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US005917195A

United States Patent [19]


Brown
[54] PHONON RESONATOR AND METHOD FOR ITS PRODUCTION

[11] Patent Number:


[45] Date 0f Patent:

5,917,195
Jun. 29, 1999

Perera et al., Far infrared detection With a Sipi interface

and multilayer structures, vol. 14, No. 1, ISSN 07496036,


pp. 123128, 1993.

[75]

Inventor:

Thomas G. Brown, Rochester, NY.

[73] Assignee: B.A. Painter, III, Troutville, Va.

SpitZer et al., Raman scattering by optical phonons in isotopic 7O(Ge)n 74(Ge)n Superlattices, vol. 72, No. 10, ISSN
00319007, pp. 15651568, Mar. 7, 1994.

Anthony et al., Thermal Diffusivity of Isotopically

[21] Appl. N0.: 08/393,380


[22]
[51]

Filed:

Feb. 17, 1995

Int. Cl.6 ................................................... .. H01L 29/15

[52]
[58]

US. Cl. ............................... .. 257/22; 257/17; 257/20;

Enriched 12 C Diamond, Physical RevieW B, vol. 42, No. 2, pp. 11041111, Jul. 15, 1990I. Arai et al., Practical Separation of Silicon Isotopes by IRMPD of Si2F6, Appl. Phys. B 53, pp. 199202, 1991. BereZin, On the possibility of Isotope Ordering and Isoto

257/21; 257/97; 257/197


Field of Search ................................ .. 257/1519, 22,

pic Superlattices, J. Phys. C: Solid State Phys. 20,


L219L221, 1987.

257/94, 96, 97
[56] References Cited
U.S. PATENT DOCUMENTS
4,344,984 8/1982 Kaplan et al. .

BereZin, Isotopic Superlattices and Isotopically Ordered


Structures, Solid State Communications, vol. 65, No. 8, pp. 819821, 1988.
BereZin, Isotopic Disorder as a Limiting Factor for the

Mobility of Charge Carriers, Chemical Physics Letters, vol.


110, pp. 385387, No. 4, Oct. 5, 1984.
Buschert et al., Effect of Isotope Concentration on the

4,349,796
4,469,977

9/1982 Chin et al..


9/1984 Quinn et al. .

4,505,791
4,591,889

3/1985 Angeli .
5/1986
9/1990 4/1991

Gossard et al. ......................... .. 257/15


Gell ......................................... .. 257/19 Goronkin ................................ .. 257/15

Lattice Parameter of Germanium Perfect Crystals, Physical RevieW B, vol. 38, No. 8, pp. 52195221, Sep. 15, 1998I.
(List continued on neXt page.)
Primary ExaminerGene M. Munson Attorney, Agent, or FirmBrenda Herschbach J arrell; Sam Pasternack; Choate, Hall & SteWart

4,785,340
4,959,694 5,012,302

11/1988 Nakagawa et al. .

5,061,970 5,144,409 5,336,901 5,436,468

10/1991 9/1992 8/1994 7/1995

Goronkin . Ma . Tsuchiya ................................. .. 257/96 Nakata et al. .......................... .. 257/22

[57]

ABSTRACT

FOREIGN PATENT DOCUMENTS

A structure of periodically varying density is provided, that


55-93256 A 56-164588 61-274322 63-115385 A 63-115385 A 63-115385 63-269573 A 01 015687 7/1980 4/1982 12/1986 5/1988 5/1988 9/1988 11/1988 5/1989 Japan Japan Japan Japan Japan Japan Japan Japan . . . . . . . .

acts as a phonon resonator for phonons capable of partici

pating in phonon-electron interactions. Speci?cally, a phonon resonator that is resonant for phonons of appropriate
momentum to participate in indirect radiative transitions

and/or inter Zone intervalley scattering events is provided. Preferably, the structure is an isotope superlattice, most preferably of silicon. The structure of the present invention

OTHER PUBLICATIONS

has improved optical, electrical, and/or heat transfer prop


erties. A method of preparing a the structure of the present

MiZuno et al., Theory of acousticphonon transmission in ?nitesiZe superlattice systems, vol. 45, No. 2, ISSN 01631829, pp. 734741, Jan. 1, 1992.

invention is also provided.

33 Claims, 15 Drawing Sheets

28Si
,

28Si

28Si

soSi

3oSi

308i
7 28 Si

30Si
2831

30Si 308i
Interface

28Si

28Si
285i
\

28si
205i

28si
205i
J

5,917,195
Page 2
OTHER PUBLICATIONS

Clark et a1., Silane Puri?cation Via Laserinduced Chern

istry, Appl. Phys. Lett, 32(1), pp. 4649, Jan. 1, 1978.


Cohen, Band Structures and Pseudopotential Forrn Factors
for Fourteen Serniconductors of the Diamond and

Iyer et a1., Light Ernission frorn Silicon, Science, vol. 260, pp. 4046, Apr. 2, 1993. Karnioka et a1., IsotopeSelective Infrared Multiple Photon

Decornpostion of HeXa?uorodisilane, J. Phys. Chern., 90,


pp. 57275730, 1986. Klein, Phonons in Serniconductor Superlattices, IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, vol. QE22, No. 9, pp.

Zincb1ende Structure, Physical RevieW, vol. 141, No. 2,


pp. 789796, Jan. 1966.

Collins et a1., Indirect Energy Gap of 13C Diarnond, vol. 65, No. 7, pp. 891894. Aug. 13, 1990.

Dohler et a1., Doping Superlattices (nipi Crystals),


Journal of Quantum Electronics, vol. QE22, No. 9, pp.

16821695, Sep. 1986.


Egarni et a1., Lattice Effect of Strong Electron Correlation:

17601770, Sep. 9, 1986. Koblinger et a1., Phonon Stop Bands in Arnorphous Super lattices, Physical RevieW B, vol. 35, No. 17, pp. 93729375, Jun. 125, 1987I.
Liu et al., A RHEED Study of the Surface Reconstructions

Implication for Ferroelectricity and Superconductivity,


Science, vol. 261, pp. 13071310, Sep. 3, 1993. Epling et a1., Isotope Enrichrnent by Photolysis on Ordered Surfaces, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1981, 103, pp. 12381240,
1981. Esaki et al., A BirdsEye VieW on the Evolution of

of Si(001) During Gas Source MBE Using Disilane, Sur


face Science 264, pp. 301311, 1992. Lyrnan et a1., Enrichment of Boron, Carbon, and Silicon

Isotopes by MultiplePhoton Absorption of 10.6prn Laser


Radiation, Journal of Applied Physics, vol. 47, No. 2, pp. 595601, Feb. 1976. Nierninen, Hydrogen Atorns Bond Together, Nature, vol. 356, pp. 289290, Mar. 26, 1992. Nilsson et a1., Study of the Hornology betWeen Silicon and

Semiconductor Superlattices and Quantum Wells, Journal of Quantum Electronics, vol. QE22, No. 9, pp. 16111624, Sep. 1986.
Etchegoin et al. Phonons in isotopically disorded Ge Physical RevieW B, vol. 48, No. 17, Nov. 1, 1993I.

Germanium by TherrnalNeutron Spectrornetry, Physical


RevieW B, vol. 6, No. 10, Nov. 15, 1972. Olander, The Gas Centrifuge, Scienti?c Arnerican, vol. 239, No. 2, pp. 3743, Aug. 1978.

Fuchs et a1., Anharrnonic Decay Tirne, Isotopic Scattering Time, and Inhornogeneous Line Broadening of Optical phonons in 70Ge, 76Ge, and natural Ge Crystals, Physical
RevieW B, vol. 44, pp. 86338642, No. 16, Oct. 15, 1991II.
Fuchs et a1., Infrared Absorption in 76 Ge and Natural Ge

Presting et a1., Ultrathin SimGen Strained Layer Superlat


ticesa Step ToWards Si Optoelectronics, Sernicond. Sci. Technol. 7, pp. 11271148, 1992. SedgWick et a1., Atrnospheric Pressure Chemical Vapor
Deposition of Si and SiGe at Low Temperatures, J. Vac.

Crystals: Effects of Isotopic Disorder on q=o Phonons,

Physical RevieW B, vol. 45, pp. 40654070, No. 8, Feb. 15,


1992II.

Fuchs et a1., Isotopic Ge Superlattices: Vibrational Prop erties, Superlattices and Microstructures, vol. 13, No. 4, pp.
4474581993.

Haller, Serniconductor Isotope Engineering, LBL34279,


Preprint. Proc. GADEST 93, Gettering and Defect Engi neering in Serniconductors, Klingerniihle, Gerrnany, Oct. 914, 1993.
Hass et al., Effects of Isotopic Disorder on the Phonon

Sci. Technol. A 10(4), pp. 19131919, Jul/Aug. 1992. SpitZer et a1., Rarnan Scattering by Optical Phonons in

Isotopic 70(Ge)n 74(Ge)n Superlattices, Physical RevieW


Letters, vol. 72, pp. 15651568, No. 10, Mar. 7, 1994. Wilkinson et a1., Infrared Spectra of Some MH4 Mol ecules, The Journal of Chemical Physics, vol. 44, No. 10, pp. 38673871, May 15, 1966. Zollner et a1., Isotope and Temperature Shifts of Direct and Indirect Band Gaps in DiarnondType Serniconductors, Physical RevieW B, vol. 45, No. 7, pp. 33763385, Feb. 15,
1992I.

Spectrum of Diamond, Physical RevieW B, vol. 44, pp. 1204612176, No. 21, Dec. 1, 1991I.
Itoh et a1., High Purity Isotopically Enriched 70 Ge and 74

Ge single crystals: Isotope Separation, GroWth, and Prop


erties, vol. 8, No. 6, Jun. 1993.

U.S. Patent

Jun. 29, 1999

Sheet 1 0f 15

5,917,195

2O

30 IO

Energy
(E)

Momentum a)

70

75

7O

75

7O

4
I5 25

E
>_ B

70

75

7O

75

7O

2
Lu

.%

kl

k2 Momentum(k)

FIG. 5

FIG?)

U.S. Patent

Jun. 29, 1999

Sheet 3 0f 15

5,917,195

kI

Spontaneous Emission

Siimu loted Absorbiion

F IGGA

Stimulated Emission

FIGBC

FIG.8

U.S. Patent

Jun. 29, 1999

Sheet 4 0f 15

5,917,195

285i
,

288i

285i

3oSi

30Si

308i
28

308i
28

305i 2505i
28 Interface

F l (3.9 1

Si

Si

Si

28Si

28Si

28Si

28Si
p

28si

28si
J

110-"

F \(5. IO
100__

120"

86A 86B

FIGIIA
130

U.S. Patent

Jun. 29, 1999

Sheet 5 0f 15
Light

5,917,195

{Emission 86
I63
120

FIGIIB

110*

FIGIIC

Light
E m .5 S .m n

Light T Emission
l
i 63

FIGHD

110

U.S. Patent

Jun. 29, 1999

Sheet 6 0f 15

5,917,195

1, Emission

,ss

FIGIZ

86i
84 *

"" 120

T Light
Emission
' Region of

Higher Bandgap
Electron & Holes

Con?ned Here

Region of

Higher Bandgap
12O

112'
Region of High 1'
Refractive

Cover n <

\
x
95

Index n,

100

Waveguide

U.S. Patent

Jun. 29, 1999

Sheet 7 0f 15

5,917,195

82

pSide

Region of High
Refractive /

index n, 1 00%
\

95

Waveguide
nSide

84 --+

FIGiSA

r
210
97

F|G.I5B 10%
84-> [1 Side \
100A 1008 100C

'

95

Waveguide

220

Photon

110i
s2 ~L

Transparent Contact
W type

j 7
Photon

FIG. 7
100

I l

Phonon Resonator (lightly doped)


I

Absorbed
Produces e

hole pair

n-type

U.S. Patent

Jun. 29, 1999

Sheet 8 0f 15

5,917,195

83
| Emitted

{ Photon

122
Top Re?ector

(ID-type)
100% > R > 90%

Thickness t122

Optical
Gain

100 Phonon Resonator

124
Bottom Re?ector

(n-type)
R = 100%

Thickness tm

120|

FIG. l6

U.S. Patent

Jun. 29, 1999

Sheet 9 0f 15
111 121

5,917,195

| i

121

Light

W
_ +

I
1
l

1
-

SideView

l
L

l
p 4 \
1 i n i

I l
Q p
A

I
.___100

Light Absorbed
Induces Photo-current

FIG
'

Between Neighboring
Eiectrodes

Conduction

Emission

Absorption

Bond

U.S. Patent

Jun. 29, 1999

Sheet 10 0f 15

5,917,195

In

FIGZO

FIGZI

FIGZZ

WW

U.S. Patent

Jun. 29, 1999

Sheet 11 0f 15

5,917,195

O 5.

325a

O. O
w5

T2
Separation (superlo?ice periods)

F|G.23

@A>59w2Ev5

_ _

m. O 5
_

50

I50

2'00

MEAN FREE PATH (nm)

FIG.24

U.S. Patent

Jun. 29, 1999

Sheet 12 0f 15

5,917,195

I60 I40
>
Q

Mean Free Path = IOOnm

I20

I00-

3 6 C.
91
U'

s0 60
40

.E
E

20
O I I I I I I

50

I00

I50

200

250

300

Scattering Strength V0 ImeVI

8OxlO_3 -

60 '

CT

40..

20"
I I I I I I

50

I00

I50

200

250 300

Scattering Sirength V0 ImeVI

FIG.25B

U.S. Patent

Jun. 29, 1999


E A

Sheet 13 0f 15

5,917,195

' J
k|

i !
k2 k

>

F I G. 26

L___Y__J

310Gate
320 , l

Source

'33O Drain

L\____/ I
84

, \*J
84

[Hype

82
p-type

100
Phonon

Mype
.

Fi

regaon

region Resonator reglon

350 Gate 340 Oxide


320

Source

F_J_,
100

W330 Drain

L
Fl Gil
84

r ;_J
82
84

$535? region p-type Resonator Phonon 232?

U.S. Patent

Jun. 29, 1999


100

Sheet 14 0f 15

5,917,195

L_/

240a > Device

24Gb ______, Device

82

84

p-type region

n-type region

250 Base
270
Collector

l
_

l
260 Ernltter

LAJ
82

k *J
9-9416 100
re

84

84

n WP:
reglo

IOFI

Phonon

Resonator

petyig:
g

FIG.29

U.S. Patent

Jun. 29, 1999

Sheet 15 0f 15

5,917,195

FIG.32

320

340

300

330 3|0

F H133

5,917,195
1
PHONON RESONATOR AND METHOD FOR ITS PRODUCTION
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Semiconducting materials have proven to be the corner

2
In addition, LEDs have been fabricated using silicon carbide. HoWever, it has not been possible to produce optical

ampli?ers (e.g. lasers) using indirect bandgap materials for


a discussion of the underlying reasons.

stone of the electronics revolution; and silicon, thanks to its

Thus, there is a need for development of materials With

purity, ease of fabrication, and high yield in manufacturing,


has been the dominant material utiliZed in integrated circuit technology. With the constant pressure for faster, more ef?cient devices, there is much interest in developing or
identifying neW, loW-cost materials that can meet the inter

improved optical, electronic, and/or heat dissipation prop


erties. There is a particular need for improved semiconduc tor materials. Preferably, the improved materials should be

compatible With present-day electronic materials (eg


10

silicon).
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

connect demands associated With increasing parallelism and higher data rates. Additionally, pressure to reduce device siZe and density has focused efforts on identifying materials With improved heat dissipation and/or electrical conductiv

The present invention provides an improved material in

Which optical, electronic, and/or heat dissipation character


15

ity characteristics.
The use of superconducting materials, in combination With established semiconductor technologies, has been pro
posed as a solution to the heat dissipation problems encoun

istics are modi?ed because certain electron-phonon interac tions are enhanced or suppressed in the material.

Speci?cally, the present invention provides an indirect band


gap material that functions as a resonator for phonons of

tered With present-day semiconducting materials. Speci?cally, it has been suggested that superconducting
Wires and junctions could be used in integrated circuits to reduce heat dissipation. Unfortunately, even recently

desired Wavenumbers. In some embodiments, the phonon

resonator of the present invention displays increased photon


emission or absorption capability relative to knoWn indirect

bandgap materials. In other embodiments, the present


phonon resonator has enhanced electrical properties, such as
25

discovered high temperature superconductors do not oper ate above cryogenic temperatures. Moreover, the expense and engineering dif?culty associated With integration of

available superconducting and semiconducting technologies


make this possibility impractical, if not infeasible. Optical communication systems offer a potential solution to the interconnect problem, but development efforts have been hampered by the dif?culties associated With integrating
ef?cient light sources into available silicon circuits. Silicon

electrical conductivity. The phonon resonator of the present invention can also shoW improved thermal conductivity characteristics, and can be incorporated into electronic devices to provide improved heat transfer. The present invention also provides an isotope superlattice that is a phonon resonator.
The phonon resonator of the present invention can be

itself, like the other members of its periodic-table family (group IV), has limited optical capabilities due to its cen
trosymmetric crystal structure and an indirect band gap,

incorporated into any of a variety of different optical devices such as, for example, LEDs and lasers. The present phonon resonator can be utiliZed, for example, in optical
35

communications, data storage, printing, uv-light emission,


infrared lasers, etc. Other embodiments of the phonon resonator of the present invention have enhanced electrical conductivity and can be utiliZed in electrical applications

Which prohibits photon emission via ef?cient, band-to-band

radiative transmission (see beloW).


Much effort has been directed at circumventing the selec tion rules that forbid band-to-band radiative transmission in

such as, for example, superconducting applications.


The present invention also provides methods of fabricat ing an isotope superlattice that is a phonon resonator. In some embodiments, the phonon resonator of the present invention is a structure of substantially periodically varying density, Which structure comprises at least one ?rst
45

indirect bandgap semiconductors, in order to develop semi

conducting materials With improved optical properties (Iyer


et al. Science 260:4046, 1993). One approach has been to introduce suitable impurities into the group IV lattice. Tight binding of an exciton (an electron-hole pair) to an impurity
can provide ef?cient radiative transmissions if a suf?cient volume of impurities has been introduced. The most suc cessful of these efforts have involved isoelectronic com

region of a ?rst density; and at least one second region of a

second density, the ?rst and second regions being adjacent


one another and alternating in the structure so that the

plexes and the rare-earth dopant Erbium. HoWever, Erbium,


like other radiative impurity complexes, is dif?cult to intro duce in a concentration suf?cient to provide optical gain. Efforts have also been directed at groWing ordered alloys and superlattices, With the idea of using band gap engineer
ing to fold the Brillouin Zone and achieve a quasi direct gap material (Presting et al. Semicond. Sci. Technol.

structure has a substantially periodically varying density.


The period of the structure is selected such that the structure

is substantially resonant for phonons of appropriate


Wavevector to participate in electron-phonon interactions

(e.g. phonons of appropriate Wavevector to participate in radiative electronic transitions, phonons of appropriate
Wavevector to participate in interZone and/or intervalley
55

7:11271148, 1992). The most popular of these materials


systems has been silicon-germanium, With some recent

scattering of conduction band electrons).


In other embodiments, the phonon resonator of the present invention is a structure having degenerate conduc

interest in the quaternary alloy carbon-silicon-germanium


tin. These materials have yet to shoW the radiative ef?ciency found in direct bandgap materials.

tion band valleys and substantially periodic variations in


material composition so that scattering of electrons betWeen the degenerate conduction band valleys is enhanced relative to intervalley electron scattering in a structure that lacks the

AWidely studied (but poorly understood) mechanism for


light emission occurs in silicon that has undergone an

electrochemical etching process (Iyer et al. supra). The etch


produces a porous structure With nanometer-siZe particles

substantially periodic variations.


In some embodiments, the density or material composi
tion of the structure varies periodically in more than one
65

that, upon passivation, provides ef?cient, visible photolumi


nescence. Samples of etched silicon have also been excited in electroluminescence, and have attracted some interest for

dimension; in other embodiments, each region comprises a


layer, so that the density or material composition of the structure varies periodically in only one dimension.

display devices.

5,917,195
3
In preferred embodiments of the present invention, the
phonon resonator is a layered structure comprising an iso

4
isotope superlattice is preferably performed by a method
selected from the group consisting of: chemical vapor

tope superlattice in Which each layer is enriched for one isotope of an element. Most preferably, the layers are enriched for different isotopes of the same element, prefer
ably silicon. In some preferred embodiments of a silicon

isotope superlattice of the present invention, the superlattice


has a period that is an integer multiple of ?ve atomic layers; in alternate preferred embodiments, the period is an integer multiple of ten atomic layers. The phonon resonator of the present invention, in some embodiments, is also resonant for (directional or coherent)

deposition, molecular beam epitaxy, and chemical beam epitaxy. In some embodiments, the steps of separating and assembling are performed separately. In alternate embodiments, the steps of separating and assembling are performed simultaneously. In preferred embodiments, an isotope superlattice of the present invention is produced using laser-assisted chemical vapor deposition.
10

DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

phonons that are generated by stimulated phonon emission,


so that the resonator provides accelerated heat transfer. In some embodiments, the phonon resonator provides a sto chastic phonon resonance.
15

DraWings
FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of the energy bands in a solid.
FIG. 2 is an energy vs. momentum diagram for a direct

bandgap material.
FIG. 3 is an energy vs. momentum diagram for an indirect

The present invention also provides various devices incor porating a phonon resonator. The invention provides, among other things, a light-emitting device, comprising a phonon
resonator, a ?rst electrode disposed on a ?rst side of the structure; and a second electrode disposed on a second side

bandgap material.
FIG. 4 illustrates the three possible photon-electron inter actions. Speci?cally, FIG. 4A illustrates absorption of a
photon by an electron that can occupy one of only tWo energy states; FIG. 4B illustrates spontaneous emission of a photon by an electron that can occupy one of only tWo energy states; and FIG. 4C illustrates stimulated emission of a photon by an electron that can occupy one of only tWo
energy states.

of the structure, the second side being opposite the ?rst side.
At least one of the electrodes can be transparent if desired.

The light-emitting device of the present invention can include a p-doped region and an n-doped region, and may
function as a light-emitting diode (LED). The p- and

25

n-doped regions of the light-emitting device of the present


invention may have a higher bandgap than does the phonon
resonator, so that electrons and holes are confmed Within the

FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram of atoms arranged in a

crystalline solid.
FIG. 6 depicts phonon-assisted radiative transitions in an indirect bandgap material. FIG. 6A illustrates spontaneous
emission of a phonon as a result of an electron-phonon

phonon resonator. The light-emitting device of the present


invention preferably includes a dielectric Waveguide, most

preferably formed by the p-doped region and the n-doped


region, each having a refractive index higher than that of the
structure. In some embodiments, the light-emitting device of the present invention is a laser (eg a cleaved facet
35

interaction that stimulates photon emission; FIG. 6B illus trates stimulated phonon absorption; and FIG. 6C illustrates stimulated phonon emission.
FIG. 7 is a schematic design of a distributed feedback laser.
FIG. 8 is an energy vs. momentum diagram for silicon. FIG. 9 shoWs a schematic diagram of a portion of a silicon

re?ection, distributed feedback, and/or vertical cavity sur

face emitting).
The present invention also provides devices selected from

the group consisting of light emitting devices, light emitting


diodes, laser diodes, cleaved facet re?ection lasers, distrib uted feedback lasers, vertical cavity surface emitting lasers,

isotope superlattice of the present invention.


FIG. 10 illustrates a light emitting device that utiliZes a

optical detectors, optical modulators, non-linear optical devices, electrical conductors, planar transformers, diodes, bipolar transistors, ?eld-effect transistors, integrated circuits, SQUIDs, Josephson junctions, transducers, and
microWave detectors, that are improved over conventional

45

devices because they incorporate a phonon resonator that is substantially resonant for phonons of appropriate Wavevec tor to participate in phonon-electron interactions. The present invention also provides a method for produc ing a phonon resonator comprising the step of producing a

phonon resonator of the present invention. FIG. 11 presents four embodiments (as FIGS. 11A, 11B, 11C, and 11D) of a light-emitting device of the present invention. FIG. 12 depicts a light-emitting diode (LED) of the present invention. FIG. 13 depicts an LED of the present invention in Which
carrier con?nement is achieved by means of a heterojunc tion.

FIG. 14 depicts and edge-emitting LED of the present


invention. FIG. 15 presents tWo embodiments (as FIGS. 15A and 15B) of a laser diode of the present invention. FIG. 15A depicts a cleaved facet re?ection laser. FIG. 15B depicts a distributed feedback laser.

structure of substantially periodically varying density com


prising at least one ?rst region or layer of a ?rst density; and at least one region or second layer of a second density, the

?rst and second regions or layers being adjacent one another


and alternating in the structure so that the structure has a

55

substantially periodically varying density, the period of the


structure being selected such that the structure is substan

FIG. 16 depicts a Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Laser (VECSEL) of the present invention.
FIGS. 17 and 18 depict alternate embodiments of an

tially resonant for phonons of appropriate Wavevector to

participate in electron-phonon interactions. In preferred


embodiments, the method of the present invention involves

optical photodetector incorporating a phonon resonator of the present invention. FIG. 19 depicts absorption and emission of a phonon by
a conduction-band electron in a semiconductor material.

producing an isotope superlattice by separating isotopes; and assembling the superlattice. According to the present invention, isotope separation is preferably performed by a
method selected from the group consisting of distillation,
65

FIG. 20 depicts coherent absorption and emission of a phonon by a conduction-band electron in a semiconductor material.

extraction, centrifugation, diffusion, electrochemical


methods, and electromagnetic methods; assembly of an

FIG. 21 illustrates phonon-mediated exchange betWeen


tWo conduction-band electrons in a semiconductor solid.

5,917,195
5
FIG. 22 illustrates phonon-mediated exchange between electrons in different, degenerate conduction band minima in
a single conduction band of a semiconductor material.

6
Which the phonon resonator affects the optical, electronic, and/or heat transfer properties of the material from Which
the resonator is constructed.

FIG. 23 presents a graph of the normaliZed electron pair potential as a function of the pair separation, measured in superlattice periods. For the calculation presented, the mean

Enhancement of Optical Properties


The present invention encompasses indirect bandgap materials having enhanced optical properties. In order that certain aspects and advantages of the present invention Will
be more readily appreciated, We begin With a discussion of

free path is 5 superlattice periods.


FIG. 24 is a graph shoWing the reduction in electron pair
binding energy that occurs With decreasing electron mean

the properties of indirect bandgap semiconductor materials,


10

free path.
FIG. 25 shoWs the electron pair binding energy as a function of the scattering potential for a ?xed mean free

path.
FIG. 26 depicts intervalley scattering of electrons in
conduction band minima of neighboring Brillouin Zones. FIG. 27 shoWs a loW-resistance electrical conductor of the
15

present invention.
FIG. 28 depicts an electrical diode of the present inven tion. FIG. 29 depicts a bipolar transistor of the present inven tion. FIG. 30 depicts an n-type Junction Field Effect Transistor

as opposed to direct bandgap materials. First of all, We point out that, in any semiconductor solid (i.e. Whether a direct or indirect bandgap material) that is free of defects and impurities, electrons can acquire only particular energy values that are Within tWo discrete bands: a valence band, Which encompasses the range of energies possessed by electrons in bound energy states; and a con duction band, Which corresponds to the alloWable energy
states of free electrons or electrons that are unbound and

move about the crystal lattice of the solid. FIG. 1 presents a


schematic representation of a valence band 10 and a con

duction band 20, separated by an energy bandgap 30 that corresponds to the range of impermissible energies betWeen
25

(JFET) of the present invention.


FIG. 31 depicts a Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect

Transistor (MOSFET) of the present invention. FIG. 32 depicts an integrated circuit of the present inven
tion. FIG. 33 depicts a laser-assisted chemical vapor deposition

the valence 10 and conduction 20 bands. For any given semiconductor solid, most of the energy states Within the valence band are occupied by electrons, While most of the energy states Within the conduction band are unoccupied. If, hoWever, an electron in the valence band can acquire energy in excess of the energy of the bandgap,
that valence band electron can occupy an energy state Within

method according to the present invention.


Phonon Resonator The present invention is directed to a phonon resonator. In particular, the invention provides a phonon resonator of an

the conduction band. When such a valence band electron is

excited into the conduction band, that electron leaves behind


a vacant energy state in the valence band. The vacant energy

indirect bandgap material, Which phonon resonator is


designed so that certain electronic, optical, and/or heat
transfer properties of the material are enhanced. A phonon can be thought of as the minimum unit of vibrational energy alloWed in accordance With principles of quantum mechanics. A phonon resonator is a structure that
functions as a resonator for those vibrational excitations that
35

state is termed a hole, and may be considered as a particle

having a positive charge equal in magnitude to the electron.


Electrons in the conduction band typically occupy states
near the conduction band minimum. Holes are generally

behave as quantum mechanical vibrational Wavepackets. By analogy With optical resonators, a vibrational resonator requires coherent con?nement, or feedback, of vibrational
energy. It is possible to construct an electromagnetic resonator

present at the valence band maximum. Under certain circumstances, these electrons and holes can recombine, resulting in the emission of a photon, otherWise knoWn as a radiative transition. To obtain a radiative transition, both
energy and momentum must be conserved. Radiative transitions are alloWed in direct bandgap mate

(that is, a structure that is resonant for electromagnetic

45

Waves) by producing a structure having a periodic variation


in the material impedance. Similarly, a vibrational resonator can be produced by creating a structure having a periodic variation in material density, since material density deter
mines the impedance of a vibrational Wave.

rials. In fact, the term direct bandgap refers to the fact that the conduction band minimum and valence band maximum are aligned in these materials along the same momentum value. This fact is illustrated in FIG. 2, Which presents a graph of the energy versus momentum (k) relationship of an electron in a direct bandgap solid. The region 37 of the

graph in FIG. 2 betWeen curves EC and Ev designates


impermissible energy and momentum values for electrons in

One aspect of the present invention involves the recog


nition that a vibrational resonator can be constructed to be

the solid. Curve EC (the conduction band edge) designates


permissible energy and momentum values for electrons in

resonant With certain phonon-electron interactions, so that the resonator provides a resonant enhancement of the

the conduction band, and curve Ev (the valence band edge) designates permissible energy and momentum values for
55

phonons necessary for those interactions. Although phonon resonators have previously been described previously (see,
for example, Klein IEEE J. of Quant. Elec. QE-22: 17601779, 1986), the present invention describes for the
?rst time a phonon resonator that provides resonant

electrons in the valence band. The energy difference betWeen the conduction band minimum 22 of curve EC and valence band maximum 12 of curve Ev is the energy

bandgap 31.
The alignment of conduction band minimum and valence band maximum in direct bandgap materials alloWs radiative
transitions because an electron 40 has the same momentum

enhancement of phonon-electron interactions, With resulting improvement in optical, electronic, and/or heat transfer
properties in the material from Which the resonator is

constructed. Additionally, the present invention provides the ?rst example of a phonon resonator having a coupling length
that is shorter than the phonon mean free path. BeloW, We discuss the structural characteristics of the phonon resonator of the present invention, and the Ways in
65

value both before (i.e. in the conduction band) and after (i.e. in the valence band) the transition (i.e. before and after recombination With hole 50). Thus, the conservation of
momentum requirement for radiative transitions is satis?ed.

Similarly, the energy conservation requirement is satis?ed


because a photon 60 is emitted that has an energy equal to

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