SUPERVISION AS A TOOL FOR ORGANIZATIONAL SUCCESS A CASE STUDY OF THE UNIVERSITY or CAPI COASI. CI-NTRAL REGION. GHANA CLA59 NO. _ ACCFSSiOloi NO. BY CA.T . C.lcC... ED FINAL CHECK L i I ERIC NYARKO-SAMPSON DiSSERTATION SUBMITTED TO Till' CENTRr lOR DlcVEI.OPMI.N I STUDIFS OF THE FACULTY OF SOCIAl. SCIENCES. UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST, IN PARTIAl. FULFILMENT OF Till REl!1 'IRI MEN I S FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF AR rs IlEGRlI IN III !MAN RESOURCE MANACilMfNI FERRlJARY 2007 THE LIBIIARY DECLARATIONS Candidate's declaration hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my ovm ongmal research and that no part of It has been presented for another degree In thIs University or elsewhere Candidate's signature Supervisor's Signature. Supervisor's declaration I hereby declare that the prcparalton and presentation of thIS dIssertatIOn were supervised in accordance wuh the guidelmes on of disscrtatiun laid down by the Umvcrsity of Cape Coast .. Y'L(1 11 ABSTRACT and \ 1(:\\ (If SUIXf\ 1510n It <11--" hdhL"r p.:,:'pk In '>urenh,-,r;. art: equlpp.:d Il.' cff..:ct\\cl; C3rr: ,.'ul "r Ihe Je.....:rlrtl\ \: -,.J.mpk sur\ C:, \\ .1:> In the ,>!uJ:. ()ne hunJr<.:J and thlll: stalf mcmh.;;r, ":,,n)ll[ulcJ the '>.1mC'k I;)T tnt Th..: ..:h\'.;.en fwm -\":3Jemk fa.:ultlC::'. Departments and l nils, and ',:'n - -\":aJernlc Dcpartmenb and I_nib The str3.11Ii.:J r3.nd,'m \\ere Jesl:;neJ t" help m<:J.sure the qu.}"t: .)f and '>ub"rjlnJ.!,< ab}ul Ih;:" ... Ihe re,..::ar.:h \\r.:re JnJ.I:,;,;.j Dc\elopmcnt. -The !iodin:,!'; mdlcJ.lcJ lh:l.t team J.ppr,JJ.ch h thc mJIr. m..:th,:,J ,UJX=f\IS1on In the Lnl\<::hl!: ,,f Cape C<J3.S! [t JI,.: r;_,unJ ,h J : :hc: dlre':!l\": .:..:'ntr,,! J.prr,-'3,..:h ;.tnJ ..:(ollJ.b,:'ratl\c mc:t'r '.\;.;r.,; ... \gam. <,f Impartmg JnJ .1nJ 10 L,i Jrr.: \r.:;:. :mr-_'rt.1nt \m,'n", T,h.,; re.:0mmendall(lnS IS that .::J'J,,;,;jtcJ ,'n the ImpdtJ.n. "I '" supervision In organizational success Also, supervisors rnust develop a team approach to supervision and establish objectives togelher with supcrvisces iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In the course of this study many people have been of great help to me cannot but aCknowledge their Immense assistance and contributions To my supervisor, Dr E K Ekumah. I am grateful for the valuable time you spent on this work, the palnstakmg correctIOns. and professional manner with which you approached this work Thank you agam for putting your Invaluable research experience at my disposal Professors Albert M Abanc and Hubert 0 QUist, past Atlanlic l-Ial1 Masters respectively come up for mention for the inspiration and encouragement they gave me To you Prof QUist, may you continue to inspire generations. and may you be blessed In all that you set yoursdfto do I am also grateful to all the respondents who. oul of their heavy scheduks. found time to participate in this study. I cannot let go the Immense support and encouragement given me b) my family; Margaret my \.... Ifc. Enc Jnr and Peggy Soma. our children for theIr understanding, dnd my brothers Ernest. Edmund and Emmanuel for the inSpiratIOn they gave me My auntie. Gladys Odoorn. thank you I am grateful to the varIOus authors and speakers whose works In ont,O W;l) or the other. sIgnificantly contributed 10 the successful completIon of thIs study I also cannot forget the untinng efforts of r..1s VivIan U AIUkwu. and the encouragement and support given to me by Tony Sa'iu A\'lsal.lu and hm:sl Ako Sackey. all of AtlantIC FM. I say "thank you and God bless you all" v DEDICATlO:"i In mcmor;. of my parents of blessed memot;- vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Content DECLARATION ABSTRACT ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS DEDICATION TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES Page i. II. , VI VII CHAPIER ONE INTRODUCTION Background to the study Statement of the problem Purpose afthe study Research questions Slgmficance of the stud) DelimitatIOn of the study LlmitatlOn<; afthe study Orgam7ation afthe study ] 4 5 5 6 7 8 CHAPTER TWO, REVIEW OF RELATED LlTLRATURE IntroductIOn SupervIsion Organization Art and craft of supervision vii <) <) II 12 BasIc super\'isory competencies History PI" supervision Variables of superviSion "'adushin's model of supemslon Administration Education Support CharactenslH':s of super\'lsors Dcwlopmem of the supel'\lsor styles Puttmg the functions together of SUpCl'\'lSIOn dehvel) SuperVIsion interventions Approaches to supcr\'ision Supervising personnel Issues Recogmzing thc importance of the supervlsee's pcrspectlve Supervisor as teacher Supel'\'lsor as enabler Super\'lsur as administrator Processes and Issues In supcr\'lsion Supervisee as a source of variance In the SUPCI'\'ISOr) relationshIp SuperviSIon of school admmlstration and support slaff Mentoring and superviSion Evaluation Momtoring viii 13 16 19 21 24 25 26 26 28 30 38 3" 40 40 42 44 45 -15 46 47 53 54 55 56 5S Monitoring and evaluation CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY Introduction Research design Population Sample and samplmg procedures Instrumentation Ethical consideration Data collection procedure Reliability and validity Data processmg and analysIs CHAPTER FOUR. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS 58 60 60 6, 65 66 66 67 67 69 IntroductIOn 70 BiographICal data Sex dlstnbutlon of re<;pondcnts SeOlor staff members In supervisory positions Approaches to supervisIon roles In - service training programmes Importance of supervision Senior staff members not in supervisor)' posItIOns Report of the interview gUide IX 70 7, 71 71 74 77 79 81 84 CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Introduction Summa!") of research procedures and major findings Conclusion RecommendatIons Arcas for further research References 87 87 89 90 91 9' Appendices A Research instrument for semor statTmembers In supCrVISl)r) posittons B Rescan.:h Instrument for senior stalTmembers not in supcn ISUr;. poslIlOns c. InterVIC\\ GUide for Deputy Registrars x 97 Table LIST OF TABLES Senior stafT in FacultIes! Academic Units Senior staff In Non - AcademIc Departments/Umts Page 63 63 3 Accessible population for Non - Academic Departments/Umts 64 4 Accessible population for Facultles./ Academic Department! Units 64 5 Distribution of respondents by sex 71 6 7 8 9 Perceptions of respondents to supervision approaches Perceptions afresponder.ts about supervisors' approach to supervision Respondents' knowledge oflhe role of the supervisor Number of In - service training programmes attcndl.:d xi 7J 76 7K CHAPTER ONE INTRODlICTION Background to the stud)' The concept of leadership carnes many different connotatIons and IS often vIewed as sygonymolls with other equally complex concepts such as po\\cr. authority, management. administratIOn. and supeTVISlon Many leadershIp theOrists have found thai inctTeCl1' c leadership In any orgam:t.atilln seems tn he the major cause of dlffilnlshmg the orgamzatlon's productivIty and downward posllioning of the mtemalional scah: (Dyc. 1(87) rhlS calls 1('r cfketl\c SUpCrY1SlOn. one ur the skllls requm:d llf an effective h:<lder Leadership IS the process of mtlue:ncing others to accomphsh the tl1ISSlnn by providing purpose, direction. and motivation. Four critical factors aT..: involved the leader, the kd (followers), the environment/situation, and th<: communication process between leader and followers rhl" mlsswn, Ihl: nalurl: \If the environment in \I,:hieh the leader operates. and thl: maturity of Ihl" rllllmh:rs detcnnme lhe methods and means With wlw.:h the kadl"rs exert mllucllcL' or supervision OrganizatIOns have dlffl"rlng hieran.:hl{:al 1e\L'ls uf leaJL'rsh1r thLlt ha\l" unique yet progressive rcsponslhilitles. nhligiltlUlls, and eXpCcL..ltlons "ilch len: I is a dlflcrent context for the art and craft nr SliperVlsmn Prugrcsslun fnlm thl" context of one- kvel to thc contcxt of anolhe-r, normaUy upward in tht.' hlt:ran:hy. superdsor to make intentIonal psychological shifts supervisor must renegotiJte a new understandmg of the responsibilities. oblq;allOn:- and expedatlons when entering each level The supervisor also must re..:ugnm; the psychological shifts that occur at each level with ne\\ self-perceptions. ne\\ self- expectations. and adJustme-nts to ne-w pressures Supef\-islOn IS controlltng. dln;ctmg. evaluatmg. conrdlnatmg, and planntng the eftllrts of subordinates so that the- leader can ensure the task IS accomplished SuperYislon IS practiced wlthm the context of four Important variables that parallel the four critical factors of leadership' the personality llf th..: super\1sor. the personality of the gwup. the situation, and the nq;anL Jillnal factors. 1\1anaglng: a huge and complex orgJnt/ation like tht,' Unlverslt) of Cape Coast requm::s competent h:adershlp and set up that IS drn en by etlcctivc and efliclcnt processt.::s rl'sponSl\l' to l'hanges and ehallenges and s..:nslll\'(: to students and starf expectations Lcading institutions plat:e cunsidcrable emphaSIS on continually Impronng work ethiCS that are essential tn achieYmg their VISion. Increased at.tcntion 10 understanding th..: key process..:s. and the eoordmation. supcrViswn and teamwork acmss l"unt:tIPnal Untts IS ..:ssentlal III JchleY'ing set ohjel:tivcs Statement of the problem SUp...'I"\'ISIOn of workers is important to organizatIOnal ta..<;k. which affect the Job satisfaCtion of employees, It IS nne of the five Indices In the Jllh descriptIve index (JDO. a fonnulation that is used mtematlOnally as a ":-.:asure nl o\erall job salisfactllm rhe other four elements are the work Ibl,.'lf. pay. proml)tlon and co - workers' behavior (Barr. 1990) \\1111c some researchers In the t'nlHrslty l)f Capc Coast and the tTm\ersity of Education. \\'Inneba h;l\e Imestlgated the satisfaction of \\orkers With thc Job. pay, pcrformance appr..lIsal t:\gyenim Boateng. 20001. training and dc\'clppmcnt (Amewudah. 1995l. management obJectJ\es (Okae - Anti. 20001. not many studies h::l\e fi)cuscd on supernsion as a tool for orgaOlzatlOnal 10 the L:mwrsity of Cape Coast To achle\'e liS orgamzathmal gl)<:lls and Inc up ll) ItS as the "UniverSity of ChOlcc". statl SUpcr.ISllln must be paranlOunt anJ llf Importance to management of the l'OIHrsity c,r Cape Coast \Ianagement rules rerfonned In the include the executive. by the L'm\er"ity (\)uncil anJ thl: Vice Chancellor: management. hy the Rcglstrar, Rqpstrars, SeOll'r ASSistant Registrars and ASSistant Registrars The le\el (If management that perfonns SUpCIYIS0f)' roles of managemellt compnses Chll.:f \(]mIOlstrall\ l,.' ASSistants iCA:\sl. Principal Admtnistratl\e ,\SSI-;lants (1'\.\SI. and "enlllr Administratiw ASSistants (S:\As) whose duth,:S ..lS sllpulatcd In the Rt:\ Ised lInilied Scheme of sef\lce for senior staff (\f Iht: l 'nl\t:rslll ..'S ll/' IncluJt: among others "super.'islon ofpl:rsonnel" Ihl\\l'\a -;UPl,.'f\ISIIIO. al:l:llrJIIl:; It' tht: ) Deputy Registrar in charge of Personnel of the Umverslty of Cape Coast. IS a major problem In the university. and appears weakest wllh craftsmen and artisans SupervisIOn again appears weak at the super\'lsory level where supervIsors do not effectively supervise at their levels This IS because such people do not know thcir supervisory roles. According to him. lack of effective supervision may lead 10 poor perfonnance or poorly finished work. apathy. lazmess or lackadaisical uttitudc und unplanned \\ork Others mclude time wastmg. abscntcclsm and non commitment This study therefore was to examine whether people In supervIsory pOSItions are well eqUipped to effectively curry out or perform thcJr superVisor) roles as reqUired of them at the Umverslty of Cape Coast Purpose of the study The mam obJectlve of the study was to assess the state of starr supcrvl:'lon In thc Umversity of Cape Coast Thc specific obJcctives were to Idcntlfy the supervision approaches used in thc University of Capc Coast .2 Estahllsh supervisors' knowledge or their roles and the requisite supervisory skills. 3. Examine m - service training programmes orgamzcd to upgrade thl: knowledge and skills of supervisors 4 4, Assess how sCllIor staff and some Deputy Registrars In the Unlvcrsity of Capc Coast perceive the Importance of superVISIOn In achil:Y1ng organizational goals 5 Suggest recommendations to the ulllversity to Improve staff supervISIon Research questions Three (3) research questions were set as fo11o\'.'s, What supervisIon approaches are used m the University of Cape Coast') 2 How do m-SCf\'ICC trammg programmes Impact on knowledge and skIlls of supervisors? 3 Do staff members at all levels of the Umverslty of Cape Coast understand the Importance of superviSIOn in LlChlcymg organl72uonal goals') Significance of the stud)' ThiS study IS to conSider superviSIOn m the UniversIty of Cape Coast First. it will bnng out the state of staff SUPCf\'ISIOn in the University of Capc Coast so as to dSSISt In the fonnulation of a superviSion policy for the llOlvcrslt\ SeconJly. It \\'111 bring to the forc the shortfalls In slaff superVISion as rcg.uds supervisors' knowledge of IhelT supcr\'lsory roles and skIlls so that ert(lrts t;ould be made to correct such shortfalls This study will also enable both supcr\'lsors and SLJperVISccs to understand the Importance of staff supervision. That supcr\'lsors would not l.:onsldcr 5 themselves as "police of supervlsees ",'ho. on the other hand would sec as "fault finders". The Personnel Section and the Centre for Training and Development both of the Umverslty of Cape Coast would benefit from the study since th.:y can usc the findings and recommendations of the study to design regular and tadored programme schedule to enhance supervIsors' knowledge. and as well sharpen theIr supervisory skills It would also serve as a basis for further research work 10 staff super\'lsion regarding factors that militate against effective superviSion. and steps by which such factors could be eliminated or mitigated Delimitation of the study ThiS study could have covered other areas such as workers' pay. promotion. staff appraisal. training and development, but was reslncted to adnllnIstrative staff superviSion It looked at admimstrative staff superVIsIOn In the UniverSity of Cape Coast ThiS IS because staff supervISIon IS a VItal mgredlent for the achievement of organizational success. In view of the assertion of poor supervision by the Deputy Rcglstrar (Personnel). well as the expenem:e of the researcher (us a !"11ludlc lcvd management employee of the UniversIty of Cape CU;Jst). the study was undertaken to tind out the state of affaITs, It IS also agamst tbe background of tht: Umversity of Cape Coast's accolade "Umvcrslty of ChOice" and the need for the university to be able to attract students \vho are the consumers" of its produce 6 Some of the areas in staff supervision to be considered in the study arc apprual.:hcs to superviSIOn, supervisory skills. and understandmg of Importam.l. llf superviSIOn. Areas that could not be covered mc1ude faclors milltatll1g agamst dfecllvc supervision. cXlstence of a super\'lsion polK) and Its anal) SIS. and the rdulinnshlp between supef\'lsors and super\'lsees This was due ttl the broad nature of sUper\'lSlOn In orgal1li'..atlons The study would be delimited 10 ChIef Administrative ASSistants (CA.\Sl. Pnnl.:lpal Admll1lstratlye ASSIstants (PAAs) and Senior Admmlstratiyc ASSIS{:.1I11s (SAAsl hecause they are in the supef\'lsury level in the managerial levels In Ihe UOIverslty of Cape Coast. ThelJ respective Job descnptlOns/dutles make It incumbent upon them to "supef\'lse pcrsonncl" Thev supef\'lse the ImplementatIon of polJl.:les planm:d anJ put furward by the top management Limitations of the stud, First the resean.:her would not be able to involve all the people In the supervisory levd of management In the t 1mversil) Out of a lotal pupulallon df four hundred and lifty (450), a sample size of one hundred and thlrt) se\'en (137) was used T!Jls ('ould have been more. Second. this study would also be constramed h) {line SlnCC II IS L.\pcdCd 10 be I:omplded within a spcclfic period of time The return rate in the collectIOn orthe qucstlonnJlrL' L:IJuIJ nL';J Ilmltatlnn \Vhilc some membL:rs would not compktc and suhmlt thL'lr 411CS!lllnnaln::. othL'rs 7 would exaggerate their views or responses These reasons arc hkdy to affect the data, and nl.)t correspond with the situation on the ground. In additIOn to the above, other constraints. such as lack of sufticH:nt linanccs and logistics. would also limit the scope of the study However these limitatIOns notwlthstandmg. resultant findings of the study would constitute a strong basIs for generalizatIOn, Organization of the study This study has been orgamzed in five chapters Chapter One IS the introductIOn, and It deals with the background to the study. statement of the problem. purpose and significance of the study, the research questions. dehmltation of the study, and Iimitatllln of the study. Chapter Two reviews related literature on supervIsIOn This mvolves the systematic Identification. locatIOn and analySIS of documents contammg mformation related to the research problem These meluded penodicals. ahstrads. reViews, books, and research reports Chapter Three discussed the research design. population sample and thl.: sampling prLlcedures used The research mstrumcnt used in culledmg thl.: data. the mcthod of data collection and data analySIS were also discussed In Chapter Four. the data gathered for the study were analys.:J usmg thl.' appropnate statlstH;altools. and their mterpretations Chapter Five presents tht: summary. conclUSIOns and recommcndatltlllS of the study 8 CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Introduction rhls chapter reviews related literature on supervision. The review eO\'ers the following areas supervision. variables of superVISion. history of super\'ISlon. Kadushin's modd of supervision. characteristics of superVisors, development of super\'lsors. mode of supervision dehvery. and superVISion interventions Others arc approaches to supen'lsion. supervising personnel and supervlsion of school administrative and support staff Supervision Most authors have variously defined supervision. as a management function According to Bernard and Goodyear (1991). "Supen'lsion IS an mtervention that IS prO\'ldcd by a 5cnlllr mL'mber of .t plUfesslon to a junior member or memhers of that same profession This relationship is evaluative. extends over lime. and has the simultaneous purposes of cnham:mg the prolcsslonal functiomng of the junior mcmbcr(s), momtoring the qualIty of professional services offered to the i.:hcnts she. he, or they ~ e e s . 9 and serving as a gatekeeper of those who arc to enter Ihe particular profession .. lp. 1\). \\'ithin the definition. there is mention of sc\'crall.:"ompOnenlS or supcrvlsIl1n There an: lllllque competencies and skills III slipen'lslllll that alllm the super\'isor to help the SUpef\'lsee. t\'1odels of super\'islOn eXist that pro\ldc a framework for the process In addition. superYisors incorporate VarlllllS modes and intcrn:ntlOns to facilitate super\'lsce dcYelopmcnt. Awareness of these models. modes. and interventlons \,,111 help the supl'rvisee understand the underlying proccsses of super\'lsion and therefore. he a more adl\e participant In the supef\'ISlOn process A dIalogw.: can devdop hetween SUptTVlsor and supervisee as a means to share personal styles and preferences for frameworks and lIltern'l1tllms to he used in super\"blon SUpef\'IS10n IS all wnsumlllg It is nevcr complctl.:d and put a\\a\ Super\'islOll of people is not without contltctlllg personal and prol\:sslonal Interests and demands Supervisors. like evcryone clse. have thcir share lit" personal problems and professional shortcommgs The healthy SUPCr\'lSUr. howcver. faces up to these rea1Jties and docs whatever It takes to l"unctll)]l effcl"llvely. If SUpcf\'lsors are unable to manage themseh'cs and tht:lr pnOnlll'\. Ihey will get lh(' hdp they need to do so This may mean prl)l"I.'s\llmal development to review the craft of supcf\'isinl1 or finding a mentor tIl I:\aluatc thc an Supervision is embedded as one of thl.' dc\'cn prinl.lples of b.Jlkrshlp A leader is a supervIsor. To be successful. the SUpCf\ Isar must undl:rstand both the 10 art and the craft of supervision fonnal training will teach the pnnclples of supervision. rhls is the craft of supervision The "craft" IS the "Know" In the "Be. Know. Do" leadership model. lnfonnal traming develops the personhood of tht.' supen'lsor. Personhood is the "Be" in the "Be. Know. Do" modd It arrccts the practice of supenision Practicing supervIsion in the context l)f the superVISl)r'S technical skills and unique sense of personhood becomes the "art" of supen"lSlon. This IS the "Do" m the "Be, Know. Do" model No l'ne dement \:an be successful Without each of the others. Some supen'lsors arc mal functIOnal tvlalfunelJomng super\'lsors almost always lea\'e the orgamzatlon smallt'[. weaker. or more discouraged than he fore they amwd At the root of SUPCT\ Lsory malfunction 3re supeT\'isors who arc not learners and arc not reflective. They Ju not take thc time and effort 1 further their prott:sslonal gn)\\1h. make little crfort to plan and orga01ze fllr eflectl\e and effiCient supeT\-ISlOn The) tcnd not to rellect on their c'pcnen..:cs. therefore they malfunctlon m the same ways. over and o\'cr again. \\ltlwut realizmg It Supen'lsors who want to avoid being mal functIOnal reflect UpOTl their expencnces to grow their perceptions of the art of SUPt.'T\ISIUIl and g,lin ne\\. .skills that strengthen their undl.'rstandlOg of the craft uf SUPl:T\lSI0n Organization An orga01zatlOn is a systematic group of pC\lpk nwught tUgL'thl:f fur specific purpos&: Organizations consist of pl:Clpll:, thm),!s. prIlCl:SS\;,S. ,mJ Three people. systemic structurl:. and purpusc. arl: l:llmrnon to II organii'lltions. Peoph:: it takes people to makc decisions and to perfunn tht' aCIl\'ities th:l! turn goals mto reality. Systemic Strut:lUrc' dlvisUIO of lahour that ddines rolcs of the membt'rs in the orgamzation, crt:atcs rules and rcgulall{lns. I'urpose' typkally expressed in tenus of goals and objectives. SUperYISllln IS practiced and defined withm the context of tht: hlerarchlt'al len.'ls of an organizatIOn A systems view (If organization recognl/l.:s the mutual inh:rdt'pt:ndent'les of the \'aflOUS contrihutmg factors of kadl.'rshlp and supt:nlSlOn managl.:'menL Illiduk management, 1m..' managl.'rs, and 0pl..'ratl\'c cOlplnyt:t:s Art and craft (If supcn'ision The art of supervision parallcl, the leadership compctencIl.:s grouPt'U undt:r the interpersonal and conccptual headlOgS Interpcrsonal compl.'tl.'nt:ll.'s mclude const:osus buddmg and the \\hulc rang\,.' llf commUOIcatlon 'ikllb ('oncl.'ptual compdenCles encompass thmkmg and reasoOlng skills rhl.: I.:raft Ill' supcni"lon parallels the leadership compctcncics grouped undcr tht' hcadlng 01 techOlcal skills Tcchnical skills compctcnclcs In\'olve spl:l"lfit: I-.nll\\klJgl.: (,j tasks. prnLcsscs, and proccdurcs The changmg en\'lf{lOmcnt and naturl: 01 tht' organii'..ati("!n, CIS a leadcr progresses from one IC\'eI of kaul.'rshlp {(I anothcr. demands a corresponding change In the competencies. 12 The art of supervisIOn The Informal training develops the art of supervision The mformal traming includes the actual supervisory relatlonship ex.perienced by the suhordinate The supervisor is responsible for that expeTlence Inappropnate supervisIOn by any supervisor wlil not give the subordmate the correct traming and ex.perience needed to learn the art of supervision. Practicmg the art of supervision also depends upon learnmg the craft of superVISion. The craft of supeT\'lsion Formal trammg develops the crall of supeT\'lsion Formal trammg teaches the pnnclples of supervision. the functions of management and the competencles of leadership In the tramlng environment Supervisors attend many professional development courses to recelve formal traimng The supeT\'isor cannot practIce the art of supeT\'lsion without first learnmg the craft of supervIsion Supen'lsors cannot "Do" If they do nUl "Know" Basic superviSOr)' competencies Thc <:upcrvisor may apply. or "Do." the art and the nuft of Sllpernswn through the follO\.... mg competencies Understand the miSSion. goaL Or task In the conkxt of the orgam/..1tllln (the umt) and the level of supervision. Communicate the miSSion to subordinates (with emphaSIS on the cntlcal Issues. c.g , issues of mass casualties In a comhat hngade mission l 13 Break the mission into activities Assign personnel to activIties Asccrtam psychological commitment (which may include such concepts as "Readmess" from the Situational Leadcrshlp model) Tram personnel (could Include ensuring that umt trammg IS completed or even task unique traimng). Set standards and expectations Motivate subordmates. Give and recclvC' feedback Evaluate (internally and externally, formally and mformally) Respond With c' Rewards (could mclude words, letters, recommendatIOns for formal awards. or direct praise to the subordinate for good ,,"ark). o Punishments (could include admOnIshments for poor performance. onlhc-spot corrections, formal counseling and letters, or wlthholdmg of opportunity such as professional development. elc ). r:; Course corrections (for example, If the implementation of a task IS incorrect, then the supervisor must redirect the subordinate's work) 14 Supen'ision as a process The process of supervision occurs withm the relatIOnship established bet\veen the superYlsor and supervisee It is Important to keep in mmd that both the supervisor and supervisee contnbute to thc relationShip process within whIch responsibilities are estabhshed and developed. An assumptIOn of super\"lslOn IS that It Will last long enough for some developmental progrcss of the supcn'lsee Super\"lslon IS differentiated from brief mteractlOns (such as workshops), and consultatIOn that. by detimtion. IS time and session limitt:d. although all of these Interactions share common goals (e g. trainmg in a skill. clanfication of process. regaimng obJectiVity) The fact that supenrlsion IS ongomg allows for the relationship to grow and develop 1hc Importance of the supervlsoT)' relationshIp has received much attention in supervision literature. The quality of the relatIOnship bct\\'een the supervisor and supernsce can add to or subtract from the experience It IS Important that the "relatIOnship" aspect of supen'lslon IS not overlooked or neglected The supen'isor evaluates. monitors, and serves as a gatekeeper In addition to enhancing the professional functioning of nJunsdors. supen'lsors haw an ethical and legal responSibility to momlor the quality of t:art: that is being delivered to the supervisec's clients In order to enhance the profeSSIOnal tunctiomng of the supen'lsee and assure quality of can:. the supervisor constantly momtors and provides il:edback rcgardlng SUpCf\'lsee performance. ThiS formative evaluation forms the baSIS of the \...ork done m 15 supervisIOn The supervisor also serves as a gatekeeper for those who want to enter the counseling profession. As part of this role, supervisors formally evaluate supervlsees These summative evaluations occur after there has been enough supervIsion to expect a certain degree of competence. For example. dunng tieldwork experiences. summat1w evaluatIOns typically occur at the midpoint and end of senH:sters Agam supervISIon is defined as the process of management that controls and evaluates the people. resources. and activities In the accomplishment of the goal or mission The supervisor has a responsibility [or a special type of leadershIp that Invohes the control of human resources. Leadership IS not a funcllon of status or authonty. Leadership is a function of the quality of the relationship. the Interaction that takes pbcc between the leader and hIS followers Leadership IS a matter of mfluence. Supervision IS a process that mcorporates both the competencies of leadership and the functions of management History of supervision The Immediate roots of \....hat we have come to know as SUpel"\'lSIOn In the Managemcn11Admmlstration he in the development of SOCial work and casework \Ve see thiS. for example. In the concern for the needs of chents and the lakmg up of ideas and practices that o\ve much to the emergence of PS) choanalysls HO\vever. to make sense of superviSIOn it IS necessary 10 look to the various limns of apprenticeship that have existed in different soclellCS In anCient Chma. Afnca and Europe (feudal and otherwise), for example. there arc numerous examples of 16 people new to a craft or activity having to rcveal thclr work to, and explorc It with. or mistresses I.e, those recognized as skilled and wise. This process of bemg attached to an expert. of 'learnmg through domg' allows the novice to gam knO\vledge. skill and commitment It also enablcs them to cntcr Into a particular 'commuOity of practice' such as tallonng or midwlfcry (Lave and Wt:nger 1(91). By spending time with practitioners, by 'Iookmg ovcr thclr shoulders', taking part in the routmes and practices associatcd with the trade: or activity. and having them explore our work. we become full members or thl.: community of practice SuperVIsion could be found In the growth of charitable social agencies in Europe and North Amcnca durmg the nineteenth century It mvolvcd the recruitment. organizatIOn and oversight of a large number of volunteers and later paid workers The volunteers were commonly known as 'VISItors'. Thclr task was to caB on a small number of familles to offer advice and support Thc mam concern was to fosler self-help and lhe adoption of 'healthy' hanlts amI behaVIOurs In addition. Visitors wcrc also often in a position to access limited funds via their agencies. although such mOO1es were only gl\'cn after a careful mvestigation of the family's circumstances. In other words. a deCISIOn had to he made as to whether they were 'deserving' The person assigning cases, orgamzmg work and takmg dcuslOns (\0 bL'halfof the agency was basically an 'overseer' - and hence: the: growing usc of the tL'rm 'supervisor'. (In Latin supa means 'over'. and \,u}(:n:. 'to watch, or As Peters (1967) has pOinted out. traditionally, part of thl: overseer's lob was to en<.;url: that 17 work was done well and to standard, This can be viewed as an administrative task However, overseers also had to be teachers and innovators These were nc,"v forms of organization and intervention 'standards were being set, ne'".... methods developed' (Peters, 1967) In these early fOrolS - and especially m the work of the Charity Orgamzation Society in the USA and UK - the present functIOns and approaches of superVISIon were signaled As thinkmg and practice around casework became more sophisticated, especially through the work of pioneers such as Mary Richmond (1899, 1917 & 1922) and demands for more paid workers grew, so superVISion became more of an Identified process For example, books on the subJect began to appear - e g. Brackett's (1904) SupervIsIOn and Educ.:allOn 111 Charily. In the mnetecnth century, the tenus that l::ame during the Industrial Revolution, the tenu "supervisor" might have come up during the sCientific managemcnt penad led by Henry Fayol Also, the hierarchical posItion of the supef\'lsor (or patd agent) was rc\'ealcd Whl1e the 'paid agent' acted as supef\'lsor to the volunteer VISitOr, the paid agent or 'supervisor' was himself superVised by the district committee, which had ultimate authonty ror case decisions, The paid agent supervisor was then III a mlddle- management position, as is true of supervisors today - SUPCf'.'ISlIlg the direct service worker but themselves under the <Juthol'llv of the agency (Kadushin, 1992, 15) 18 It is this hierarchIcal and managenal Idea of supervisIOn that tends to permcate much of the literature in social work Variables of supenision The supervisor practices the art and craft of supervision withm the context of four vanables the personality of the supervisor, the personahty of the group, the situation. and the organizational factors I. The persona/lly of lite supervisor. The personality of the supcn'lsor. or personhood. IS the first Important variable. Thc supervisor's personality. \vhu:h includes a personal and professional phtlosophy. defines thc art of superVISIon. ThiS philosophy includes thc basIc assumptIOns that the supcn'lsor makes about othcrs These assumptions come from the supervisor's education. CXf _'riences, background. value system, and religious beliefs The supervisor's philosophy evolves With ncw knowledge and experience. The supervisor's personahty determines how the supervisor practices the art of supervisIOn, The supen.'lsor does not learn personhood in formal traimng. Each supervisor has a unique patterning of abtlitles, Skills, attitudes, habits. past expencnccs. pen.:cptions. v l u e ~ and InIcn:3ts. Each has peculiar senSItivities. preferences. a\'erSlOll<;. blmd spots. and likes and dislikes, There is no mould from which all arc cast. 2 Tlte personaltly of Ihe group, The personaltty of the group IS the second important variable for developing the supen'lsor The supen'lsor can learn lhe principles of baSIC human interactions through both fonnal training and the informal experiences that occur as the supcn'isor mtcracts with people further 19 insight into the dynamics of any group comes through involvement and application of cxpencnce. knowledge, and personhood. A resentful. hostdl: group, for example. will require a dlnerent style of supernsion than a wdl- mtentlOned and fnendly group Supervisory techniques that are \\lth one group may prow disastrous with another group :t The SllltallOn The situation can call for different styles or skills of supervision Whdhcr the situatIOn IS a high stress criSIS or a casual meeting. th.... formal traimng remams constant. How the supervisor perceives, or filters the Situation determmes how the pnnciples of SUpe[\'ISIOn will be appll .... d SuperYlsors must adJust thclr SUpC'YISOl") skills to lit the mandates of the situation. They cannol expect that a slluallon \\III fit the sloBs of Ihe supervlsnr This seems so obVIOUS Ihal II IS how often supervisors at all b _Is overlook It. If not on guard. the supervisor that relies upon famJiwr patterns \\Ill forget the craft of supervision and Will distort the art -I The orgam::allOnal lac/or.I' Organizational factors arc those factors nr characteristiCS of the orgamzation that influence the diJTuslOn of mnovallons llf the utI1i7...atlon of research by practitioners (e,g. admmistratlve suppl1rt. acc.... ss In research. S\;<-t:. complexIty, staffing. orgal1l/1.lll(.mal cultur.... ) It also Includes task demands faclor" that rdate to the employees' Jon. wnrkmg cnndl!\un'.; and 1hl..' phYSical work layout. interpersonal demands pressure I..'aused h, uthl..'f employees, orgamzatlonal structure including .... rules and rl1(lr management techmques and orgamllltional leaJashlp l.'\'ldcnccd In corrur<lte culture. high pressure and tight controls 20 [, .. " III Ijll\\ Ill" ltll'" I'll I '1J"" "\\.'lI'.lJ IZtJh11 IIlq... npl''{ Ull!""u.ldnli J(I larUW 11"1" 1" .1JI'II"''' 1'II<.I ...... ,'IIIJJ ]l'lI,I\J;xJ pUI' '11'1'" .... lIun pili' lH1lllljlj ...1lI -'til 1" IIJ .... IIIl('IIJllJ")1\' "111'1\ "pU'1I1' 11 .'.lU.'I;x!UJll,' 11'lh1111"'/1lJl';1Jt, pm' Il'nrl\lpUI I" (10111'IIII<,j,] ,l,p II" ....... ,'Jllt' ....lj I"''''U I'ur IWIUl1Ij ...."'I... n.1'1I plll! UOI"<..lIU 1"U'lIll1lll"'UI '111 'l.lJdJ.ljlll lhlj'-l \pJm.. IlI'l" I" "'.'11 I 114I'JI',) pUl' Il'UU"J.x1 ,1111 ,))III'qu.'" PI rill' '11'11" II'Ulllll1llJ"UlI" 11I."lUJ.1\.1I1F'II' .'lql :'I\OIU,uJ 01 p,;lrU.... jUI "11<'11'11ll1 ;'IlJl"'I'111'11i 1\' ......."l,)IUJ ,. "I' p......,,- .14 :lJI'I:'lJ,"llll UP, lJlII"'l J' "I \J;xJn... .1111 1" .......111n... :'ItII :'ILllllU:'Ipr 111\\ ',JOI.ll'.1 III \ll\III ... U:'I .... 1"U,HII'/llll'.iJII III' .I'l .1\llJJJr til J,l"l \J,1Jn..: .141 JIll \Jl'"... ,l.'.lt1 111l! "'1 II lhll"'I\J,1Jn... I" \.11' .1lp ....111111'JJ Jll"'I\J,lJn" :'Ilp \\\14 1. 1 :'111" 111\\ "'JlllWI P'UII1l1'/1l1P;iJtl dlq'J. 1 rl''1 10 ""urq., ,'lll lIll\\ U:'I1I1l .' ... '41 1,nrlll1.l 1') ....'lnJ 11.'lllJ,,'ln pUl' .... "141'1 '\JI1l<;lll .,nhlun lI\\ll "11 \J.'\ I 11"''''1 \J.,Jn... I" "111 :'IUIlUJ'pr Ill" :'141 llr III Il'll \\ 1,1 .... ... jllU " .1.1 \1lIJIU.1 :'I11l pOIlI"J:'IpUn \PP:'II.1 1\)U .1Jr SUlll\rp."lI.h.:'I .1111J .1J.11l" \lln;llqu/I' :'IItlJ plW ''':lIlUJ.,tl .... Wll until ....JOlU op III <;1 ."l.... \UIJlU:'I lli' 11 .... '1\\ p:'l.1U.... U....Jx........ mss:ud prop:'I\(1... IOJ ',{.IS!ll!" JO :'I\PUll.l."U III P1I!4:'1t.!. \rlU 1"41 "'lhlllT'l.l;xJ";l 1.llllUt 1 .1 .... 'OJ .II) dn ;lpllUl SpUr.W;lp :'IIOl ;'IlC SJOPr..1 l;l410 Adnllnlstrauw - promotion and maintcnancc of good standard.. of \\nrk. co-ordmation of practtce WIth pollClCS of admmblr.Jllon. the assumm:e or an cfficlent and smooth-runnmg oOicc. - the educatIonal dc\dopmenl (1f cat.:h mdl\Hhlal workcr on the stall In a manner calculah:d to e\'oke hlm'her tll n:all/e hls.'hcr ptl,>,>lhllllles III usefuln!,;,>s .md Supportl\e -the: m,lIntenance llfhannOnlllu.., wurkmg n:l.tlllln..,hlp,>" Ihe t.:ultl\'.Jtlon or"e,>pnt de corp..... It ,,, "hllr1 "tep 10 tramble Ihese concern" IOto the currl,:nt l..Jngu.Jg..: III til..: 'learOlng organl/'-lllon' !x"rnlng orgalll/lllllins arc Ihll"C thai h.I\C In pl.LLL mcchanl"m" anJ proccs"e'>. that arc u'>cd Itl cnh.1l1\C lhelr anJ th,I'>e \\hl' \\llrk \\llh ,I ,'r f(lr 11. tt! <Jchlc\e '>1 l,"n.. hk,'hILLIJ\ ...., - tllr Ihcrn... el\c,> ,HId lhe C'lmIllLlllllle'> In \\hlch thL'\ partilipaic "iell(.' ... 11'1'/11, Je"cnhe... learnmg llrg,IOI/..lllon,> a'> "lIrganl/;.llllln,> "hen: f"'."tlpl... "llllIIiLdh expanJ their Itl ueall' the rC'>ldh de... lre. \\IlLr " 111..'\'" "111.1 I ...' .Irlll' I..' Iltg.H111"lt" ,n" ;.Irc <tJ;.IPII \ L' II I Ihe Ir C\lerna I en \ ,r, Inment ... , ,nl Ilill,,1 IL..."11 It.LIl ... l' T! 1\: II U'iC the rc"ull ... III Icamlng hI .u.:hle\'c hl,;lh:r r":"'Il!I'. I h...:\ "111111",111'. I., Imprt 1\ e ex I... tl ng pnJdUd" <lnd 'icr.lel,. ... IClllllllllh Ill ... IllIrr" \ \"11 I "Ilt I ,Jlld ,1111,.\ .111, '11 (llreaklhruugh'itmlcglc' 1hi'" h<ls rL'>ult...:J III ,L pklh'lr.1 "I JIIIII,III\ ...". '>lI ... h .1'> I()M nolall)ualll) Munagcml."ntl and 1"'1{ IBlh1l1...",,, I'r".. e,,", " But organizations are findmg that such programmes succeed or fall dependmg on human factors. such as skills. atlitudes and orgaml.atlOnal culture It also appears that many Implementations are geared to highly specified processes. dcllOl.:d for antIcIpated situatIOns However. these lfiltlatives. by themselves. oftl,'n do not work. Somethmg morc therefore is needed to cope with rapid and unexpected changes where eXisting 'programmed' responses arc madequalc. pronde l1exlhJllty to cope \\,'Ith dynamIcally changmg situations. and allow fronl-lme starr III respond wlth Inillative based on needs as agamst bem!; constramt>J business procl:sses estabhsh"d lor dIfferent circumstances As Salaman (1995) argues. managers must have a concern for both perfonnance and leammg The essentially managenal aspect of managers' work IS theIr responsibility tor momtorlng and ImproYing the work of ot' :r... Their managenal cffectl\ cncss IS determined by theIr cupaCll)' to Impro\"!:: thl.: work (If others If m.lOagt.:rs arc n(lt ahle 10 make thl ... contnhutltln. thcn what value arc they adding" The ultima\\.: Justillcatlon of manager... exi ... lence I... the ImprO\emellt III thl' of their suh(lrdmates If managers fail In thIS \\<1)' li.lil a... malli.lgcrs In this way managers arc expected to de\'dop n.:lullun..,hlp" and environments that enable pcoph: to work tugether and respond tIl chanj,:l' SUl,;h 'Jomt pcrformanl;e' mvolves having comm<lIl guals. common \.Iluc.... the r1l!hl structures, and continuing trainmg and dcYelopmCnl It IS lmpllrt<tnt III l;on(l.'n1rall' on ho\\' managers approach superVISlun lISlnj,: thc threefold (edul':J!lon administratIOn/support) model for 'non-managerial' supervIsion In the experience of management it was found that all three elements were prt:sent - and \\ep.: acknowledged by the partIes mvolvcd Managers may well express a concern for the wcll bemg of those they are responsible for and may also attend 10 gaIning c1anty around the tasks to be achIeved (and how the)' are to be undertaken) In addition. managers may havc a care for staff development. well explore partIcular incIdents and SituatIons and set: how they could be handled in dlllt:rent \\ a) s There may also be SItuations where tht:se dements arc nnt all present I'm example. managt:rs may h<3\,t: silppt:d mto a strong lask Orl..:ntatlon \\ Ith d particular workt:r They may foeu." ratht:r too strongly on the support sIJt: In \ nlumary and not-for-prolit orgalllzatulOs It IS not uncommon to lind th<.lt slJn reqUlrt: a good deal of 'workmg with" It is helpful to thmk of the three clements as mtt:r lmked I hey Ihm frum one lOtO another Administralion K<.Idushm (1992) lIghtens up on Dawson ... 11(26) filrmulallon ,mJ prC\l.:Jlh hiS lmder"IJ.rIJmg (,1' Ihe three clements m tcnns of the pnlTI<.lr) rrHhkm <.lnJ thl.: pnmary goal In admmlstratlvt: sUpcn.'lslOn the pnmary pfllhkm I>; lllnL\:rn..:d wllh the corn:cl. effective and appropriate Implemento..ltlllrl PI' Ll!:!enl.:! p'IIIl.:II.:\ <InJ procedures The primary goal IS to ensurc adheren..:..: In P l l l t ~ "oJ rrH..:cJur..: (Kadushm. 1992 20) The supen.'lsor ha.s hCL'n J,(ncn ;JUlhllfll) h! th l ' .q:''':llL\ 111 oversee the work of the SUpcn.lsee ThiS l.:aHleS th..: h:"'PO/lSlhJlll\ both to ensure that agency polic)' is Implemented - which imp1Jes a controlling function - and a parallel responsibility to enahle supeT'\'ISees to work to the best ofthelT l l l t ~ (Brown and Bourne. 1995 10) It also entaJls a responsibility not to lose touch with the rationale for the g c n c ~ - 'to pm....de a IlfSt-ciass seT'\'lce for people who need it (or In some cases are reqUired to have It. In order that they or others may be protected from hann I' (Bro\\TI and Bourne. 1995) Education In educational supeT'\'lsion the pnmary problem In Kadushin s \ le\\ IS worker Ignorance and or meptitude ret:'ardmg the knO\\ ledge. alll" Ide and skills reqUITed to do the Job The prim:lf) goal IS 10 dispel ignorance and upgrade skJlI The classic process iO\'olwd with thiS task IS to encourage reflection on. and exploration of the work. Superyisees may be helped to L"ndersland the client better: Become more aware of theIr 0\\11 reactIOns and responses to the clJl:nb. L:nde!"<;1..and tile dynamICS ofho\', they and their client are mteractmg. Look at hO\\ they inteT'\'ened and the consequences ofthclr mt('T\enll,m". Explore other ways of workmg \\lth similar client sltuJIIOns llh.\\ klOS ;,tnJ. Shahc!. J9891 25 Support In supportive supervision the primary problem IS worker morale and Job satIsfaction The primary goal IS to improve morale and job satisfactIOn (Kadushln, 1992) Workers are seen as facing a variety of Job-related stresses. which. unless they have help to deal with them. could seriously affect their work. and lead to a less than satisfactory service to clients For the worker there IS ultimately the problem of 'burnout'. Kadushm (1992) argues that the other two fonns of superVISIOn focus on instrumental needs, whereas supportive superVision is concerned with expressIve needs The supervisor seeks to prevent the development of potentially stressful situations. removes thl' worker from stress. fl' luces stress impingmg on the worker, and helps her adjust to stress The supervisor IS available and approachable. communicates confidence In the worker, provides perspectIVe. excuses failure when appropriate, sanctions and shares responSibility for different decisions. prOVides opportUnltlcs for mdepcndent functiOning and fOI probable success in task achievement. (KadushlO. 1992 20) Characteristics of supcn'isors Good supervisors seem to have many of the same qualities of l.!ood teachers and good counselors. They are empathIC. genuine. llpen, anJ Ikxlble They respect their supervlsees as persons and as developing profeSSIOnals, and are 26 sensitive to individual differences (e g. gender. race. ethniclty) of supervlsecs They also are comfortable with the authority and evaluative functions inherent \fL the supervisor role. giving clear and frequent mdications of their evaluation of the counselor's perfonnance. Even more. good supervisors really enjoy supervIsIOn. are committed to helping the counselor grow, and evidence commitment to the supervision enterpnsc by their preparatIOn for and involvement m supervIsIOn sessIOns. These supervisors eVIdence high levels of conceptual functlomng, have..l clear sense of thclr own strengths and limitatIOns as a supervisor. and can IdentIfy hm\" their personal traits and mterpersonal style may affect the conduct of superviSIOn Fmally, good supervisors have a sense of humor which helps both the supervisor and supervisee get through rough spots In their work together and achieve a healthy pcrspectlve on their work Such personal tr3lt5 af1'! relatIOnshIp factors are considered as as techmcal prO\vess In supervision. In terms of profeSSIOnal charactenslics (roles and skills), good supernsors arc kno\.... ledgeable and competent counselors and supervisors. fhey have extensive training and wide experience in counseling, which have helped thcm achieve a hroad perspectlve of the field. They can effectively employ a vanet)' of iuter\"entlOns. and deliberately choose from these interventions based on their assessment of a supervisee's learnmg needs, leamlng style, and personal characteriStiCS They seek ongoing gro\-\th In counseling anLl supcrVISIIJn through continuing education actiVIties, self-evaluation. and feed had. from SlIpCr\"lst:c:-.. clients, other supervisors. and colleagues. 27 Good supervisors also have the professional skills of good teachers (e g . applYing learning theor)'. developing sequential goals. evaluatmg mtef\ entions and SUpCf\'lsee learning) and good consultants te.g,. objectively assessmg problem situation. providing alternative interventions and/or conceptualizations of problem or chent. facilitatmg supen"1Scc bramstormmg (If alternatIves. collaboratl'vdy developmg strategies for supen'isce and cbent gro\\thl. In fact. good supef\'lsors are able to function effeetlvely in the roles of teacher. counselor. and consultant. makmg mformed chOIces about \',:hlch role to employ at any given time with a partIcular supef\"lsee DCl"elopment of tbe superyisor EXisting models of supervisor dc\e1opment (Alonso. 1983. Hess. 19&6: Stoltenberg & Delworth. 1987) give bnef descnptJOns of supef\isor stages of gro\\1h. and arc qUite different in theIr theoretICal perspectives T\\o assume that supen'lsors recene no trammg for theIr rok. but change \\lth expenencc and age Only a few researchers have investigated novice supen'lsors. en:n Jc\\er havc conducted companson studies of nO\lce and expcnenced super-Isors These proVide a fairly consistC'nt profile of novices. but IIttk mfonnatll!:1 IS available about how novices learn about super-'Islon and devdop a supcr- Isor Identity. how they think and behave at vanous stages of development. and \\hat factors encourage (and discourage) their developmen! In general. novICes are characterized as leer', 1'1' bemg evaluative or confrontive. tending to be highl) and or didactIC. 28 concrete. structured. and task-oriented. There IS little Ilexlhility in approach. With novices 109 on their more familiar counsehng skills and focuSIOg more on the chent and client and counseling dynamiCS than on counselor dc'\'elopment. supernsors also seem to have personahzed supervision styles that ren',un stable across supernseC's Perhaps surprismgly. comparison studies have Yielded few differences between no'\'ices and experienced supervisors In general, man: expenenced supervisors seem to use more teaching and sharmg behavIOrs. and they and their supeT\'lsees are more active. Ratings of efTectiveness. however. find nonces to be equally effective as e'perienced There are several plausible explanations for these results First. nonces typically supervise begmmng counselllrs. which may be the paL.ng that allo\\5 novices to be and/or to be secn as mast effective by their supeT\'isees Second. "expenenccd" superYlsors m these studies often are relatively mexpenenced and. most typIcally have received no trammg m supen iSlon In other words. comparisons of mexperienced and expenenced are not represent3tl\C 01 comparisons of novice and expert. In fact. the expert supen'isor has yet to be descnbed particularly In terms of their actual beha\'lors and conceptual skills. School supeT\'ision is a process aimed at Improvement of instructIOn and school climate, Though the practice has been re-ordered and reddined by today's new SOCieties. governments. and economies. the con..:cpt of school super\'lsll)n has stood the test of time (Bolin & Panantls. 1992) Tod<lY's bu/.Z\wrd 10 schUt)1 29 supervision is "c1inical supervision." a practice that evolved In the 1960s Balm and Pananlls characterized clinical supervIsIOn as a practice emphaslZlng collegiality, where supervisor and supervisee work together to Improw mstruction. as opposed to an inspectIOn approach. where a supervisor .,hows and tells a superViset: Central to the process of supervision are the three supervisor responsibilities of carrymg out observation. giving guidance and support. and glvmg feedback to the supef\'lsees Observation provides the supervisor \\ Ith an opportunity to gam informatIOn about a Wide range of teachmg sklils (Knoll. 1987). Information gathered durng classroom obsef\'atJon may be used for different purposes by supef\'lsors A common purpose of observation. accordmg to Bourisaw (1988), IS to collect the data to make aCL urate evaluative ratmgs styles The process of supef\'ision can take on one or a combination of styles. and one particular style may not be appropnate for every supef\'lsory situatIon It IS important that a supervisor IS aware of hiS or her prt:dommatc approach to supef\'ision 50 lhat the style may be adapted as tht: situation or tht: starr mcmhcr requires. Winston and Creamer (1997) provide an Instrument to Identify SUPCf\'IS0f)' approaches. The four approaches mcluded in the instrument arc Authoritarian - based on the belief that staff members require constant attentIOn 30
Laissez Fairc - based on the desire to allow staff members freedom In
accomplishing Job responsibilities Compamonable - based 011 a friendship-like relationship Synergistic - a cooperative effort between the supervisor and the staff ffi<'inbcr Authontanan supt:rvision This is based on the belief that staff members reqUire continuous attention because they are often undependable or Immature The basic belief IS that people will attempt to work as little as pOSSible unless someone monitors them carefully Because slatl members cannot he trusted to fulfill their responsIbilities conscientiously or lack the necessary skills or maturity to handle difficult tasks. the supervisor much check up on them lrcqucntly. Conflicts betwec her/his umt and the orgaml'-ation arc handled by the supervisor either defendmg her/his uml (If they are "nght") or bring her/his staff In hne with the orgamzatlon's goals or rules The supervisor IS the one who IS ultimately responsible for her or his staff members' perfonnance; consequently. close observation is an essential part of the supervisor's n:sponsibllltICS. Laissez-faire supervision This type of superviSIOn is based on the deSire to alluw slaff memhers to have the freedom 10 use their talents and skills In accompl1shmglob tasks Supervisors should set the direction for the stall' ,lIld then allow them to work oul the best way to accomplish the established goals indiVidually Supervision IS 31 offered stafr if "they run into trouble II As a result, staff members VIC\\,' supervision :IS an admission of failure, that is, they have encountered a situation that they are unable to handle on their own or their attempts to deal with the situation have not been succr:ssful Conflicts between the supervisor',," unn and other parts of the inslitutlons an: dcalt with by "allowll1g" hlsfhcr staff to ' .... ork out their own solutIOns. and if they fall. then to step 111 and takc over Because seekmg ad\"lce or askll1g direction IS an admiSSIOn of failure. supervIsors arc called In b) staff only when thmgs havc progressed to a serious state or have gotten completely out of hand Supervision IS synonymous with crisIs Intervention or "clealllng up the mess." Companionablc supervISion Companionable supcrv:slOn IS based pnnclpally In a fncndshlp relationship. Above all else. supervisors seek to be liked; they concentrate on being "buddies" with the staft'they supervise and avoid confronting stafr members about poor job performance or mistakes II1 Judgment as long as pOSSible Unpleasant sItuations or problems are Ignored in the hope that staff members will be able to work things out, thereby aVOiding unpleasantness and confrontatIOn Supervisors give staff members a great deal of personal support as an lI1dm.:l.:t means of helping them deal With problems. Companionable supervisors usually prOVide staffmemhers considerable personal attention and opportumtles fur sodal interaction Organi;r..atlonal conflicts are dealt with hy the superVIsor '>upportlng or defending hlsfher staff against outside attack. It's ~ s n t l l that "tall memhers 32 never doubt their supervisor's support Work-life. however, is much like a roller coaster ride of pleasant highs and painful lows. Once crises pass. supervisors work hard to repalT the damage to the relationship SynergIstic supervIsion Synergistic superYISlOn has been described as haymg the greatest ullilty for workmg \..... ith student affairs profeSSIOnals Its cooperative nature allows jomt efiects to exceed the combinatIOn of mdlYldual efforts Important charactt:nstlcs of synergistic supef\'islon include Dual Focus - Staff membels need to feel that they have a Significant mfluence on selectmg and defining the goals of the Unit and in devismg strategies to accomplIsh them If staff members perceive goals as being Imp"sed on them. they may not make a personal mvestment m trymg to achieve the goals of the umt For example, It IS a given that a successful ReSidence Life operatIOn has a process for asslgmng rooms and roommates to new students. However. the mdivldual staff members can playa large part in defining how that p r o s ~ Will most effecllvcly work. Joint Effort - SuperviSion IS not somethmg done to staff but rather ..l cooperative activity in which each party has an Important contnhutlOn hl make Plans for accomplishing tasks such as detennining umt pnontlcs. schcdullng and distributing work. and coordinating the efforts of the diVISIon arc workcJ out jointly between the supervisor and the staff mcmhcr 33 Two-way Communication - In the synergisllc model of staffing practices, supervision IS dependent upon a high level of trust between slaff members and supervisors Staff members must be willing to allow supervisors to learn per:'>onul IOfunnatlon about them Staff members must also feel free to theIr supen'lsors honest, direct feedback Communication is key m developing tillS trust Focus on Competence - Supervision should concentrate on four of stalT competence Knowledge and infonnauon Staff members must understand how tIl elTectl\'cly perfonn the duties of th.:lr job ThIS meludes, but IS not limited 10 understanding college student development theory, current laws and other legal parameters of practice, standards of pW!esslOnal practices, ethical standards, and mstltutional rules and policies Work-related skills - Supcrvisors must ensure that staff mcmbers current on developing trends wlthm the lield of studcnt development '.lI1J that they arc trmned in a Wide range of skills related to thl.:lr Job dcscnptlCln, slJ\:h as interpersonal communicatIOn. goal sctllng. and computer skllb I'm ,>tudent profc:':'lonals to remain effective. these skills to he refrc'iheJ regularly. ThiS IS especially true for skills that arc not uscd un OJ n:guwr Supervisors mllst also proVide the means for staff memhl.:rs to Je\'elop and acqUire ncw skills. Personal skills - The synergistic style emphasm.:s OJ holistIC <lpprUiH:1l (0 Just as attention must be pHld to development of OJ "latl mClllher\ 34 work-related skills, so too must personal skills be developed To function successfully as professional. individuals must acqUlrc skills m areas such as t ~ management. anger control. diet and excreise. and retirement planmng Attitudes - Supervisors must maintam a pOSitive altitude among their staff members PosItive attitudes can motivate mdividuals to apply knowledge or skills to stnve toward personal. umt, and division goals. Student af1ims professionals arc Involved m a people bUSiness. Therefore. thl.:lr altitude toward people, espeCially students. must be appropnate Whether a staff member approaches tasks with an attitude of enthusiasm or sarcasm oftcn detenmnes that staff member's SUCCL.:SS Gro\\1h OnentatlOn - An Important responsibility of superviSIOn IS carl.:cr development of staff Supervisors shlluld prOVide assistance til staff as the.\ pursue work that IS meamngful and personally satisfymg ThiS manual suggests using Schein's Model of Career Anchors to help clarify a person's occupational self-concept. If a supervisor can understand a staff membds carCl,;r anchor", It may be much casll:r to help that person climb the career laddl.:r and find work assignments that arc congruent With thelf Interests and ahilltles It is importi!lIt that supervisors have a clear undl.:rstandmg oj adult dl.:' c-Inpmcnt theory to best relate to and help develop stalrmc-mbl.:rs at cllnCH:nt Ill\: st<:Jgt:s The entry level mdlvldual has needs. pl.:rsonal and profeSSIOnaL that arc rar different than the individual that has been In the lidd rllr ..,cvcml )cars 1 '''0 IOdividuals such as these should never be superVlst:J In tht: sLl!lle manner 35 Winston and Creamer (1997), usmg the work of Schein (1978), developed a "life cycle tasks" table in which they applied general llfe Issues and tasks to work 111 student affairs. This table provides an excellent gUIde 10 supervIsors. especially those who supervise mdlvlduals at varying stages of life Marsh (2001) advocates uSing adult development theory as a \0 understand start's personal and professional needs lIer work overlaps \\'Ith and extends Winston and Creamer's (1997) developmental foundations of synerglstH..: supervision Proaetlvlt)' - Synergistic supervISion focuses on Identifying potL'ntlal problcms carly rather than to problems that have heen huildlng o\'l.:r time In this style superVIsIOn emphaSizes early identification and de\'clopml:nt uf strategies hy the supervIsor and staft rlll:mber Jomtly to prevL'nt or their effects Asking for assistance or adVice from a supervisor IS not a sign of wcakness Ior staff members \0 present problems to a supervisor does not mcan that the problems arc bcmg transferred to the supcrvlsor for a solution Nor docs It that thl.: \,,'ill or should encroach on thc staff ml:mber's aulunomv lu altad. the I'lOhkm SuperVIsors should erealc that pl.:rmlt stall' 10 hong 1,,"Ut''' .Ind problems they are facing to the table Ilo\\,cVl:r, .... upl:f\'I ... or ... lT1u ... t pr\lnd..: feedback, or offcr advlec on problems that stall rnl:ml-h:rs nol hI: ahk' In handle mdependenlly. 36 Goal Based - Synergistic supervIsion requires the supervisor and staff member to have clear expectations of one another. Goals and expectatIOns should be developed between them and a commitment made to review and adjust those goals on a regular basis It IS recommended that supef\'lsors meet with thC'lr indivIdual staff members on a biannual basIs to set and evaluate goals and on a bimonthly basIs to momtor progress of those goals Systematic and Ongomg Process - Supervisory sessions should be held un a regular. proactive basiS and not as a response to crises or madequate Joh pcrfonnance The newer and less experienced the staff member. the more frequent the sessions should be held Both good and poor perfonnance should be addressed TopICS to he addressed at the meetings range from work altitudes of the employee to values of the professl{l!l nf student affairs Holism - People and their attitudes and beliefs cannot be sl.:parateJ from their professional pOSitIOns Syncrglstlc supervision concentrates 011 helping stall' develop both in their profeSSIOnal and personal lives and offers support as thC') prepare to advance In their career Anmmo and Creamer (2001) conducted a study of "supeflor" m an to identity what made them "excellent" m the eye:> of tho.. c thL') hdd supervised. They found that the followmg behaviors wen: c1u"cl) LlSSOl,;ILllcd \\ Ilh "quality SUPCf\'lSIOn " 37 Putting the functions together Havmg mapped out Kadushm's model It is now possible to look at some of the dltTerent foci that can be attributed to supervision For example, Hawkins and Shohet (1989) list 10 difTerent foci and then catcgorize them m relation to Kadushln's clements The pnmary foci of supervision (after flaYikms and Shohet. 1989) To provide a regular space for the supervlsees to reflect upon the content and process of their \\lork - Educational ; To develop understanding and skills Wlthm the work - Educational 3. To receive mformation and another perspectIve concerning one's work -- EducatlOnal/Supportl ve 4 To receive both content and feedback - EducatIOnal/Supportive 5 To be validated and supported as a person and as a worker - Supportl\'C 6 To ensure that as a person and as a worker one IS not left to carr) unnecessarily difficulties, problems and projections alone - Supportive 7 To have space to explore and express personal distress. rcstlmulatlon. or counter-transference that may be brought up by the ,",,"ark - Anmlnl<:tr..tive 8 To plan and utihze their personal and profeSSional resources hetter Administrative 9 To be pro.active rather than re-active - Admimstrativc 10 To ensure quality of\\urk - Admlnistrative/Suppurtlvc 38 Hawkms and Shohet (1989 43) suggest that focI one and two could be seen as educatIOnaL focI three and four as educational/supportive; foci five and SIX as supportive. foci seven to nine as administrative/supportive and ten as admimstratlve/Supportive Modes of supentision deli\'el")' There arc four modes of supervisIOn delivery. 1. Individual As the name Implies. individual super.'lsion is conducted on a oneon-one basis between the supervisor and sup.:rvlsee. Typically, the supervisee IS prepared to diSCUSS counseling sessions that occurred DISCUSSion centers on the sessIOns as a context for superVisee learning and dC\'elopment 2. Dyadic Dyadic supervISion IS generally conducted in the same way as indlvlduul superVision, but the supervisor works with two supervisccs at the same time 3. Group In-group supervision, a designated supervisor works with a group of counselors. The unique aspect of group supcr\'lsion IS that the supervIsor does not only mfluence members. but they also are influenced by (and mfluence) the others m the group. lntervenhons are mcorporated to capitalize on, and account for. Ihls 39 interrelatedness, Practlcum and Internship experiences 10 trammg typH,:aJl) incorporate g.roup superVISion as their '\:Iassroom" cxpeflence LIVt: supervIsion occurs as the supen'lsee is acting as counselor mteract With the supervlscc "m the moment" and therefore dlrcctly affect the counsehng process Supcn'ision inh:n'cntion!'i Thl.'rl.' arc a \andy (If Inh:rvenllons thai can be Inl'orplJr.1h:J mto the SUpeT\ISIOn prm:ess Bmul:rs .mJ Ll:ddld (1987) listed Sl.\ re.1:-.on... flJT choosmg dllTl:Tent supl:rVISlOn ml:tll"J:-. "the supcrvlsl:e's learn109 gnal ... , Ihl' supcnlsec ... cxpl:ncnce kvcl and dcvelopmcntal Issues. thl.' ',dpen'lsee' .... learnlnl,! style. the SUPCT\'ISor'S goal... for thc ... upcn'lsce, the supeni ... llr' ... thenrl:IILII orientatIOn, :.mu the ... uper\'lsor' ... own learning goal... for thl: "'UPl'T\ h"r\ l:xpenencl:" (p :!8) 1'.:.Ich modl: of superdSlon Ienus Itself III <l vanet) of mll.'T\l:ntlllll'" .... Pllll' of the moTt' p(llular mterventlons will he pre...enteu A thorough JI ... l:lI ...... lIln ,>I supen:lsu," InterventIOns can be Il)und In BemarJ anu I ilJ(IJ)l:i1T ( I(1 1 )10\ I 10 rradltlOnal approaches to ... upcrvl"'IOll l'mph"""/c and "contmlling" mdlvidual performance Ilo\\e\'l.'T. lInprU\lng pr\fgr,lI11 40 perfonnance and maintaining program standards by supervising Indl\'ldual perfomlance is Impractical because most servIces are complex and are not dependent on the actions of a single Individual Supervising indivIdual performance may help managers to correct mistakes or know whom to reward However, the results of mdlvldual supervIsory visits arc someltmes used by managers to blame mdivldual workers for inefficlenclcs that arc caused by the design and management of the service system(s) In addItIOn, systems that supervIse individual performance are rarely designed to conSider the Impact of environmental, sociaL and cultural factors such as program and policy Issues, rCSOL'.rce constraints, and group dynamics that alTect an individual's performance Usmg a team approach to wperVlSlOn requires that the supervisor disregards conventIOnal disciplinary attitudes and shifts from the role of "inspector" to the role of "facilitator" Team supervision IS oriented to\vard teamwork, where problem solving is the main focus of the mteractlon. and supcn'lsors become on-thejob tcachers who support their staff ThiS Issue examines how supervision can be improved by uSing a team approach SlIp.;.rvl"or" vary in the way they approach supervision Gilckman (1990j Introduced four categories of supervisory approaches The approaches dlfli:r In the amount of power and control accorded 10 the superVIsee dunng Inlcractilln with the supervIsor. Some approaches give more l:ontrol 10 the supervIsor. whde others give more control to the supervisee In l:ollahoratlve supervisIOn. the supervisor and the supervisee share decision makmg about future Improvement 41 Non - directive supervision occurs when the supervisee formulates his or her own plan about future development. The supervisee has the liberty to frame the supervisory Interaction; the supervisor only gives advice. The dIrective informatIonal approach occurs when the supervisor frames the supcrvl,>ory plan and the supervisee deCIdes whether to follow the plan In the directive control approach. the supe[\.'lsor frames the supervIsory plan and expects the to follow It An effective supervIsor focuses on the Infernal program em'lronment. Includmg program planning. team problem solving. operations mOnitoring. and progress toward obJectives. as wdl as on the external envIronment. including pobc)' and gUideline changes. traming opportunities. communicatIOn with llthcr levels of the health system, and advoca( \ Supen'ising personnel Interpersonal dynamics have a profound elTect on program and performance It is the manager's job to help mamtain morale In the office. assIst the staff In managmg conflict, and motivate the staff to perform to theIr potentIal The IS ;n the best position to know what Interpersonal conl1H,;{s eXist or what staff members need to be motivated or chalh:nged If the manLlgcr be"-" till.' necessary skills to address personnel problems. these prohlems may le<Jd (() poor performance Staff MotivatIOn Supervisors wdl not h;J\e cuntrol u\'cr .m employee's motivation, but there arc sttll many thmgs that a supervIsor can un \n 42 Improve an employec's sense of motivation and Job satisfaction SuperOlsors can have a effect on staff morale by pro\'ldmg positive feedback to staD" on a regular basis. expressmg appreciation for theIr efforts. and engagmg them In problem solVing and decision makmg These actions \\111 help to re:->ffinn the tmportance of their Jobs to the achtevements of the program Professional development" Supcr"'lsors must support stalT development h) conUnumg to prondc (or help provide access to) tramlng. educational. and professional de... elopment opportumtles Supernsors should pro\'lde staff \\ Ith ,)n- thcJob tramlng. and arrange for staff to attend training programs Slaff C:.tn abo Increase th":lr koo\\ ledge and profe',slOnal skills Supporting the development uf your stalTs profeSSIOnal skills heIrs to' maintam staff morale. Increase Joh performance. budd the institutional C..lrJClty of the program. ,.tnd broaden the skills base of your staff Staff de... elopment Will also result in attractmg and retamlng a strong profeSSIonal team Conflict resolution A cnllcal aspect of supen Ismg siaff IS rnJnaglng conflict among stall The cause of these conllicts rna) be mterpl.:rsunal t1r rebkd to d)sfun.:tional orgaOlzatlOnal systems Supenlsors must Ieam lo hccllm..: confl,.;t manager:. In this role they can resol... e disputes by obsenmg. anal)nng. and helpmg tht: disputing parties to develop mutually agreeable 'iOIUtlllns To resolve conl1lc15. the super\.'lsor mllst It:arn to remam neutral \\OIJ lakmg sides. Help the dlsputlOg to separah: the pr'lhlem fnlm the PCllpk In\'ohcd Sometimes the dtsputlOg parties are s\) angr;. at l"lCh other th.lI the\ bcltc\'c that thc other person is the problem hen though thiS usuall) I" nut the 43 case, it takes a good supervisor to help the two sides separate their personal differences from the real problem I\. good supervisor will help disputing to see and understand their interests behmd their posItions. Once these mtcrests have been identified. the partlCS can focus on areas of common interest instead of their individual positions. These areas often serve as a startmg point for discussion. A good supervisor will help search for and develop solutions that meet the needs and mterests of both parties. If you remain neutraL you can Insist that both parties agree on objective critcna to use to make any decisIOns to resolve the contlict Recognizing the importance of the supervisee's perspective An Important and often oVt:rlooked aspect of supervlSI' '0 IS the supervisee's perception of thc Importance and usefulness of supervision. tvlost approaches to supervIsion do not regard the supervisee's point of VICW as important Yct the supervIsee's perspeclive plays a significant rolt.: in thl' supervisee's ability to function effectively as part of a team Smce every supervIsor IS also supervised by someone else, when you arc supcr"i"mg., )ou should keep m mind what your perspective \.vould he as the supervisee, and what information you would need to have Inform those you supervise abollt the rationale for supervisory actJvitle::., including what to e.:xpcct from superviSIon, how they can benefit from It, how can be 100prowd, and how they can use superviSIOn to Improve' their own pcrlf.1rmanl:l.: and the.: overall performance of the team. By paying attention to thl: SUpCrVl'iCCS' roles In 44 the supervisory system and to thcir attitudes and perceptions. supervisors can help those they supervise to become active and effective team players The functIOns of supervision havc traditionally been given as admmlstralive. educatIOnaL and supportive (Dawson. 1926). At different times. emphasis on partIcular functIOns has increased or decreased in response to influences both internal and external to the profession. Supervisor as teacher The begmmng of formalized professional SOCial work practice In the Umtcd States IS rooted m the chanty orf'.amzation societies of the 1880s In these agencies. social work was a "kmdly. patemahstlc. over-seeing" (Freeman. 1(92) case"'iork process and supervIsion was proVided by paid ~ n t s who administratively oversaw the work of the fnendly visitor volunteers (Lcddlck & Dye. 1987). Over time. as a body of knowlcdge grew from the firsthand expenences of the fnendly VISitorS and the superVisors, the role of supen'lsor expanded to mclude that of teacher of methods to the volunteers and later to students partiCipating in field cxpenence (Blackhurst. 2000) Supervisor as enabler With the role of tcacher timlly grounded m the functIOn of SUPCf\ISlon. at the tum of the century and into the 1920s there was mcrcased profeSSionalism m the practice of social work and an expansIOn mto the areas of mental hygiene and child guidance. In addition to scrving people In poverty. service delivery was 45 directed toward issues such as child welfare. people who were physically and mentally ill. and the family in generaL Dunng the 1930s. social employed m vanous counse!mg borrowing from the knowledge ba... e of psychiatry and psychoanalytic treatment. often emulated the practice method of mSlght therapy. Social work supervisors took on certam attributes of therapists as their Job began to mclude helpmg workers become aware of and resolve their 0\\11 mtrapsychic conflicts (Bryan and Schwarz. 1998) After the workers had successfully completed thIS task. It was behcved they could successfully carry out the same process \vith clients Dunng the 1950s and 1960s changes withm the profeSSIOn resulted In practice becommg more eclectic. covenng a broad spectrum of theones of intervention. populations servcd. ,md ;Idmimstratiw structures. 1 \-tIS broadcmng resulted m a decreasc m the strength of the psychoanalytic influence. but thc supervlsof)' roles of teacher and enabler contmued to hold Supervisor as administrator Adr.l1nistration as a part of supervision has roots III the origms of socIal worl-.. praclH.e but lias taken a path of development different from that of tC3l.:hcr and enabler The teacher and enabler functions are closdy aligned \\'lth dmll.:ul services and reflect the casework method of practice. The admmistratlvl; functIon deals with the management of agency resources and operatIOns and refkets the methods of business. 46 The charity organization societies used paid agents as administrators of programs. They were accountable for the distribution of the agency's resources In addition to overseeing the volunteers The Milford Conference of 1929 Included a of a paper entitled "Personnel Management In Soci,,1 Service Agencies" (Dalton, 1989) that emphasized employee rights and responsibilitIes and the contracting that is done between agencies and workers, with the supen'lsor representing the agency The two supervisory functions highlighted In this paper were keepmg the work of the agency up to the standard set and promoting the professional development of staff In 1935 the passage of the SO':lal Security Act (P L 74-271) created a new social services delivery system The seT\'lce delivered was not therapy but rchef, that IS, financial assistance. InSight therapy was not needed to do the Jot. but good managenal skills were Wuh s\..LpervislOn once again reflecting field practices. administration was given renewed emphaSIS SupeT\'lsors were required to administer agencies. dewlop policy, manage programs. network \.... lth communities. and negotiate complex bureaueralic systems (DeCoster & Brown. 1991 ) Processes and issues in supcn'ision Supervision IS an educatIOnal process, 10 which thl.: supeT\'lsee learn" nl.'\\' skills and techmques Supervision goes bcyond the n:latlOnshJp Wl'nle relationship is important. it IS nol all is 10 supt:rvlsion 47 SupervisIOn as a three or more person system The supervision relationship is one of triangulation. An Imbalance of power eXists. In an effort to balance this power. the supervisee may align with the chent agamst the supervisor or may align with the supervIsor against the client While this IS usually thought of m a negative sense, the same can be positIve When the supervisee feds vulnerable. alignment with the supervisor empowers the superYisee When the supervisee may need a change in the or paradigm shift. alignment between the client and the supervisor may prOVIde the mSlght needed to work wlthm the counseling session. The baSIC need for triangulation is empowerment through coalitions These coahtlOns can he negative or POSitive Parallel process refers to the dyn.unics of supervIsion suggestmg that whal occurs between the client and the counselor repeats itself in the relationshIp between the supervisor and the supervisee The opposite IS also true. what occurs between the supeT\'lsor anJ the SUpeT\/lsee, also occurs bet\veen the counselor and client Explanations for parallel process seem to fall IOta the followmg categories Thc supervise' identifies With the client and then produces reactIons that the supervisee felt In the session. The supervisee unconscIOusly chooses to reflecl the Impasse between the chent and the counselor The supervisee unconsciously selects the part of the t.:lu.:nt's problem that helshe shares with the client. 48 Because the supervisee lacks skill. the supervisee is inclined to presents client's pfl)blems that are specific to the supervisee's specific learning needs In supervision. Basically, parallel process IS a chain reaction that occurs from the top- down and from the bottom-up. making It a systemic process. Parallel has the possibJiity of being both negative and pOSItive used in supervision. Isomorphism mcans that two difTcrent complex structures can be mapped on each other In other words. if you could develop transparencies of two people. there would be corrcspondmg polOts when tht: two transparencies were placed us overlays for each other. These correspond109 points are roles SupervisIOn and Counseling have such shared roles or points of correspondence The speCific Isomorphic roles arc' Need to establish rapport or join with the clients or supervisees Need for setting goals and thinking In stages. Need to appreciate contextual senSItiVIty Need to challenge realltlcs SUPCf\ ISlOn a h..io-pcrson system While Rogenan cllent-ccntered therapy bccame popular as hath <l c11l:nt Intervention and as a superviSion model. studlcs have emcrgcd that IOdlCLlte that Empathy. Wannth, and Gcnuiness (EWG) arc much too important to Ignore. hut appear to bc more practical 10 the therapeutic relatHlIlship than In the SUPCf\'ISlOn relatIOnship. The focus of supervision IS that uf creating a homl. defining agrecd 49 upon goals. and agreed upon tasks. Through the weakening and then repmr of the bond. goals. and tasks change occurs and alliances develop Supervisory Workmg Alliance Inventory has been used m research to mdicate these alliances Problematic bonds fall IOta three categones' AnxIous Attachment where the supervisee IS very dependent. constantly seekmg help. desmng favoritism. and resents the supervisor for "lack of mutual need" Compulsive Self-Reliance' where the supervisee resists. refuses. rcbels against. the supervisor's attempts to help CompulSive Care giver where the supl.:'rviscc "rescues" the clients, glosses over major concerns, uncomfortable With the supervisor's help. and defenSive When goals are clearly dclincd one maximizes the congruenr'e In the supervisor's expectatIOns and tht' supervisee's perfonnance. ThiS congruence IS best accomplished with a clear contract or negotiation. Role induction has heen found to be ctTectlvc Role mductlon is the use of diSCUSSions or multi-media methods to model the supervisor-supervisee session. Another method has bccn 10 assess the supervisee's expectatIOns of what they will be able to <.1c..:omplJsh withlJ'l the u p ~ iSiC'n experience The tasks or skills may proVide the area for greatest COnnH,:t between thL:' supervisor and supervisee. A nonnal reaction to :->upcrVISlon IS connl..:t or disagreement about whether a skill is present or a task accomplisht:d The dt:gn:e of contlH;t IS directly proportional to the degree or I.:unfidl.:m.:,," and IOst:cunty or the supervisee and supervisor. The more ad\'an..:cd the: tralOl:l:. the more likely 50 TNE LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST they are to be dissatisfied wilh supervision These lypes of contllct an: nol problematic Problematic conflict can anse when there IS transference and counter transference or when there an: personality contllcts As II IS unreallstH': to cxpect every therapist to work WIth every chenl. it IS unrealistiC to CXr('ct en.. ry supervIsor to work with every supervisee Role conllict occurs when supen'lsecs arc requITed to cngage 111 two or more roles that may rellulre inconsistent bchaVlor (I e revealing personal weaknesses when knOWing that lht:lr work and/or IS evalu"led ) when arc n:qulTed to engage In bt:havior that IS Incongruent \\ lth theIr pcrsonal.1udgml:nHi e thl: conlh.:1 may hI: over lhl: ethical or t' :metlcal dilTen:nces \)n ahortwn. dlTedlVl.' arrroal:hcs. rok of tl:achlng In dl: I The grr:ater the strength of the bond between the supcnhor and the- superVisee, the less the role conflict I"he least role conniet m:l:urs \\hl:n thl: rok ambigUIty IS reduced by clear statl:ments about c,<pcdations or ",upcrVlsHlll III assess rok conllict and role ambigUIty. Olk and j'nedlandl:r ,XI)1 developed the Roie Conflict and Role Inventory Dual (('latlOnshlps arc a spccilic casl: of role conlllcl \\11l1e It '" ph\ IIIU\ to most supcn'lsnrs that romantic and sc,<ual rcialLonshlp" or tnr "luJen!..; III training to serve as clients to other memher" of the pnlgram, othL'r Ju,Jl relatIOnships may not be so obvious. The most OhVlUUS dual role <':00111\.'1 1\ lhat of the supervisor's role to help the supef\'I\ce It) one-lop skilb. \\hill.: 51 the supervisee's performance m those skills. At the onset, the supervisor IS obligated to dearly outhne thc dual nature of the relationship and that \\hlle cvaluatlOn, self-disclosure. and skill l.:r1t1que are a part of supervIsion and rna) crealc conllicts The area of self-disclosure IS usually limited to b0W thl' supernsec's personal experiences may be blockmg their progress WIth a chent While the supervisor may want the supcr\'lsee to resolve thIS personal Issue. the supernsor is nO! the supervisee's therapls!' and therefore. If the concern I" of slgmficance to severely Impair the supen'lsee's counseling, a referral to prlvatc lhcrapy may hccomc ncccssary PmH:r In thc supt:rvislon relationship IS not equal Powcr may bc sccn uS uncqual from the follOWIng persper.:tl\'eS The supervlscc nt:cds the super\'ls"r mon.: than thc super_Isor ncd thr.: supervIsee The supen'lsor has permIssIOn to comment on the supcn'lSee's behu\ Inr. \\ hill- the reverse I" not truc The supen'lsor has evaluatlvc power ovcr thc supcr\lsee and can CVCIl threaten or advance thl' supcrvlsec's carccr Tru:!! bch\cell lhc supcnisor and thc supen.'lst:c IS ncce,,,af! fur cfft:c!l\e rhl' r.:haracterlstlcs of trust rclatlOnsllip arc An atmosphere of safety prevails lilr the supen ISCC A hclicfthat both arc actmg profeSSIonally and not expl11111ng thc olhl'r Trust may vary by degrees ovcr time. but IS al\\ays prr.:'cnt Trust is earned between thc two trustee, 52 Level of trust mfluences the degree to which there can be personal disclosures of vulnerabilities Supenisec as a source of variance in the supen'isory relationship Supen'lsees create two sources of vanance m supervisIon: need to be competent and the expenence of anxiety A supervisee's felt compelence is hnked to their actual competence. Because of their anxIety, the supervisee rna) expenence detenoration of their skills when they are observed I-Io\\e\'er, when a skill has been mastered or over learned. the supervisee bemg observed wlil enhance their perfonnance. The sk,lIs should be reinforced or practiced until the supervisee. automatically perfonn the skill. Until the skills become automaltc, the supervisee may complain that the beha\lors or techmques arc nol comfortable or artifiCiaL The supervisee will lluctuatc between confidence and incompetence The role of the supervisor IS to help the supervisee feci safe about disclOSing failures that the supervisee considers "too horrihlc to admIt" The SUpt:f\'lsor docs thiS by continued support and backing. encouragement. if you Will Sclf- disclosure by the supervisor of embarrassing moments sometimes helps til..: supervisee to sec that It IS a developmental process that IS nt:ver qUite completc Supcrvi"ion has a major component of managing and contalOlOg ..IIlXld) of the supervisee The supervisor may also fet:l anxldy that must be managed and contained. A degree of anxiety causes one to mOH: toward Improvement. therefore, super\'ISlon should create some anXle!) IIowc\l,:r, lOll mUI,:h ..In:\lcl\ can be devastating. crippling anxiety should he aVOided Whether as supcr\lsor Dr 53 as counselor. the individual must learn that anxiety IS part of the helping proccss and must learn that it remams within all good interpersonal relationships. Anxiety IS made manageable by having clear expectatIOns. structure. and evaluatIon cnterlJ in the supervision relationship, Three obJcctionable fonns (If superviSIOn are amorphous super\'lslOn. unsupportivc superviSIOn. and therapcutlc supcrvision Amorphom supcn'lslon proVIdes too little c1Jrity and too lillie structure UnsupportlYC supcr\'lslOn focuses on the negativc. blJnung the stalemate between them on thc supcn'lsce Therapeutic supcn'lslon takcs the stand that the reason that the super\'lSCl' has ddiclencies In their skills IS dip:ctly attributable to personality deJicicnclcs Students who recel\'C therapeutic sLlpen'lslon are the most distraught than from any other form of objectionable supen'i .. lun Supcn'ision of school admini'itralion and supporl slaff In dealing with efficlcncy concerns of school admlll1stratl\'c and support stalT. the recommended proccdure follows the prinCiples of those for teaching staff. but at thiS slage there has not been an agreed dt:tUllcd proce<;s Ail school udmllllstrative and support staff need to undt:rsland Iht: role. accountability and performance standards that :.Irc cxpccted {If tbem School admmistratlve and support statT arc entlllcd to fcedh:.lck and constructtve support to Improve performance, Any school admmlslratiw and supp(ln slarr mcmher \\hll'\C effiCiency IS of concern should he placed on J SUPP(lr! program tu Imrrmc 54 their perfomlance The process may be terminated at any stage should the member respond to the program and IS considered efficient The prmciples of fairness. equity and sound employee relatIOns must underpin this process The staff member IS entitled to have copies of all related documents. and to have a support person present at any meetmgs. n t o r i n ~ and supervision Mentonng IS a process whereby someonc With more expcrlence or expertise provides support. counselling and adVice to a less experienced or less expert culJeague ThiS approach i" useful where the length of teachmg experience within the staff varies Widely. Experience has shown that mentonng IS bcst In a one-to-one relationship. although it is possible for one person to mentor two or three others Mentors support their colleagues through providmg feedback based on observation of teachmg pracllcc They question. share. diSCUSS. challenge comfort and gUide thClr colleagues through a learmng process based on trust and confidentiality The key t(, successful mentonng is the mentoring relatIOnship For mentorlOg tu be etfi:L1I\'C participation must he voluntary and both partK'" musl be commltled and wdling to give time to thc process. The lwo partll.:s should agrec to mentoring arrangements With a clearly articulated action plan mdicatmg expectatIOns, goals. level and style of contact and duration of thc mentoring relatIOnship 55 Evaluation Evaluation IS the analysIs and comparison of actual progress vs prior plans. oriented toward Improvmg plans for future implementation It is part of a conhnumg management process consistmg of plannmg. Implementation. dnd evaluation. Ideally with each follo\ving the other m a contlOuous cycle until successful completIOn of the activity. The primary focus of evaluation IS to determine the effectiveness of a program m light of the attainment of pre-set priorities and goals Evaluation helps document whether a program IS accomplishmg its goals or not It identJfies program weaknesses and strengths and the areas of the program that need re' ISlOn An evaluatIOn plan may have two ddTerent focuses formalln: and summallvc. A comprehensive cvaluatllJn plan should include both types of evaluation Formative evaluation IS dcslgned to collect data \vhile a program IS being developed with the intention to Improve it Formative evaluatIOn pro\'ldcs ongoing feedback on how the different components of a program arc workmg and leads to deciSIOns regarding what needs to be enhanced. what needs to be deleted, what needs to be added Summatlve evaluatIOn IS deSigned to gather conclUSive data that indicates how effective the overall program IS Summatm: e\"aluatllln results In to continue or not a program There are many different perspectives and approaches to evaluatIon. Self-evaluation When an orgamzation uses its own reople and theIr skdls to carry oul evaluation (as opposed to hiring an external agc:ncy tn carry out the c:\'uluUIIOn) 56 this is known as self-evaluation. Momtormg and evaluation IS bUilt into the everyday actl\'lties of the project so that It becomes part ofwhalls done For learnmg and dc'\'clopment Momtonng and evaluating scrvlccs will help assess how well you are doing In order to help you do It better It is about asking "",hat has happened and why - what IS and what is not working. It IS about uSing evaluation to learn morc about an organizatIOn's actl\'ltJes. and then usmg what has been learnt. For accountability - to show others that the orgamzation IS effectIve Funding agencies and other 'stakeholders' want to know whether a proJc:ct has spent Its moncy appropriately. There IS pressurc from thcse to prm'lde thcm With evidence of success Many proJccts have to respond to this demand In order to survive Evaluation for lcarnmg and dc:velopmcnt Using cvaluatlon to learn more about an orgamzation's actlvltlcs. and then uSing what has been learnt Evaluation for accountability This is to demonstrate achlcvements Evaluatlon should nol only ans\.\cr questions It should also prompt fresh thinking wlthm the organizatIOn and In contacts with c.\lemal <.Igenclcs If the nght questIOns are asked. an cvaluatlOn \\'III tell not only what has been achlcvcd. but also how It was donc and wh'lt ~ most effective, It will hdp find the areas whcre Improvcmc:nt or change i.s nceded. and assist to prOVIde the best service to users. 57 Monitoring Moniturmg IS about collecting mformatlon that will help answer questIOns about a project It IS Important that this mformatlOn is collected m a planned. organized and routinc way The mformation can be used to report on thl: project and to help to cvaluate All organizations keep records and notcs, and discuss what they arc d01l1g ThiS simple checkmg becomes momtoring when information IS collected routinely and systematIcally agamst a plan The mformation might be about activities or servIces. users. or about outside factors affecting the organization or project. Monitonng informatIOn IS collected at specific times' daLly. m o n t l ~ or quarterly t\lomtonng IS to some extent a ruutme part of the SUpervlsor/super\'lsee relattonshlp Most employers make some checks on the quantity and quality of ,...'ork produced by their stafr. and employees will generally expect thIS Any monitoring must be done m a way that 15 hoth lawful and fair to staff Monitoring & c\'aluation tv101lltoring IS about colleclmg information that wll! help answcr 4uestlons about a proJl:ct ~ indicated car her, the information l.:un he used to report qn the project and to help to cvaluate EvaluatIOn on the other hand IS abuut uSing monilonng and other informatIon you collcct to rnakt.: juJgemt.:nts about your project It IS also about llsmg the mformatlon to make changes and ImprO\'eml.:JllS 58 While momtoring IS routine and ongoing, evaluation IS an In-depth study. taking place at specllic pOints In the life of the project 59 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY Introduction This chapter dIscusses the research design. population. sample and the sampling procedurr.:s used The research Instruments used in collecting the data. the method of data collection and data analySIS are also discussed Research design The descriptive survey research design was used in this study. The usefulness of the descriptive sample survey for this type of research study IS supported by Gay (1987) who emphaSizes that the descriptive sample survey IS an attempt to collect data from members of the population In order to determme the current status of that population With respect to one or morc vuriabll.:" Respondents werc only required to respond to existing practices These practice", inclUde approaches used in supervisIOn. supervIsors' knowledge of thc.::lr supervisor)' roles. supervisory skills possessed by supervisors. organizing of In _. service trammg programmes to upgrade the knowledge and skills of supr.:rvlsors. and staff mr.:mbcrs understandmg of importance of superVISIOn In aclllr.:vlOg orgamzatlonal goals 60 Surveys permit the researcher to study more variables at onc time than IS typically possible In laboratory or field experiments, whilst data can be collected about real world environment It is an efficient and accurate means of determining information about a given population The results from surveys are prOVided relatively qUIckly, and ensure higher reliability than some other techOlques Depending on the sample size and methodology chosen, surveys are relatively inexpensive They allow for standardizatIOn and uniformity both in the questions asked, and in the method of approaching subJects, makmg It easlcr to compare and contrast ans"vers by rcspondent groups. However. smce respondents know that they are being studied, the Information provided may not be valid in so far as the respondents may WIsh tll Impress or please. This gives rise to respllnse error or bias Again. the Willingness or ability to reply can also pose a problem. Perhaps the mformatlon is considered sensillve or intruSive leading to a high ratc of refusal. Sometimes the questions are so specific that the respondents arc unable to answer even though they may be willing One of the major shortcommgs of usmg surveys IS the level of respnnsl.: rate. D..::pcnd.ug OIl the method chosen, the length of the questlonnalfl.:. the typt: and/or motivation of the respondent. the type of questions. the hme of day and place. and whether respondents were mformed to expect the survey (or offered an Illcentive) can all mfluence the response rate To correct s o ~ of the problems associated with the deSign III thiS study, prior notIce \vas given to t ~ Heads of the FaculucsfficpartmentslUllIts concerned. They, ill turn. Illformcd the people who 6\ took part in the research The day(s) for the admimstratlon of the questionnaire was discussed and agreed upon at meetmgs between the researcher. and Heads of FaClllt les/Departments/UOIts To reduce response error or bias to the mimmum. the essence of the study was thoroughly explained to the respondents They were allo\,"'ed to ask questIOns on what they did not understand. and also called the attention of the researcher to any difficulty they encountered In the cause of respondmg to Items/statements on the questionnaire Internc'\' gUide was used for three (3) out of the four (4) Deputy Registrars. In charge l)f Personnel ufld Welfare. Admmistration. and Trammg and Development These were chosen smce their respeclivc roles have to '0 wIth thl.' ImplementatIOn of management deCISIOns I.':speclally non - teaching staff. tratOlng of stall and also ensurmg camphaneI.': An mtef\'lew gUide was used for thesl.': people, PopUlation The study populatIOn was 456 and comprised all senior staff members nr the UOI'.-crsity ofCapc Coast Tabll's I and 2 show thl.': populatIOn 62 Table]: Senior staff ID faculties /academic units Faculty! Unit Population Arts 29 Social Science 53 Education 59 Science 59 Graduate Studies 2 Library 7 Agriculture 19 Total 228 Source Salaf) Section, UmH:rslty of Cape Coast. Cape Coast. :2005 Table 2: Senior staff in non - academic departments/units Department! Unit Population Registrar's Offices 30 Fmance 24 Audit 14 Development Offict: 46 Dean of Students 15 Estate 26 Hospital 38 Others 35 Total 228 Source. Salary Section. Umverslty ofCapc Coast. Cape Coast. 2005 63 The study population was. however. 293. It was made up of staff from the Registrar's Otlices. Estate Section. Hospital, and Development Office. for the non - academic departments/units. The Faculties and Academic Units compnsed Arts. Education. Science. Social Science. and School of Agnculture. b l e ~ 3 and 4 below show the accessible population for Faculties/Academic Unit and Non - Academic departments/umts respectively Table 3: Accessible population for non academic departments/units Department / Unit Population Registrar's Offices Estate Hospital Development Office TOTAL 140 Source" Salary Section. University of Cape Coast. Cape Coast. 2005 Table 4: Accessible population for faculties, academic departments/units Faculty / U.,it Population Faculty of .\ns 29 Faculty of Social SCiences 38 Faculty of Education 35 Faculty of SCience 32 School of Agriculture 19 TOTAL 153 Source Salary SectIOn, University of Cape Coast. Cape Coast, 2005 64 Sample and sampling procedures The sample \-vas made up of 137 senior staff members selected from the study populatIOn In choosmg the sample the stratified random sampling procedure. purposIve sampling. and lottery method were used The ... tratlfied random sampling procedure was used to group the population Into Faculties/Academic llmts and Non - Academic departments/units The stratified sampling procedure was used since the population was In groups that have common charactenstlcs related to the vanables of the study. Stratllied rand(lm sampling was again used tll group the respondents Into those In superVIsory positions and those who arc not In posItions. All the 97 semor starr members in SUpef\.'lsory positlons In both non - academic departments/umbo and facultIes/academIc departments/umts. \\we purposively selected The purposIve sampling was used because the respondents are in supcr\'lsory capaCJlles. one of the categones covered by this rhls "'ias to ensure that their pOints or view adequately reflect that held by the re:-.t In the study populatIon For representatl\cness. steps were taken to cnsure that member of the study populalllln stood the chance of being selected '\ total of four Non - AcademIC departments/units was seh:cted U"'lng the lottery method. Registrar's Offices, Estate. Hospital and DeVelopment Or/ice Twenty percent each of the total number of semor stafr mcmhers whu aft.' nol In super\'lsol)' pOSitIOns 10 both categones sclectl:J The lottcry mclhlld was used to selt:ct 40 respondents who arc not In supcr\"lsor) posltluns IhIs was to Improve the rcpn:scntatlvcncss of the sample 6S Instrumentation The Instruments for the research were two types of questIOnnaire. one Il"lf semor slaff In SUPCl\ ISOr;. positIOns. and the other for senior stair In nun - pOSillllnS \'ere deSIgned to help measure the uf supervision and subordmates' ImpreSSIons about their super\'lsors The questionnUire fi.lr semor staff in supen positions has 4 main sections. Scclton A. B. C. and D Sectwn A has 13 Ih.'ms and locusl.'S on approaches to supcn'I!'lOn Section B IS made up of 9 ltcms and IllCUSCS on respondents' knowh:dgc lln thc role of a supl.'nls\)r Sectwn C madc up of:; Itcms that sed.. respondcnts' 'IC\\S on In - sen'lce traimng, \\htlc Sectll1f. D. wIth 5 Items finds out the undcrstandmg of stair about thc lmpl)rtam:c of supel\ ISllln fhl? qucstlonn3lrc fllr semor st311 not In positions has I:.' questions that sed, respl)ndenb' lmprcs'>lons about the number and l)f 5upcn 15100 r..:cel\ cd. as \\ ell as aD\lut thelf SUpel\'lsor5 An mter\'IC\\ l;UlJl.' \\as deSigned fl)r the Deputy Registrars of Pl.'r"lmnl.'1 and Welrare, Admmistratwn. and Traimng and Den;'!opmcnI Ethical "onsidcration In collccttOg the data, the researchcr llhtamcJ a t:O\t:rmg Idtcr ffllm Ih\,., Supen"1S0r to the Hcads of the departments of the ((1 s\,.'ck pl.'rmlSSl11n tIl undertake the research m thelf respect1\c scctlons rhe pcmllSSlllO \\crl.' then taken to the Heads of the dcpartments for pl.'rmlssil)fi 10 aJminhh.'r Ih..: instruments. Senior stafT members to the sdccteJ J..:partmcolS \\Cfe hndeJ llfi th..: 66 purpose of the research and their consent was sought for their participation A day was then fixed for the admimstratlOn of the research instrumcnts to those who were sampled Data collection procedure The respondents \\ere hnefed on how to respond to the Items and gl\'cn the opportunity to ask the researcher questions to clanfy Issues they did not understand In relatlon to dlflicultles In responding to the Items They \\ere then given the research Instruments to respond to The research Instruments were collected after a maximum of '5 days Jr a day/orne which was agreed upon by the researcher and respondents Rcliabilil)' and \'alidil)" ReliabilIty of the Instrument was undertaken to find the precIsIon, consistency and of a score from the over different and time spans It \Va" also to venfy that deciSIOns made based on the Instrument would be the same from tllne to lime, and addrc<;ses the question of how much error IS m the value generated Test-Retest Reliability was used 10 establish the reliabIlity through a pilot test. ThiS was obtained by corrclatmg pairs of scores from thl,' ... umc pl,'rsun on two difTerenl admlOistrJtlons of the same test. The overall reliability was () 75 usmg Cronhach's Co-efficient Alpha 67 Validity refers to the legitimacy of uSing a mea.<;urement with accuracy for a specific purpose Cntenon valtdity. the degree to which :l test IS related (statistically) to a measure of Job performance, was used The Concurrent \\as also used to establ1sh thiS The \\as 0.65 Content \alllllt\ IS the degree \() \\hleh a test measures an mtended content area It requires both Item \ahdlt) and sampling validit) Item \ahdlt) IS concerned with \\ hether the test Items represent measurement in the Intended content area. and samplmg \ alldlty IS concerned with how well the test samples the total content area fhls was caITicd out to ensure that the questlonnam: dTectivcly and aecur:.l.lcly Cll\cred th.: areas under study Face \ahdlt). the degree to \\hleh a test appears to n asure whal II purports to measure \\ as abu caITled Ollt ThiS was to find out whether the test Items appear 10 rl,,'present thl: domam bemg c\ aluated Here. sical fidcht). whether ph) slcal charactemtlcs or test reality. was conSidered I he f..lI.:l.' \'ahdlty was caITll,,'J out by the Super''lsor {)fthc fl.'search The reliability and \ ahdlty of the research Instrument Wl,,'rc carned {llit through a pilot test Results of the test established the \'ahdlt) and rchanillty of the in-.'7Uments as well for further modificatIons On the hasls or thc re"iults. ccrtam Items, \\luch. respondents did not understand. \\crc rcvlscd Results of the pre-test enahled the rl.'searchcr hi and nmtirm thl,,' content validity Alst). some a:;pects of the Instrument that needed amendments were Identified. and amended accurdmgly The pretestmg of the m::.truml,,n\ al..;n revealed amhlgUlllcs. poorly worded Hems, ilems that "erc not undl,,rstuoJ. and 68 unclear choices It also indicated whether the instructIOns to the respondents were clear. It helped til Improve upon the final Instruments and this made It possible to ehclt adequately the required mformatlOn. Data processing and anal)'sis The informatIOn g u t h ~ r in thIS study was analyzed statistically usmg deSCriptive and mt\:rentiul statistics Being a dt:scnptlvc study, the researcher first of all gave senul and code numhers to each item on the qucstlOnmnre for cas) identification befl)rc sconng thcm The responses to the various items were then coded and tabulated. tUklllg. cl)gnilnnce of their senal numbers. Frequenclt.:s and percentages were used to analyze all the research questions Accordmg to Sarantakos (1998), the frequency and percentages tabll:s enable a researcher to gam an overall Vle\\ of the findings, to ldcntlfy the trends and to display rclaullnshlp hl'l\\cen parts uf the lindmgs 69 CHAPTER FOUR FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS Introduction This chapter analyses and mterprets the data gathered for this study. The research quc<;t!ons were analyzed using frequencies and percentages For easy presentation of the resulls. this chapter has been divided mto four sections A. B. C and D Section A dIscusses the biographic data whilst section B presents the results of the research instruments admmistered to sentor staff in supen.'lsory pOSItions. and analyzes them Section C presents the results of the r e ~ r h mstrumcnts administered to sentor staff that arc not In supervisory pOSItions. and analyzes them. and Section D presents the report of the interview gUide Biographical data Sex dlsl.lbuhon of rc!>pondcnls The issue of sex was given attention In the study smce It was con:-.Jdcred Important In the context of this !>tudy, sex was used to Imply thc c1asSlficalltlO of sex into male and female groups In con!>Jdermg sex. the :-.tudy ,>ought to endeavour to have an equal or appreciable numher of each group 1 able 4 prc'>cnts the dlstnbutlOn by sex 70 Table 5: Distribution of respondents by sex Sex No Percentage Male Female Total Source. Field Data. 2005 108 29 137 7883 21.17 10000 Table 5 ren:als that. (lut of the 137 respondents used in the study, 108 (7883%) wen: malt: 29 (2117%) were female ThIs vast difference In the reprcsentalJon of sex IS due to fact that not many females. as compared to maks. are found in the supcnlsnry posIllOm. Senior staff members in supervisory p"'iitions ThiS sectlon presents the n:sults of the analyses of the research instrument for semar staff members 10 supervIsory POSItions The analyses have been dune under four malO headmgs approaches to supervisIOn. supervisor rolt:s. III service trammg programmes. and staff understandmg of the importam;<: 01 supen'ISlon Approaches to .. upenision The in this seclion sought to dch:rmlllc undcrslandmg of superVISiOn approachcs as well as their n:spt:t:t1\'C approadlcs to supervision. Table 6 shows the distributIon of rt:spomknts by their pt:rccplloD:i of supervision approaches. 71 Table 6: Perceptions of respondents to supenrision approaches Approach No Percentage Traditional 36 37.\ Team 61 629 Total 97 100.0 Source: Field Data, 2005 From Table 6, concerning theIr perceptions of SUpeT\'ISIOn approaches, 36 (371%) mdlcated that llr the traJltlomd mdl\'ldual SUPCT\'ISlOn approach ThIS emphasizes "mspectlng" fucLlltles und "controlhng" mdivldual perfonnance On the other hand, 61 (62 Q \ mdlcated the team approach Here the supervisor disregards conventional dIsciplinary attitudes and shirts from thc role of "mspector" to the role of "facilitator" become on - the _. job teachers who support their staff As shown In Tahle 7, concernmg supervisors' approach to SUpCT\'ISIOn, common among Glickman's (1990) four catcgones of supervisory approaches were the collaborative approach and the directive control approach Table 7: Perceptions of respondents about supervisors' approach to supervision. Approach Collaborative Directive Control Non - Directive Directive Informational Total Nu Percentage 38 392 59 60.8 0 00 0 0.0 97 1000 Source' Field Data, There were however no reSf,l,mses for the Non - and the DIrective InformatIOnal approaches to supervIsIOn In the daectlve control approach. the :lupen'lsor frames the supen'isor)' plan and expects the supervisee to follow it ThiS approach indicates the fact that the supervisory plan or schedule of supen'lslon IS already set out m the schedule of duties for supervisors. Supen'lsors, therefNe. needed to follow It ThiS. therefore, accounts for the high number of respondents (59). In collaborative supervIsion, the supervIsor and the supervisee share deciSIOn -makmg about future Improvement Supcn'lsors who used this approach may be seen to be "bemg tlc'Xlble" and "unbureaucrauc", havmg cnntidence In th" supervlsecs. tapp1l1g and makmg usc of theIr potel1tlaiLtles, and/or givlllg them the room to explore Supervisors who practiced thiS approach may ha,'c done it" In theIr own interest" depending on their peculiar Circumstances. or "at theIr own peril". Therefore. a few number of the respondents, 38 (39 2%) practised it 7J Non - duective supervision occurs when the supervisee formulates his or her own plan about future development The supervisee has the liberty to frame the supcrvisory interaction. the supeT\'lsor only gives advice The ducctl\'c mformatIonal approach occurs \\ hen the supervisor frames the supervlsol) plan and the SupcT\'lsee decides \\hether to follow the plan These two approaches had no respondents Their practice does not fall In any way within the workings of the university. Supen'isor roles ThiS sectIOn had nine statements which tested respondents' knowledge of the role of the Respondents were reqUired to Indicate in a Like] 4- scale Within four rankmgs how important each statement IS to hlmlhcr (Table 6) From the anal)sls 10 Tahle 6 a gr..:ater number of the respondents (51) representing about 530 mdlcated ihat the supeT\'lsor's role of Impartmg knowledge and skills IS wry Important On the contrary, 7 respondents mdlcated thiS role is not important. An appreciable number of the respondents (21 ) sec the role as important R..:garding the supeT\'lsor's role of emplOYing a dlscovel)' approach 1(1 (103%) said It IS vel)' important However. a closer number of Tl:spond,.:nts saw It as Important 34 (35 1 % ), somewhat Important 29 (299'0) and not Impurtant 24 (27.7%) With the sUPcP/lsor's role of respondlllg to need" of supervisecs ovcr 50% of the rcspondents (52) said It IS vcry Important whlk' 12 0 /0 74 (I8) said it was not important About 26% (25) respondents sa\\! it as Important whilst 8% (8) said It was somewhat Important It IS incumbent therefore upon supervisors to respond to the mterpersonal needs of their supen'lsees Forty and a half pcrct:nt of thl.' n:spondents said ills not to VICW supen'lslon as lIlqUlry Fl\e respondents said it is very important to do so, \\!hile 35 mdlcated It IS lmport:U1t SuperVIsion therefore might not be necessanly viewed as IIlqUIl') On the supervisor's rule to focus on baslc skills ofsupen'lSccs as buddmg blocks for the future, about 5:''0 (53) respondt:nts said It is very important whLlst about 5% (5) sa" It as o\)t Important A'Jout (25) of the respondents and 14% (14) saw It as Important and sllmewhat Important respectively ThiS that superVISion must focus on the baSIC skills ul SUpt:['\'lSCCS so as to build blocks fiJr their futurt: development or advancement Concernlllg the super\'lsor's role to discern deYclopmmtal needs of supervlsees and sdect the supcf\'isory b3sed on his/her needs 33 (34%) respondents indicated thiS IS somewhat important About the sanle number of respondents (28 and 25) said It IS very Important and Important n.:spectlvcly Eleven respondents (II 3%1 conSidered it not Important The data mdlcate:-- that II IS important for 10 discern the developmental needs or 'iupt.'n'lsec:-- Jnd sclec.:t the best stratcb'Y that best sUlls then needs 75 Table 8: Respondents' kno""ledge ortbe role ortbe 5upen'por \'er:- Some\\hat Supen lsor Role Important Important Important Important Total I Impart knO\\ ledge and skills 61 61 18(186) 717 2) 97(1001 2.Emplo) a dlsco\ er: approach lOt 103, 3..\1351) 29(99) 2..\(277) 97tl001 3 Respond to interpersonal needs of supervIsee 52(536, 8) 8(82) 12(12 4) 971100, ..\ Vie\\ 5upen ision as inqUlf) 515 21 914 -: I 35(36 OJ 48149.5 ) 97t 100, 5.Focus on basIC skills 5315..\ 6l 25(258) 14(144, 5(5.2) 97(100, 6 Discern de\ elopmental needs 28,2891 25C58\ :n(3..\ 0) II (II 31 97(100, 7. Focus on personal concerns 25t2581 18t 18 6, 28(2891 26(267) 97t 100) 8. Transr.tit important culture 35(36 1) ..\2(433) 17, 17 51 313 11 97(lf)f)) 9. Encourage reflection 21(2161 27(278) :>313..\ 0) 16<165, 971]fJO, Source Field Data. 2005 Sote Flgurcs In parentheses represent 76 Regardmg the supen ISOr'S role to focus on the personal concerns of the supervisee. about an equal number and percentage of respondents expressed opposite \ ie\\s \\111lst 26 respondents representmg 26 7% said it IS not Important. representing abclut 260 said It IS \ef) important A Strik.'ilg 28 respondents. representmg 28 QO satd It is some\\ hat important for supen isors to focus on the personal of the supen lseeS Eighteen ho\\ever see It as Important. In response to the supen ISOr"S role to transmit an imponant culture...C (433'0) of resIX'lndents said It IS Imponant \\hereas 35 136 1%) sa\\ It as \ef) Important. Three respondents representmg 310 said the supernsor's rok to transmit Important culture IS not lmponant Ho\\e\er about 17 (17 respondents said It IS Imponant The sUIX'n Isor therefore has to transmtt an important culture In their to the super. ISOr' s role to encourage reflectIOn based on the supen Isee' s to dr.m meanmg from l.:'\pcnence. about an equal number of the respondents shared opposmg \Ie\\s Whereas 21 respondents Said It IS \Cf) Important. 16 said It IS not Imponant Ho\\e\cr 27 and 33 n.. "Spondents respecll", said this IS Important and some\\ hat Important 10 - sen-ice training programmes This seetlon had 5 questIons aimed at c"anllmn or JetemlmlOg the number of 10 - sen'lec tramlOg programmes orgaOil'ed to upgrade the Io..no\\ kdge and skills of supernsors Some of the qucstlons \\CTe also to find twm 77 respondents the number of m - service training programmes they wish to attend In 12 months. and the suggested number of In - service traming programmes they wish took place In 12 months Table 9 presents the results of the findings Table 9: The number of in - sen'ice training programmes attended Number of In-service Trammg Attended I - , 6 - 10 88(907%) 57t5? 7%) 63(649%) Since appOintedJpromoted 2 In 24 months 3. In 12 months 4. Number to attend m next 12 months 63(649%) 5 Suggested number to attend in next 12 months 75(77 3%) 34(35.1%) 22(227%) (Source. Field Data. 2005) From Table 9 above. a high percentage of respondents 907% (88) have attended between 1 and 5 m - service trammg programmes smce thcy ",ere appOInted or promoted as supervisors These. therefore. have undergone a form of traimng in supervision Regardmg the numher of in - service programmes attended in 24 months. 649% (63) had attended between 1 and 5 m - sen'lce training programmes. About 59% percent (57) of the respondcnh, attended - 5 In - service trammg programmes 78 Concerning the number of In - service trainmg programmes that should be attended In ml)nths 63 (64 QO,o) mdKatcd 1 -- 5, and 34 (35 \%1) mdlcated 6- 10 Seventy lIve (77 3(J) of the respondcnts suggested that the Center for Training and Development of the University of Cape Coast should organize 1 - 5 m - service tramlng programmes In 12 months, whl1e 22 (about 23%) prdcrred between 6 and 10 1100\c\ cr, nnne of tht: respondents had received between 6 and lOin - serYICC programmes smct: thcy werc appOinted or promoted as supcT\'isors Importance of !ooupcn'i!'lion rhls section has 5 questH10s rhe"e questions wcre to assess how statT who arc supen lsed III the lln1\ersll) of Cq'l" Coast percel\'e the Importance of supervision On the type of supen'lsor tht:y arc considered by subordinates, a higher percentage (90 7,J) (If the rcspondcnts said thclr subordinates conSidered them as democratlc \\hIIL- 2 00 \\erc conslJcn:d aulocratlc None ol"the supen'lsors wen: considered aUlnontanan whereas 720 wert: conSidered as lalssel fam: ..;t 01 the supen Isors lhcrdon: \\ere \:onsldercd (!l:mOl.:rahc Regarding thi: attltudt:s of subordmates toward" thclr superVlsllTS, none of the respondents Said It is poor More than half of Ihe respondents, 51 (52 6'o}, mdicatcd It IS good whereas 40 (41 2%1) said it IS i:xcdknt lIowcvcr (l (h 2'0) mdicated that the attitudes of their subordinates Itm(lfl.b. them ." laIr I;rum thi: 79 analysIs therefore the attitudes of :iubordlOates towards supervisors can generally bc said to be good Sixty two of the respondents thclr subordinates' understandmg of assessment reports or supen ISlon reports \\r1tten on them IS good, about 28% said It IS tim gilD (8) s::ud It IS excellent None of them Said thclr subordlOates had poor perceptwn of Rt::ports or SupervisIOn Reports wntten on them SubordlOates therefore have a !:!-ood perceptIOn of Assessment Reports or Super\'lsion Reports wntten on thcm Concerning ho\\ tht.:lr sublm1matcs arc with thclr superVISion, 36 (371%) rcspondt.:nls lOdllakd \ery whde 9 (about 9%) indlcah:d quite satislied ThIrty thret.: respondents (34 0 I Indicated that theIr subordinates are mostly satislicd With theIr superViSion, and 19 respondents (19.6%) wen: mildly satlslied The implu;atlon hcre IS that arc satlsfied With To the question Dr how subordinates take from their supt.'rvlsors when thclr mistakes or wrongs arc pointed ("Iut to them. about 65'0 (63) of the respondents indIcated that their suhordlOatcs took such correctton... In good f,uth go,o (8) their look the corrections as though they were being IOtimldated llf the respondents IOdlcated that their took such hackbllmg Howcvl.:r about 27 1l /o (26) uf the re"p\lndenl." said their subordinates took the correctIOns as cntlclsm 1:\'l."n an appreCiable number of subordinates took their Slipl.:rvlsors' correction" as Intlmidatlon and crllicism (as indicated by 8% and ahout 27% of thl' rcspondents 80 respectively). a higher number of the subordinates took such corrections in good faIth From tht,. analySIS llf thIS Sl'l.:l1lm. It can be concluded thai stall at the various levds In the of Cape Coast ha\'!,: a good perception of supen'lsion" Senior staff memhers nol in supervisor)' positions ThiS section has I:! questIOns designed to seck respondents' ImpressIOns about the numbl:r and of "Uper\"lSICln they received. as well as about their supervisors With respect to the \.jualLt)' of SUpef\"ISIOn rCl:elvcd. about 880 (35 respondents) r.ltcd It cxcellent and non\? said It was poor Three (7 5%) said It \\as good. and 2 (5'0) rated II fair. CieneraJly then:fore, the quality of supef\"ISlOn respondents rCl.:el\'ed was cXl:dlent To thc kllld of sUper\"lSIOn respondent::> \\J.Jlted. 25 respondents (625'0) said they detinitely had the kind of superVISIOn they wanted. and 15 (37 5'0) smJ. generally they hJ.J. the h.ind 01 superVision they wanh:d None of them did nnt gel the kind or superVISIOn they wan\l'd ThiS may be l:xplallleJ tll lTIl:an that supervIsion was deSIgned to meet the need" Oflhl.: respondents On the exlent 10 which superviSIOn tits their need.... none ut" the respondents did not have any of their needs not helllg md I'hls il1lhcall'" thaI respondents' superVISiOn needs were met. SIX respondent,> had only a k\\ 8\ of their needs anJ II (:!7 had most of Ihelr needs ml:t T",'l:ot)' three (5 7 rc'p\lndents on the nther hand had ,,111 theu needs met Mo,t respondenh \\ere prep,neJ 10 re\:ommend (heu to theIr fru:nds who \\en: III nel'd ,n '>upen I,>ur,> 15 l.l7 5 0 0) \\Quld rL'addy do sn. 22 are sun: hi J\l '>\1 1I[\\\I:\l:r. "I rl:,>punJl:nh 17 5"0) do not Ihlnk Ihey \\Quld rl'adll) rl'lOmml:nd thl:H ..,upel\l,>ur.., tu "I friend \\hlll:-. In nl:ed ol..t SUpCl\'lsnr 1\IOC rc..,ponJcnh l22 """f \\I:rl' 1I1Jlllcrent llr mildly dissatblll.,'d with Ihe amount 1)1 ",up,,:n '..,11 In Ihl'\ hJ\ e rl'll'l\ cd AhllUI an cqu.llnumbcr of rl::-.pondenb. 15 en 5 0 01 ;.mJ If! l-lll""l .., ...IIJ Ihl'\ \\crl: lllOstl) s..tltslicd and vcry s..tu... lleJ rcspcetl\cly \{1:,>p"nJellh therejufl' l"'r,re..,wJ "',111.., 1,,11. lion \\llh thL' .... mounl 01 sUP\:f',-I'>lon Ihl'y ft:lel\eJ (In \\ hl'! hL'r thl' ,>llra\ 1,>IPI1 reLcn \.'J h,I'" hdpcJ re"'p\lnd\.'nb III deal lI111re dTcctl\dy \\Itll the p\.'rll'fm,llllt: pi Ihelf fll!l:,>. o\er h,dl of IhL' rL'spondenh (675'0) ,>,,111.1 II h.IJ ,krIOl,,:h JplIl: "'11, \\hd ... t,lhIIUI4V'" mdll'aled It had !!enef.Jlh helped thL"m lf1 thl'H \\url... I he '>up\.'f\ 1... lun r\.'Lel\eJ L',ln thL'rL'lorl' n..: .... IIJ III h\.' helplul ... llll.:l. 11 h:I'> helpLJ re ... ponJI.:Ill'" 10 dl.:.ll more c1kdnd\ In Ihe performan I.' III thL'1f fllle Re",pllndcnh C.11l he ,>,IIJ III I'll' gL'rlt.'f:dly ,>.tlr ... rrnl \\1111 th\.' O\' ..:r.1I1 supcnlSlon th\.') h,I\t: rl.:Cl.:l\cJ Ahutlt 6X"" ....lId Ihc\ ,HI.' \I.:f\ ,>,llr ... lied \\Ilh SUPCl\'IMOn IhL'y rL(Cl\\.'J \\hd ... 1 .10"" ....IIJ they ,If\.' ... all'>(lcJ I Inc p...f'"!l representing:! 50,/) " ....... Of mildly JI .....,alr ... rl'.:d More of the respondt:nts saId they would prefer to choose their present supervisors 22 of the respondents (55%) indicated that they would defmitely choose their present super\"lsors whilst 13 (32 5%) said they think so About 13% said they do nat thlllk If they \\ert: to choost: a superVIsor. they would choose thclr supervisors A higher percentage (67 5%I ()f the respondents said they con<;ldered their supervIsors as demacralic whilt: 275,!> considered their supervIsors autocratic None of them considered thelr supcr\'lsors authoritarian HO\vever, 5% considt:red their supervIsors as [aissa. faIre t-.-tost of the respondents therefore consIdered their supervisors as democratll.: Regarding the altitudes of their supef\'lsors attitude towards them. 2. (5%) of the respondents said It IS poor t-.-tore than half of the respondents. 2\ (525%). indicated It is good where.ls 13 U2.5%) said it IS excelJenl However 4 respondents (10%) indicated that the.: attitude of thclr supervisors towards them IS faiT. From the analySIS therefore the attltude.:s of supervisors towards subordinates can generally be said to be good About 53Cl/o (21) of the n:spondents say their under<;tanding of assessml:nt reports or :-.upervislon rcports ""Tilten on them is good, about 25%, (10) say It IS fair whereas 22 5'a (9) :-'1) It is excellent None of them mdH;atcd they haw poor understand109 of As..,cs:-ment Reports or SUperVI'lIOn Reports written on them Subordinates therefore have a good understanding of Assessment Reports or Supef\liSlOn Reports wfllh,.'n on them 83 On how respondents take corrections when their nllstakcs or \\Tongs arc pointcd llut to them, Jbout (32) of the respondents indlcatcd that thc\' took such Corrccliol1S In gl10d faith \\hlbt 5 0 0 (2) said thcy took thl: corrcctions as intimidation None or them mUIC:ltcu that they took such corrections backbiting. 1-10\\ e\'er. anout 150 (61 or the respondl,.'nts said they took the corrections as Criticism tlenerally, thcrcl()re. a numbl:r of the respondcnh took corrections III gll11U f.uth "hcn their pOinted Ollt their to them. or correctcd them Report of the inten'jew guide ThiS section Ihe responses lll'thc inlcr\'u:w gUIde admilllskrcd 10 the Deputy Registrars ,n charge or Admlm"tr'ltion. Pcrsonnel. and Traimng & Development Due hl their schedules howc\'Cr. in some cascs. Senior Assistant Registrars (their next - 111- command) weft.. ' contncteu The l1nl\'erslty llf Cape ('onst's pohcy on superVISion l"i tlmt cYer\' subordmate shall hc supervised by Immedluk That. where two persons arc on the same I],rade the most selllor on the grade docs thc SUPCf\'ISHlIl The .mlvcrsltys approach to is more of teamwork bllt for thl,.' purpose of responslhillty SUpl:r.'lsion has a "httle pollcll1g" componenl (ahout 10%), The upproach .Igam IS hClth I(lrma! Jod mlurmal With m!1.)rm,,1 supervision, supcrvlsors arc ahlt.: to hnng suhordmatt.:s In llllt.:. ur tu Ilfdl:r, e\'l.'11 dunng ofliclal duties or at unollicHd times. For l,.xampk. a "'llhorJmate \\,ho shouts m the oflicc dunng break tlmc 1.'.10 be brought tu order hy the 84 On appointment of supervisors. supef\'lsors dre I.:Jther appointed on entry pomt into the university or by progression. It comes by movement from one gradc to another within the university structure [n - sef\'lc\: training programm\:s are orgamzl:d for newly appointed staff in supervision. Such trainmg arc as \ve11 organized for those already m the system Reports/recommendations from SUp1..'f\'lsors are passed on to the sectional head through sesslOndl bncfings or at the end of year annual report These arc then passed on to through the Head of S\:ctlOn's annual report. Some times such reporh or rl.:commendatlons (orne through memoranda Adverse reports on poor performance arc handled by the supervisor and the staff involved, while favourable performance IS handled by cilmmendation of the subordinate by the supervisor This IS done through rcwmmendation letters. pep talks. etc Concemmg mOOltonng of supervisors to ensure they arc dOIng the right thmg(s). supervision IS mnsldl.'rcd a cham event dependmg on the actlvity of the staff concerned Thl:re IS someone who IS there to SUpCf\,jsc the supervisor. For example. a Hl.'dd of Department overseemg the work of the Pnnclpal AdmlOlstratlvl' ASSistant l\er) unit of the university has its assIgned work and schedule of tn perform The cnd result of everythmg IS to ach"':n: lhe objectives If these arc bemg achieved wlthm thl: expected time frame then It means thlOgs working well However, if there arc hiCCUps and results an: not forthcommg then it mean::; that thmg'> arc not working out well m the L1n,t 85 This calls for ans\vers and ht:re the supervisors have to answer Sometimes too they arc given soml.: specilic instructIOns and they have to send feedback Barriers to dfectlvt: super\ ISlon are due mamly to poor communication or lack of It. between the and the Head Targets are sometimes not <;,,:t with supcrvlsces. while mstructions are given in unclear and unambiguous ways leading to guesswork and uncertamtit:s There IS also lack of motivation and lack of resources to carry out and Implement deCISIons and actIOns. There is lack of appreCiation from supcrvisors. supcr\'lsors cntlclze more when subordinates go wrong and praIse- less when they do good/well Monitonng is not done consistently but rather on ad hoc fa irnprovt: supcr\'islon m the University of Cape Coast. pnority must be given to traimng of super\'lsors Supervlsor:-- have to understand their roles as supervisors What supcn'lsees have to do must be made clear to them whilst momtoring should be conslstt:nt New management trends are cmerging and If supervisors arc not ahreast With those new trends. there would not be any Improvement 10 supcr\'lslOn There should also be an Incentive package as well as a reward system for performance. 10 Improvc performance 86 CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Introduction This chapter presents the summary. conclusions and fe-commendations of the study It also gives an:<L<; for further rescarr.:h. u m m r ~ y of research procedures and major findings The objectives of the study mduded thl.: fllllowmg. a Identify the SUPCI'\'ISIOn approaches used in thl:: University oreapc Coast b EstabiLsh supcf\'isors' knowledge of thclf roles and the requisite supervisory skills c Examme In - service trainmg programmes orgamzed 10 upgrade the knowledge and skills of supervisors d. ASSC5S how staff at alllcvds In the University of Cape Cnast pcrccm: the importance of superVISIOn In achievmg orgaml.atlOnal goals The stud.... was a descrlptlvc sample survey It posed three research questions research questions as follows To what extent do supervision approaches used In tht: Umversity of Cape Coast influence the knowledge of supervisors In their roles'! 87 2. How do in-sen'lcc traming programm...s impal'l on knowledge and skills of supervisors') 3. Do staff at a111e\eb ollhe lIn;n:Tslly 01 ('ape Coust understand the importanc... ()f ....r\'l:.,l{ln in .:KhlC\ mg l)rg,lOl/-<lt;onal goals') In all, Ihe s;unpk \\a... made- up 01 137 staff selected trom Ihe- accessible populatwn II ... 97 :.,enior ... talT members In supervIsor)' positions in \:'!{)th non acadl.'llllc J...partm...nb.lulllis. and faculties/academic departments/unlls. ami 0 each ()lth.... t(ltal number of senior stall members Whll arc not In III bl)th The II1strumcnb tor the \\t'rt' two of quesllonnUlr.... (one for sCllIor slaff in sup.... ,IllJ the Lllh.... r staff III non .... rvlsory posllions) de\ dl)P.... d hy Ih.... n:se,lfl:her unde! (I, .... lutdage and guidance or the supervisor. lh.... y w('r.... tn help mC'l... ure the quality of superVISion. and subordmales' ahnul their An mtL'rview j,!,UH.It.:: \'US deSigned fro the of Personnel and Wdfarc. Administration. and Traming and devdl1pll1ent Dcscnptlw stal1s\ll.'s. n,uncly. percentilges und rrellUl:nl.'lCS were u... eJ tn analyze the bwgrdphical Jilt.! anJ Ihe rescureh LJu .... The study 1('\('Jh:J thJI I. Approach h1 was manlly hy tbc tcum approach. 2. Directive control approach and collahoratlvc 3upcn l:-lon were in supervision; 3. The Supervlsor's role of Impartmg knowledge and skills lS wry important. 88 4. The Supervisor's role of responding to Interpersonal needs of supef'/Isces 1S key; 5. Supervision must focus on the basIc s\...ll1s of supervlsecs so as to bUild blocks for their future development or ad\ ancement. 6. [t is Important tor supervisors to discern the developmental needs of supervlsees ;J.nd select the best strategy that best suits their needs, 7. The Supen'lsor" s role must be tlJ focus on the personal concerns of the supervisee; 8 The supen'isor has to transmit an important culture: 9. The supen'isor must encourage reflecw:n based on the supervisee's ability to draw meanmg from expenence, lOA higher percentage of respondents have alknded between Iand 5 in - service training programmes slOce they were appOinted or promoted as supervisors These therefore have undergone a form oftraining In supervisIOn; 11. Respondents suggested that the Center for Traming and Development of the University of Cape Coast orgamzes 1 - 510 - service training programmes In 11 months. and 12 Respondents were prepared to recommend thClf supen'isors to thea fflends who \vere m need of Conclusion The mam conclusIOn of the study IS that staff at the vanous Icvl.:'b In the University of Cape Coast have a good understandmg of superviSion 89 Other conclusions are as follows (I). The quality of respondents received was excellent. (2). SupervisIOn was designed to meet the needs of the respondents, and so respondents' supen ISlon needs were met (3) Staff arc satisfied \\ ith the amount of supen'lsion they received Recommendations Based on the lindmgs of this study as well as the conclusions dra'\vn, the follQ\.ving recommendatIOns are made 1. Staff (supervisors and supcn"isces) must be educated on the importance of supen'ision 10 orgamzatlOnal success 2 Resources must be provided to supervI:.urs to enhance superVISIOn 3 Supervisors must de'Vdop a team approach to superviSIOn. establish objectives together wllh look at problems and how to solve them together They define roles and responsihllitles together 4 Supervisors must proVIde positive feedback /pralse to theIr staff/supcrvisees. and request feedback on their own performance as wdl 5 SupervIsors should be seen as more "open" and "accommodating" than being "policemen" 6, The Umverslty of Cape Coa"t must commIt finanCial to the orgam,..atJon of regular In - service traming programmes for supervisors 7. In order to be effective, superVIsion muM he quickly acted upon, and enforced when.: nl.'cd be 90 8. To be more effective, supervisors must be tramed in modem trends in management as weB as the use of supervision tools such as Job descriptIOns, checklists. policy manuals. procedure manuals. registers and records. reports, action plans and work plans Areas for further researcb In view of the delimited scope of thiS study as well as the limitations encountered. It IS recommended that future research focuses on the follOWing areas (a) extensIOn of the study to cover supnvlsion of academic staff (b) supervision of students' academic work (c) factors that militate against effective supervision. and (d) an analySIS of the Umverslty's Poilcy on Supervision 9\ REFERENCES Agyemm - Boatcng. E 0 (2000) Towards the devdopmcnt of performance appraisal system for Llnivcrslty of Cape Coast senior and Junior staff. Journal ofeducatlOnal management, (3), 128 - 143. Alonso. A (1983) A developmental theory of psychodynamic supervision The clinical supernsor. 1(31, 23- 36. Amewudah, N 0 K. (( 1998) An evaluatlon of staff lrailllng and development acttvltles at the UniversIty of Cape Coast. 1987 - 1997. Journal of educatIOnal management, 4. 164 - 178 Armimo, J, & Creamer. 0 G (20011, What supervisors say about quality supen'lsion College student affairs journal, 2\ ( 1), 35-44 Babbie, E. (2001) Practice of ';0(;131 res":i.1fch, (19 th cd). Belmont CA: Wadsworth Thomson Learning Barr. M J (1990) Growing staff diversity and changing career paths In M J Barr. M L Upl.:raft. and ASSOCiates. New futures for student l r ~ BUlldlOg a vision for professHmal leadc:rshm and practice San Francisco lossey-Bass 53 - 65 Bernard. J M. and Goodyear. R K (1992) Fundamentals of climcal supervision Boston Allyn and Bacon Blackhurst. A (2000) Effects of mcntonng on the employment expenence::. and career satisfaction of women student aCrans admlOlstrators NASPA Journal, 37(4), 573-586 92 Bolin, F S. and Panaritis, P "Searchltll,t li.lr a common purpose: A perspcctlW In history ofsupcr\l.SIOn" In C J) Glickman (Ed) Supel'\'lsion in transltHlO, 30 - U, Ak,\J,nJrL<l, V,\ ASS\)Cl,ltlon ll)r SUpC'I'\%IOn and CUITICUIUIll Dc\ dl)pmcnt Borders, L 0 ,md l.eddlcl-..lI R (lllS7) lIandhook of counseling supel'\'ISlOn Alexandna. VA ll)r Cllunsdl)r Edlll:J,t\lJn and Supcl'\'bion Bourisaw. D r.. t (1488) Antlcmatlnt; Sl.'t hll.IS EITcl:b lln teacher ohservatlon In evaluation (Dll.:!llrJ,1 dissertatIOn. hnva State University, \<)88) Dlssert,IUl"lll Ahstrad. 13667 Brackett. J R (1904) Supcrn:'>lllTl and I'dUl:atlon 10 Chanty, New York.. Macmillan Brown. A and Bl)Uml.. ( \99:') I he 51 'L I,ll 5urcr\isor. SupervisIOn in commuml), da) l:J,re ,Ind n::,>idential settings BllcklOgham: Open Press Bryan, W. A.. & Schwart/. R A (1998) "Sllllle linallhoughts ahout staff dl'vclopmcnt" In W A Bryan, & R A Sehwart/. (Fds ), Strateglcs for staff development personal and profcs:'>lOnal cdul:ation in the 1st eentllf) Nt:" dlrcl:1I0nS Ii)!' :'>tullenl Sl:f\'KCS, Ntl 84 San Franel:,>eo 15-27 Dalton, J C. (1(89) Fnham:lOlJ s\<lft knowlcdgl.: :lllll skills In II Dd\\drth, t I R Hanson, and Stullent ser"Il:":S A handhook Ill[ thl: DrlllcsslOIb San Jossey B:lsS 9) Dawson, J. B. (1926) "The casework supervisor In a family agency". Farmly 6. 293 - 295. DeCoster. D A. and Brown. S S (1991) "Staff development: Personal and professional educatiOn" In T K Miller, R B Wmston, Jr., and Associates. AdministratIOn and leadership m student affairs Actualizing student development m higher education (2 nd cd) MunCie, IN Accelerated Development. 123 - 165 Dye. H. A (1987) ACES attitudes' Supervisor competencies and a national certificatIOn program ERIC/CAPS Resources in EducatIOn, Document No ED 283 098 Freeman, S. C . (1992) "C H Patterson on chent-centered supervisIOn: An inten'ICW" Counselor education and supen 1<;lon, 31. 219-226 Gay. L. R (1987) Educational Research Old Ed ), London Memll Publishing Co. Glickman, C. D (1990) SuperviSIOn of instructIOn A developmental approach (2nd cd ) Boston' Allyn and Bacon Hawkins. P & Shohet, R (1989) SuperviSion til the helpmg profeSSIOns An individual. group and organizatIOnal approach, Milton Keyness' Open UniverSIty Press Hess, A. K (1986) Growth III supervision Stages of supervisee and supervisor development. The climcal supervisor, 4( 1-1), 51-67 Kadushm, A. (1992) Supervision in SOCial work (3'd Ed) New York. Columbia Umverslty Press 94 Knoll. M K (1987) Supervision for better Instruction Practical techniques for Impro\"ing st.lifpcrformance Englc\\'ood Cliffs. NJ Prentice Hall Lave. J. & Wenger. E (1991) SltuateJ learning' Legitimate peripheral participation New York Cambndge University Press. Leddlck, GR.. & II A (1987) Efli:ctl\'1: superVision as portrayed by tramee expcctatH.ln,> and prefcn.:ncc,>" Counselor educatIOn and supervision. 27. 139-154 Marsh. S R (200l) 'll'ilng udult de\dopment thL'ory to mform staff superviSIOn 10 student a!1,llf"" Student Affairs Journal. 21t 1), 45-57 Okac Anti, C COllO) By ObJectlves In multl - campu'> ..ll..inllmstratmn Ilf a tertiary In,>tltutlOn. Ilow fea<;lble'J" Journal of Fducatlon..ll U), 161 -- 1/,-1 01k, Mr. and I neJlander. I (]I)(,12) "I rainel.:s' experiences ofrnh,: conlllet and role In rL'latll'!1ship"," Journal of Counseling Ps\cholllgv. 39. :HN-VI7 Peters. DEi \9(l7) SUpef\ISIOn In '>llcwl /\ method of study student traimng ..lnd stan deYclnpmL'ill London (ieorgc Allen and t lnwm Richmond. M r: (1917) :-'tlu.lllku.!,OOSIS New York Ru,>sdl Sage h1undatlon RIchmond. M I (1()22) What IS -;o..:ial ca-;c\\,ork') an jntrodul.:hll) New York Sage Foundation Salaman. G (199S) Man.lglOg BUl:klOgham Open 1.1 Il1ver 'ilt)' Pre..,.., Sarantakos. S (199M) SOl:Ia! re,>eUfl:h (2 nd I',d) I.ondon r-vtal:mllian Pres.., 95 Schein. E II (1478) Career "'latching indiVIdual dnd orgam/-<ttlonal needs Readlnl,! Addlson- Wesky Scnge. P M (1()()O) Thc tilth discipline Thc art tlnd practice of the leammg organt/..atlon Ncw l'ork Dounleday Currency Stoltenlxrg. CD. and Ikh\orth. U t 19K7) SupervIsing coun"c!ors and lherapl ... h A dc\c1.PmL'nt...d J.pIW-lach "lan FrJn<:I"<:o JosscyBas... Winston, R B. ,md ('rc,lmer. D. (j (1997) Improving "tufting practices In ':i{udcnt alTair... "' ..m Iri.1nu",co Ju...... c)-Ba... s 96 APPENDIX A Questionnaire for Semor Staff In Supervisory Positions Introduction This questionnam: IS to find out about Supervision in the UOIvenaty of Cape Coast. It is for resl:arch purpose and I would be grateful If you could respond to the items as appropnately as possible. The mformatlon you provide will help to detemllne further improvement m the supervlSlon of employcl's In the of Cape Coast Answering all the questions as honestly and mdependently as possible would help the findings a great deal Your anonymity IS assured Thank you for your co - operJ.t1on A. Approaches 10 Supervision Select (by circling or ticking) from the answers provided. that which most appropriately answers the question 1. For me the most Important goal of supervisIOn is to A honor orgamzational authoflty B respect individual abilities C establIsh rapport WI th staff. D. establish a shared commitment to goals 2. When faced With a deCision that affected the whole slaff, I A. provided information that allowed the staff to the reasons for my making the deCISion I did 97 B. allowed the staff the autonomy of gathering the Infonnahon they needed and to make their own decl,>lon c. listened to each staff member's feelmg dnd opmions and helped the staff arrive at a consensus decision D. collaborated with the staff m gathenng infonnatlon and in generating a decision. 3. My mo'>t frequently emphasized achlcvlOg goals of A upper level admmi'>trators B mdivldual profe'>slOnab C departmental cohesion or good staff rclat onshlps D. the institution or divIsion 4 Most of ffi) supervisIOn occulTed A IITcgularly. on and as needed basis B. mfrequently. when rcque"tcd C frequently. as a part of c\eryday interactions D. regularly and systematically on a planned schedule 5 I I n In th > I:ontcxl of m)' own work as mteracllon" to vtew supeTYI!> 0 .... A mamtam clear \\IlHk B. encourage profc!>slOnal autonomy C solidify rdatJonshlps D. enhance productivity 98 6. I felt most successful as a supervisor when the staff were fully knowledgeable about A. the I provided about work expectations B. the workrclated concerns of the statT C. the relationshIps among staff o the organizatIOn and Its goals 7 My relationship \\ nh staff who I SUPCr\'ISC IS oased pnmarily on A mstitUtional dcfinitlOns of responslbllltics B my desire to allo\\ maximum mdl\'ldual autonomy of action and style C creating camarJdcne and close personal r.:IJtlonshlps D. shared commitment to e'\cellcnce 8 I handled poor "taff performance by A mstructmg staff ahout how to handlt: the sltuJhon or solve the problem B encouragmg stan to find thclr own solutions to problems C. showing personal '>upport lor continued effort at improved performance D helpmg stalT deSign better strategies for gettmg the work done 9. In m) supen I hdd to the beltcf that thl.: moSI nnportJnt allnbute of my relationshIp \\ Ilh :=:.taff .... as A. mamtaming respect for authonty. B. showing respect for mdependencc of action C creating hannony among people D. gaining commitment to mutually denved goab 99 10. When conflicts occurred between a staff member whom I supervised and other umls of the organizatIOn. I A intervened to assure compliance \\ Ith institutIOnal pohcles and procedures B. allowed the staff member to deal with the matter 10 Ills or her own way C. supported and/or dl.'fendcd my stall' member o mediated the conflicts 11 and profeSSional de\ dopmt:nt needs of statY were dctenmncd by A establishing dlSCrCpJncles bct\\een institutional reqUIrements and current staff attributes B. encouragmg stan to pursue their C supporting -"tJff member.... In dOing what m,IlJc them happy and productive. o supervIsor and stafT member collaburatlvcly 12. In my supeT\ ISlon of stan, indiVidual lit With the JOshtuhonal culture was Viewed as A. irrelevant, so long the \\ork IS per fanned B a matter of member chOIce C optional, so lung tiS a of community achievl'd o a slgmlicam detl.:rmmant for succes.... 13 When thmgs went wrong for staff I tended to A afTer darect advice for corrective action B expect the staff member to lind a solutIOn or dsk tor help 100 C. champion the staff member to bolster confidence o look for an expIan<.thon jOintly between the orgamzation and the staff member B. Supervisor Roles Tick in the column whIch most appropnately ans\\ers your "'noy,.ledgc on the role of supervisor Plc33c tic'" each column once The role of a Very Important Somewhat Not IS Important Important Important 14 To impart knowledge and skills 15 To employ a discover approach f---. 16 To respond to the mterpersonal needs of the supervisee 17.10 view supervi<;lon mqulry f------- . 18 10 focus lin skills as buildmg blocks for the future 19.To discern the I developmental needs of I the supervisee and -__I \01 select the supervisory strategy based on hislHer needs 20 To focus on the personal concerns of the supef'.'lsce 21 To transmit an Important culture 22 To encourage reflection based on the supervisee's ability to draw meaning from expenence c. In - Service Training Programmes 23 How many m - servIce traming programmes have you attended smce you were appomtedJpromoted to your current positIOn') (TIck as appropnatc) A 1-5B 6-IOC 11-15D 16-20 24. How many in - service trammg programmes have you attended In the past 24 months') (Tick a<; appropriate) a 1_5B6-10CII-15DI6-20 25. How many m - service trammg programmes have you attended In the Pdst 12 months? (TIck as appropnatc) 102 a. 1-5B.6-IOC.I\-\50 \6-20 26. How often would you like to attend in - service traimng programmes in 12 months? (Tid.. as appropnate) AI-5B 6-IOC II-ISO 16-20 27. How many hmes would you suggest that the Centre for Traimng and Development of the University orgamzes In - service traming programmes in 12 months? A.\ - 5 B. 6 - 10 C II - IS 0 16 - 20 D. Staff understanding ofimportance ofSupervision 28 What type of supervisor do your subordmates consider you to be? a Democratic B Autocratic C. Laissez Falre 0 Authoritanan 29. What is the attitude ofyauf towards you as a supervisor') a Excellent B Good C Fair 0 Poor 30. How do YOlu subordinates understand "Assessment Reports" or "Supervision Reports" written on them') A Fxcellent B Good C. Fatr D. Poor 31. How satisfied arc your subordinates with your supervision? A Very Satisfied b. Mostly Satisfied C IndIfferent or MIldly Sdtlstied D Quite Satlsfic:d 32 When you point out subordmates' mIstakes out to lhem, or correct them, how do they take such corrections? A. In good faith B. As criticism C As back - biting [) As InUmidallon 103 APPENDIX B Questionnaire for Sentor Staff not In SupervIsory Positions Introduction This IS to find out about Superdsion to the UniverSity of Cape Coast It fur purpose and I ,,"ould be grateful if you could respond to the p03'>lblc The 1Il10rrnJtlon )lJU pro\lde \'.111 help to determine further Improvement an the or cmplo)ec:s 10 lhl.: of Cape Coast Answcnng all the a... hone"ll) .md mJepl".'ndentl) a"> would help the findmgs a great deal Ypur anlln)mlt\ 13 a:-. ... urL'J Thank lOU for your co operatIOn Please select (tick or circh." the mO'it appropriate ans,,"cr to each gueslion. lIo\', \\ould )OU T..tlc the quality of the ,>upLnlSlon you have received? 4 Excellent ) Ian Poor 2. Dill )OU g\'llhc \...mJ of ... upcn '''Lon )OU \\amcd I ) 4 No, nllt rC..Illy 3, To "h<1t I:'(tcnt ha.; "upenl'>,on lit your nl.:'cd!>" 1 2 Only a fey, of m) 4 Almost all of my needs havc hl.ocn mel Most of m) ha\c been mct ha\c heen met Nonc ()f m) n... havc been mel \04 4. If a friend \\ere In need of supervIsion, would you recommend thIs supervisor to him or h;;() No, definitcl) not No, I don't thmk '0 ) Ye'i, I think so 4 Yes. defimtely 5 Ho\'. an: ,uu \\ Ith the amount 01" supcn'I"lon you ha\c rCCCI\ cd') Quite 2 Imllflcrcm or
) Mo... tly s..ttlslied 4 Vcry 6 the supcn l"'llln )UU reCCl\ cd helped) ou 10 dcal more d'fccu\ ely In the pcrfonnancc of) our mit: I 4 dcfimtel) 2 N(l. not rCo.llI) Nll. definite!) 1 In an o\crall. gcneroJl ...enw, how ...all'ilicd arc you with the ... upcn'I"'lOn )OU have rcccl\Cd'l 4 Very satisfied ) Mo!'>t1y Indifferent or mlldl) dl ......atl ... ficd 105 QUite dl"''iUll'i!ied 8 If you were to ch . , OOSt; a supervisor, would you choose your present Supervlsor'> No. delinitel) not No, I don'l thm'" 3 I thm'" so 4 Yes, definitely a Dl.:mllLrJtl( B AUIOlr..ll1( C I I-am: D Authontarian 10 WhJI thl' ..Itotud..: ul our ISO( to" ) ou a B (wod ( I ..ur [) Poor "ntten on A Fx(dknt B Good D Poor 12, Wht;n )llUf )our mistakes out to you. or ),ou, A In good f.lIlh B A.. C A.. h;ll,.k hltlOg D mllmldatlOn 106 APPENDIX C Interview GUide for Deput}' Reuistrars In Charge Of Admmistratlon, Personnel. and Training & Dco\'dopment What is the of Cape Coast" s policy on supervIsion') What dppro3ches Joc" the lll1lvcrslty of Cape Coast have concemmg supervisIon or staff") 3 How arc supervisors appulOkd: 4. Are pers\Jnnel in capaclhes trained before they arc appointed? 5 Ho\, 3n: froPl supervIsors handled'-" 6 What traimng pTllgramml".'s. espl,.'clally In - .serVll::C. arc avaLiablc for personnel in supervIsor) pOSitIOns'? 7 How many In - service trainmg programmes have been orgamzed for personnel In super-Isory pllsHlOn:.') 8 How arc super-isors momhlreJ to ensure they are doing the right thmg(s)') 9. What are the barners to effecl1w super\'lsJOn In the University? 10 What recommendations would you make to Improve sUPCr\'iSHln In the llnl\'crslty of Capc '- (las!') 107 THE LIBRARY ,MIYFIISITY DF CUF rnls.