ABSTRACT

This experiment is aimed at investigating the validity of Bernoullis equation when applied to a steady flow of water in tapered duct and to measure the flow rate, static and total pressure heads in a rigid convergent or divergent tube known geometry range of steady flow rates. The experiment was conducted in order to find the time taken to collect 3L of water, the volumetric flow rates of the water, the pressure difference at all manometer tube (static head), velocity, dynamic head and also the total head. The combination of venture meter complete with manometer tube and hydraulic bench were used. During the experiment, water is fed through a hose connector and the flow rate can be adjusted at the flow regulator valve at the outlet of the test section. The venture can be demonstrated as a means of flow measurement and the discharge coefficient can be determined the results show the reading of each manometer tubes increase when the pressure difference increases. The pressure level and velocity reading for part A to E of the tube is recorded. The relation between the increase and decrease in the pressure value is inversely proportional to its velocity. Thus, it proves the validity of Bernoullis theorem.

INTRODUCTION
Bernoullis principle is a physical principle that states that as the sped of moving fluid (liquid or gas) increases, the pressure within the fluid decreases. Bernoullis principle can be demonstrated by the Bernoulli equation. The Bernoullis is an approximate relation between pressure, velocity and elevation. It says that a radius of the pipe decrease the speed of fluid flow must increase and vice-versa. Bernoullis principle can be explained in terms of the law of conservation of energy. As a fluid moves from wider pipe into a narrower pipe or a constriction, a corresponding volume must move a greater distance forward in the narrower pipe and thus have a greater speed. At the same time, the work done by corresponding volumes in the wider and narrow pipes will be expressed by the product of the pressure and the volume. Since the speed is greater in the narrow pipe, the kinetic energy of that volume is greater. Then, by the law of conservation of energy, this increase in kinetic energy must be balanced by decrease in the pressure-volume product, or, since the volumes are equal, by a decrease in pressure. The Bernoullis equation:

+ gz = constant

OBJECTIVES
1. To investigate the validity of the Bernoulli equation when applied to the steady flow of water in a tapered duct. 2. To measure flow rates and both static and total pressure heads in a rigid convergent/divergent tube of known geometry for a range of steady flow rates.

THEORY
The specific hydraulic model used in this experiment is Bernoullis theorem demonstration apparatus.

The test section, which is provided with a number of hole-sided pressure tapings, connected to the manometers housed on the rig, is indeed an accurately machined clear acrylic duct of varying circular cross section . the tapings allow the measurement of static pressure head simultaneaously. A flow control valve is incorporated downstream of the test section.Flow rate and pressure in the apparatus may be varied independently by adjustment of the flow control alve, and the bench supply control valve. From the above figure, bernoullis principle relates much with incrompressible flow. Below is a common form or bernoullis equation, where is valid at point along a streamline when gravity is constant.

Derivation Using Streamline Coordinates Eulers equation for steady flow along a streamline is

If a fluid particle moves a distance, ds, along a streamline,

Then, after multiplying Equation 3.1 by ds,

Integration of this equation gives: The relation between pressure and density must be applied in this equation. For the special case of incompressible flow, p = constant, and Equation 3.6 becomes the Bernoullis Equation.

Restrictions: I. II. III. IV. Steady flow Incompressible flow Frictionless flow Flow along a streamline

Bernoullis Law Bernoullis law states that when a non-viscous fluid flows along a pipe with different cross section, the pressure value moves inversely with velocity. As the pipe opens out, the pressure becomes higher as the liquid slows down. When the pipe constricts, the pressure drops as the velocity increases. This is expressed with the following equation:

Where,

The terms on the left hand side of the equation represents the pressure head (h), velocity head (hv), and elevation (z), respectively. Summation of the terms is known as the total head (h*). Bernoullis theorem of fluid flow through a pipe states that the total head (h*) at any cross section is always constant. However, real flow will always deviate from theoretical due to friction, measurement error and other uncertainties. In our experimental setup, the centre line if the cross sections lies on the same horizontal plane, taken as our datum, z = 0. As all the z value is equal to zero, the equation can be represented as:

This represents the total head at a cross section. In this experiment, the pressure head is denoted as hi and the total head is denoted as h* I, where I represents the cross sections at different tapping points.

APPARATUS
Bernoullis Theorem demonstration unit: Venturi Manometer Baseboard Discharge valve Connections Hydraulic bench Water tank

GENERAL OPERATING PROCEDURE

General Start-up Procedures The Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration (Model: FM 24) is supplied ready for use and only requires connection to the Hydraulic Bench (Model: FM110) as follows: 1. The clear acrylic test section is ensured installed with the converging section upstream. The unions tightened and checked. To dismantle the test suction, the total pressure probe was withdrawn fully before the couplings being released. 2. The apparatus located on the flat top of the bench. 3. A spirit level attached to the baseboard and the unit was level on the top of the bench by adjusting the feet. 4. Water filled into the volumetric tank of the hydraulic bench until approximately 90% full. 5. The flexible inlet tube connected using the quick release coupling in the bed channel. 6. The flexible hose connected to the outlet and it directed into the channel. 7. The outlet flow control partially opened at the Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration Unit. 8. The bench flow control valve, V1 fully closed then the pump switched on. 9. V1 was gradually opened and water allowed filling until all air has been expelled from the system. 10. All the trapped bubbles checked in the glass tube or plastic transfer tube.

To remove air bubbles, the air were bleed out using a pen or screw driver to press the air bleed valve at the top right side of the manometer board.

11. Water flowing into the venturi and discharge into the collection tank of hydraulic bench. 12. The water flow rate proceeds to increased it. When all the water flow was steady and there were no trapped bubbles, the discharge valve closed to reduce the flow to the maximum measurable flow rate. 13. Water levels in the manometer were in different heights. 14. V1 and outlet control valve adjusted to obtain the flow through the test section and the static pressure profile observed along the converging and diverging sections is indicated on its respective manometers. The total head pressure along the venture tube being measured by traversing the hypodermic tube. Note: the manometer tube connected to the tapping adjacent to the outlet flow control valve is used as a datum when setting up equivalent conditions for flow through test section. 15. The actual flow rate measured by using the volumetric tank with a stop watch.

General Shut Down Procedures 1. Water supply valve and venturi discharge valve closed. 2. The water supply pump closed. 3. Water drain off from the unit when not in use.

Procedure 1. General start-up procedure is performed. 2. All manometer tubings are checked to be properly connected to the pressure taps and are air-bubble free. 3. The discharge valve is adjusted to a high measurable flow rate. 4. The water flow rate is measured using volumetric method after the level stabilizes. 5. The hypodermic tube connected to manometer #H is slide gently so that its end reaches the cross section of the Venturi tube at #A. Note down the readings from manometer #H and #A after some time. Manometer #H reading shows the sum of the static head and velocity heads which is the total (or stagnation) head (h*) because the hypodermic tube is held against the flow of fluid forcing it to a stop (zero velocity).

Manometer #A reading measures just the pressure head (hi) because it is connected to the Venturi tube pressure tap, which does not obstruct the flow, thus measuring the flow static pressure. 6. Step 5 is repeated for other cross sections (#B, #C, #D, #E, #F). 7. Step 3 to 6 is repeated with three other decreasing flow rates by regulating the venture discharge valve. 8. The velocity, ViB is calculated using the Bernoullis equation where; ViB 9. The velocity, ViC is calculated using the continuity equation where 10. The difference between two calculated velocities is determined.

Maintenance and safety precautions 1. It is important to drain all water from the apparatus when not in use. The apparatus should be stored properly to prevent damage. 2. Any manometer tube, which does not fill with water or slow fill, indicates that the tapping or connection of the manometer is blocked. To remove the obstacle, disconnected the flexible connection tube and blow through. 3. The apparatus should not be exposed to any shock and stresses. 4. Always wear protective clothing, shoes, helmet and goggles throughout the laboratory session 5. Always run the experiment after fully understand the unit and procedures.

RESULT
Experiment 1 Volume collected: 3L Time to collect: 20.39 s Flow rate: 1.47 x Cross section # h* = hH (mm) hi (mm) (m/s) (m2) A B C D E F 237 223 217 210 205 203 203 193 180 130 150 167 0.75 0.76 0.85 1.25 1.04 0.84 5.31 x 10-4 3.66 x 10-4 2.01 x 10-4 3.14 x 10-4 3.80 x 10-4 5.31 x 10-4 (m/s) 0.277 0.402 0.731 0.468 0.387 0.277 0.483 0.358 0.119 0.782 0.653 0.563 ViB (m/s) /s Using equation = Ai = Vic = ViB - Vic Continuity difference

Using Bernoulli equation

Experiment 2 Volume collected: 3L Time to collect: 11.44 s Flow rate: 2.62 x Cross section # h* = hH (mm) hi (mm) (m/s) (m2) A B C D E F 277 264 260 253 246 240 230 218 200 115 163 188 0.96 0.95 1.08 1.65 1.28 1.01 5.31 x 10-4 3.66 x 10-4 2.01 x 10
-4

/s Using equation ViB (m/s) = Ai = Vic = ViB - Vic Continuity difference

Using Bernoulli equation

(m/s) 0.49 0.72 1.30 0.83 0.69 0.49 0.47 0.23 -0.22 0.82 0.59 0.52

3.14 x 10-4 3.80 x 10-4 5.31 x 10-4

Experiment 3 Volume collected: 3L Time to collect: 6.97 s Flow rate: 4.30 x Cross section # h* = hH (mm) hi (mm) (m/s) (m2) A B C D E F 300 300 300 300 300 300 285 260 223 53 190 233 0.54 0.89 1.23 2.20 1.47 1.15 5.31 x 10-4 3.66 x 10-4 2.01 x 10
-4

/s Using equation ViB (m/s) = Ai = Vic = ViB - Vic Continuity difference

Using Bernoulli equation

(m/s) 0.81 1.17 2.14 1.37 1.13 0.81 -0.27 -0.28 -0.91 0.83 0.34 0.34

3.14 x 10-4 3.80 x 10-4 5.31 x 10-4

CALCULATIONS
Experiment 1: Flow rate of water = Sample Calculation (cross section A): Bernoulli equation: ViB = ViB = ViB = 0.75m/s Continuity equation: Ai = Ai = Ai = 5.31 x 10-4 m2 Vic = Vic = Vic = 0.277 m/s Therefore, the difference is = ViB - Vic = 0.75 m/s - 0.277 m/s = 0.483 m/s

Experiment 2: Flow rate of water = Sample Calculation (cross section A): Bernoulli equation: ViB = ViB = ViB = 0.96 m/s Continuity equation: Ai = Ai = Ai = 5.31 x 10-4 m2 Vic = Vic = Vic = 0.49 m/s Therefore, the difference is = ViB - Vic = 0.96 m/s - 0.49 m/s = 0.47 m/s

Experiment 3: Flow rate of water = Sample Calculation (cross section A): Bernoulli equation: ViB = ViB = ViB = 0.54m/s Continuity equation: Ai = Ai = Ai = 5.31 x 10-4 m2 Vic = Vic = Vic = 0.81 m/s Therefore, the difference is = ViB - Vic = 0.54 m/s - 0.81 m/s = -0.27m/s

DISCUSSION
The objectives of this experiment is to investigate the validity of the Bernoullis equation when applied to the steady flow of water in a tapered duct and to measure the flow rates and both static and total pressure heads in a rigid convergent and divergent tube of known geometry for a range of steady flow rates. This experiment is based on the Bernoullis principle which relates between velocities with the pressure for an invisid flow. In this experiment, the pressure difference is taken from hA to hF. The flow rate is determined by recording the time taken to collect 3L of water in the tank. From other collected value, the velocity, dynamic head and total head are determined. From the result obtained through this experiment , it is been observed that when the pressure difference increase, the flow rates of the water increase and thus the velocities also increase for both convergent and divergent flow. The result show a rise at each manometer tubes when the pressure difference increases. This is shown in all the result stables, where the velocity of water that flows in the tapered duct increases as the duct area decrease, regardless of the pressure difference and type of flow of each result taken. As fluid flows from a wider region to a narrower region in a pipe , the velocity of the fluid will be increase, this is proven from the experiment result where velocity of the water flowing from wider area B increase significantly when flowing to a narrow area From the results of the first test, water with velocity of 0.402 m/sat area B increases to 0.731 m/s at area C same as for second test and third test.So,it can be concluded that the diameter of the tube will affect the differences in velocity as a bigger tube will cause the difference in velocity become bigger while the smaller tube cause the velocity difference between Vib and Vic to be smaller. There must be some parallax and zero error occurs when taking the measurement of each data. The observer must have not read the level of static head properly. Moreover, the eyes are not perpendicular to the water level on the manometer. Therefore, there are some minor effects on the calculations due to the errors and this can be seen from the result obtained which there is few value calculated got negative values for Vib-Vic. Thus, this error will contribute to the different in the values obtained. Other than that, the readers must take the accurate reading from the manometers. In order to get the accurate value, the water level must be let to be really stable. Thus, patients needed in order to run this experiment successfully because sometimes the way the experiment is conduct may influence the result of the experiment.

CONCLUSION
From the experiment conducted, the total head pressure increases for both convergent and divergent flow. This is exactly following the Bernoullis principle for a steady flow of water and the velocity is along the same channel.it can be seen that as the pressure increase , the velocity of the fluid will decrease and vice versa. Thus, the theory brought about by the theorem was proven. From the result it is also proven that as the area of the tube increases, velocity calculated from the continuity equation will decrease. Thus, this proves that the area width and the velocity of a fluid flow are inversely proportional to each other. The second objectives, where the flow rates and both static and total head pressure in a rigid convergent/ divergent of known geometry for a range of steady flow rates are to be calculated, are also achieved through the experiment.

RECOMMENDATIONS
Repeat the experiment several times to get the average values. The eyes of the observer should be parallel to the water level on the manometer. Make sure the bubbles are fully removed and not left in the manometer. The valve should be controlled slowly to maintain the pressure difference. Make sure there is no leakage along the tube to avoid the water flowing out. The valve and bleed screw should regulate smoothly to reduce the errors.

REFERENCE
B.R. Munson, D.F. Young, and T.H. Okiishi,Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 3rd ed., 1998, Wileyand Sons, New York

Douglas. J.F., Gasiorek. J.M. and Swaffield, Fluid Mechanics,3rd edition, (1995), Longmans Singapore Publisher.

Giles, R.V., Evett, J.B. and Cheng Lui, Schaumms OutlineSeries Theory and Problems of Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic,(1994), McGraw-Hill intl

http://www.scribd.com/doc/131472020/Fluid-lab-2-Bernoulli-Exp

APPENDICES