension of time. The nominal values used in this paper are presented in the Appendix. Substituting these denitions into the equation of motion for the vehicle as presented in Eq. (4), it may be shown that a nondimensional form of this equation is given by ^ ^ dx ^ 1 B ^x ^ 2 1 T A d^ t (39)

In this equation, the nominal speed ratio for the mechanical transmission is assumed to be given by Nt 1 and the nominal swash^ 0. Also, Eq. (41) has plate angle for the pump is given by a been developed for a transmission design that satises the design requirements of Eqs. (34) and (35). To evaluate the transmission performance, we must provide an input that will enable us to observe all relevant outputs. This is partially done by specifying the vehicle speed and acceleration as follows: ^x ^ min x ^ min ^ max x x ^ t and 10 ^ x ^ min ^ max x dx 10 d^ t (42)

where the dimensionless inertia and drag coefcient are given, respectively, as ^ mR xo A 2To s
2 3 2 ^ qCd AR xo and B 4To

(40)

Similarly, substituting Eq. (38) into Eq. (26) produces the following nondimensional expressions for the engine speed and torque: 121003-8 / Vol. 135, DECEMBER 2013

This prescription describes a linearly increasing speed that ^ max after 10 ^ min and increases to a maximum speed x begins at x time constants. Using this prescribed speed, Eq. (39) may be used ^ for the vehicle. to calculate the tire torque T In order to provide a control input for the pump swash-plate angle, a control objective for the continuously variableTransactions of the ASME

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transmission must be established. In general, this objective will be based upon the efciency map for the internal combustion engine and the best combination of engine speed and torque will be sought to maximize the engine efciency. The swash-plate angle of the pump will be adjusted accordingly to achieve this combination of speed and torque. For the purposes of this study, it will be assumed that the engine operates best at a specic speed ^ e 1. In order to hold the engine speed at this constant where x value, Eq. (41) may be used to show that the desired swash-plate angle for the pump is given by ^ ^ 41 Nt x a (43)

Using the following schedule for shifting the speed ratio of the mechanical transmission: 8 3:72 > > > > 2 < :20 Nt 1:50 > > > > : 1:00 0:79 ^ < 0:4 0:0  x ^ < 0:6 0:4  x ^ < 0:8 0:6  x ^ < 1:0 0:8  x ^<1 1:0  x

(44)

the desired swash-plate angle may be calculated using Eqs. (42) and (43). Note that the speed ratios in Eq. (44) correspond to the values that have been provided in the Appendix for the 1997 Ford Ranger. It is important to observe that Eq. (43) may produce an

unrealistic value for the desired swash-plate angle as this parameter is bound between 61. In fact, the goodness of the transmission design will depend in part on how well the desired swash-plate angle says within this bounded region. Once the swash-plate angle is determined, the engine torque may be calculated using Eq. (41). Figure 7 presents a strip chart of results for a ramped vehicle ^ max 1:25. As shown in this ^ min 0:25 and x speed between x ^ increases in a parabolic fashion gure, the torque on the tires T due to the wind resistance of the vehicle. As the vehicle increases in speed, the gears of the mechanical transmission are discretely adjusted to achieve the speed ratio Nt that is scheduled as shown in Eq. (44). In an effort to hold the engine speed constant, the swash-plate angle is adjusted in a saw-tooth fashion as the gears of the mechanical transmission are shifted. It should be noted that during the low speed operating conditions of the vehicle, the swash-plate angle is saturated twice before the gears of the mechanical transmission are shifted. This is shown in Fig. 7 when ^ is cutoff at the value the saw-tooth form of the swash-plate angle a of negative one. During these times of swash-plate saturation, the ^ e is shown to increase above its desired speed of engine speed x unity by less than 20%. As long as the swash-plate angle remains unsaturated, which describes most of the operating range, the control objective for holding the engine speed constant is achieved. ^e is With the engine speed held constant, the engine torque T shown to increase in a parabolic fashion in order to maintain the required power demand of the vehicle and to compensate for wind resistance and acceleration.

Fig. 7 A strip chart showing typical transmission results for a ramp increase in vehicle speed versus dimensionless time, ^ t

Journal of Mechanical Design

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In summary, Fig. 7 shows good performance for the design objective of the hydraulic continuously variable-transmission. This is made evident from the fact that the swash-plate motion generally achieves the goal of keeping the engine speed constant, and that during this control process the swash-plate angle saturates very little. In other words, the adjustability of the transmission as it was designed in Eq. (35) is sufcient for achieving the overall design objective. As previously mentioned, this transmission has been designed and modeled by considering all components to be 100% efcient. In reality, the gears and the hydraulic pump and motor exhibit energy losses which will make the results of Fig. 7 look a bit different and might require a cooler for keeping the hydraulic system from overheating. However, from an initial design perspective, it may be seen from Fig. 7 that the hydraulic continuously variabletransmission is capable of altering the operating conditions of the standard engine without changing the mechanical transmission or the differential. In other words, the concept of retrotting an existing vehicle with a hydraulic continuously variable-transmission as illustrated in Fig. 1 has merit, and work along this line may prove to be benecial for an existing eet of vehicles that currently operate with less than ideal efciencies.

g m P Q R ra rn T Ta Te Th Tr Ts T1 T2 T3 t Vm Vp v

gravitational constant mass of the automobile uid pressure in the hydraulic transmission volumetric ow rate through the hydraulic transmission radius of a single tire on the automobile radius of the arm in the planetary gear pitch radius for the nth gear (n 1; 2; :::; h; r ; :::) torque on a single wheel of the automobile torque on the arm of the planetary gear torque on the engine shaft torque on the output shaft of the hydraulic motor torque on the ring of the planetary gear torque on the sun of the planetary gear torque on the parallel mechanical shaft of the CVT torque on the input shaft of the hydraulic pump torque on the output shaft of the mechanical transmission time volumetric displacement of the motor volumetric displacement of the pump linear velocity of the automobile

Conclusion
The following conclusions are supported by the analysis, results, and discussion of this paper: (1) A hydraulic continuously variable-transmission can be designed for retrotting an existing rear-wheel drive vehicle. (2) A hydraulic continuously variable-transmission can be inserted into the drive train by eliminating the main drive shaft of the automobile and replacing it with the transmission concept in this paper. The existing mechanical transmission and differential do not require any alteration. (3) The hydraulic continuously variable-transmission can be reasonably sized to t within the existing space of a 1997 Ford Ranger (as an example). (4) The hydraulic continuously variable-transmission provides the capability to continuously adjust one of the existing speed ratios within the mechanical transmission by 625%, and that this is an adequate amount of adjustment required to keep the engine speed constant over a wide range of speed conditions for the vehicle (if desired). This paper has examined a design concept for a hydraulic continuously variable-transmission that may be used to retrot a rearwheel drive vehicle. This work has been based upon the ideal assumption of perfect efciencies for all transmission components and a candidate control function for keeping the engine speed constant has been used to examine the range of adjustability for the overall design. In general, this work has been useful to illustrate the idea of developing a retrot transmission for an existing eet of vehicles; however, future work on this topic should be aimed at optimizing the control input for the swash-plate angle of the pump to account for both engine and transmission inefciencies that will be observed in practice.

Greek Symbols
^ normalized swash-plate angle for the pump, ranging a between 61 Nh continuously adjustable speed ratio for the hydraulic transmission Nt discretely adjustable speed ratio for the mechanical transmission na speed ratio associated with the arm of the planetary gear nd speed ratio for the differential nh speed ratio between the hydraulic motor and the ring of the planetary gear nm speed ratio between the mechanical shaft and the arm of the planetary gear nr speed ratio associated with the ring of the planetary gear n1 speed ratio between the spur gear and the mechanical shaft of the CVT n2 speed ratio between the spur gear and the hydraulic pump q density of air x angular velocity of a single wheel on the automobile xa angular velocity of the arm on the planetary gear xe angular velocity of the engine shaft xh angular velocity of the hydraulic motor shaft xr angular velocity of the ring on the planetary gear xs angular velocity of the sun on the planetary gear x1 angular velocity of the parallel mechanical shaft of the CVT x2 angular velocity of the input shaft on the hydraulic pump x3 angular velocity of the output shaft of the mechanical transmission

Appendix
The following parameters have been gleaned from manufacturers data and are characteristic of an existing 1997 Ford Ranger:
Description Frontal area Drag coefcient Rolling-resistance coefcient Vehicle mass Tire radius Mechanical transmission speed ratio 1 Mechanical transmission speed ratio 2 Mechanical transmission speed ratio 3 Mechanical transmission speed ratio 4 Mechanical transmission speed ratio 5 Differential speed ratio Symbol A Cd Cr m R Nt Nt Nt Nt Nt nd Value 2.00 0.40 0.01 1.347 0.305 3.72 2.20 1.50 1.00 0.79 3.55 Units m2 No units No units kg m No units No units No units No units No units No units

Nomenclature
A effective frontal area for the automobile Cd dimensionless drag coefcient for the automobile Ch center distance between the compound spur gear and the hydraulic path Cm center distance between the compound spur gear and the mechanical path Cr rolling-resistance coefcient for the automobile F traction force between the wheels of the automobile and the ground Fa reaction force at the pin joint between the planet and the arm Fs reaction force between the planet and the sun gear 121003-10 / Vol. 135, DECEMBER 2013

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To use these parameters with Eq. (4), the density of air and the gravitational constant will also be needed. These quantities are given, respectively, by q 1.20 kg/m3 and g 9.81 m/s2. The following design features have been selected for the hydraulic continuously variable-transmission that may be retrotted to the 1997 Ford Ranger:
Description Hydraulic path center-distance Mechanical path center-distance Volumetric displacement of the motor Volumetric displacement of the pump Maximum operating pressure Gear pitch radius Arm length Gear pitch radius Gear pitch radius Gear pitch radius (planet) Gear pitch radius (outside ring) Gear pitch radius (inside ring) Gear pitch radius (sun) Gear pitch radius Gear pitch radius Gear pitch radius Gear pitch radius Symbol Ch Cm Vm Vp Pmax rA ra rh rm rp rR rr rs r1 r2 r31 r32 Value 77.33 51.55 20 20 40 34.37 38.66 12.89 17.18 12.89 64.44 51.55 25.78 30.96 47.73 20.59 29.60 Units mm mm cm3/rev cm3/rev MPa mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm

The following parameters describe the nominal conditions of the automobile and the hydraulic continuously variabletransmission that have been used to model the transmission performance in this paper:
Description Nominal engine torque Nominal torque on a single tire Characteristic time constant Nominal engine speed Nominal rotational velocity of a tire Symbol Teo To s xeo xo Value 31.96 56.73 10 2485 700 Units Nm Nm s rpm rpm

References
[1] Singh, T., 1992, An Investigation into Power Train Enhancements to Improve Automotive Fuel Economy, M.S. thesis, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI. [2] EPA Hydraulic Hybrid Research, retrieved date Jan. 7, 2013, http://www.epa. gov/otaq/technology/research/research-hhvs.htm [3] Pffner, R., Guzzdlla, L., and Onder, C. H., 2003, Fuel-Optimal Control of CVT Posertrains, Control Eng. Pract., 11(3), pp. 329336. [4] Mapelli, F. L., Tarsitano, D., and Mauri, M., 2010, Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle: Modeling, Prototype, Realization, and Inverter Losses Reduction Analysis, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., 57(2), pp. 598607. [5] Kessels, J. T. B. A., Foster, D. L., and van den Bosch, P. P. J., 2009, Integrated Powertrain Control for Hybrid Electric Vehicles With Electric Variable Transmission, IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference, Dearborn, MI, pp. 376381. [6] Ehsani, M., Gao, Y., Gay, S. E., and Emadi, A., 2005, Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric, and Fuel Cell Vehicles, CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, FL. [7] Kumar, R., and Ivantysynova, M., 2011, An Instantaneous Optimization Based Power Management Strategy to Reduce Fuel Consumption in Hydraulic Hybrids, Int. J. Fluid Power, 12, pp. 1525. [8] Dirck, M. E., 2003, The Evaluation and Analysis of a Power Split Hydraulic Hybrid Drivetrain, M.S. thesis, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO. [9] Vermillion, S. D., 2011, Modeling a Hydraulic Hybrid Drivetrain: Efciency Considerations, M.S. thesis, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO. [10] Al-Ghrairi, T. S., 2012, Designing and Modeling a Split Torque Hydrostatic Transmission in Series With a Manual Transmission for an Automotive Application, M.S. thesis, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO. [11] Manring, N. D., 2005, Hydraulic Control Systems, John Wiley & Sons, New York.

The design parameters associated with the spur gear and the planetary gear are drawn to scale in Fig. 6 of this paper. Based upon these parameters, the following speed ratios may be calculated for the hydraulic continuously variable-transmission:
Description Speed ratio Speed ratio Speed ratio Speed ratio Speed ratio Speed ratio Symbol na nh nm nr n1 n2 Value 3.00 0.20 0.50 2.00 0.67 0.62 Units No units No units No units No units No units No units

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