DEFINING CONFLICT DEFINING CONFLICT Conflict is a complex phenomenon and can be better analyzed by looking at its three components:

Conflict situation Conflict behavior Conflict attitudes and perceptions

At its core, conflict is the dynamic element of a situation in which two or more parties perceive that they have incompatible values, interests and/or goals. Conflict situations involve relationships between parties concerning their perceptions and misperceptions, their shared and separate values, and their goals and motivations.
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Conflict takes place within the political,

social, economic and institutional domains of those relationships. Conflict is endemic to healthy, evolving societies. A central element in the cycle of conflict is a society"s institutional capacity to settle incompatibilities peacefully through regulating mechanisms such as courts or clan structures. Conflict persists and may degenerate into violence and armed confrontation in the absence of such coordinating and mediating mechanisms. #he conflict situation has four main components:

$arties %ssues &oals Context

Conflict Parties Conflict re'uires the presence of at least two parties with incompatible needs, values, interests and/or goals. $arties to a conflict often assume different roles because there are variations in their level of involvement:

$rimary parties have a direct interest in a conflict and actively pursue strategies

designed to promote their interests.

(econdary parties have a stake in the outcome of an event but may or may not

perceive that there is a conflict and may or may not decide to play an active role or be represented in any decision)making process. (econdary parties may play a key role in facilitating, spoiling or enforcing an agreement.

#hird parties or intermediaries generally intervene to help facilitate the resolution of

conflict and to help improve the relationship between the parties. #hey may be impartial and have no stake in any particular outcome, or they may take a side but are viewed as legitimate facilitators by the primary and secondary parties. Conflict Issues Conflict issues are what the parties are concerned about, the source of perceived incompatibilities. #hey can be broken into four categories: Conflict issues are what the parties are concerned about, the source of perceived incompatibilities. #hey can be broken into four categories:

*esources and how they are distributed. *esources are tangible goods and include:

) ) ) ) )

#erritory +oney (ources of energy such as oil, natural gas or wood ,ood -ther commodities such as timber, agricultural goods, and metals destined for trade on the international marked rather than personal consumption.

$ower ) #he allocation of and participation in the political decision making process %dentity ) #he cultural, linguistic, social or ethnic characteristics of peoples. .alues ) Core beliefs, especially as enshrined in systems of government, religion or

ideology. .alues emerge as a culturally specific expression of needs, those basic motivations and re'uirements of human development that are common to all human beings. Incompatibilities %ncompatibilities can be seen in objective conditions or chan es , for example in lower standards of living, demographic changes or population movements, changes in

technology, or dwindling natural resources. %ncompatibilities may also arise as a result of perceived conditions or chan es , independent of whether they have actually occurred. At the same time, incompatibilities may not be perceived at all, even if they exist. (uch a situation is called latent conflict . /hen at least one of the parties becomes aware of the incompatibilities and takes measures to act upon them the conflict becomes manifest . Goals &oals can be defined as consciously desired future outcomes, conditions, or end states. %f issues are what the conflict is about, goals are what the parties to the conflict want . %n many conflict situations, the distinction between goals and issues is not clear. +isperceptions about goals can lead to misperceptions about the issues involved in the conflict. %n %ra', for example, many fear that the ultimate goal of the (hiites is the establishment of an %slamic state. #his assessment would lead to the conclusion that the conflict is about values. %f, however, the goal of the (hiite leadership is to assure the representation of (hiite interests in any future political arrangement in %ra', then the conflict is about power in the decision)making process. $arties frame their goals in two basic ways, positively and negatively:

Positive goals reflect tangible future outcomes, such as secure borders or an Negative goals reflect a desire to avoid an unwanted outcome, such as blocking a

independent state.

country"s admittance into a treaty organization, or not wanting to admit refugees. Conflict Conte!t #he context of a conflict encompasses the political, social, economic and institutional dynamics within which it takes place, including those at the regional and international levels. #he context also includes culture . Culture becomes especially important when the parties to the conflict exhibit strong cultural differences. Culture can be understood as a system of ideas and values that guide 0but do not determine1 behavior. %t is the basic lens through which a people perceive the world and it is reflected in every aspect of their way of life.

$arties to a conflict are guided by their own culturally created system of meaning to: 0!1 interpret what is happening in a situation2 031 decipher their own and others" behaviors2 and 041 understand all the communication that is exchanged between their group and the others. /hen parties to a conflict have been shaped by different cultures, there may be substantial variations in their interpretation of the meaning of the behavior of others. #hese variations can spark conflict, they can also lead to misunderstandings and prevent the clear communication that is necessary in conflict resolution processes.

CONFLICT "E#$%IO& Conflict can be 5good" 0functional1 or 5bad" 0dysfunctional1 depending on the nature and degree of incompatibility as well as the way in which conflict is handled. 3 Conflict is a process in which parties, independently or together, deploy ways and means to deal with their incompatibilities. #hese ways and means can be broadly summarized as conflict behavior. Conflict behavior is based on a party"s perception of the problem at hand, on desired outcome0s1 and on the action0s1 taken by other parties to the conflict. Conflict behavior can take the following five forms: 4

Contending occurs when one party seeks to achieve its goals without regard to the

other party"s interests, usually by getting the other party to yield. #he tactics employed are often coercive and can include making threats, taking preemptive actions, and imposing penalties or sanctions that will be withdrawn if the other concedes.

Yielding occurs when one party concedes to another party, usually after aspirations

have been lowered. (ometimes yielding is used to buy time while a party develops a new strategy. At other times, it involves only a partial concession, as other interests have been met.

Withdrawal and Inaction are similar behaviors because both involve side)stepping the

conflict without settling the issues that gave rise to it. /ithdrawal refers to a permanent situation. %naction is often a temporary move, usually with the intention of gaining time to develop a stronger position.

Problem-Solving involves identifying the issues in contention, with the goal of

developing and implementing a solution that is acceptable to all the primary parties. %deally,

neither party has to lower its aspirations because the solution reconciles the parties" previously incompatible goals. The strategies chosen are lin ed to the !"ality of the relationship between the parties. %f their relationship is mutually valued, parties are less likely to engage in contentious or coercive strategies. $roblem)solving approaches tend to foster better)rooted relationships because they build a strong basis for positive post)conflict interaction: parties are less likely to feel bitter or humiliated, and the source of their conflict has been addressed. %n addition, they now have experience working together on difficult issues and may have enhanced feelings of mutual trust. Conflict $ttitudes and Perceptions /hile perceptions and emotions are individually developed and controlled, it is common for members of a group to share similar attitudes and psychological responses to their adversaries. #hese responses often lock a group into conflict because their perceptions of the other group are clouded by overlays of fear and suspicion, emotions that can form a barrier to working through the conflict. %n situations of conflict the parties involved inevitably develop some problematic attit"des towards their adversaries. #ttit"des and perceptions may ta e the following forms$ 6

Emotions . %t is common for parties locked in conflict to experience feelings of fear, Co nitive Processes shape and maintain perceptions about both one"s own group and

anger, distrust, resentment, scorn, envy, and suspicion about the intentions of the other.

the adversary in conflict situations and can include the following: ) %ro"ps often develop blanket stereotypes about their opponent. #hrough a process known as cognitive dissonance ,7 parties screen out all information about adversaries that does not fit with their preexisting collective image/idea of the opponent. ) &olstering is a process that involves seeking out evidence to support one"s own position and actions, while denying evidence that gives legitimacy to the other"s concerns.

Enem' Ima es . $arties often assume that their adversaries are and will always be

their enemies. 8espite assumptions to the contrary, enemies are not born but are constructed out of the conflict situation and subse'uently generated psychological dynamics. 9 #he following psychological phenomena are often at work:

) #ransference or displacement occurs when a group has been frustrated by another, usually more powerful, group that cannot be directly confronted. :ecause the primary group is inaccessible, feelings of hostility and aggression are directed at a third group. ) ;nemies are dehumanized when members of one party depict members of the opponent group as not fully human or even as inhuman. < #his mechanism is often stimulated by propaganda during mobilization for war. %f the enemy is seen as not fully human, then it is psychologically easier to suspend moral sanctions, present in virtually every culture, against senseless destruction. #he *wandan station *adio #elevision des +illes Collines sought to demonize and dehumanize #utsis. #he station created the impression that killing #utsis was not akin to killing other humans, thus making the act somehow more acceptable. *#=+ referred to #utsis as inyen'i , meaning cockroaches, and tried to spread the myth that #utsis were inhuman in their thirst for blood, urging listeners to understand that the cruelty of the inyenzi is incurable, the cruelty of the inyen'i can be cured only by their total extermination. %n situations of protracted conflict, a dynamic of systemized victimhood can develop. #his dynamic occurs when the basic identity of a party has been shaped by its historic experiences of traumatic violations by others, creating a pervasive sense of victimhood. > #he three main components of systemized victimhood are:

a history of violent, traumatic aggression and loss?such as past experiences of a conviction that such aggression was un@ustified by any standard2 and an often unstated fear on the part of the victim group that the aggressor will strike

genocide2

again, when feasible, in the future. ;ven though conflict is a universal phenomenon, it does not follow that violence is e'ually universal. Aowever, some researchers argue that without the proper intervention mechanisms, such as domestic courts, international organizations or clan structures, social conflicts have the propensity to gravitate towards violence.

CONFLICT $ND %IOLENCE .iolence is conceptually very different from conflict, though the two are linked. #he /orld Aealth -rganization definesB %iolence is C the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person or against a group or community, that either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in in@ury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment or deprivation.
D

#he use of direct violence is a contending behavior to deal with incompatibilities. %n this sense, it is a tactical means of attaining one"s goals and is sometimes called 5instrumental aggression". !E #he decision to use direct violence may have two purposes:

overpo(er and physically eliminate the other party2 at its most extreme end, this

leads to genocide and is often motivated by ethno)religious rivalries. Aitler"s plan to exterminate the Fewish people, and the genocides in *wanda and :osnia are examples of this use of violence in armed conflicts. #he &lobal /ar on #errorism 0&/-#1 may also be viewed as an effort to eliminate terrorism and terrorists.

influence the other party"s behavior and choices. #errorists and insurgents in %ra' use

various forms of violence including suicide bombings and targeted killings to force a change in G.(. policy, i.e. make the G.(. withdraw its forces. /hen violence is exhibited at the group/community/state level, we often use such terms as violent conflict, armed conflict, war, high intensity conflict, and low intensity conflict. +any definitions of armed conflict in international relations contain threshold levels of violence measured by the number of deaths suffered either by the armed forces or the population 0or both1. !! ;ven though the threshold levels vary, sometimes considerably, as do the terms associated with them, they illustrate the link between conflict and violence. #he following violence road map provides an overview of different acts of direct physical violence categorized by their primary motivation. !3 #he nature of today"s armed conflicts makes all categories relevant for conflict managers. #he increasing importance of war economies, terrorism, ethnic cleansing, and rape as forms of coercion demonstrate the complexity of war as a system of violence operating at multiple levels.

/ith increasing levels of violence, conflict behavior tends to become more contentious and negative conflict attitudes become more engrained in the cognitive processes of the parties. %f high levels of violence persist over time conflict behaviors and attitudes become driving factors of the conflict in their own right, adding to the intractability of the conflict. *wanda"s has a history of genocide that goes back 6E years. #he :elgians considered the #utsis as superior to the Autus. Hot surprisingly, the #utsis welcomed this idea, and as a result they en@oyed better @obs and educational opportunities than their Autu neighbors. *esentment among the Autus gradually built up, culminating in a series of riots in !D7D. +ore than 3E,EEE #utsis were killed, and many more fled to the neighboring countries of :urundi, #anzania and Gganda. /hen :elgium relin'uished power and granted *wanda independence in !D93, the Autus took their place. -ver subse'uent decades, the #utsis were portrayed as the scapegoats for every crisis ? it was during this time that the term cockroaches for #utsi was coined. #hese enemy images, violent oppression of #utsis, and previous genocide played and important role in the events and actions that led to the genocide in !DD6. #ogether, they still form one of the primary obstacles for durable peace. $eace researcher Fohan &altung argues that direct violence is too narrow a definition for violence and proposes two addition categories of violence that do not rely on the use of physical force but are important when analyzing conflicts and transforming relationships: !4

)tructural violence occurs where the actions of governments or society as a whole

negatively affect the human rights of certain segments of the population. (uch violence is entrenched in the social fabric, political economy and the governmental structure of a society. (tructural violence is observable at the societal level in the form of systematic shortfalls in the 'uality of life of certain groups of people. (tructural violence can be manifested in the following domains: ) $olitical: depriving people of freedom and political rights2 ) ;conomic: depriving people of basic needs for food, clothing, medicine, and access to the economic system2 ) Cultural: depriving people of their cultural identity by repressing their cultural expressions in public and private life.

Cultural violence , sometimes also referred to as institutional violence, is the

legitimization, or de)legitimization, of the use of direct and structural violence by shaping the norms and values that guide such actions. =eaders in conflict situations seek to @ustify their own actions, while at the same time trying to cast their opponents" actions as illegitimate or un@ustified.

PE$CE $ND CONFLICT #here is no consensus on a conceptually clear definition of peace to guide the work of conflict managers. !>#he following short overview looks at the most important elements and concepts of peace relevant for conflict management. Ne ative definitions of peace #raditionally, peace has been defined negatively: peace is the absence of violence. %n most cases, these definitions refer to the notion of direct violence. -ver the past 4E years, the concept of peace, however, has evolved beyond the absence of direct violence towards the absence and re@ection of all levels of violence, including its cultural and structural varieties. &altung has related the various forms of violence to the concepts of negative peace and positive peace: !D

Ne ative peace is a situation where direct violence is absent. 3E #his is the case for

example in Cyprus, where direct violence between &reek Cypriots and #urkish Cypriots has subsided, but the underlying issue about the future of the island remains at the heart of the conflict.

Positive peace is achieved through the absence of structural, cultural as well as direct

violence. +ozambi'ue is often cited as a successful case of a country that is well under way to achieve positive peace. After years of civil war, the country has gone through a process of national reconciliation, established a multi)party system, and achieved economic growth as well as a sense of national cohesion. -ne can also find the terms cold peace and warm peace as e'uivalents of negative and positive peace, respectively, in the peace and conflict literature. !<

Positive definitions of peace Attempts to describe peace as what it is, rather than what it is not, include definitions of peace as:

a situation of harmony, concord, unity, tran'uility. #his conception of peace is heavily

influenced by non)/estern philosophies. %n Chinese, for example, there is no single word for peace. %t is expressed by @oining two symbols: harmony and balance.!>

an agreement or a pact structuring relationships. :ased on the ;nglish legal tradition,

there is also a strong emphasis on the proposition that peace flows from contractual relations. As a result, peace is seen as a relationship among people based on a common understanding or agreement. !D #his notion has direct relevance for the peace processes in conflict situations as peace agreements restructure and re)establish relationships among conflict parties along mutually accepted lines.

an experience shared by the affected people as a whole. $eace is a collective rather

than individual reality and as a result there are strong sub@ective elements in what groups of people perceive as peace. %n order to gain a fuller understanding of this phenomenon, one must talk to the affected people and discover what they define as peace.

a process through which political, social, economic and social goods are distributed.

Peace and justice #he sub@ective nature of peace is also expressed in the debate about the relationship between peace and @ustice:

$eace as a process is concerned with 0re)1distributing political, economic and social $eace as a relationship deals with mending social fissures after violence and $eace as a harmonious condition is concerned with social @ustice.

goods in a manner acceptable by all parties2

establishing @ustice for wrongful actions in a legal sense2 and

%f peace is to be achieved, one needs to be aware of what @ustice means to the affected communities. -ne commentator argues that:

(In the end) *"stice is no more than the legitimacy of the social order. If people regard

the constraints "nder which they live as *"st) then they m"st be considered so) and peace will prevail.( 3E $eace then is not @ust the absence of war or violent conflict, but the establishment of a @ust social order as well. #he following graph puts conflict, violence, peace and @ustice on the following continuum: 3! $eace then is not @ust the absence of war or violent conflict, but the establishment of a @ust social order as well. #he following graph puts conflict, violence, peace and @ustice on the following continuum: )*++$&, Conflict is defined as a situation in which two or more parties perceive that they have incompatible needs, values, interests and/or goals . /e then looked at the components of the conflict situation and reviewed how parties may behave in situations of conflict: contending, yielding, withdrawal/inaction and problem solving conflict behaviors. #he section on Conflict Attitudes and $erceptions was devoted to analyzing psychological factors shaping conflict behavior such as stereotyping, bolstering, the creation of enemy images, de)humanization, and feelings of victimhood. #he lesson identified three levels of violence that relate to conflict: direct violence, structural violence and institutional violence. /e presented in a table the manifestations of violence that are likely present in political, institutional and socio)economic contexts, and related conflict and violence to a comprehensive notion of peace that includes not only the absence of direct violence but the presence of integrative institutions that allow all citizens to participate e'ually in public life, provide e'ual protection under the rule of law, and are accepted under a common notion of @ustice.