Introduction to Surveying This section provides information on surveying in Wisconsin primarily as related to mapping.

Here you will find directions and tools to locate and access survey data and products (including geodetic control), the methods and tools used, monuments, geodetic control networks, and the profession, as well as links to survey related information a!out the "u!lic #and Survey System ("#SS), the $lo!al "ositing System ($"S), and $eographic Information Systems ($IS).

(%oast $eodetic Survey party occupying the top of the Washington &onument at 'pm, &onday, (ovem!er )*, )*+'. The theodolite is placed on a specially constructed stand over the ape,)

(-avid -oyle, ($S, using state of the art $"S gear to get $"S readouts of the height of the Washington &onument)

Overview

Surveying is a meld of science, art, and measurement technology used to determine and record the relative positions of points on (or a!ove or !elow) the earth.s surface. Surveying can involve anything from determining the position of a single point, to esta!lishing the !oundary !etween ad/acent land parcels, to mapping the terrain in a stream valley, to modeling the si0e and shape of the entire earth. With rapidly e,panding residential and !usiness developments, and the steady rise in land value, a surveyor.s measurements and decisions are increasingly important. %omputing, electronic field instruments including $"S, and $IS have !rought new tools and challenges to surveyors. Surveying is done !y a variety of people with various skills and !ackgrounds and utili0ing a range of e1uipment and methods. Issues of property !oundaries are the venue of the land surveyor. "hotogrammetrists use aerial photographs to map terrain and land features. %ivil engineers survey and analy0e information for construction pro/ects. (atural resource specialists survey and map terrain and other land characteristics in the field to implement programs in soil erosion, wetland management, forestry, and more. Some individuals are 1ualified to work in more than one su! area of surveying.

(Image courtesy of (233 "hoto #i!rary)

A variety of survey outputs

The results of survey pro/ects cover a wide range. &aps may !e prepared, or temporary stakes set in the ground, or a series of coordinate values may !e recorded electronically to document points along a route. "ermanent markers (monuments) may !e set into the ground, targets may !e painted on pavement to !e visi!le in aerial photography or opinions may !e given regarding conflicting legal documents descri!ing ad/acent land parcels. The elevation of a dam spillway may !e determined, or the location of a property corner may !e documented relative to surrounding features.

The S%2 staff mem!ers are not registered, professional land surveyors, and thus are not 1ualified to offer specific advice on 1uestions concerning property, structures or surveying procedures.

Surveying or land surveying is the techni1ue and science of accurately determining the terrestrial or three dimensional space position of points and the distances and angles !etween them. These points are usually on the surface of the 4arth, and are often used to esta!lish land maps and !oundaries for ownership or governmental purposes. In order to accomplish their o!/ective, surveyors use elements of geometry, engineering, trigonometry, mathematics, physics, and law. 3n alternative definition, per the 3merican %ongress on Surveying and &apping (3%S&), is the science and art of making all essential measurements to determine the relative position of points and5or physical and cultural details a!ove, on, or !eneath the surface of the 4arth, and to depict them in a usa!le form, or to esta!lish the position of points and5or details. 6urthermore, as alluded to a!ove, a particular type of surveying known as 7land surveying7 (also per 3%S&) is the detailed study or inspection, as !y gathering information through o!servations, measurements in the field, 1uestionnaires, or research of legal instruments, and data analysis in the support of planning, designing, and esta!lishing of property !oundaries. It involves the re esta!lishment of cadastral surveys and land !oundaries !ased on documents of record and historical evidence, as well as certifying surveys (as re1uired !y statute or local ordinance) of su!division plats5maps, registered land surveys, /udicial surveys, and space delineation. #and surveying can include associated services such as mapping and related data accumulation, construction layout surveys, precision measurements of length, angle, elevation, area, and volume, as well as hori0ontal and vertical control surveys, and the analysis and utili0ation of land survey data. Surveying has !een an essential element in the development of the human environment since the !eginning of recorded history (ca. 8999 years ago) and it is a re1uirement in the planning and e,ecution of nearly every form of construction. Its most familiar modern uses are in the fields of transport, !uilding and construction, communications, mapping, and the definition of legal !oundaries for land ownership.

Contents
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) 2rigins < Surveying techni1ues + Surveying e1uipment ' Types of surveys and applica!ility 8 Surveying as a career o 8.) =uilding surveying > #and surveyor ? See also @ Aeferences * 4,ternal links

[edit] Origins
Surveying techni1ues have e,isted throughout much of recorded history. In ancient 4gypt, when the (ile Aiver overflowed its !anks and washed out farm !oundaries, !oundaries were re esta!lished !y a rope stretcher, or surveyor, through the application of simple geometry. The nearly perfect s1uareness and north south orientation of the $reat "yramid of $i0a, !uilt c. <?99 =%, affirm the 4gyptians. command of surveying.

The 4gyptian land register (+999 =%). 3 recent reassessment of Stonehenge (c.<899 =%) indicates that the monument was set out !y prehistoric surveyors using peg and rope geometry:);. Bnder the Aomans, land surveyors were esta!lished as a profession, and they esta!lished the !asic measurements under which the Aoman 4mpire was divided, such as a ta, register of con1uered lands (+99 3-). The rise of the %aliphate led to e,tensive surveying throughout the 3ra! 4mpire. 3ra!ic surveyors invented a variety of speciali0ed instruments for surveying, includingC:<; o Instruments for accurate levellingC 3 wooden !oard with a plum! line and two hooks, an e1uilateral triangle with a plum! line and two hooks, and a reed level. o 3 rotating alhidade, used for accurate alignment. o 3 surveying astrola!e, used for alignment, measuring angles, triangulation, finding the width of a river, and the distance !etween two points separated !y an impassa!le o!struction. In 4ngland, The -omesday =ook !y William the %on1ueror ()9@>) o covered all 4ngland o contained names of the land owners, area, land 1uality, and specific information of the area.s content and ha!itants. o did not include maps showing e,act locations

%ontinental 4urope.s %adastre was created in )@9@ o founded !y (apoleon I (=onaparte) o contained num!ers of the parcels of land (or /ust land), land usage, names etc., and value of the land o )99 million parcels of land, triangle survey, measura!le survey, map scaleC )C<899 and )C)<89 o spread fast around 4urope, !ut faced pro!lems especially in &editerranean countries, =alkan, and 4astern 4urope due to cadastre upkeep costs and trou!les.

3 cadastre loses its value if register and maps are not constantly updated. #arge scale surveys are a necessary pre re1uisite to map making. In the late )?@9s, a team from the 2rdnance Survey of $reat =ritain, originally under $eneral William Aoy !egan the "rincipal Triangulation of =ritain using the specially !uilt Aamsden theodolite. =ecause of the fundamental value of land and real estate to the local and glo!al economy, land surveying was one of the first professions to re1uire "rofessional #icensure. In many /urisdictions, the land surveyors license was the first "rofessional #icensure issued !y the state, province, or federal government.

[edit] Surveying techniques

Historically, distances were measured using a variety of means, such as chains with links of a known length, for instance a $unter.s chain or measuring tapes made of steel or invar. In order to measure hori0ontal distances, these chains or tapes would !e pulled taut according to temperature, to reduce sagging and slack. 3dditionally, attempts to hold the measuring instrument level would !e made. In instances of measuring up a slope, the surveyor might have to 7!reak7 (!reak chain) the measurement that is, raise the rear part of the tape upward, plum! from where the last measurement ended. Historically, hori0ontal angles were measured using a compass, which would provide a magnetic !earing, from which deflections could !e measured. This type of instrument was later improved upon, through more carefully scri!ed discs providing !etter angular resolution, as well as through mounting telescopes with reticles for more precise sighting atop the disc (see theodolite). 3dditionally, levels and cali!rated circles allowing measurement of vertical angles were added, along with verniers for measurement down to a fraction of a degree such as a turn of the century transit. The simplest method for measuring height is with an altimeter D !asically a !arometer D using air pressure as an indication of height. =ut for surveying more precision is needed. Toward this end, a variety of means, such as precise levels, have !een developed. #evels are cali!rated to provide a precise plane from which differentials in height !etween the instrument and the point in 1uestion can !e measured, typically through the use of a vertical measuring rod.

With the triangulation method, one first needs to know the hori0ontal distance to the o!/ect. If this is not known or cannot !e measured directly, it is determined as e,plained in the triangulation article. Then the height of an o!/ect can !e determined !y measuring the angle !etween the hori0ontal plane and the line through that point at a known distance and the top of the o!/ect. In order to determine the height of a mountain, one should do this from sea level (the plane of reference), !ut here the distances can !e too great and the mountain may not !e visi!le. So it is done in steps, first determining the position of one point, then moving to that point and doing a relative measurement, and so on until the mountaintop is reached.

[edit] Surveying equipment

Surveying !y the $ermans during the 6irst World War, )*)@ 3s late as the )**9s the !asic tools used in planar surveying were a tape measure for determining shorter distances, a level for determine height or elevation differences, and a theodolite, set on a tripod, with which one can measure angles (hori0ontal and vertical), com!ined with triangulation. Starting from a position with known location and elevation, the distance and angles to the unknown point are measured. 3 more modern instrument is a total station, which is a theodolite with an electronic distance measurement device (4-&) and can also !e used for leveling when set to the hori0ontal plane. Since their introduction, total stations have made the technological shift from !eing optical mechanical devices to !eing fully electronic with an on!oard computer and software. &odern top of the line total stations no longer re1uire a reflector or prism (used to return the light pulses used for distancing) to return distance measurements, are fully ro!otic, and can even e mail point data to the office computer and connect to satellite positioning systems, such as a $lo!al "ositioning System ($"S). Though real time kinematic $"S systems have increased the speed of surveying, they are still only hori0ontally accurate to a!out <9 mm and vertically accurate to a!out +9 '9 mm.:+; However, $"S systems do not work well in areas with dense tree cover or constructions. Total stations are still used widely, along with other types of surveying instruments. 2ne person ro!otic guided total stations allow surveyors to gather precise measurements without e,tra workers to look through and turn the telescope or record data. 3 faster way to measure large areas (not details, and no o!stacles) is with a helicopter, e1uipped with a laser scanner, com!ined with a $"S to determine the position and elevation of the helicopter. To increase precision, !eacons are placed on the ground (a!out <9 km apart). This method reaches precisions !etween 8 '9 cm (depending on flight height).:';

[edit] Types of surveys and applicability

3n all female surveying crew in Idaho in )*)@.

ALTA/ACSM SurveyC a surveying standard /ointly proposed !y the 3merican #and Title 3ssociation and the 3merican %ongress on Surveying and &apping that incorporates elements of the !oundary survey, mortgage survey, and topographic survey. 3#T353%S& surveys, fre1uently shortened to ALTA surveys, are often re1uired for real estate transactions. Archaeological surveyC used to accurately assess the relationship of archaeological sites in a landscape or to accurately record finds on an archaeological site. As-Built SurveyC a survey conducted several times during a construction pro/ect to verify, for local and state !oards (BS3), that the work authori0ed was completed to the specifications set on the Plot Plan or Site Plan. This usually entails a complete survey of the site to confirm that the structures, utilities, and roadways proposed were !uilt in the proper locations authori0ed in the Plot Plan or Site Plan. 3s !uilts are usually done < + times during the !uilding of a houseE once after the foundation has !een pouredE once after the walls are put upE and at the completion of construction. Bathymetric Survey: a survey carried out to map the sea!ed profile. Boundary SurveyC a survey to esta!lish the !oundaries of a parcel using its legal description which typically involves the setting or restoration of monuments or markers at the corners or along the lines of the parcel, often in the form of iron rods, pipes, or concrete monuments in the ground, or nails set in concrete or asphalt. In the past, wooden posts, !la0es in trees, piled stone corners or other types of monuments have also !een used. 3 map or plat is then drafted from the field data to provide a representation of the parcel surveyed. Construction surveying (otherwise lay-out or setting-out !C the process of esta!lishing and marking the position and detailed layout of new structures such as roads or !uildings for su!se1uent construction. Surveying is regarded as a su! discipline of civil engineering all over the world. 3ll -egree and -iploma level

4ngineering institutions ,world wide, have detailed items of Surveying in the curriculum for undergraduate courses in the discipline of %ivil 4ngineering. "e#ormation Survey: a survey to determine if a structure or o!/ect is changing shape or moving. The three dimensional positions of specific points on an o!/ect are determined, a period of time is allowed to pass, these positions are then re measured and calculated, and a comparison !etween the two sets of positions is made. $ngineering SurveysC those surveys associated with the engineering design (topographic, layout and as !uilt) often re1uiring geodetic computations !eyond normal civil engineering practise. $rosion and Sediment Control PlanC a plan that is drawn in con/unction with a Su%division Plan that denotes how upcoming construction activities will effect the movement of stormwater and sediment across the construction site and onto a!utting properties and how developers will ad/ust grading activities to limit the depositing of more stormwater and sediment onto a!utting properties than was done prior to construction. &oundation SurveyC a survey done to collect the positional data on a foundation that has !een poured and is cured. This is done to ensure that the foundation was constructed in the location authori0ed in the Plot Plan, Site Plan, or Su%division Plan. When the location of the finished foundation is checked and approved the !uilding of the remainder of the structure can commence. This should not !e confused with an As-Built Survey which is not to !e done until all work on the site is completed. 'eological SurveyC generic term for a survey conducted for the purpose of recording the geologically significant features of the area under investigation. In the past, in remote areas, there was often no !ase topographic map availa!le, so the geologist also needed to !e a competent surveyor to produce a map of the terrain, on which the geological information could then !e dra(ed. &ore recently, satellite imagery or aerial photography is used as a !ase, where no pu!lished map e,ists. Such a survey may also !e highly specialist for instance focussing primarily on hydrogeological, geochemical or geomagnetic themes. (-o not confuse this term with 'eological Survey, typically a government (national, regional or local) !ody, charged with maintaining and improving the record of the geology of the area in which it operates). )ydrogra(hic SurveyC a survey conducted with the purpose of mapping the coastline and sea!ed for navigation, engineering, or resource management purposes. "roducts of such surveys are nautical charts. See hydrography. Mortgage Survey or Physical SurveyC a simple survey that generally determines land !oundaries and !uilding locations. &ortgage surveys are re1uired !y title companies and lending institutions when they provide financing to show that there are no structures encroaching on the property and that the position of structures is generally within 0oning and !uilding code re1uirements. Some /urisdictions allow mortgage surveys to !e done to a lesser standard, however most modern B.S. state minimum standards re1uire the same standard of care for mortgage surveys as any other survey. The resulting higher price for mortgage

surveys has led some lending institutions to accept 7&ortgage Inspections7 not signed or sealed !y a surveyor. Plot Plan or Site PlanC a proposal plan for a construction site that include all e,isting and proposed conditions on a given site. The e,isting and proposed conditions always include structures, utilities, roadways, topography, and wetlands delineation and location if necessary. The plan might also, !ut not always, include hydrology, drainage flows, endangered species ha!itat, 64&3 6ederal 6lood Insurance Aeference &aps and traffic patterns. Soil survey, or soil mapping, is the process of determining the soil types or other properties of the soil cover over a landscape, and mapping them for others to understand and use. Su%division PlanC a plot or map !ased on a survey of a parcel of land. =oundary lines are drawn inside the larger parcel to indicated the creation of new !oundary lines and roads . The num!er and location of plats, or the newly created parcels, are usually discussed !ack and forth !etween the developer and the surveyor until they are agreed upon. 3t this point monuments, usually in the form of s1uare concrete !locks or iron rods or pins, are driven into the ground to mark the lot corners and curve ends, and the plat is recorded in the cadastre (BS3, elsewhere) or land registry (BF). In some /urisdictions, the recording or filing of a su!division plat is highly regulated. The final map or plat !ecomes, in effect, a contract !etween the developer and the city or county, determining what can !e !uilt on the property and under what conditions. 3lways upon finally completion of a su!division an As-Built Plan is re1uired !y the local government. This is done so that the roadway constructed therein will pass ownership from the developer to said local government !y way of a contract called a Covenant. When this stage is completed the roadways will now !e maintained, repaved, swept, and plowed (if necessary for your geographic region) !y the local government Ta(e SurveyC this type of survey is the most !asic and ine,pensive type of land survey. "opular in the middle part of the <9th century, tape surveys while !eing accurate for distance lack su!stantially in their accuracy of measuring angle and !earing. %onsidering that a survey is the documentation of one half ()5<) distances and one half ()5<) !earings this type of survey is no longer accepted amongst local, state, or federal regulatory committees for any su!stantial construction work. However for determining the e,tent of your property !oundaries and for your peace of mind this type of survey is the least e,pensive, least time consuming and least invasive, while !eing nowhere close to accurate for the standards that are practised !y professional land surveyors. To(ogra(hic SurveyC a survey that measures the elevation of points on a particular piece of land, and presents them as contour lines on a plot. *etlands "elineation + Location SurveyC a survey that is completed when construction work is to !e done on or near a site containing defined wetlands. -epending on your local, state, or federal regulations wetlands are usually classified as areas that are completely inundated with water more than two (<) weeks during the growing season. (For USA only) Contact your local or state Conservation Commission or Wetlands Regulatory Commission to determine the particular definition for wetlands in your given geographical region. The

!oundary of the wetlands is determined !y o!serving the soil colors, vegetation, erosion patterns or scour marks, hydrology, and morphology. Typically !lue or pink colored flags are then placed in key locations to denote the !oundary of the wetlands. 3 survey is done to collect the data on the locations of the placed flags and a plan is drawn to reference the !oundary of the wetlands against the !oundary of the surrounding plots or parcels of land and the construction work proposed within.

[edit] Surveying as a career

The pundit (e,plorer) cartographer (ain Singh Aawat ()*th century %4) received a Aoyal $eographical Society gold medal in )@?>. The !asic principles of surveying have changed little over the ages, !ut the tools used !y surveyors have evolved tremendously. 4ngineering, especially civil engineering, depends heavily on surveyors. Whenever there are roads, Aailways, Aeservoir, dams, retaining walls, !ridges or residential areas to !e !uilt, surveyors are involved. They esta!lish the !oundaries of legal descriptions and the !oundaries of various lines of political divisions. They also provide advice and data for geogra(hical in#ormation systems ($IS), computer data!ases that contain data on land features and !oundaries. Surveyors must have a thorough knowledge of alge!ra, !asic calculus, geometry, and trigonometry. They must also know the laws that deal with surveys, property, and contracts. In addition, they must !e a!le to use delicate instruments with accuracy and precision. In the Bnited States, surveyors and civil engineers use units of feet wherein a survey foot is !roken down into )9ths and )99ths. &any deed descriptions re1uiring distance calls are often e,pressed using these units ()<8.<8 ft). 2n the su!/ect of accuracy, surveyors are often held to a standard of one one hundredth of a footE a!out )5@th inch. %alculation and mapping tolerances are much smaller wherein achieving near perfect closures are desired. Though tolerances such as this will vary from pro/ect to pro/ect, in the field and day to day usage !eyond a )99th of a foot is often impractical. In

most states of the B.S., surveying is recogni0ed as a distinct profession apart from engineering. #icensing re1uirements vary !y state, however these re1uirements generally all have a component of education, e,perience and e,aminations. In the past, e,perience gained through an apprenticeship, together with passing a series of state administered e,aminations, was re1uired to attain licensure. (owadays, most states insist upon !asic 1ualification of a -egree in Surveying in addition to e,perience and e,amination re1uirements. Typically the process for registration follows two phases. 6irst, upon graduation, the candidate may !e eligi!le to sit for the 6undamentals of #and Surveying e,am, to !e certified upon passing and meeting all other re1uirements as a Surveyor In Training (SIT). Bpon !eing certified as an SIT, the candidate then needs to gain additional e,perience until he or she !ecomes eligi!le for the second phase, which typically consists of the "rinciples and "ractice of #and Surveying e,am along with a state specific e,amination. Aegistered surveyors usually denote themselves with the letters ".S. (professional surveyor), #.S. (land surveyor), or ".#.S. (professional land surveyor), or A.#.S. (registered land surveyor), A.".#.S. (Aegistered "rofessional #and Surveyor), or ".S.&. (professional surveyor and mapper) following their names, depending upon the dictates of their particular state of registration. In %anada #and Surveyors are registered to work in their respective province. The designation for a #and Surveyor !reaks down !y province !ut follows the rule where!y the first letter indicates the province followed !y #.S. There is also a designation as a %.#.S. or %anada #ands Surveyor who has the authority to work on %anada #ands which include Indian Aeserves, (ational "arks, the three territories and offshore lands. In many %ommonwealth countries, the term %hartered #and Surveyor is used for someone holding a professional license to conduct surveys. Typically a licensed land surveyor is re1uired to sign and seal all plans, the format of which is dictated !y their state /urisdiction, which shows their name and registration num!er. In many states, when setting !oundary corners land surveyors are also re1uired to place survey monuments !earing their registration num!ers, typically in the form of capped iron rods, concrete monuments, or nails with washers.

[edit] Building surveying

Building Surveying emerged in the )*?9s as a profession in the Bnited Fingdom !y a group of technically minded $eneral "ractice Surveyors.:); =uilding Surveying is a recogni0ed profession within =ritain and 3ustralia. In 3ustralia in particular, due to risk mitigation5limitation factors the employment of surveyors at all levels of the construction industry is widespread. There are still many countries where it is not widely recogni0ed as a profession. The Services that =uilding Surveyors undertake are !road !ut includeC

%onstruction design and !uilding works "ro/ect &anagement and monitoring

%-& %o ordinator under the %onstruction (-esign G &anagement) Aegulations <99? "roperty #egislation adviser Insurance assessment and claims assistance -efect investigation and maintenance adviser =uilding Surveys and measured surveys Handling "lanning applications =uilding Inspection to ensure compliance with !uilding regulations Bndertaking pre ac1uisition surveys (egotiating dilapidations claims :<;

=uilding Surveyors also advise on many aspects of construction includingC

design maintenance repair refur!ishment restoration :+;

%lients of a !uilding surveyor can !e the pu!lic sector, #ocal 3uthorities, $overnment -epartments as well as private sector organisations and work closely with architects, planners, homeowners and tenants groups. =uilding Surveyors may also !e called to act as an e,pert witness. It is usual for !uilding surveyors to undertake an accredited degree 1ualification !efore undertaking structured training to !ecome a mem!er of a professional organisation. "rofessional organisations for !uilding surveyors include %I2=, 3=4, HFIS and AI%S.

[edit] Land surveyor

This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. "lease improve this section if you can. (March ,--.!

6.H. Hayden.s map of Iellowstone (ational "ark, )@?). His surveys were a significant factor toward esta!lishing the park in )@?<. adastral land surveyors are licensed !y State governments. In the Bnited States, cadastral surveys are typically conducted !y the 6ederal government, specifically through the %adastral Surveys !ranch of the =ureau of #and &anagement (=#&), formerly the $eneral #and 2ffice ($#2). In the states that have !een su!divided as per the "u!lic #and Survey System ("#SS), the =#& %adastral Surveys are carried out in accordance with said system. This information is re1uired to define ownership and rights in real property (land, water, mineral, easements, rights of way, etc.), to resolve !oundary disputes !etween neigh!ours, and for any su!division of land, !uilding development, road !oundary realignment, etc. The aim of cadastral surveys is normally to re esta!lish and mark the corners of original land !oundaries. The first stage is to research relevant records such as land titles (deeds), easements, survey monumentation (marks on the ground) and any pu!lic or private records that provide relevant data. &onuments are marks on the ground that define location. "egs are commonly used to mark !oundary corners, and nails in !itumen, small pegs in the ground (dumpys) and steel rods are used as instrument locations and reference marks, commonly called survey control. &arks should !e dura!le and long lasting, sta!le so the marks do not move over time, safe from distur!ance and safe to work at. The aim is to provide sufficient marks so some marks will remain for future re esta!lishment of !oundaries. 4,amples of typical man made monuments are steel rods, pipes or !ars with plastic, aluminum or !rass caps containing descriptive markings and often !earing the license num!er of the surveyor responsi!le for the esta!lishment of such. The material and marking used on monuments placed to mark !oundary corners are often su!/ect to state laws5statutes. The /o! of a !oundary surveyor retracing a deed or prior survey is to locate such monuments and verify their correct position. 2ver time, development, vandalism and acts of nature often wreak havoc on monuments, so the !oundary surveyor is often forced to consider other evidence such as fence locations, woodlines, monuments on neigh!oring property, parole evidence and other evidence. 3 total station or $"S is set up over survey marks which were placed as part of a previous survey, or newly placed marks. The !earing datum is esta!lished !y measuring !etween points on a previous survey and a rotation is applied to orientate the new survey to correspond with the previous survey or a standard map grid. The data is analysed and comparisons made with e,isting records to determine evidence which can !e used to esta!lish !oundary positions. The !earing and distance of lines !etween the !oundary corners and total station positions are calculated and used to set out and mark the corners in the field. %hecks are made !y measuring directly !etween pegs places using a fle,i!le tape. Su!division of land generally re1uires that the e,ternal

!oundary is re esta!lished and marked using pegs, and the new internal !oundaries are then marked. 3 plat (survey plan) and description (depending on local and state re1uirements) are compiled, the final report is lodged with the appropriate government office (often re1uired !y law), and copies are provided to the client. !"e Art of Surveying &any properties have considera!le pro!lems with regards to improper !ounding, miscalculations in past surveys, titles, easements, and wildlife crossings. 3lso many properties are created from multiple divisions of a larger piece over the course of years, and with every additional division the risk of miscalculation increases. The result can !e a!utting properties not coinciding with ad/acent parcels, resulting in hiatuses (gaps) and overlaps. The art comes in when a surveyor must solve a pu00le using pieces that do not e,actly fit together. In these cases the solution is !ased upon the research and interpretation of the surveyor, and following esta!lished procedures for resolving discrepancies.

[edit] See also

%adastre %ivil engineering %onstruction surveying $eodesy $eographic information system #and Aegistry Juantity surveyor Triangulation

[edit] References
). # Kohnson, 3nthony, Solving Stonehenge: The /ew 0ey to an Ancient $nigma. (Thames
G Hudson, <99@) IS=( *?@ 9 899 98)88 * <. # -onald Aoutledge Hill ()**>), 74ngineering7, pp. ?>> *, in Aashed, Aoshdi G ALgis &orelon ()**>), $ncyclo(edia o# the )istory o# Ara%ic Science, Aoutledge, ?8) ?*8, IS=( 9')8)<')9? +. # (ational %ooperative Highway Aesearch "rogramC Collecting1 Processing and 2ntegrating 'PS data into '2S, p. '9. "u!lished !y Transportation Aesearch =oard, <99< IS=( 9+9*9>*)>8, *?@9+9*9>*)>@ '. # Toni Schenk), Suyoung Seo, =eata %sathoC Accuracy Study o# Air%orne Laser Scanning "ata with Photogrammetry, p. ))@

(otes

Feay K (<999), The 'reat Arc: the dramatic tale o# how 2ndia was ma((ed and $verest was named, Harper %ollins, )@<pp, IS=( 9 99 >8+)<+ ?. "ugh K % ()*?8), Surveying #or &ield Scientists, &ethuen, <+9pp, IS=( 9 ')> 9?8+9 '

$enovese I (<998), "e#initions o# Surveying and Associated Terms, 3%S&, +)'pp, IS=( 9 *?>8**) 9 '.

The measurement of dimensional relationships among points, lines, and physical features on or near the 4arth.s surface. =asically, surveying determines hori0ontal distances, elevation differences, directions, and angles. These !asic determinations are applied further to the computation of areas and volumes and to the esta!lishment of locations with respect to some coordinate system. Surveying is typically used to locate and measure property linesE to lay out !uildings, !ridges, channels, highways, sewers, and pipelines for constructionE to locate stations for launching and tracking satellitesE and to o!tain topographic information for mapping and charting. Hori0ontal distances are usually assumed to !e parallel to a common plane. 4ach measurement has !oth length and direction. #ength is e,pressed in feet or in meters. -irection is e,pressed as a !earing of the a0imuthal angle relationship to a reference meridian, which is the north south direction. It can !e the true meridian, a grid meridian, or some other assumed meridian. The degree minute second system of angular e,pression is standard in the Bnited States. Aeference, or control, is a concept that applies to the positions of lines as well as to their directions. In its simplest form, the position control is an identifia!le or understood point of origin for the lines of a survey. %onveniently, most coordinate systems have the origin placed west and south of the area to !e surveyed so that all coordinates are positive and in the northeast 1uadrant. Hertical measurement adds the third dimension to an o!/ect.s position. This dimension is e,pressed as the distance a!ove some reference surface, usually mean sea level, called a datum. &ean sea level is determined !y averaging high and low tides during a lunar month.
$ori%ontal control

The main framework, or control, of a survey is laid out !y traverse, triangulation, or trilateration. Some success has !een achieved in locating control points from -oppler measurements of passing satellites, from aerial phototriangulation, from satellites photographed against a star !ackground, and from inertial guidance systems. In traverse, adopted for most ordinary surveying, a line or series of lines is esta!lished !y directly measuring lengths and angles. In triangulation, used mainly for large areas, angles are again directly measured, !ut distances are computed trigonometrically. This necessitates triangular patterns of lines connecting intervisi!le points and starting from a !aseline of known length. (ew !aselines are measured at intervals. Trigonometric methods are also used in trilateration, !ut lengths, rather than angles, are measured. The development of

electronic distance measurement (4-&) instruments !rought trilateration into significant use.
&istance measurement

Traverse distances are usually measured with a surveyor.s tape or !y 4-&, !ut also may sometimes !e measured !y stadia, su!tense, or trig traverse. Whether on sloping or level ground, it is hori0ontal distances that must !e measured. In taping, hori0ontal components of hillside distances are measured !y raising the downhill end of the tape to the level of the uphill end. 2n steep ground this techni1ue is used with shorter sections of the tape. The raised end is positioned over the ground point with the aid of a plum! !o!. Where slope distances are taped along the ground, the slope angle can !e measured with the clinometer. The desired hori0ontal distance can then !e computed. In 4-& the time a signal re1uires to travel from an emitter to a receiver or reflector and !ack to the sender is converted to a distance readout. The great advantage of electronic distance measuring is its unprecedented precision, speed, and convenience. 6urther, if mounted directly onto a theodolite, and especially if incorporated into it and electronically coupled to it, the 4-& instrument with an internal computer can in seconds measure distance (even slope distance) and direction, then compute the coordinates of the sighted point with all the accuracy re1uired for high order surveying. In the stadia techni1ue, a graduated stadia rod is held upright on a point and sighted through a transit telescope set up over another point. The distance !etween the two points is determined from the length of rod intercepted !etween two hori0ontal wires in the telescope. In the su!tense techni1ue the transit angle su!tended !y a hori0ontal !ar of fi,ed length ena!les computation of the transit to !ar distance ( 6ig. )). In trig traverse the su!tense !ar is replaced !y a measured !aseline e,tending at a right angle from the survey line whose distance is desired. The distance calculated in either su!tense or trig traverse is automatically the hori0ontal distance and needs no correction.

Su%tense %ar3 (Loc4wood1 0essler1 and Bartlett 2nc3!

Angular measurement

The most common instrument for measuring angles is the transit or theodolite. It is essentially a telescope that can !e rotated a measura!le amount a!out a vertical a,is and a hori0ontal a,is. %arefully graduated metal or glass circles concentric with each a,is are used to measure the angles. The transit is centered over a point with the aid of either a plum! !o! suspended !y a string from the vertical a,is or (on some theodolites) an optical plummet, which ena!les the operator to sight along the instrument.s vertical a,is to the ground through a right angle prism.
'levation differences

4levations may !e measured trigonometrically in con/unction with reduction of slope measurements to hori0ontal distances, !ut the resulting elevation differences are of low precision. &ost third order and all second and first order measurements are made !y differential leveling, wherein a hori0ontal line of sight of known elevation is sighted on a graduated rod held vertically on the point !eing checked ( 6ig. <). The transit telescope, leveled, may esta!lish the sight line, !ut more often a speciali0ed leveling instrument is used. 6or appro,imate results a hand level may !e used.

Theory o# di##erential leveling3 2ther methods of measuring elevation include trigonometric leveling which involves calculating height from measurements of hori0ontal, distance and vertical angleE !arometric leveling, a method of determining appro,imate elevation difference with aid of a !arometerE and air!orne profiling, in which a radar altimeter on an aircraft is used to o!tain ground elevations.
Astronomical o(servations

To determine meridian direction and geographic latitude, o!servations are made !y a theodolite or transit on "olaris, the Sun, or other stars. -irection of the meridian (geographic north south line) is needed for direction control purposesE latitude is needed where maps and other sources are insufficient. The simplest meridian determination is made !y sighting "olaris at its elongation, as the star is rounding the easterly or westerly e,tremity of its apparent or!it. 3n angular correction is applied to the direction of sighting, which is referenced to a line on the ground. The correction value is found in an ephemeris. See also 4phemerisE Topographic surveying and mapping. Sponsored #inks Juick "aper =ased Survey %reate and print forms on laser %ollect 5 analy0e results yourself www.MI" scanSurvey.com =ridge -esign Software 3nalysis, design and load rating software for all !ridge types. www.lusas.com -ental -ictionaryC surveying Top Home N #i!rary N Health N -ental -ictionary n The procedure of studying the relative parallelism or lack of parallelism of the teeth and associated structures to select a path of placement for a restoration that will encounter the least tooth or tissue interference and provide ade1uate and !alanced retentionE locating

guiding plane surfaces to direct placement and removal of the restoration and to achieve the !est appearance possi!le. Sponsored #inks &alaysian 2nline Ko!s 4arn "art Time A& <8999 &alaysians 6illing &(% Surveys 2nline www.(etKo!s&alaysia.com Stay at Home &om $et "aid for, surveys, movies, etc. &ultiple Streams of Income www.paidforfree.com =ritannica %oncise 4ncyclopediaC surveying Top Home N #i!rary N &iscellaneous N =ritannica %oncise 4ncyclopedia &ethod of making relatively large scale, accurate measurements of the earth.s surfaces. Its principal modern uses are in the fields of transportation, !uilding, land use, and communications. Surveying is divided into the categories of plane surveying (mapping small areas) and geodetic surveying (mapping large areas of the glo!e). The Aomans are said to have used the plane ta!le, which consists of a drawing !oard mounted on a tripod or other support and a straightedge along which lines are drawn. It was the first device capa!le of recording or esta!lishing angles. With the pu!lication of logarithmic ta!les in )><9, porta!le angle measuring instruments, called topographic instruments, or theodolites, came into useE they included pivoted arms for sighting and could !e used for measuring !oth hori0ontal and vertical angles. Two revolutionary <9th century innovations were photogrammetry (mapping from aerial photographs) and electronic distance measurement, including the use of the laser. &or more in#ormation on surveying1 visit Britannica3com3 Sponsored #inks $et "aid for Surveys Start 4arning O+,@99P &onthlyQ $et paid for surveys online. "aidSurveySystem.com5getRpaid &.sian ? Steps &ake &oney 4arn A&'9999 "er &onth (ow In &.sia $et ? Steps &ake &oney In &alaysia. ?Steps&oney.com5&ake&oney 3rchitectureC surveying Top Home N #i!rary N Home G $arden N 3rchitecture and %onstruction That !ranch of engineering concerned with a determination of the earthSs surface features in relation to each other, as the relative position of points, a determination of areas, etc., and their recording on a map. Sponsored #inks

Fer/a Sam!ilan -i!ayar Bntuk Aefer Sign up. %epat. "eluang TerhadQ www.partners.affiliano.com5 "aid Survey O)89 "er Hour Simple 2nline Surveys 6rom HomeQ O8 to O?8 each, or more. Start (ow www.Juick"aidSurveys.com BS History 4ncyclopediaC Surveying Top Home N #i!rary N History, "olitics G Society N BS History 4ncyclopedia Bsing little more than a compass and a >> foot chain, early 3merican surveyors set out early to chart the Bnited States of 3merica. Surveys determine !oundaries, chart coastlines and naviga!le streams and lakes, and provide for mapping of land surfaces. &uch of this work done in the early days of the Bnited States used rudimentary, although not necessarily inefficient, e1uipment. 6or instance, surveyors set a <,999 mile line for the transcontinental railroad in the )@>9s without the !enefit of maps, aerial views, or precise knowledge of topographical features. 3 century later, when surveyors set the line for Interstate @9 using everything their predecessors had not, the route followed the railroad.s route almost e,actly. The primary tool used !y surveyors in (orth 3merica from the )>99s through the end of the )@99s was a 7$unter.s chain,7 measuring >> feet long, usually with )99 swiveled links. 3 retracta!le steel tape to replace the chain was patented in )@>9 !y W. H. "aine of She!oygan, Wisconsin. Surveyors relied on the compass to set the direction of their chain. $oldsmith %handlee, a nota!le clock and instrument maker, !uilt a !rass foundry in Winchester, Hirginia, in )?@+ and made the most advanced surveying compasses of his day. The !iggest !reakthrough in surveying technology came in 4ngland in )??+, when Kesse Aamsden invented the circular dividing engine, which allowed the manufacture of precise scientific and mathematical instruments. The first 3merican to develop a capa!ility for the mechanical graduation of instruments was William K. Ioung. Ioung !uilt the first 3merican transit in "hiladelphia in )@+), replacing the heavier, more inconvenient theodolite, which measures hori0ontal and vertical angles. The transit has a telescope that can !e reversed in direction on a hori0ontal a,is. The transit !uilt !y Ioung differs little from the transit used in the early twenty first century. The increased demand for accuracy in railroad construction, civil engineering, and city surveys led to the rapid acceptance of the transit. 3n influ, of tradesmen from the $ermanic states in the )@+9s and )@'9s provided a means of manufacturing precision instruments in volume. To help with mathematical calculations, surveyors !egan e,perimenting with a num!er of nonelectric calculators, including Thacher.s %alculating Instrument, patented in )@@),

which was the e1uivalent of a +>9 inch long slide rule precise to )C)9,999. Slide rules replaced calculating instruments, calculators replaced slide rules, and computers have replaced calculators. 3merica.s original thirteen colonies) as well as a few states such as Te,as and Fentucky, were originally surveyed !y metes and !ounds, which is the process of descri!ing !oundaries !y a measure of their length. 2n ? &ay )?@8, %ongress adopted the $overnmental #and Surveys, which provided for the 7rectangular system,7 which measured distances and !earing from two lines at right angles and esta!lished the system of principal meridians, which run north and south, and !ase lines, running east and west. Bnder the (orthwest 2rdinance of )?@?, 2hio served as the e,perimental site for the new pu!lic lands surveying system. The lessons learned culminated in the #and 2rdinance of )?*>, which determined the surveying and num!ering scheme used to survey all remaining B.S. pu!lic lands. The first government sanctioned survey was the Survey of the %oast, esta!lished in )@9? to mark the navigational ha0ards of the 3tlantic %oast. Bnder Superintendent 6erdinand Hassler, the survey used crude techni1ues, including large theodolites, astronomical instruments, plane ta!le topography, and lead line soundings to determine hydrography. -espite these techni1ues, the survey achieved remarka!le accuracy. =y the time the %oast Survey was assigned to map 3laska.s coast, after 3laska was ac1uired in )@>?, technological advancements had provided new kinds of !ottom samplers, deep sea thermometers, and depth lines. 3 new 0enith telescope determined latitude with greater accuracy, and the telegraph provided a means of determining longitudinal differences !y flashing time signals !etween points. Inland, surveys were more informal. 2ften under sponsorship from the 3rmy, e,plorers such as &eriwether #ewis and William %lark, Me!ulon "ike, and Stephen H. #ong went out on reconnaissance missions, gathering geographic, geologic, and military information. 3fter the %ivil War ()@>)T)@>8), westward migration created a need for detailed information a!out the trans &ississippi West. %ongress authori0ed four surveys named after their leadersC %larence Fing, 6. H. Hayden, Kohn Wesley "owell, and $eorge &. Wheeler. In addition to topography and geography, these surveys studied !otany, paleontology, and ethnology. The B.S. $eological Survey was formed in )@?* and !egan mapping in the )@@9s, relying on the chain and compass method of surveying. =y the early )*99s, surveyors were working with plane ta!les e1uipped with telescopic alidades with vertical angle arcs, allowing lines of survey to !e plotted directly from the field. #eveling instruments have !een used since )@*> to set permanent elevation !enchmarks.

3erial photography came into use as a survey tool following World War I ()*)'T)*)@), and photogrammetry was widely used !y the )*+9s. Today, satellites ena!le surveyors to use tools as sophisticated as the glo!al positioning system ($"S), which can eliminate the need for a line of sight survey.
Bi(liograp"y

%a0ier, #ola. Surveys and Surveyors o# the Pu%lic "omain1 5.67859.73 Washington, -.%.C B.S. -epartment of the Interior, =ureau of #and &anagement, )**+. Thompson, &orris &. Ma(s #or America: Cartogra(hic Products o# the :3S3 'eological Survey and ;thers3 Aeston, Ha.C B.S. $overnment "rinting 2ffice, )*?*. 7Hirtual &useum of Surveying.7 Ingram Hagen G %o.E updated Kune <99<. 3vaila!le at httpC55www.surveyhistory.org Sponsored #inks 7How To &ake &oney7 (eed To &ake &oney TodayU #earn With 4asy "rogram. Koin (ow. www.cmfca.com "endapatan A&>Ai!u5=ulan Sam!ilan -ari Aumah Saha/a =oleh -apat A&<9 -alam ? &initQ www.tidakperluker/a.e,rem.!i0 %olum!ia 4ncyclopediaC surveying Top Home N #i!rary N &iscellaneous N %olum!ia 4ncyclopedia surveying, method of determining accurately points and lines of direction (!earings) on the earth.s surface and preparing from them maps or plans. =oundaries, areas, elevations, construction lines, and geographical or artificial features are determined !y the measurement of hori0ontal and vertical distances and angles and !y computations !ased on geometry and trigonometry. Types and =ranches of Surveying Hydrographic surveying deals with !odies of water and coast lines, is recorded on charts, and records such features as !ottom contours, channels, !uoys, and shoals. #and surveying includes !oth geodetic surveying, used for large areas and taking into account the curvature of the earth.s surface (see geodesy), and plane surveying, which deals with areas sufficiently small that the earth.s curvature is negligi!le and can !e disregarded. "lane surveying dates from ancient times and was highly developed in 4gypt. It played an important role in 3merican history in marking !oundaries for settlementsE surveying was a profession of distinctionD!oth Washington and Kefferson worked for a time as surveyors. =ranches of surveying are named according to their purpose, e.g., topographic surveying, used to determine relief (see contour), route surveying, mine surveying, construction surveyingE or according to the method used, e.g., transit surveying, plane ta!le surveying, and photogrammetic surveying (securing data !y photographs).

Instruments and Techni1ues In surveying, measurements may !e made directly, electronically, !y the use of optical instruments, !y computations from known lines and angles, or !y com!ination methods. Instruments used for direct linear measurements include the $unter.s chain (known also as the surveyor.s chain), which is >> ft (<9 m) long and divided into )99 linksE the engineer.s chain, )99 ft (+9 m) long and also consisting of )99 linksE the tape, usually of steel, which has largely superseded chainsE and the rod. Tapes and rods made of Invar metal (an alloy of steel and nickel) are used for very precise work !ecause of their low coefficient of thermal e,pansion. In many situations electronic instruments, such as the geodimeter, which uses light waves, and the tellurometer, which uses microwaves, provide a more convenient and more accurate means of determining distance than do tapes and rods. The height of points in relation to a datum line (usually mean sea level) is measured with a leveling instrument consisting of a telescope fitted with a spirit level and usually mounted on a tripod. It is used in con/unction with a leveling rod placed at the point to !e measured and sighted through the telescope. The transit is used to measure vertical and hori0ontal angles and may !e used also for levelingE its chief elements are a telescope that can !e rotated (transited) a!out a hori0ontal and a!out a vertical a,is, spirit levels, and graduated circles supplemented !y vernier scales. Fnown also as a transit theodolite, or transit compass, the transit is a modification of the theodolite, an instrument that, in its original form, could not !e rotated in a vertical a,is. 3 plane ta!le consists of a drawing !oard fi,ed on a tripod and e1uipped with an alidade (a rule com!ined with a telescope)E it is used for direct plotting of data on a chart and is suita!le for rapid work not re1uiring a high degree of precision. The stadia method of measuring distance, a rapid system useful in surveying inaccessi!le terrain and in checking more precise measurements, consists in o!serving through a telescope e1uipped with two hori0ontal cross hairs or wires (stadia hairs) the interval delimited !y the hairs on a cali!rated stadia rodE the interval depends on the distance !etween the rod and the telescope. Surveys !ased on photographs are especially useful in rugged or inaccessi!le country and for reconnaissance surveys for construction, mapping, or military purposes. In air photographs, errors resulting from tilt of the airplane or arising from distortion of ground relief may !e corrected in part !y checking against control points fi,ed !y ground surveys and !y taking overlapping photographs and matching and assem!ling the relatively undistorted central portions into a mosaic. These are usually e,amined stereoscopically. =i!liography See W. H. Aayner and &. 2. Schmidt, &undamentals o# Surveying (8th ed. )*>*)E A. 6. Spier, Surveying and Ma((ing ()*?9)E K. 3nderson and 4. &ikhail, 2ntroduction to Surveying ()*@*)E 6. =ell, Surveying and Setting ;ut Procedures ()**)).

Sponsored #inks Work 6rom Home $et O)<8P $uaranteed within <' hrs )99V 6ree to Koin. Aisk 6ree. www.2nlineKo!s'us.com ) +9 89 ... www.8>survey.com History )'89 )?@*C Surveying Top Home N #i!rary N History, "olitics G Society N History )'89 )?@* Surveying, initially the geometrical and legal description of local lands and county seats, gained importance throughout the early modern period as legal and economic arguments came to rely on accurate descriptions and, increasingly, on measurement and 7plotting.7 =y the late seventeenth century, surveying included the mapping of larger political unitsE !y the eighteenth, military leaders and colonial governors, as well as landed individuals, employed surveyors and cartographers. Techni1ues and instruments developed throughout the period produced a coherent !ody of theory and practice used for imperial mapping in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. 3t the end of the fifteenth century, surveying consisted largely of written descriptions of fields and estates !ased on visual inspection of an area. 3lthough landmarks and natural division points were more crucial for determining land ownership, these methods were often accompanied !y some sort of measurement. In the first half of the si,teenth century, surveying was often restricted to 7viewing7 or chain measuring, and the chain often sym!oli0ed the surveyors. profession. 3s the century progressed, and more standardi0ed techni1ues of measurement were developed and surveying moved from linear and geometrical methods to those !ased on angular or trigonometric measurement, surveyors !egan to produce maps or 7plots.7 3lthough such advanced mathematical methods were developed !y the end of the century, chain measuring continued to !e used into the eighteenth century. The introduction of triangulation methods, the plane ta!le, and the theodolite, as well as rules of accepta!le practice, transformed surveying into an e,act art. #eonard -igges.s Pantometria ()8?)), for e,ample, introduced these techni1ues and instruments into 4ngland. Throughout the seventeenth century the new surveying instruments were refined, a num!er of surveying manuals were pu!lished, and surveyors were increasingly trained in mathematics and astronomical techni1ues. Surveying, unlike mapping on a larger scale or the later colonial and country surveys, such as the 2rdnance Survey of Ireland ()@<'T)@'>), did not re1uire longitude and latitude placement, and therefore did not use astronomical o!servations in order to achieve accuracy. "art of the transformation in surveying that took place during the early modern period was related to the changing awareness on the part of landowners of the desira!ility of surveying and mapping their lands. 3s surveyors gradually convinced their patrons of the

utility of scale maps, this cognitive shift led to a cartographic revolution. %arefully measured and drawn maps (as opposed to earlier sketch maps) !egan to !e used !y landowners as evidence in court cases, !y generals planning their military strategies, and !y governors interested in inventories and ta, collecting. 3ll of this was symptomatic of the developing map culture, driven in part !y the increasing study of geography at schools and universities. =y the end of the early modern period, 4uropeans were surveying their own lands and the other parts of the world they were con1uering. They !elieved that, through measurement and cartographic depiction, they could control the land and the people who lived there. 2nly the impressive developments of surveying instruments and techni1ues, and the conceptual acceptance of the scale map as an o!/ective and controlla!le representation of the land, made that idea plausi!le.
Bi(liograp"y

=ennett, Kames 3. The "ivided Circle: A )istory o# 2nstruments #or Astronomy1 /avigation and Surveying3 2,ford, )*@?. Fain, Ao!ert K. "., and 4li0a!eth =aigent. The Cadastral Ma( in the Service o# the State: A )istory o# Pro(erty Ma((ing3 %hicago, )**<. Aicheson, 3llie Wilson. $nglish Land Measuring to 56--: 2nstruments and Practices3 %am!ridge, &ass., )*>>.
The United States Geological Survey (USGS) is the federal agency responsible for surveying and publishing maps of topography (giving landscape relief and elevation), geology, and natural resourcesincluding minerals, fuels, and water. The USGS, part of the U. S. epartment of the !nterior, was formed in "#$% as the United States began systematically to e&plore its newly e&panded western territories. Today it has an annual budget of about '$(( million, which is devoted to primary research, resource assessment and monitoring, map production, and providing information to the public and to other government agencies. The United States Geological Survey, now based in )eston, *irginia, originated in a series of survey e&peditions sent to e&plore and map western territories and rivers after the +ivil ,ar. -our principal surveys were authori.ed between "#/$ and "#$01 +larence 2ing3s e&ploration of the fortieth parallel, -erdinand 4ayden3s survey of the )oc5y 6ountain territories, 7ohn ,esley 8owell3s 9ourney down the Colorado River and through the )oc5y 6ountains, and George ,heeler3s survey of the "((th meridian. Twelve years later, in "#$%, these four ongoing survey pro9ects were combined to create a single agency, the United States Geological Survey. The USGS3 first director was +larence 2ing. !n "##" his post was

ta5en by 7ohn ,esley 8owell, whose name is most strongly associated with the early Survey. !t was 8owell who initiated the USGS topographic mapping program, a pro9ect that today continues to produce the most comprehensive map series available of the United States and associated territories. !n addition to topographic mapping, the USGS began detailed surveys and mapping of mineral resources in the "##(s. 6ineral e&ploration led to mapping geologic formations and structures and a gradual reconstruction of geologic history in the United States. )esearch and mapping of glacial history and fossil records naturally followed from mineral e&plorations, so that the USGS became the primary body in the United States involved in geologic field research and laboratory research in e&perimental geophysics and geochemistry. uring ,orld ,ars ! and !!, the USGS3 role in identifying and mapping tactical and strategic resources increased. ,ater and fuel resources (coal, oil, natural gas, and finally uranium) were now as important as copper, gold, and mineral ores, so the Survey too5 on responsibility for assessing these resources as well as topographic and geologic mapping. Today the USGS is one of the world3s largest earth science research agencies and the United States3 most important map publisher. The Survey conducts and sponsors e&tensive laboratory and field research in geology, hydrology, oceanography, and cartography. The agency3s three divisions, Water Resources, Geology, and :ational 6apping, are responsible for basic research. They also publish, in the form of maps and periodic written reports, information on the nation3s topography, geology, fuel and mineral resources, and other aspects of earth sciences and natural resources. 6ost of the United States3 hydrologic records and research, including streamflow rates, aquifer volumes, and water quality, are produced by the USGS. !n addition, the USGS publishes information on natural ha.ards, including earth;ua5es, volcanoes, landslides, floods, and droughts. The Survey is the primary body responsible for providing basic earth science information to other government agencies, as well as to the public. !n addition, the USGS underta5es or assists research and mapping in other countries whose geologic survey systems are not yet well developed.

Resources
Books

U.S. Geological Survey. Maps for America. )eston, *<1 U.S. Government 8rinting =ffice, "%#". USGS Yearbook: Fiscal Year 1985. ,ashington, 8rinting =ffice, "%#>. +1 U.S. Government