PRACTICAL NO 1

AIM:~ To study soldering and desoldering of various components.

INTRODU TION:

Once a defective component needs to be isolated from the given faulty equipment, it is required to remove the defective component from the PCB & all this require a good practice of soldering & desoldering.

!O"D#RIN$ %RO #!!:

Soldering is the process of joining t o or more metals at temperature belo there melting points using filler metal !solder" having melting point belo #$%&c. 'he solder binds the metal together by chemical & physical processes. Chemically solder reacts ith small part of each metal to be joined or soldered, thus forming a ne compound. Physically the liquid solder alloy then enters the e(posed pores of the metals. Solder on cooling solidifies and forms a continuous metallic bond. )f the metals are not heated properly, solder ill not penetrate into the metal pores. *s a result solder ill solidify over the top of the pores in the metal & this result in defective joint +no n as cold solder joint

!O"D#R :

,ost of the soldering in electronics is done using tin lead alloy. Pure lead melts at -./&c here as tin melts at .-.&c and their mi(ture at 011&c hen ratio of tin & lead is 2%3#%. 'he tin lead ratio at hich the solder alloy goes directly to liquid stage is called #"# TRNONI OM%OI!ITION & resultant alloy is +no n as #UT# TI A""O&. 'his alloy is generally referred to as 2-3-/ .'he addition of antimony to this alloy increases the strength. 'he tin lead alloy is dra n into hollo ire hose centre is fi(ed ith flu(. 'his is +no n as RO!IN OR# !O"D#R. 4or general soldering 01 gauge ire solder is used.

'"U(#!:

'he soldering process requires that the surface should be totally clear so that metal to metal contact can be established. ,ost of the metals in the air form an o(ide layer hich prevents etting. 'o maintain a clean surface flu( is used. )t dissolves o(ides and allo s good soldering. 'he flu( ill also assist in the transfer of heat from the soldering iron tip t the joint area. 4lu( is imbedded in solder !rosin core solder". )t is also available in paste or liquid form .
A flu) s*ould *ave t*e follo+ing properties:

0 )t must be sufficiently active at room temperature to remove o(ides. . )t must be mobile enough to allo the solder to flo at this temperature. - )t must remove fingerprints, dirt, grease etc.
0

Traditionally flu)es can ,e grouped as:

0. 5osin based flu(es. .. 6ater soluble flu(es. -. Solvent removable synthetic flu(es. #. 7o solid flu(es. Of these rosin based flu(es are generally used for repair dissolved in some solvent. or+. 'hese consist of rosin

TINNIN$:

'he component leads may get rusted during storage. )t ill be difficult t solder such leaded components. 'hus leads of such components or ires need to be tinned. 'inning consist of the application of the thin layer of solder to the surface of metal hich could be lead of a component or copper trac+ on PCB. T*e t+o c*ief met*ods are 8 0. 9ot dip tinning. .. :sing soldering iron. Before tinning a ire, the insulation must be removed ith ire strippers. 'he first method consists of immersing the metal surface to be tinning in to hot solder bath, after application of flu(. 'his method is not used for repair or+. ;uring repair or re or+, tinning is done using soldering iron. 4irst of all flu( is applied to the surface to be tinned.

!O"D#RIN$ IRON! :

Soldering iron is used during soldering process to supply sufficient heat to melt solder by transfer of heat from soldering iron tip. 'he tip of the soldering iron is applied to a connection hich is to be soldered . T*ere are generally t*ree classes or types of soldering irons: 0. 5esistive soldering irons. .. Soldering gun. -. 'emperature controlled soldering gun.

R#!I!TI-# !O"D#RIN$ IRON:

)t is cheapest soldering iron. 'hese can not be used for precision or+ as heat produced is in e(cess then required to melt solder. 'he e(cessive heat can be very damaging PCB,S and semiconductor devices. 'his should be used in emergency and hen used should be applied for minimum of time to prevent damage of devices due to overheating. 'his consists of a copper tip hich is heated electrically by resistive coil. 'his tip acts a heat store and heat conductor.

!O"D#RIN$ $UN
Soldering gun is used for soldering heavy iring. )t is not recommended for use on PCB<S. 'his operates on the principle of resistive heating of lo resistance copper tip. 9eavy currents flo through the copper tip. Because of the current involved corrosion of attachments nut ill result in slo or no heating of the tip. )t has trigger s itch to control the application of the a.c. po er to resistive element. 'he or+ing 'emperature s reached instantaneously.
.

T#M%#RATUR# ONTRO""#D !O"D#RIN$ $UN

'he soldering irons are most suited to maintenance purposes especially hen dealing ith semiconductors components hich are li+ely to be damaged by overheating. 'his iron operates much slo ly as compared to uncontrolled iron.

!#"# TION O' !O"D#RION$ IRON :

Soldering irons are available in variety of si=es, shapes and attages. )n standard iron, the input voltage is fi(ed> this resulting temperature depends on capacity of the heating unit and si=e of the tip. ?enerally, soldering irons are selected on the basis of the input attage or the tip, idling, temperature neither of these is valid criterion for matching the right to iron to the job. )deal tip or+ing temperature is defined as the temperature range bet een appo( 2%% to /%% for most electronic assembly.

!O"D#RIN$ IRON TI% "#ANIN$ 8

)ron plated tips should be cleaned hile hot ith metal brush or ith cellulose sponge ! et" and hile cold ith a ire brush to remove o(ide film. 'hese should not be cleaned ith files, sand paper or emery cloth.

D#!O"D#RIN$:

'his operation is frequently required during maintenance for replacing a component. )t consists of removal of solder from a previously soldered joint. The following techniques are often used for this purpose.

.. U!# O' D#!O"D#RIN$ %UM%

;esoldering pump is a mechanically operated, hand held desoldering tool,. 'his tool consist of a outer shaft, piston handle and release pin and 'eflon pin. )t is designed to be held and operated in one hand. 'he pump can be disassembled and cleaned as required . The step by step procedure for desoldering is8 7oad the pump 9eat the solder connected ith soldering iron until solder melts. 9old desoldering pump lightly against the melted solder. Press the pin to vacuum solder from connection. 5eload and repeat as necessary to clean the area of solder.

/. U!# O' D#!O"D#RIN$ 0RAID

;esoldering braid is loosely oven, flu( impregnated, stranded braid of copper ire. 'he joint to be desoldered is not heated using soldering iron. 'he braid ! ic+" is heated first. 'he solder is suc+ed into the braid due to capillary action hen it is brought near joint. 'he used portion is cut and thro n a ay. )n this method soldering iron never touches the solder so prevents over heating of components.

1. U!# O' D#!O"D#RIN$ 0U"0

'his also operates on vacuum principle. 'he rubber is simply a hollo rubber ball ith heat resistant 'eflon tip. )t can be used ith any soldering iron. 'he iron is held in one hand and used to melt the solder. 'he bulb held in second hand is then squee=ed to create vacuum. 'he tip is ne(t applied to the reheated solder. Connection action that suc+s the solder up through hollo tip into bulb.
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2. U!# O' D#!O"D#RIN$ TI% AND DI% #(TRA TOR3 'his method is used for
desoldering )C<S. 9ere clips of the e(tractor are fi(ed over the chip and ;)P chip is applied at the other side of the PCB. *ll connection ill melt simultaneously. *s the e(tractor is spring loaded , the )C chip ill automatically come up once the solder melts.

!O"D#RIN$ D#'# T!:

'he defects can be classified according to their nature into major or minor defects. Some of the defects encountered during soldering are8 D#4#TTIN$3 )t occurs due to contaminated base metal surface. ;e etting of solder film as ater on greasy surface. %ARTIA" 4#TTIN$3 'his is due to incomplete coverage of the surface by solder film. 'his is usually a result of an inadequate time temperature cycle or of insufficient flu( activity.

OT5#R !O"D#RIN$ D#'# T! MA& O %RO #!! AR#8

@AC@SS SO7;@5 )C)C7@S B5);?)B? PO5OS)'C OD@5 9@*'@; EO)B'S

UR DURIN$ !O"D#RIN$

OM%ON#NT %R#%RATION AND MOUNTIN$.

Components are generally on one side of PCB. )n double sided PCB<s, the component are generally mounted usually opposite to the major conductor pattern side depending upon design. Before mounting any component it is essential to clean the surface to be soldered ith some braided cleaning tool. Component leads are bent so that component properly fit into the circuit. Bending of component should be done ith minimum stress. 'he bent leads should fit into the holes perpendicular to the board . 9ori=ontally mounted components should touch the board surface to avoid lifting of solder joint. Dertically mounted components should not be flush to the board to avoid strain on solder joint. Sealed components should be mounted in such a ay to provide a certain distance from the board as insulation coating on component is e(tended to a certain length along the leads.

PRACTICAL NO 2
AIM: To c*ec6 and measure various po+er supply voltages of pc. T*eory:
'he PC po er supply is primarily designed simply to ta+e *C from the all outlet & convert into the much lo er ;C voltages needed by the system. 6hen system shut do n, it must prevent any voltage overshoot & fluctuations so that none of sensitive circuits are e(posed to any damaging voltage fluctuation .)t must include some ay of providing cooling air flo , because of the conversion process al ays has some heat by product.

onverting A to D po+er:

'he s itching mode po er supply used in a PC is much lighter & more efficient then the more common linear mode po er supplies. Often used in the past systems, & therefore is a good choice for a po er supply. 'he first part of PC s itching po er supply is rectifier. Be(t is the s itches circuit hich chops up .the input voltage at a frequency much higher than the *C supply. 4urther more, any load fluctuation are fed bac+ to the input in such a ay as to cause s itcher circuit to adjust the input po er to the transformer so that it can maintain the output voltage to final regulator. 'he s itcher circuitry it self generate @,), hich can feed bac+ into the building *C po er & contribute to problems else here.

Output voltage supply voltage lines:

'he voltages delivered by the po er supply to the motherboard must remain stable in spite of a ide range of input *C voltage and varying load conditions
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78 volt supply:
'his is the basic supply voltage for nearly allFelectronic components. 'he $D supply is no sometimes used by motors, but usually only in smaller drives, such as G..$inchH & some -.$inch drive. 'he I$D supply ires should al ays be red in any standard PC system.)f regulated voltage is adjustable, the jumpers or s itches ill probably be found near regulator circuit.

7./- po+er supply:

'his line supplies most if not all, motors in the system, from drive motor to cooling fans. Because motors often used up to $%J more po er on start up then hile running ,the I0.D supply may sho adequate operation hile running , but be in an over loaded condition during the $ seconds or so immediately .after the system or a particular drive is turned on .

3./ - po+er supply:

'his supply line is usually used for some of the same communications circuits that use I0. D line.

38 - po+er supply:
'his voltage is no longer used by any device and is retained only the purpose of bac+ ard compatibility ith the older )S* slots. Originally, this voltage as used by some ;5*, memory chips in original PC design. ,icro channel system omitted this voltage from the po er supply entirely

71.1- po+er supply:

Starting ith the *'A designed in 0KK$ any system ith *'A compatible po er supplies include a -.- volt supply line from the po er supply to the motherboard. Currently most CP:s & ;5*, used -.-D as ell as some PC) adapter cards.

%o+er !upply ontrol !ignals:

*lthough the primary function of the po er supply is indeed to supply clean electrical po er to systems, the po er supply also interacts ith the motherboard to perform an increasing number of functions, including CP: startup, system po er do n, voltage and temperature detection and other functions.

%o+er $ood !ignal:

'he signal is actually a logic level signal designed as a po er supply output signal to the CP: circuitry, to start the CP: running.

%o+er On:
Prior to the *'A standard, *' compatible po er supplies either had the po er s itch mounted on the bac+ or side of po er supply itself ,or had a remote s itch mounted on the front panel. 'he po er on signal ire is apart of *'A standard and carries only a lo voltage logic level signal from the motherboard to the po er supply, telling it hen to turn on and hen to turn off.

PRACTICAL NO 3
AIM: To study various cards used in a system. DI!%"A& ARD :3

T*ree components in a video card 'he video card is just as important as the screen L and more often overloo+ed. ;uring the years 0KKKF.%%0 the overall quality of video adapters has been improved. @arlier there ere some very lousy products in the mar+et. 4ollo my articles to +no more of the video adapter. * video card is typically an adapter, a removable e(pansion card in the PC. 'hus, it can be replaced. 'he video card can also be an integral part of the system board this is the case in certain brands of PCs and is al ays the case in lap tops. ) have a clear preference for a replaceable video card in my stationary PC. 9o ever modern motherboard may include good integrated video chip sets. Cou just have to +no hich onesM 5egardless of hether it is replaceable or integrated, the video adapter consists of three components8 * video chip set of some brand !*'), ,atro(, Bvidia, S-, )ntel, to name some of the better +no n". 'he video chip creates the signals, hich the screen must receive to form an image. Some +ind of RAM !@;O, S?5*,, or D5*,, hich are all variations of the regular 5*,". ,emory is necessary, since the video card must be able to remember a complete screen image at any time. :sing *?P, the video card may use the main memory of the motherboard. * RAM A! F a chip converting digital3analog signals. :sing 4lat panel monitors, you do not need a the function of a 5*,;*C. Dideo cards al ays have a certain amount of 5*,. 'his 5*, is also called t*e frame ,uffer. 'oday video cards hold plenty of 5*,, but before it as more important8 9o much 5*,N 'hat is significant for color depth at the highest resolutions. 6hich type 5*,N 'his is significant for card speed. Dideo card 5*, is necessary to +eep the entire screen image in memory. 'he CP: sends its data to the video card. 'he video processor forms a picture of the screen image and stores it in the frame buffer. 'his picture is a large bit map. )t is used to continually update the screen image.

T*e Amount of RAM

Older video cards ere typically available ith 0, ., # or more ,B 5*,. 9o much is necessaryN 'hat depends primarily on ho fine a resolution you ant on your screen. 4or ordinary .; use, 02 bit colors are Ogood enough.O 7et us loo+ at 5*, needs for different resolutions8 Bote that the video 5*, is not utili"ed 1##$ for the bit map. 'herefore, 1 M% is not enough to sho a &## ' (## picture ith 1( bit colors, as the above calculation could lead you to believe. 'oday video cards come ith ) M%* & M% or +ore RAM. :sing ordinary 5*,, you sa speed improvements of the graphics card using ) M% instead of 2 M%* if the resolution only as &## ' (## or 1#2) ' ,(&. )n this case data can be ritten to and read
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from the 5*, simultaneously F using different 5*, cells. 6ith only . ,B 5*,, data sometime had to ait for a free cell.

!OUND ARD!:3
Sound cards have a minimum of four tas+s. 'hey function as8 T*e synt*esi9er 'he synthesi=er delivers the sound. 'hat is, the sound card generates the sounds. 9ere e have three systems8 4, synthesis, 4requency ,odulation 6ave table Physical modeling T*e A:D conversion: Cou need a *3; conversion, hen analog sound signals are recorded, i.e. from a microphone. 'he other ay around, the ;3*Fconverter is used hen the digital sounds have to be reproduced into a signal for the spea+ers amplifier.'he acoustic aves are collected by the microphone and lead to the sound card. 9ere it is converted into series of digital pulses, hich eventually are saved in a file. 'his ay a sampling is an analogFtoFdigital conversion8 !ampling *s mentioned is the basic concept of digital recording of sound is called sampling. Cou can record any sound you ant into a sample !a 6av file" if you have a sound card and a microphone. 'he sampling can be done in various qualities8 1 bit or 02 bit sampling 00, .. or ## P9= !+ilohert=" Stereo or mono 'he number of +ilohert= tells ho many thousand times per second the sound ill be recorded.

"AN ARD! :3

7*B card is used in net or+ing. )t accepts the analog signal from one pc and transfers it to another through a cable. 'his cable is generally t isted pair or category $. 7*B card or+s on the voltage of -12 volts it mount in the t o slots, in the latest configuration these are mounted in the PC) slots, on the receiving end it receive the data in the analog form and convert it into the equivalent digital form hich ill be stored in the buffer of the system. 'he connector of the cable generally in round shape female connector the data transfer speed of the 7*B card generally vary according to the models. 'he cloc+ used by the 7*B card control on its o n level.

PRACTICAL NO )
AIM: To remove; study and replace 5ard dis6 drive.

T*eory:

9ard dis+s ere invented in the 0K$%s. 9ard dis+s have a hard platter that holds the magnetic medium, as opposed to the fle(ible plastic film found in tapes and floppies. *t the simplest level, a hard dis+ is not that different from a cassette tape. Both hard dis+s and cassette tapes use the same magnetic recording techniques. 9ard dis+s and cassette tapes also share the major benefits of magnetic storage FF the magnetic medium can be easily erased and re ritten, and it ill OrememberO the magnetic flu( patterns stored onto the medium for many years. * modern hard dis+ is able to store an ama=ing amount of information in a small space. * hard dis+ can also access any of its information in a fraction of a second. * typical des+top machine ill have a hard dis+ ith a capacity of bet een 0% and #% gigabytes. ;ata is stored onto the dis+ in the form of files. * file is simply a named collection of bytes. 'he bytes might be the *SC)) codes for the characters of a te(t file, or they could be the instructions of a soft are application for the computer to e(ecute, or they could be the records of a data base, or they could be the pi(el colors for a ?)4 image. Bo matter hat it contains, ho ever, a file is simply a string of bytes. 6hen a program running on the computer requests a file, the hard dis+ retrieves its bytes and sends them to the CP: one at a time. There are two ways to +easure the perfor+ance of a hard dis.: ata rate F 'he data rate is the number of bytes per second that the drive can deliver to the CP:. 5ates bet een $ and #% megabytes per second are common. /ee. ti+e F 'he see+ time is the amount of time bet een hen the CP: requests a file and hen the first byte of the file is sent to the CP:. 'imes bet een 0% and .% milliseconds are common.

'he platters typically spin at -2%% or /.%% rpm hen the drive is operating. 'hese platters are manufactured to ama=ing tolerances and are mirrorFsmooth. )n order to increase the amount of information the drive can store, most hard dis+s have multiple platters. *nnotated illustration of a typical PC actuator assembly, sho ing the major components. 'he platters have been removed from the drive to provide a better vie of the actuator arms and heads. 'here are four sliders but only one of each pair is visible. 'he spindle motor is visible at the top right. 'he arm that holds the read3 rite heads is controlled by the mechanism in the upperFleft corner, and is able to move the heads from the hub to the edge of the drive. 'he arm and its movement mechanism are e(tremely light and fast. 'he arm on a typical hardFdis+ drive can move from hub to edge and bac+ up to $% times per second. ;ata is stored on the surface of a platter in sectors and trac+s. 'rac+s are concentric circles, and sectors are pieFshaped edges on a trac+. * sector contains a fi(ed number of bytes FF for e(ample, .$2 or $0.. @ither at the drive or the operating system level, sectors are often grouped together into clusters. 'he process of lo Flevel formatting a drive establishes the trac+s and sectors on the platter. 'he starting and ending points of each sector are ritten onto the platter. 'his process prepares the drive to hold bloc+s of bytes. 9ighFlevel formatting then rites the fileFstorage structures, li+e the fileF allocation table, into the sectors. 'his process prepares the drive to hold files. 'he data bus connecting hard dis+ to the motherboard is of -. bits & -K pins. 'he po er supply from the S,PS is a # pin supply that goes into the hard dis+. Eumper settings for the various configurations of the hard dis+ are sho n belo 8

<umper setting

);@3*'* hard dis+s are fairly standard in terms of jumpers. 'here are usually only a fe and they donQt vary greatly from drive to drive. 9ere are the jumpers you ill normally find8 rive /elect8 Since there can be t o drives !master and slave" on the same );@ channel, a jumpers is normally used to tell each drive if it should function as a master or slave on the );@ channel. 4or a single drive on a channel, most manufacturers instruct that the drive be jumpered as master, hile some manufacturers !notably 6estern ;igital" have a separate setting for a single drive as opposed to a master on a channel ith a slave. 'he terms OmasterO and OslaveO are misleading since the drives really have no operational relationship. /lave 0resent8 Some drives have an additional jumper that is used to tell a drive configured as master that there is also a slave drive on the *'* channel. 'his is only required for some older drives that donQt support standard master3slave );@ channel signaling. !able /elect8 Some configurations use a special cable to determine hich drive is master and hich is slave, and hen this system is used a cable select jumper is normally enabled. /i"e Restriction 1u+per8 Some larger hard dis+ drives donQt or+ properly in older PCs that donQt have a B)OS program modern enough to recogni=e them. 'o get around this, some drives have special jumpers that, hen set, ill cause them to appear as a smaller si=e than they really are to the B)OS, for compatibility. 4or e(ample, some ..$ ?B hard dis+s have a jumper that ill cause them to appear as a ..0 ?B hard dis+ to a system that onQt support anything over ..0 ?B. 'hese are also sometimes called capacity limitation jumpers and vary from manufacturer to manufacturer.
0%

'he most common interface for PC hard dis+s is called ID#, hich in fact stands for Integrated Drive #lectronics. 'his name is something of a misnomer today. 6hen it as introduced, );@ as distinguished from the other interfaces of the day by having the integrated electronics on the drive, instead of on the controller card plugged into the system bus li+e older interfaces. 9o ever, the term really refers to here the control logic is and not the interface itself, and since all hard dis+s today use integrated electronics the name doesnQt mean anything any more, despite the fact that everyone continues to use it. 'he other popular PC hard dis+ interface today, /!/2* also uses drives that have integrated controllers. 'he more correct name for the );@ interface is AT Attac*ment or ATA.

0. .. -. #. $.

%rocedure:
S itch off the main po er supply. 'a+e out the data bus & the po er supply from the hard dis+, gently. :nscre the hard dis+ & ta+e it out ith e(treme care. Bo put the hard dis+ bac+ in & scre up. Plug in the data bus & po er supply & ma+e sure that the connections are precise.

'itting t*e 5ard Dis6 Drive

:npac+ the 9;;. ,a+e sure at this stage that you have your antiFstatic measures in place, and even briefly ma+e contact ith both hands on the metal of the case to ma+e sure. 7ocate the );@ Configuration Pins on the 9;;. 'hese can usually be found ne(t to the po er and data connections, and ill be a group of si( or eight small pins ith a small plastic QjumperQ attached bet een t o of the pins. )f this is to be the only 9;; in your PC, then set this to ,aster. *lternatively, if this is to be an additional 9;; then it must be set to Slave. 'he 9ard ;rive differs from the 4loppy ;rive in that it is usually inserted from ithin the PC case. On one end of the 9ard ;rive ill be the soc+ets for connecting the cables. 'his end must point into the case such that the cables can be connected later on. ?ently slide the 9ard ;rive into the bay that no holds the floppy drive above. ,ove the drive around until you find the fi(ing points and use the standard scre s to secure it. Clear any obstructions to this insertion from inside the case if necessary.

00

PRACTICAL NO 5
AIM: To remove; study and replace D ROM drive. T*eory: T*e Optic Medias = D ROM>s and D-D?
C; 5O, and ;D; are optic readable media, contrary to hard dis+s, floppy dis+s and tapes, hich are magnetic. 'he optic storage media are read ith a very thin and very precisely aimed laser beam. 'hey supplement the magnetic media. 'hey have clear advantages in the areas of data density and stability8 ;ata can be pac+ed much more densely in an optic media than in a magnetic media. *nd they have much longer life span. )t is presumed that a magnetic media, such as a hard dis+ or ;*' !digital audio tape" can maintain their data for a ma(imum of five years. 'he magnetism simply fades a ay in time. Conversely, the life span of optic media is counted in tens of years.

T*e ompact Dis6

'he compact dis+ !C;" as introduced by Philips and Sony in 0K1% to replace 7P records. )t is a small plastic dis+ ith a reflecting metal coating, usually aluminum. ,yriadQs of tiny indentations are burned into this coating. 'hese indentations contain the music in millions of bits. 'he C; is organi=ed in trac+s. @ach trac+ is assigned a number. 'he big advantage of the C; is its highFquality music reproduction and total absence of bac+ ground noise as ell as a great dynamic. ;uring operation, the soft are in the drive can correct errors caused by such things as finger mar+s on the dis+. *ll in all, the C; is an e(cellent music storage media.

T*e D3ROM

'he C;F5O, !5ead Only ,emory" came as an e(tension of the C; in 0K1#. )n principle, the media and the drives are the same. 'he difference is in the data storage organi=ation. )n a C;F5O,, the data are stored in sectors, hich can be read independently F 7i+e from a hard dis+. 'he C;F5O, has become an important media in the PC orld. )t can hold 2$% ,B of data, and it is very ine(pensive to produce. 'oday, there are three types of C; drives and ;D; drives are on their ay8 7et us start by loo+ at the C;F5O, construction. 'o facilitate understanding, it ill be easiest to compare it ith other dis+ types, especially the hard dis+. 'he C;F5O, is a plastic dis+ of #.2O diameter. )t is placed in a C;F5O, drive, hich is li+e a dra er in the PC cabinet 8 6hen the C;F5O, dis+ is placed in the drive, it starts to spin the dis+. )t reaches operating speed in

one to t o seconds. 'hen the drive is ready to read from the dis+.

0.

A,out Optic Data !torage

'he C;F5O, can be compared to a floppy drive, because the dis+s are removable. )t can also be compared ith a hard drive, because of similar data storage capacity. *ctually, a C;F5O, dis+ can hold up to 21% ,B of data. 'his equals the capacity of #/% floppy dis+s. 9o ever, the C; 5O, is neither a floppy nor a hard dis+M 6hile floppy and hard dis+s are magnetic media, the C;F5O, is an optic media. 'he magnetic media or+ in principle li+e an audio cassette tape player. 'hey have a read3 rite head, hich reads or rites magnetic impressions on the dis+. 'he magnetic media contains myriads of microscopic magnets, hich can be polari=ed to represent a =ero or numeral one !one bit". )n the optic readable C;F5O,, the data storage consists of millions of indentations burnt into the lacquerFcoated, lightFreflecting silver surface. 'he burnt dents reflect less light than the shiny surface. * ea+ laser beam is sent to the dis+ through a t oF ay mirror and the sensor registers the difference in light reflection from the burnt and shiny areas as =eroQs and oneQs.

Rotation speed and data transmission

'here are different generations of C;F5O, drives. 9ere you see their data. C;F5O, 'ype 0A .A #A 1A 0.AF.#A ;ata 'ransfer Speed 0$%+b3sec -%% +b3sec 2%% +b3sec 0..,B3Sec 0.1 L -.2 ,B3Sec
5P, OutmostFinnermost 'rac+

.%%F$-% #%%F0%2% 1%%F.0.% 02%%F#.#% .#%%F2-2%

'he ne drives are .#A and -.A spin. 6hen you see their rotation speeds, you onder ho much further this technology can be advanced. 'he hard dis+ can spin at high speeds, because it operates in sealed bo(. 'he C; does not.

0. .. -. #. $.

%rocedure:
S itch off the main po er supply. 'a+e out the data bus & the po er supply from the drive, gently. :nscre the C; 5O, & ta+e it out ith e(treme care. Bo put it bac+ in the cabinet from the front & scre up. Plug in the data bus & po er supply & ma+e sure that the connections are precise.

0-

PRACTICAL NO - (
AIM: To o,serve and study various ca,les; connections used in computer communication.

4*at is Net+or6 a,ling@ Cable is the medium through hich information usually moves
from one net or+ device to another. 'here are several types of cable hich are commonly used ith 7*Bs. )n some cases, a net or+ ill utili=e only one type of cable, other net or+s ill use a variety of cable types. 'he type of cable chosen for a net or+ is related to the net or+Qs topology, protocol, and si=e. :nderstanding the characteristics of different types of cable and ho they relate to other aspects of a net or+ is necessary for the development of a successful net or+. Uns*ielded T+isted %air =UT%? a,le ' isted pair cabling comes in t o varieties8 shielded and unshielded. :nshielded t isted pair !:'P" is the most popular and is generally the best option for school net or+s .'he quality of :'P may vary from telephoneFgrade ire to e(tremely highFspeed cable. 'he cable has four pairs of ires inside the jac+et. @ach pair is t isted ith a different number of t ists per inch to help eliminate interference from adjacent pairs and other electrical devices. 'he tighter the t isting, the higher the supported transmission rate and the greater the cost per foot. 'he @)*3')* !@lectronic )ndustry *ssociation3'elecommunication )ndustry *ssociation" has established standards of :'P and rated five categories of ire. Buy the best cable you can afford> most schools purchase Category - or Category $. )f you are designing a 0% ,bps @thernet net or+ and are considering the cost savings of buying Category - ire instead of Category $, remember that the Category $ cable ill provide more Oroom to gro O as transmission technologies increase. Both Category - and Category $ :'P have a ma(imum segment length of 0%% meters. )n 4lorida, Category $ cable is required for retrofit grants. 0%Base' refers to the specifications for unshielded t isted pair cable !Category -, #, or $" carrying @thernet signals. Category 2 is relatively ne and is used for gigabit connections.

Uns*ielded T+isted %air onnector

'he standard connector for unshielded t isted pair cabling is an 5EF#$ connector. 'his is a plastic connector that loo+s li+e a large telephoneFstyle connector !See fig. .". * slot allo s the 5EF#$ to be inserted only one ay. 5E stands for 5egistered Eac+, implying that the connector follo s a standard borro ed from the telephone industry. 'his standard designates hich ire goes ith each pin inside the connector.

!*ielded T+isted %air =!T%? a,le

* disadvantage of :'P is that it may be susceptible to radio and electrical frequency interference. Shielded t isted pair !S'P" is suitable for environments ith electrical interference> ho ever, the e(tra shielding can ma+e the cables quite bul+y. Shielded t isted pair is often used on net or+s using 'o+en 5ing topology.

oa)ial a,le

Coa(ial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. * plastic layer provides insulation bet een the center conductor and a braided metal shield !See fig. -". 'he metal shield helps to bloc+ any outside interference from fluorescent lights, motors, and other computers.
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*lthough coa(ial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal interference. )n addition, it can support greater cable lengths bet een net or+ devices than t isted pair cable. 'he t o types of coa(ial cabling are thic+ coa(ial and thin coa(ial.'hin coa(ial cable is also referred to as thinnet. 0%Base. refers to the specifications for thin coa(ial cable carrying @thernet signals. 'he . refers to the appro(imate ma(imum segment length being .%% meters. )n actual fact the ma(imum segment length is 01$ meters. 'hin coa(ial cable is popular in school net or+s, especially linear bus net or+s.'hic+ coa(ial cable is also referred to as thic+net. 0%Base$ refers to the specifications for thic+ coa(ial cable carrying @thernet signals. 'he $ refers to the ma(imum segment length being $%% meters. 'hic+ coa(ial cable has an e(tra protective plastic cover that helps +eep moisture a ay from the center conductor. 'his ma+es thic+ coa(ial a great choice hen running longer lengths in a linear bus net or+. One disadvantage of thic+ coa(ial is that it does not bend easily and is difficult to install.

oa)ial a,le onnectors

'he most common type of connector used ith coa(ial cables is the BayoneFBeillFConcelman !BBC" connector !See fig. #". ;ifferent types of adapters are available for BBC connectors, including a 'Fconnector, barrel connector, and terminator. Connectors on the cable are the ea+est points in any net or+. 'o help avoid problems ith your net or+, al ays use the BBC connectors that crimp, rather than scre , onto the cable.

'i,er Optic a,le

fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by several layers of protective materials !See fig. $". )t transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the problem of electrical interference. 'his ma+es it ideal for certain environments that contain a large amount of electrical interference4acts about fiber optic cables8 Outer insulating jac+et is made of 'eflon or PDC. Pevlar fiber helps to strengthen the cable and prevent brea+age. * plastic coating is used to cushion the fiber center. Center !core" is made of glass or plastic fibers.

'i,er Optic onnector

'he most common connector used ith fiber optic cable is an S' connector. )t is barrel shaped, similar to a BBC connector. * ne er connector, the SC, is becoming more popular. )t has a squared face and is easier to connect in a confined space.

Installing a,le 3 !ome $uidelines

6hen running cable, it is best to follo a fe simple rules8

*l ays use more cable than you need. 7eave plenty of slac+. 'est every part of a net or+ as you install it. @ven if it is brand ne , it may have problems that ill be difficult to isolate later. Stay at least - feet a ay from fluorescent light bo(es and other sources of electrical interference. )f it is necessary to run cable across the floor, cover the cable ith cable protectors. 7abel both ends of each cable. :se cable ties !not tape" to +eep cables in the same location together.
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Net+or6 ommunication devices

* 7*B comprises of different communication devices across the net or+ such as the follo ing 8 Repeater : * ;evice that amplifies and regenerates signals , so that they can travel for longer distance on the cable. Router : 'he basic function of the router is to route the traffic from one net or+ to another net or+ efficiently. )t provide intelligent redundancy and security required to select the optimum path. :sually routers are used for connecting remote net or+s. 3ub : * typical hub is a multiFport repeater. 'he signals received at the bac+bone is regenerated and transmitted to all other ports. /witch : 'his is a device ith multiple ports hich for ards pac+ets from one port to another. )n case of 0%,bps @thernet s itch, each port supports dedicated 0%,bps band idth. @thernet s itch is fast emerging as a replacement of the traditional thic+ bac+bone and best ay to improve performance of the net or+

02

PRACTICAL NO 7
AIM: To remove; study and replace floppy dis6 drive. T*eory:
'he floppy dis+ drive !4;;" as the primary means of adding data to a computer until the C;F 5O, drive became popular. )n fact, 4;;s have been a +ey component of most personal computers for more than .% years. Basically, a floppy dis+ drive reads and rites data to a small, circular piece of metalFcoated plastic similar to audio cassette tape. Dery fe PCQs are ithout a floppy drive. ;is+ettes ere developed as a lo cost alternative to hard dis+s. )n the 2%Qs and /%Qs, hen hard dis+ prices ere e(orbitant, it as unthin+able to use them in anything but mainframe and mini computers. 'he first dis+ettes ere introduced in 0K/0. 'hey ere 1O diameter plastic dis+s ith a magnetic coating, enclosed in a cardboard case. 'hey had a capacity of one megabyte. 'he dis+ettes are placed in a drive, hich has read and rite heads. Conversely to hard dis+s, the heads actually touch the dis+, li+e in a cassette or video player. 'his ears the media. 7ater, in 0K/2, $..$O dis+ettes ere introduced. 'hey had far less capacity !only 02% PB to begin ith". 9o ever, they ere ine(pensive and easy to or+ ith. 4or many years, they ere the standard in PCQs. 7i+e the 1O dis+ettes, the $..$O ere soft and fle(ible. 'herefore, they ere named floppy disks. )n 0K1/ )B,Qs revolutionary PS3. PCQs ere introduced and ith them the -RO hard dis+ettes e +no today. 'hese dis+ettes have a thinner magnetic coating, allo ing more trac+s on a smaller surface. 'he trac+ density is measured in 'P) !trac+s per inch". 'he 'P) has been increased from #1 to K2 and no 0-$ in the -.$O dis+ettes. ;is+ette drives turn at -%% 5P,. 'hat results in an average search time !R revolutions" of 0%% ms.

T*e floppy controller

*ll dis+ette drives are governed by a controller. 'he original PC controller as named B@C P;/2$. 'oday, it is included in the chip set, but functions li+e a /2$. )t is a programmable chip. )t can be programmed to handle all the various floppy drive types8 $..$O or -.$O drives, ;; or 9; etc. 'he controller has to be programmed at each start up. )t must be told hich drives to control. 'his programming is performed by the start up programs in 5O, !read module .a". So you donQt have to identify available drive types at each start up, these drive parameters are saved in C,OS 5*,. 'he floppy controller reads data from the dis+ette media in serial mode !one bit at a time li+e from hard dis+s". ;ata are delivered in parallel mode !02 bits at a time" to 5*, via a ;,* channel. 'hus, the drives should be able to operate ithout CP: supervision. 9o ever, in reality this does not al ays or+. ;ata transfer from a dis+ette drive can delay and sometimes free=e the hole PC, so no other operations can be performed simultaneously.

%arts of a 'loppy Dis6 Drive:

T*e Dis6
1. * floppy dis+ is a thin plastic base material coated ith iron o(ide. 'his o(ide is a ferromagnetic material, meaning that if it is e(posed to a magnetic field it is permanently magneti=ed by the field.
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2. )t can record information instantly. 3. )t can be erased and reused many times. ). 'hese are very ine(pensive and easy to use.

T*e Drive:3 'he major parts of a 4;; include8

Read45rite 3eads: 7ocated on both sides of a dis+ette, they move together on the same assembly. 'he heads are not directly opposite each other in an effort to prevent interaction bet een rite operations on each of the t o media surfaces. 'he same head is used for reading and riting, hile a second, ider head is used for erasing a trac+ just prior to it being ritten. 'his allo s the data to be ritten on a ider Oclean slate,O ithout interfering ith the analog data on an adjacent trac+. rive Motor: * very small spindle motor engages the metal hub at the center of the dis+ette, spinning it at either -%% or -2% rotations per minute !5P,". /tepper Motor: 'his motor ma+es a precise number of stepped revolutions to move the read3 rite head assembly to the proper trac+ position. 'he read3 rite head assembly is fastened to the stepper motor shaft. Mechanical 6ra+e: * system of levers that opens the little protective indo on the dis+ette to allo the read3 rite heads to touch the dualFsided dis+ette media. *n e(ternal button allo s the dis+ette to be ejected, at hich point the springFloaded protective indo on the dis+ette closes. !ircuit %oard: Contains all of the electronics to handle the data read from or ritten to the dis+ette. )t also controls the stepperFmotor control circuits used to move the read3 rite heads to each trac+, as ell as the movement of the read3 rite heads to ard the dis+ette surface.

Tools &ou May Need :

;epending on the design of you computer, you may need the follo ing tools to complete the installation * 4lat blade scre driver * Phillips scre driver BeedleFnosed pliers

5andling t*e ..22A 'loppy Drive :

Cour 0.## drive must be handled ith care. *void applying undue force or abnormal strain to the spindle motor, stepping motor or printed circuit board. *void placing your fingers on the printed circuit board. )t is best to hold the 0.## drive by the diecast frame, as indicated by the arro s in 4igure *. Bever loosen the fi(ing scre of the printed circuit board, etc.

Applications:
hile rarely used to distribute soft are !as in the past", are still used in these

4loppy dis+s, applications8

0. 4or soft are recovery after a system crash or a virus attac+ .. 6hen data from one computer is needed on a second computer and the t o computers are not net or+ed.
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-. )n bootable dis+ettes used for updating the B)OS on a personal computer #. )n highFdensity form, used in the popular Sip drive.

%rocedure:

0. S itch off the main po er supply. .. 'a+e out the data bus & the po er supply from the 4;;, gently. -. :nscre the 4;; & ta+e it out ith e(treme care. #. Bo put the 4;; bac+ in & scre up. $. Plug in the data bus & po er supply & ma+e sure that the connections are precise.

0K

PRACTICAL NO &
AIM: To study t*e monitor; its circuitry and various presets and some elementary fault detection. MONITOR A0 s
'he monitor is a hard are device hich physically connects to your CP:. 'he monitor allo s information and current status be be visually outputted similar to a 'D. 7i+e most 'Ds the computer monitor has a C5' or Cathode 5ay 'ube hich found inside the computer monitor as illustrated in the above picture. 'he C5' is the main component and most e(pensive part ithin your computer monitor. 6ithin the C5' are three electron guns, 5ed, ?reen and Blue. @ach of these guns streams a steady flo of electrons left to right for each line of your monitor. *s the electrons hit the phosphors on the C5' the phosphor ill glo certain intensities. *s a ne line begins the guns ill then begin at the left and continue right, these guns ill repeat this process sometimes thousands of time until the screen has been completely dra n line by line. Once the phosphors on the C5' have been hit ith an electron they ill only glo for a short period of time, because of this the C5' must be refreshed hich means the process ill be repeated as e(plained above. )f the video cards refresh rate is not set high enough you may encounter a flic+er or a noticeable steady line scrolling from the top to the bottom of your screen. )f you are encountering this issue, resolutions have been described on our video card page.

DOT %IT 5

'he dot pitch is a measurement> measured in millimeters hich is the amount of space bet een the phosphors on a computer monitor screen. 'he smaller the number of dot pitches the sharper the image.

$5O!T : 0URN

)f monitors especially older C?* 3 @?* monitors are left on for long durationQs of time as the electron beams cause the phosphors to glo . )f the electron guns continue to do this for thousands of hours refreshing the same images this can cause the images to be burnt into the C5' surface causing a ghost image to appear. 'his image ill become permanently displayed on your monitor for the duration of its life.* resolution to this problem is screen savers, hich is a program hich generates a random set of images, lines or other methods of allo ing the image to not remain static hile the computer is not being used.6hile ne monitors !D?* 3 SD?*" do not have this issue screen savers are still commonly used today, you can find screen savers in our screen saver do nload section.

MONITOR ONTRO"!

'he follo ing is additional information on the li+ely monitor controls on your monitor. :sing these controls you can help improve the quality and layout of the picture on your monitor for better vie ing pleasure. Please +eep in mind that not all Monitors will have all of the available buttons.

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0ower 7 'urns the monitor on 3 off. %rightness F :sing this button or heel the user can increase and decrease the brightness on the screen. !ontrast F :sing this button or heel can increase and decrease the amount of contrast on the screen. 3ori"ontal /i"e F *llo s for the picture on the screen to be stretched to the hori=ontal edge of the monitor. 8ertical /i"e F *llo s the picture on the screen to be stretched to the vertical edges of the monitor. 3ori"ontal 0osition F *llo s the picture to move moved hori=ontally, once in the center the user can then use the 9ori=ontal si=e to stretch it to have an equal amount of blac+ border on each side. 8ertical 0osition F 7i+e the 9ori=ontal Position, using this button or heel the user can move the picture up or do n to center the picture more appropriately. 6ull /creen F Sets monitor to full screen egauss F 'his button ill demagneti=e the C5' restoring possible color impurities. *fter this button has been pressed the degaussing circuit ill be activated and then deactivated after a fe seconds. Pressing and holding this button for a fe seconds may cause your computer monitor to reset all data. !orner 4 Trape"oid !orrection F :sing this button or heel the user can either round the edges of the picture or move the picture in ard li+e an hour glass or out ards. 8ertical 9inearity F Sets the idth of the vertical lines. Moir: F 5emoves or reduces the effect if any. ;/ !ontrols F )f the monitor contains OS; controls allo s for the OS; menus to be adjusted. 0ower Manage+ent F *llo s the user to define the po er management settings through the monitor itself and not the soft are. Monitor /tatus F ;isplays the current monitor settings such as refresh rate and other settings. 9anguage F Sets the language on the monitor.

MINIMUM R#!O"UTION

'he si=e is an important factor of the computers running resolution. 6hen pic+ing the resolution try basing it off the monitor<s si=e for best use.

0-Finch 0$Finch 0/Finch .0Finch

2#% ( #1% 1%% ( 2%% 0,%.# ( /21 0,.1% ( 0,%.#

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