MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS

Study material For I SEMESTER MBA (ABM)

ACHARYA NG RANGA AGRICULTURE UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF AGRIBUSINESS MANAGEMENT

INDEX
LECTURE PARTICULARS PAGE NO.

INTRODUCTION

II

DEMAND CONCEPTS

12

III

PRODUCTION

33

IV

MARKET STRUCTURES AND PRICE

42

OUTPUT DETERMINATION

V (A)

PRICING POLICY AND PRACTICES

60

V (B)

BUSINESS CYCLE

66

LECTURE -1 Introduction
The term economics has been derived from a Greek Word Oikonomia which means household. Economics is a social science. It is called social because it studies mankind of society. It deals with aspects of human behavior. Economics is the study of how people choose to use resources. Resources include the time and talent people have available, the land, buildings, equipment, and other tools on hand, and the knowledge of how to combine them to create useful products and services.

Definition of Economics
Classical economists like Adam Smith, Ricardo, Mill Malthus and others; socialist economist like Karl Marx; neo-classical economists like Alfred Marshall, AC Pigou and Lionel Robbins and modern economists like JM Keynes, Samuelson and others have made considerable contribution to the development of Economics. Hence a plethora of definitions are available in connection with the subject matter of economics. These are broadly divided into A. B. C. D. Wealth Definition, Welfare Definition, Scarcity Definition and Growth Definition

A. Wealth Definition Really the science of economics was born in 1776, when Adam Smith published his famous book An Enquiry into the Nature and Cause of Wealth of Nation. He defined economics as the study of the nature and cause of national wealth. According to him, economics is the study of wealth- How wealth is produced and distributed. He is called as father of economics and his definition is popularly called Wealth definition. But this definition was severely criticized by highlighting the points like;

 Too much emphasis on wealth, Restricted meaning of wealth, No consideration for human feelings, No mention for mans welfare Silent about economic problem etc B. Welfare Definition It was Alfred Marshall who rescued the economics from the above criticisms. By his classic work Principles of Economics, published in 1890, he shifted the emphasis from wealth to human welfare. According to him wealth is simply a means to an end in all activities, the end being human welfare. He adds, that economics is on the one side a study of the wealth; and the other and more important side, a part of the study of man. Marshall gave primary importance to man and secondary importance to wealth. Prof. A C Pigou was also holding Marshalls view. This definition clarified the scope of economics and rescued economics from the grip of being called Dismal science, but this definition also criticized on the grounds that welfare cannot be measured correctly and it was ignored the valuable services like teachers,lawyers,singers etc (non-material welfare).

C. Scarcity Definition After Alfred Marshall, Lionel Robbins formulated his own conception of economics in his book The Nature and Significance of Economic Science in 1932. According to him, Economics is the science which studies human behavior as a relationship between ends and scares means which have alternative uses. He gave importance to four fundamental characters of human existence such as;

1. Unlimited wants- In his definition ends refers to human wants which are boundless or unlimited. 2. Scarcity of means (Limited Resources) the resources (time and money) at the

disposal of a person to satisfy his wants are limited.

3. Alternate uses of Scares means- Economic resources not only scarce but have alternate uses also. So one has to make choice of uses. 4. The Economic Problem when wants are unlimited, means are scarce and have alternate uses, the economic problem arises. Hence we need to arrange wants in the order of urgency.

The merits of scarcity definition are; this definition is analytical, universal in application, a positive study and considering the concept of opportunity cost. But this also criticized on the grounds that; it is too narrow and too wide, it offers only light but not fruit, confined to micro analysis and ignores Growth economics etc.. D. Modern Definition The credit for revolutionizing the study of economics surely goes to Lord J.M Keynes. He defined economics as the study of the administration of scares resources and the determinants of income and employment. Meaning and Definition of Managerial Economics. Managerial Economics as a subject gained popularity in U.S.A after the publication of the book Managerial Economics by Joel Dean in 1951. Managerial economics bridges the gap between traditional economic theory and real business practices in two ways. Firstly, it provides number of tools and techniques to enable the manager to become more competent to take decisions in real and practical situation. Secondly, it serves as an integrating course to show the interaction between various areas in which the firm operates. According to Prof. Evan J Douglas, Managerial economics is concerned with the application of business principles and methodologies to the decision making process within the firm or organization under the conditions of uncertainty. It seeks to establish rules and principles to facilitate the attainment of the desired economic aim of management. These economic aims relate to costs, revenue and profits and are important within both business and non business institutions. Cristopor I Savage and John R Small opinioned that managerial economics is something

that concerned with business efficiency. In the words of Michael Baye,Managerial Economics is the study of how to direct scares resources in a way that mostly effectively achieves a managerial goal. Chief Characteristics of Managerial or Business economics. Following are the important feature of managerial economics 1) Managerial economics is Micro economic in character. Because it studies the problems of a business firm, not the entire economy. 2) Managerial economics largely uses the body of economic concepts and principles which is known as Theory of the Firm or Economics of the firm. 3) Managerial economics is pragmatic. It is purely practical oriented. So Managerial economics considers the particular environment of a firm or business for decision making. 4) Managerial economics is Normative rather than positive economics (descriptive economics). Managerial economics is prescriptive to solve particular business problem by giving importance to firms aim and objectives. 5) Macro economics is also useful to managerial economics since it provides intelligent understanding of the environment in which the business is operating. 6) It is management oriented.

Economics Vs Managerial economics.

Economics Dealing both micro and macro 1. aspects 2. Only a normative science. Both positive and normative 2. science. 3. Deals with practical aspects. 3. Deals with theoretical aspects 4. Study the problems of firm only. 4. Study both the firm and individual. Managerial Economics 1. Dealing only micro aspects

5. Narrow scope. 5. Wide scope

LECTURE II
DEMAND CONCEPTS
Meaning of Demand Demand is a common parlance means desire for an object. According to Prof.Hidbon, Demand means the various quantities of goods that would be purchased per time period at different prices in a given market. Thus demand for a commodity is its quantity which consumer is able and willing to buy at various prices during a given period of time. Simply, demand is the behavior of potential buyers in a market. In the opinion of Stonier and Hague, Demand in economics means demand backed up by enough money to pay for the goods demanded. In other words, demand means the desire backed by the willingness to buy a commodity and purchasing power to pay. Hence desire alone is not enough. There must have necessary purchasing power, i.e., .cash to purchase it. For example, everyone desires to posses Benz car but only few have the ability to buy it. So everybody cannot be said to have a demand for the car. Thus the demand has three essentials-Desire, Purchasing power and Willingness to purchase. Demand Analysis Demand analysis means an attempt to determine the factors affecting the demand of a commodity or service and to measure such factors and their influences. The demand analysis includes the study of law of demand, demand schedule, demand curve and demand forecasting. Main objectives of demand analysis are; 1) 2) 3) 4) To determine the factors affecting the demand. To measure the elasticity of demand. To forecast the demand. To increase the demand.

5) To allocate the recourses efficiently

Law of Demand The law of Demand is known as the first law in market. Law of demand shows the relation between price and quantity demanded of a commodity in the market. In the words of Marshall the amount demanded increases with a fall in price and dimi nishes with a rise in price. According to Samuelson, Law of Demand states that people will buy more at lower price and buy less at higher prices. In other words while other things remaining the same an increase in the price of a commodity will decreases the quantity demanded of that commodity and decrease in the price will increase the demand of that commodity. So the relationship described by the law of demand is an inverse or negative relationship because the variables (price and demand) move in opposite direction. It shows the cause and effect relationship between price and quantity demand. The concept of law of demand may be explained with the help of a demand schedules. Individual demand Schedule An individual demand schedule is a list of quantities of a commodity purchased by an individual consumer at different prices. The following table shows the demand schedule of an individual consumer for apple.

Price of Apple (In Rs.) 10 8 6 4 2

Quantity demanded 1 2 3 4 5

When the price falls from Rs 10 to 8, the quantity demanded increases from one to two. In the same way as price falls, quantity demanded increases. On the basis of the above demand schedule we can draw the demand curve as follows;

The demand curve DD shows the inverse relation between price and demand of apple. Due to this inverse relationship, demand curve is slopes downward from left to right. This kind of slope is also called negative slope Market demand schedule Market demand refers to the total demand for a commodity by all the consumers. It is the aggregate quantity demanded for a commodity by all the consumers in a market. It can be expressed in the following schedule.

Market Demand Schedule for egg. Price Demand by per consumers dozen(Rs ) A B C 10 1 2 0 8 2 3 1 6 3 4 2 4 4 5 3 2 5 6 4

Market D 0 0 1 2 3 Demand 3 6 10 14 18

Derivation of market demand curve is a simple process. For example, let us assume that there are four consumers in a market demanding eggs. When the price of one dozen eggs is Rs.10, A buys one dozen and B buys 2 dozens. When price falls to Rs.8, A buys 2 , B buys 3 and C buys one dozen. When price falls to Rs.6, A buys 3 b buys 4,C buys 2 and D buys one dozen and so on. By adding up the quantity demanded by all the four consumers at various prices we get the market demand curve. So last column of the above demand schedule gives the total demand for eggs at different prices,ie,Market Demand as given below;

Assumptions of Law of Demand Law of demand is based on certain basic assumptions. They are as follows 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) There is no change in consumers taste and preference Income should remain constant. Prices of other goods should not change. There should be no substitute for the commodity. The commodity should not confer any distinction. The demand for the commodity should be continuous. People should not expect any change in the price of the commodity.

Why does demand curve slopes downward? Demand curve slopes downward from left to right (Negative Slope). There are many causes for downward sloping of demand curve:-

1) Law of Diminishing Marginal utility As the consumer buys more and more of the commodity, the marginal utility of the additional units falls. Therefore the consumer is willing to pay only lower prices for additional units. If the price is higher, he will restrict its consumption 2) Principle of Equi- Marginal Utility Consumer will arrange his purchases in such a way that the marginal utility is equal in all his purchases. If it is not equal, they will alter their purchases till the marginal utility is equal. 3) Income effect. When the price of the commodity falls, the real income of the consumer will increase. He will spend this increased income either to buy additional quantity of the same commodity or other commodity. 4) Substitution effect. When the price of tea falls, it becomes cheaper. Therefore the consumer will substitute this commodity for coffee. This leads to an increase in demand for tea. 5) Different uses of a commodity. Some commodities have several uses. If the price of the commodity is high, its use will be restricted only for important purpose. For e.g. when the price of tomato is high, it will be used only for cooking purpose. When it is cheaper, it will be used for preparing jam, pickle etc... 6) Psychology of people. Psychologically people buy more of a commodity when its price falls. In other word it can be termed as price effect. 7) Tendency of human beings to satisfy unsatisfied wants.

Exceptions to the Law of Demand. (Exceptional Demand Curve). The basic feature of demand curve is negative sloping. But there are some exceptions to this. I.e... In certain circumstances demand curve may slope upward from left to right (positive slopes). These phenomena may due to; 1) Giffen paradox The Giffen goods are inferior goods is an exception to the law of demand. When the price of inferior good falls, the poor will buy less and vice versa. When the price of maize falls, the poor will not buy it more but they are willing to spend more on superior goods than on maize. Thus fall in price will result into reduction in quantity. This paradox is first explained by Sir Robert Giffen. 2) Veblen or Demonstration effect. According to Veblen, rich people buy certain goods because of its social distinction or prestige. Diamonds and other luxurious article are purchased by rich people due to its high prestige value. Hence higher the price of these articles, higher will be the demand. 3) Ignorance. Some times consumers think that the product is superior or quality is high if the price of that product is high. As such they buy more at high price. 4) Speculative Effect. When the price of commodity is increasing, then the consumer buy more of it because of the fear that it will increase still further. 5) Fear of Shortage. During the time of emergency or war, people may expect shortage of commodity and buy more at higher price to keep stock for future. 6) Necessaries In the case of necessaries like rice, vegetables etc., People buy more even at a higher price

7) Brand Loyalty When consumer is brand loyal to particular product or psychological attachment to particular product, they will continue to buy such products even at a higher price. 8) Festival, Marriage etc. In certain occasions like festivals, marriage etc. people will buy more even at high price.

Exceptional Demand Curve (perverse demand curve)

When price raises from OP to OP1 quantity demanded also increases from OQ to OQ1. In other words, from the above, we can see that there is positive relation between price and demand. Hence, demand curve (DD) slopes upward. CHANGES IN DEMAND Demand of a commodity may change. It may increase or decrease due to changes in certain factors. These factors are called determinants of demand. These factors include; 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) Price of a commodity Nature of commodity Income and wealth of consumer Taste and preferences of consumer Price of related goods (substitutes and compliment goods) Consumers expectations. Advertisement etc

Demand Function. There is a functional relationship between demand and its various determinants. I.e., a change in any determinant will affect the demand. When this relationship expressed mathematically, it is called Demand Function. Demand function of a commodity can be written as follows: D = f (P, Y, T, Ps, U) Where, D= Quantity demanded P= Price of the commodity Y= Income of the consumer T= Taste and preference of consumers. Ps = Price of substitutes U= Consumers expectations & others f = Function of (indicates how variables are related) Extension and Contraction of Demand. Demand may change due to various factors. The change in demand due to change in price only, where other factors remaining constant, it is called extension and contraction of demand. A change in demand solely due to change in price is called extension and contraction. When the quantity demanded of a commodity rises due to a fall in price, it is called extension of demand. On the other hand, when the quantity demanded falls due to a rise in price, it is called contraction of demand. It can be understand from the following diagram.

When the price of commodity is OP, quantity demanded is OQ. If the price falls to P2, quantity demanded increases to OQ2. When price rises to P1, demand decreases from OQ to OQ1. In demand curve, the area a to c is extension of demand and the area a to b is contraction of demand. As result of change in price of a commodity, the consumer moves along the same demand curve. Shift in Demand (Increase or Decrease in demand) When the demand changes due to changes in other factors, like taste and preferences, income, price of related goods etc... , it is called shift in demand. Due to changes in other factors, if the consumers buy more goods, it is called increase in demand or upward shift. On the other hand, if the consumers buy fewer goods due to change in other factors, it is called downward shift or decrease in demand. Shift in demand cannot be shown in same demand curve. The increase and decrease in demand (upward shift and downward shift) can be expressed by the following diagram.

DD is the original demand curve. Demand curve shift upward due to change in income, taste & preferences etc of consumer, where price remaining the same. In the above diagram demand curve D1-D1 is showing upward shift or increase in demand and D2-D2 shows downward shift or decrease in demand.
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Comparison between extension/contraction and shift in demand Extension/Contraction of SL. Demand No Demand is varying due to 1 changes in price

Shift in Demand Demand is varying due to changes in other factors

Other factors like taste, Price of commodity remain preferences, the income etc... remaining the same. same Consumer moves along the same demand curve Consumer may moves to higher or lower demand curve

Different types of demand. Joint demand: When two or more commodities are jointly demanded at the same time to satisfy a particular want, it is called joint or complimentary demand.(demand for milk, sugar, tea for making tea). Composite demand: The demand for a commodity which can be put for several uses (demand for electricity) Direct and Derived demand: Demand for a commodity which is for a direct consumption is called direct demand.(food, cloth). When the commodity is demanded as s result of the demand of another commodity, it is called derived demand.(demand for tyres depends on demand of vehicles).

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Industry demand and company demand: Demand for the product of particular company is company demand and total demand for the products of particular industry which includes number of companies is called industry demand.

ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
Meaning of Elasticity Law of demand explains the directions of changes in demand. A fall in price leads to an increase in quantity demanded and vice versa. But it does not tell us the rate at which demand changes to change in price. The concept of elasticity of demand was introduced by Marshall. This concept explains the relationship between a change in price and consequent change in quantity demanded. Nutshell, it shows the rate at which changes in demand take place. Elasticity of demand can be defined as the degree of responsiveness in quantity demanded to a change in price. Thus it represents the rate of change in quantity demanded due to a change in price. There are mainly three types of elasticity of demand: 1. Price Elasticity of Demand. 2. Income Elasticity of Demand. and 3. Cross Elasticity of Demand. Price Elasticity of Demand Price Elasticity of demand measures the change in quantity demanded to a change in price. It is the ratio of percentage change in quantity demanded to a percentage change in price. This can be measured by the following formula.

Where: Q1 = Quantity demanded before price change Q2 = Quantity demanded after price change P1 = Price charged before price change P2 = Price charge after price change.
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There are five types of price elasticity of demand. (Degree of elasticity of demand) Such as perfectly elastic demand, perfectly inelastic demand, relatively elastic demand, relatively inelastic demand and unitary elastic demand.

1) Perfectly elastic demand (infinitely elastic) When a small change in price leads to infinite change in quantity demanded, it is called perfectly elastic demand. In this case the demand curve is a horizontal straight line as given below. (Here ep= )

2) Perfectly inelastic demand In this case, even a large change in price fails to bring about a change in quantity demanded. I.e. the change in price will not affect the quantity demanded and quantity remains the same whatever the change in price. Here demand curve will be vertical line as follows and ep= 0

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3) Relatively elastic demand Here a small change in price leads to very big change in quantity demanded. In this case demand curve will be fatter one and ep=>1

4) Relatively inelastic demand Here quantity demanded changes less than proportionate to changes in price. A large change in price leads to small change in demand. In this case demand curve will be steeper and ep=<1

5) Unit elasticity of demand ( unitary elastic) Here the change in demand is exactly equal to the change in price. When both are equal, ep= 1, the elasticity is said to be unitary.
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The above five types of elasticity can be summarized as follows SL No Numerica l description Shape of curve expressio n 0 1 >1 infinity Zero One More than one Less than one Horizontal Vertical Rectangular hyperbola Flat

type

1 2 3 4

Perfectly elastic Perfectly inelastic Unitary elastic Relatively elastic Relatively inelastic

<1

Steep

Income Elasticity of Demand

Income elasticity of demand shows the change in quantity demanded as a result of a change in consumers income. Income elasticity of demand may be stated in the form of formula: Ey = Proportionate Change in Quantity Demanded Proportionate Change in Income
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Income elasticity of demand mainly of three types: 1) Zero income Elasticity. 2) Negative income Elasticity 3) Positive income Elasticity. Zero income elasticity In this case, quantity demanded remain the same, eventhogh money income increases.ie, changes in the income doesnt influence the quantity demanded (Eg.salt,sugar etc). Here Ey (income elasticity) = 0 Negative income elasticity -In this case, when income increases, quantity demanded falls.Eg, inferior goods. Here Ey = < 0 Positive income Elasticity - In this case, an increase in income may lad to an increase in the quantity demanded. i.e., when income rises, demand also rises. ( Ey =>0) This can be further classified in to three types: a) Unit income elasticity; Demand changes in same proportion to change in income.i.e, Ey = 1 b) Income elasticity greater than unity: An increase in income brings about a more than proportionate increase in quantity demanded.i.e, Ey =>1 c) Income elasticity less than unity: when income increases quantity demanded is also increases but less than proportionately. I.e., Ey = <1

Business decision based on income elasticity. The concept of income elasticity can be utilized for the purpose of taking vital
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business decision. A businessman can rely on the following facts. If income elasticity is greater than Zero, but less than one, sales of the product will increase but slower than the general economic growth If income elasticity is greater than one, sales of his product will increase more rapidly than the general economic growth. Firms whose demand functions have high income elasticity have good growth opportunities in an expanding economy. This concept helps manager to take correct decision during business cycle and also helps in forecasting the effect of changes in income on demand. Cross Elasticity of Demand Cross elasticity of demand is the proportionate change in the quantity demanded of a commodity in response to change in the price of another related commodity. Related commodity may either substitutes or complements. Examples of substitute commodities are tea and coffee. Examples of compliment commodities are car and petrol. Cross elasticity of demand can be calculated by the following formula; Cross Elasticity = Proportionate Change in Quantity Demanded of a Commodity Proportionate Change in the Price of Related Commodity If the cross elasticity is positive, the commodities are said to be substitutes and if cross elasticity is negative, the commodities are compliments. The substitute goods (tea and Coffee) have positive cross elasticity because the increase in the price of tea may increase the demand of the coffee and the consumer may shift from the consumption of tea to coffee. Complementary goods (car and petrol) have negative cross elasticity because increase in the price of car will reduce the quantity demanded of petrol.
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The concept of cross elasticity assists the manager in the process of decision making. For fixing the price of product which having close substitutes or compliments, cross elasticity is very useful. Advertisement Elasticity of Demand Advertisement elasticity of demand (Promotional elasticity of demand) measure the responsiveness of demand due to a change in advertisement and other promotional expenses. This can be measured by the following formula; Advertisement Elasticity = Proportionate Increase in Sales Proportionate increase in Advertisement expenditure. There are various determinants of advertisement elasticity, they are; 1. Type of commodity- elasticity will be higher for luxury, new product, growing product etc., 2. Market share larger the market share of the firm lower will be promotional elasticity. 3. Rivals reaction if the rivals react to increase in firms advertisement by increasing their own advertisement expenditure, it will reduce the advertisement elasticity of the firm. 4. State of economy if economic conditions are good, the consumers are more likely to respond to the advertisement of the firm. 5. Advertisement elasticity helps in the process of decision making. It helps to deciding the optimum level of advertisement and promotional cost. If the advertisement elasticity is high, it is profitable to spend more on advertisement. Hence, advertisement elasticity helps to decide optimum advertisement and promotional outlay.
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Importance of Elasticity. The concept of elasticity of demand is much of practical importance; 1. Production- Producers generally decide their production level on the basis of demand for their product. Hence elasticity of demand helps to fix the level of output. 2. Price fixation- Each seller under monopoly and imperfect competition has to take into account the elasticity of demand while fixing their price. If the demand for the product is inelastic, he can fix a higher price. 3. Distribution- Elasticity helps in the determination of rewards for factors of production. For example, if the demand for labour is inelastic, trade union can raise wages. 4. International trade- This concept helps in finding out the terms of trade between two countries. Terms of trade means rate at which domestic commodities is exchanged for foreign commodities. 5. Public finance- This assists the government in formulating tax policies. In order to impose tax on a commodity, the government should take into consideration the demand elasticity. 6. Nationalization- Elasticity of demand helps the government to decide about nationalization of industries. 7. Price discrimination- A manufacture can fix a higher price for the product which have inelastic demand and lower price for product which have elastic demand. 8. Others- The concept elasticity of demand also helping in taking other vital decision Eg.Determining the price of joint product, take over decision etc..
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Determinants of elasticity. Elasticity of demand varies from product to product, time to time and market to market. This is due to influence of various factors. They are; 1. Nature of commodity- Demand for necessary goods (salt, rice,etc,) is inelastic. Demand for comfort and luxury good are elastic. 2. Availability/range of substitutes A commodity against which lot of substitutes are available, the demand for that is elastic. But the goods which have no substitutes, demand is inelastic. 3. Extent /variety of uses- a commodity having a variety of uses has a comparatively elastic demand.Eg.Demand for steel, electricity etc.. 4. Postponement/urgency of demand- if the consumption of a commodity can be post pond, then it will have elastic demand. Urgent commodity has inelastic demand. 5. Income level- income level also influences the elasticity. E.g. Rich man will not curtail the consumption quantity of fruit, milk etc, even if their price rises, but a poor man will not follow it. 6. Amount of money spend on the commodity- where an individual spends only a small portion of his income on the commodity, the price change doesnt materially affect the demand for the commodity, and the demand is inelastic... (match box, salt Etc) 7. Durability of commodity- if the commodity is durable or repairable at a substantially less amount (eg.Shoes), the demand for that is elastic. 8. Purchase frequency of a product/time if the frequency of purchase of a product is very high, the demand is likely to be more price elastic.
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9. Range of Prices- if the products at very high price or at very low price having inelastic demand since a slight change in price will not affect the quantity demand. 10.Others the habit of consumers, demand for complimentary goods, distribution of income and wealth in the society etc., are other important factors affecting elasticity. Measurement of Elasticity

There are various methods for the measurement of elasticity of demand. Following are the important methods: 1.Proportional or Percentage Method: Under this method the elasticity of demand is measured by the ratio between the proportionate or percentage change in quantity demanded and proportionate change in price. It is also known as formula method. It can be computed as follows: ED = Proportionate change in quantity demanded Proportionate change in price. OR

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2.Expenditure or Outlay Method: This method was developed by Marshall. Under this method, the elasticity is measured by estimating the changes in total expenditure as a result of changes in price and quantity demanded. This has three components If the price changes, but total expenditure remains constant, unit elasticity exists. If the price changes, but total expenditure moves in the opposite directions, demand is elastic (>1). If the price changes and total revenues moves in the same direction, demand is inelastic (<1). This can be expressed by the following diagram.

3. Geometric or Point method: This also developed by Marshall. This is used as a measure of the change in quantity demanded in response to a very small change in the price. In this method we can measure the elasticity at any point on a straight line demand curve by using the following formula;
ED = Lower section of the Demand curve
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Upper section of Demancurve.

In the above diagram, AB is a straight line demand curve with P as its middle point. Further it is assumed that AB is 6 cm. then, At point P, ED = PB/PA=3/3=1 At point P1, ED = P1B/P1A= 4.5/1.5= 3=>1, At point A, ED = AB/A= 6/0= (infinity), At point P2, ED = P2B/P2A = 1.5/4.5 = 1/3 = <1, At point B, ED = B/BA = 0/6 = 0 4. Arc Method: the point method is applicable only when there are minute (very small) changes in price and demand. Arc elasticity measures elasticity between two points. It is a measure of the average elasticity According to Watson, Arc elasticity is the elasticity at the midpoint of an arc of a demand curve. formula to measure elasticity is: ED = Q/ P (P1+P2)/ (Q1+Q2) or Change in D x Average P Average DChange in P. Where, Q= change in quantity Q1= original quantity P 1 = original price Q2= new quantity P = New price P= change in price
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2 Fill in the blanks. (Weightage-1/4) 1. --------- means the degree of responsiveness of demand to the changes in price 2. Generally income elasticity for a commodity is. 3. ep = 0 in the case of -----------elasticity 4. Tea and coffee are.goods 5. car and petrol are.goods Short answer type (Weightage -1) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What you mean by elasticity? What is price elasticity? What is income elasticity? What is cross elasticity? What is promotional elasticity?

Short essay type (Weightage -2) 1. What are the various degrees of price elasticity? 2. What is the importance of the concept of elasticity? 3. What are different types of elasticity? Essay type (Weightage -4) 1. What is elasticity of demand? State the determinants of elasticity? 2. Define elasticity of demand? Discuss various methods for measuring elasticity? Fill in the blanks. (Weightage-1/4) 2. Demand has three essentials-Desires+ Purchasing power +.
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3. . Is known as the first law in market. 4. Law of demand states that price and have..relationship. 5. .means relationship between determinants expressed mathematically.

quantity

demanded

demand

and

its

various

6. In economics, desire backed by purchasing power is called 7. The change in demand due to change in price only, where other factors remaining constant, it is called. 8. The demand changes due to changes in other factors, like taste and preferences, income, price of related goods etc , it is called . 9. Generally demand curve have slope. Short answer type (Weightage -1) 1. What is demand? 2) What is demand analysis? 3) State the law of demand? 4) What is demand schedule? 5) What is Giffen paradox? 6) What is Veblen effect? 7) Define demand function? 8) What is shift in demand? 9) What is extension and contraction? 10) What is market demand schedule? Short essay type (Weightage -2) 1. Define law of demand? What are its basic assumptions? 2. Why demand curve slopes downward?
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3. 4. 5. 6.

What are the exceptions to the law of demand? Explain the extension and contraction of demand? Explain the shift in demand? What are different types of demand?

Essay type (Weightage -4) 1) Define demand .discuss various determinants of demand? 2) Explain and illustrate shift in demand, extension and contraction of demand and make a comparative study?

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