OFFSHORE TECHNOLOGY _CONFERKNCE

6200 North Central-EXpressway'

Dallas, Texas 75206
THIS IS A PREPRINT SUBJECT TO CORRECTION
PAPER
NUI.ffiER
aTe 2039
Wave Force Calculations for Stokes and
Non-Stokes Waves
By
K. F. Lambrakos and H. R. Brannon, Esso Production Research Co.
Copyright 197.
Offshore Technology Conference on behalf of the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and
Petroleum Engineers, of Mining Engineers, The Metallurgical Society and Society of
Petroleum Engineers), American Association of Petroleum Geologists, American Institute of Chemical
Engineer:s, American Society of Civil Engineers, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Institute
of Electrical andETectroriics Engineers, Marine Technology Society, Society of Exploration
Geophysicists, and Society of Naval-Architects and Marine Engineers.
This paper was prepared for presentation at the Sixth Annual Offshore Technology Conference
to be held in Houston, Tex., May 6-8, 1974. Permission to copy is restricted to an abstract of
not more than 300 words. Illustrations may not be copied. Such use of an abstract should contain
conspicuous acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper is presented.
ABSTRACT
Anew wave particle velocity procedure
permits calculation of forces from regular
wave profiles of more or less arbitrary
wave crest to height ratios, as well as
from irregular profiles of more than one
wave. The procedure uses a double Fourier
series expansion for which the expansion
coefficients for a given wave problem are
calculated with a least-squares minimization
technique. The new method has potential,
because of its flexibility in the type of
waves it can treat, for improving correla-
tions of calculated and measured wave
forces. Results are given of applications
of the new procedure to studies of simpli-
fications made in force calculations
commonly used by industry. Studies were
made of the validity in using Stokes I and
other regular wave profiles to calculate
forces for waves that are part of long
wave records. Effects of changes in the
wave height or wave crest elevation on
forces are presented. Also given are
results relating to the effects adjacent
waves have on the force exerted by a wave
of interest. Finally, a high-accuracy
solution of the Stokes problem with this
procedure is demonstrated.
References and illustrations at end of paper
INTRODUCTION
Offshore platform design procedures
require the calculation of design wave
forces from water particle velocities and
accelerations, and suitable force constants
l
(drag and inertial coefficients). The
velocities and accelerations for static
platform design are calculated from single
large waves (design waves) with a wave
particle velocity "theory". Consequently,
it is important for platform design that
the velocity theory account for the essential
properties of large storm waves.
The velocity procedure presented here
calculates water particle velocities and
accelerations for a variety of wave profiles
that may alter shape with propagation. It
can treat regular wave profiles (every wave
in the profile is identical) and irregular
wave profiles (every other wave in the
profile is identical). Various wave height,
wave crest, and wave period combinations are
permissible. Included in the regular pro-
files are Stokes' waves with unique, regular
wave shapes that do not change with propaga-
tion. The procedure has mathematical rigor
and is not restricted to small waves.
WAVE FORCE FOR STOKES AND NON-STOKES WAVES OTC 2039
Unique to the calculation presented
here, and in contrast to other published
calculations, is the ability to handle more-
or-less arbitrary wave crest-to-height ratios
while maintaining quite accurate solutions to
the governing physical equations. This cap-
ability extends to regular waves and to
irregular waves as defined above. This
calculation also permits evaluation of the
effects of some wave shape characteristics
not accurately described by published
theories on wave force calculations. The
abilities may also permit better correlation
of calculated and measured wave forces--a
possible application not demonstrated here.
Capability for handling complicated
waves accurately grows out of the use of a
double Fourier series for the velocity
potential (extended velocity potential--
EXVP). This series gives the flexibility
required for satisfying with good accuracy
all of the hydrodynamic equations for qUite
complex waves. Practical computing require-
ments restrict applications to the cases
des cri bed above.
Because of computing limitations, the
new theory leaves unaddressed the forces due
to a long, arbitrary wave profile. For such
a profile, a modified Airy calculation
2
,3 or
an adaptation of deepwater wave theory4 still
reflect the state of the art.
This paper presents:
1. A brief exposition of the hydrodynamic
equations for wave particle motion and
of the general capabilities of published
and EXVP solutions,
2. Development of the extended velocity
potential method,
3. Application of EXVP in evaluating the
significance of wave characteristics
not accurately described by presently
used theori es, and
4. Acomparison of EXVP results with results
obtained from published procedures for
Stokes-type waves.
WAVE PARTICLE VELOCITY CALCULATIONS
This section (1) discusses the hydro-
dynamic equations for wave particle motion,
(2) compares general capabilities of pub-
lished and EXVP methods for satisfying these
equations for ocean waves, and (3) gives the
formulation of the velocity potential for
the EXVP method.
Hydrodynamic Equations
The water particle motion under the sea
wave is assumed to be two dimensional and
irrotational, and the sea water incompress-
ible and nonviscous, as illustrated in
Fig. 1. Under the assumption of irrotational
flow, the water particle velocity can be
calculated from a single-valued functionS,
the velocity potential function The
solution for the particle motion requires
finding this potential function.
The velocity, the velocity potential,
and the hydrodynamic pressure at every point
in the water under the wave action satisfy
the equations of motion and the boundary
conditions of the problem given in Fig. 1.
The continuity equation (conservation of
mass)sand Bernoulli's equation gescribe the
flow. The boundary conditions assure that
the flow through the sea bottom is zero,
that the water particles do not escape from
the surface (n) of the wave (kinematic
boundary condition), and that the pressure
on the surface has a preassigned value
(normally assumed to be zero).
A particle velocity calculation that
would satisfy the equations of motion and
the boundary conditions exactly would give
accurate water particle velocities for the
problem as stated. However, finding a
velocity potential to satisfy the equations
exactly for an arbitrary wave profile is for
all practical purposes an impossible task.
The difficulty is attributed to the high
degree of nonlinearity in the surface
boundary conditions. Additional assumptions
are needed before the problem is workable.
The wave theories used by the oil
industry include assumptions with regards to
the wave profile and/or to satisfaction of
the continuity equation. Consequently, they
lose some features of the actual problem.
General Capabilities of Wave Theories
Several procedures have been presented
by the industry for use in wave forc
6
calcu-
lation. Among them are: Stokes' V,
Chappelear's,5 Dean's,? and Esso Production
Research Company's.2 These procedures
(except one version of EPRCo. 'sJ) assume
that waves at sea propagate without shape
deformation and are periodic in space and
time (Stokes type waves). Both of the
above assumptions are probably quite good
for some waves in a wave tank. However, waves at
sea in general are not periodic and change
shape while moving.
Beyond the above two assumptions each
procedure has its own unique features which
make it different than the rest and lead to
differing general capabilities for fitting
real waves. The differences can be pointed
out by considering a wave profile similar to
the ones observed and asking how each pro-
OTC 2039
-----K. F. LAMBRAKOS AND H. R. BRANNON
49
cedure would calculate water particle
velocities under a single wave. In the
simplest case, Stokes' V, Dean's, and
Chappelear's procedures find the velocities
by fitting the crest or wave height, but not
both, and period of the actual wave with
their respective analytical waves as shown
in Fig. 2. The theoretical wave is periodic
in time and space, symmetrical, and uniquely
specified by the wave parameters: height (H)
or crest elevation (n ), period (T), and
water depth (d). wave differs from the
actual wave in either height or crest eleva-
tion; it does not fit the adjacent waves and
it propagates in space without deformation.
All three procedures satisfy the equations
of motion exactly and satisfy the boundary
conditions to differing degrees. Dean's and
Chappelear's procedures satisfy the boundary
conditions well for all water depths of
interest, whereas for the Stokes Vprocedures
the errors for large waves increase substan-
tially in shallow water.
In Dean's method the theoreti cal profi le
is calculated by requiring that the kinematic
boundary condition is satisfied exactly.
Accordingly, Deanls error in that boundary
condition is practically zero, unlike the
errors from Stokes I and Chappelear's.
With use of high-order terms, Dean's8
method solves the problem posed by Stokes
with almost arbitrary accuracy. Solutions
to this problem have unique wave shapes for
a given height, period, and water depth.
Deanls procedure has the added flexibility
of adjusting its wave to fit more of the
actual single wave than just its crest or
the wave heiht and period. It achieves
this, however, at the expense of larger
errors in the dynamic boundary condition.
Dean's wave is again periodic and retains
its shape with propagation; it does not fit
the adjacent waves.
EPReo. IS is a modified Airy procedure
that fits exactly the actual wave and can
allow for wave deformation. However, since
it is based on linear theory, it only
approximates the boundary conditions and the
continuity equation.
Evans,9 Dean
lO
et al., and Wheeler
2
successfully correlated (30% standard devia-
tion) calculated and measured forces from
Hurricane Carla, using methods_similar to
the ones discussed above. One reason for
the success may lie in the two empirical
constants in Morison's force equation; these
constants could be adjusted in each approach
for best correlation. In addition, the
success indicates that misfitting wave
profiles (Dean's, Stokes') and that reason-
ab1e errors in so1ving the equations (EPReo,
Dean) do not cause gross errors in calculated
force.
The EXVP procedure has the capability
to fit closely the crest, trough, and period
of an actual wave, or a longer piece (2
waves) of the actual wave profile as shown in
Fig. 3. In this procedure the equations of
moti on and the bottom and dynami c boundary
conditions are satisfied, and only small
errors exist in the kinematic boundary
condi tion.
EXVPls feature that allows for wave
deformation with propagation permits it to
fit, with small errors in all boundary
conditions, single waves with independent
crest and heights (within reasonable limits).
The procedure can also fit crests of two
adjacent waves and the trough of at least
one of these. Acapability not demonstrated
here also permits fitting two adjacent waves
from a measured profile. The ability of
EXVP to give an accurate hydrodynamic solu-
tion for a greater portion of a measured
wave profile may permit an improved correla-
tion of measured and calculated forces.
This possibility is not demonstrated here.
The ability of EXVP to describe more complex
waves also permits exploring some deviations
in calculated and measured forces that may
arise from fitting only a single wave and,
in some cases, only some aspects of the
single wave. Sources of these deviations
are investigated in the present paper.
Extended Velocity Potential Formulation
The capability of EXVP to treat waves
that deform with propagation, and conse-
quently to treat complex waves, stems from
the expansion of the velocity potential.
The extended velocity potential is a double
Fourier series expansion of the velocity
potential in harmonic wave components that
differ in period and/or wavelength. The
functional form of the velocity potential
is such that the equations of motion and
the boundary condition on the bottom are
satisfied. The extended velocity potential
is:
N,M
= cosh (knz)[Anmcos(knx-wnt) +
n,m
B msin(k X-w t)J
n n m
= AllcoSh(klz)cos(klx-wlt) +
A12cosh(klz)cos(klx-w2t) +
A2lcosh(k2z)cos(k2x-wlt) +
A22cosh(k2z)cos(k2X-w2t) +
,F ~,..
) WAVE FORCE CALCU LATIONS FOR!

/ here k i s the nth wave number ( wavel ength

m =
2~Ykn) , urni s the an ul ar f requency
?
, peri odTm= 2m/ W) , and Anm$ Bri m) are
>xpansi on constants ( matri ces) .
The expansi on coef f i ci ents ( the ampl i -
tudes of the harmoni c waves) and the l ongest
~avel ength i n the potenti al are determi ned
[ i th a l east- squares mi ni mi zati on techni que
i i scussed i n Appendi x A. Wi th the speci f i ed
~ave ( the actual wave) , the EXVP procedure
: al cul ates the sumof the squares of the
>rrors i n the ki nemati c and dynami c condi -
ti ons over the peri od of the wave i n ti me
md space. The sumi s then mi ni mi zed by
~aryi ng the expansi on coef f i ci ents and the
( avel ength. The f i nal wave prof i l e i s
cal cul ated f romthe dynami c boundary condi -
ti on equati on.
For purposes of i l l ustrati ng the
~ccuracy of the f i nal sol uti on, errors i n
] oundary condi ti ons are computed as f ol l ows:
Ki nemati c boundary error as f uncti on of
ti me, f or a gi ven space l ocati on- -
,
ai 3i an.
here7i - -
, #are the val ues of the ti me
and space deri vati ves of the surf ace, Ui and
Vi are the hori zontal and verti cal water
parti cl e vel oci ti es and ( ~) ms =
ani 2
1/ 2
= [ ~ i ~l ( # 1 3
N bei ng the total
number of ti me poi nts.
Dynami c boundary error as f uncti on of
ti me, f or a gi ven space l ocati on- -
1
aoi
E: =[ ni - +2
gat g
( u; + y: ) - C] / nRNS
ao.
where ~i i s the wave prof i l e, & i s the ti me
deri vati ve of the vel oci ty potenti al , C i s a
N z 1/ 2
constant, and nRNS = [ ~ i ~l ni ] . The
percentage errors to these two boundary
condi ti ons are:
N~Ef(D)12112.
EK(D)(%) = 100 X [; ~
-j=l
The EXVP wave prof i l e f or each poi nt i n
space i s cal cul ated f romthe al gebrai c
) KESAND NON- STQKES WAVES OTC 2039
equati ons
{E~} =0. 0 , i =l ,
The shape of the g
the harmoni c waves that
the vel oci ty potenti al .
~rof i l e i s Stokes , the
. . N.
ven wave determi nes
are si gni f i cant i n
I f the gi ven wave
harmoni cs that remai n
af ter error mi ni mi zati on are those wi th equal
wavel ength- to- peri od rati os ( di agonal terms) .
The vel oci ty potenti al i n thi s case i s a
sol uti on to the probl emposed by Stokes;
thi s sol uti on descri bes a wave that propa-
gates wi thout def ormati on. I f the wave
prof i l e devi ates f romStokes , more terms
than those on the di agonal are of i mportance;
i n the case of a smal l wave, the harmoni cs ,
wi th Ai ry wavel ength- to- peri od rati os
domi nate ( of f - di agonal terms) .
For one or two l arge waves, the EXVP
procedure shoul d, i n general i ncl ude the
appropri ate f ul l matri x of coef f i ci ents.
Al so, the boundary condi ti ons shoul d be
f i tted over a suf f i ci ent number of poi nts
i n space, as wel l as i n ti me, si nce the
wave may def ormi n propagati on. As a
consequence, the computer ti me requi rements
f or the EXVP procedure are much greater
than those f or procedures treati ng Stokes-
type waves that requi re onl y one l ocati on
i n space, and onl y the coef f i ci ents on the
di agonal . Barri ng thi s l i mi tati on i n
computer ti me, the EXVP procedure can,
wi thi n the capabi l i ti es of error mi ni mi za-
ti on routi nes, treat arbi trary prof i l es
wi th accuracy.
APPLI CATI ONS OF THE EXVP PROCEDURE
The f ul l - matri x versi on of EXVP has
been used to treat non- Stokes- type prof i l es.
These prof i l es were used to study the ef f ects
of wave crest- to- hei ght rati o on wave f orce.
Al so i ncl uded were cases that show the ef f ect
of hei ght of an adj acent crest on f orce under
a gi ven wave. Resul ts shoul d of f er some
gui dance on use of more easi l y cal cul ated
prof i l es to si mul ate measured waves. The
resul ts shoul d al so i ndi cate the l evel of
i mprovement i n correl ati on of cal cul ated and
masured f orces that mi ght resul t f roma
better f i t to the measured wave prof i l e.
I n addi ti on, a di agonal versi on ( ExVP- D:
onl y di agonal terms i n the matri ces are kept)
was used to treat Stokes- type waves. The
f ul l versi on can treat Stokes waves j ust as
wel l , however, wi th EXVP- D computer ti me
requi rements are mi ni mal . Al l prof i l es have
wave characteri sti cs, ( n , or H and T)
comparabl e to those f or &l atf ormdesi gn.

. .- -+ .
ITP 91_12~ K. F. IAMRRAKIIS AtJFIH. R. RRANPJflN
61
,Ib LUQ2
. . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . .
Non- Stokes Mave Prof i l es , .
The waves_ studi ed were
1. 14- second peri od regul ar prof i l es
of constant crest ( 46 f eet) and
wave crest/ wave hei ght rati os rang-
i ng between 0, 51 and 0. 613
2. 14- second peri od prof i l es of con-
stant wave hei ght ( 80 f eet) and
wave crest/ wave hei ght rati os
between 0. 519 and 0. 604
3. 12- second peri od prof i l es of con-
stant crest ( 46 f eet) and wave
crest/ wave hei ght rati os between
0. 516 and 0. 610
4. i rregul ar prof i l es whi ch have as
center porti on waves of 12- second-
peri od, constant crest ( 46 f eet)
and wave crest/ wave hei ght rati os
between 0. 516 and 0. 688. Adj acent
to the central waves are waves of
12- second- peri od wi th crests
rangi ng f rom3 f t to 46 f t.
The water depth f or al l cases was 400 f eet.
Speci f i c cases are gi ven i n Tabl e 1.
The i ni ti al prof i l es used as i nput to
the EXVP program were constructed f rom
two Fouri er components ( every wave i s
i denti cal , regul ar waves) and three
Fouri er components ( every other wave i s
i denti cal , i rregul ar waves) . The f i nal
prof i l es were cal cul ated by setti ng the error
to the dynami c boundary condi ti on to zero.
These f i nal prof i l es aureed cl osel y wi th the
i ni ti al prof i l es.
The percentage errors ( EK) i n the ki ne-
mati c boundary condi ti on f or the prof i l es
studi ed were not rester than 24, and the
1? ) Werenot greater than
maxi mumerrors ( Ei ma
6%. Errors f or a typf cal case are shown i n
Fi g. 4. The percentage and maxi mumerrors
vari ed f romone l ocati on to the next, al ways
bei ng about the same magni tude as the errors
quoted above f or the l ocati on x = O.
Resul ts shown i n Fi g. 5 f or regul ar
prof i l es i ndi cate that maxi mum drag f orces
depend mi l dl y on vari ati ons i n crest el eva-
ti on, provi ded hei ght i s f i xed. Al so, f orces
showmi l d vari ati on wi th hei ght, provi ded
the crest el evati on i s f i xed. Force depend-
ence on wave hei ght ( wave crest constant) i s
approxi matel y l i near, and a gi ven percent
i ncrease i n the hei ght corresponds to a
comparabl e i ncrease i n the f orce; i . e. , 10%
i ncrease i n hei ght resul ts i n about 10%
i ncrease i n f orce. Vari ati ons i n the f orces
f romchanges i n the wave C~eSt We d~SO
l i near, but vari ati ons f roma gi ven percent
change i n wave crest are sl i ghtl y hi gher than
those f romthe same percent change i n wave
hei ght. Si mi l ar resul ts were obtai ned f or the
i nerti al part of f orce and f or overturni ng
moments.
Ranges of crest- to- hei ght rati os shown
are restri cted by the abi l i ty of two Fouri er
components to gi ve a smooth prof i l e. An ex-
tensi on of the trend i n Fi g. 5 i s expected f or
somewhat l arger rati os. The f i ndi ngs may be
sl i ghtl y dependent on water depth, wave hei ght,
and wave peri od. Cal cul ati ons f or the same
waves i n water depths of 200 and 800 f eet show
si mi l ar trends.
Resul ts f romStokes V procedure, pl otted
i n Fi g. 5 as a poi nt, suggest that the Stokes
approxi mati on f or a gi ven wave wi l l be con-
servati ve i f the proper wave parameter ( nc or H)
of the wave of i nterest i s retai ned i n the
Stokes wave, I f nc i s the same i n both waves,
the Stokes f orces woul d be conservati ve f or
al l waves wi th
c c
F<Fi--
where H i s the hei ght of the Stokes wave. I f
H i s the same, the Stokes f orces woul d be l arger
than those f romwaves wi th
i l C
iT->R-
where n; i s the crest of the Stokes wave.
As a corol l ary observati on, i t appears that
Stokes- type waves mi ght overesti mate or under-
esti mate f orces f or an observed wave, accordi ng
to whether the crest or hei ght of the observed
wave i s f i tted. Expected devi ati ons i ncrease
wi th crest- to- hei ght rati o i n the range of
desi gn- wave i nterest. Si gni f i cance of the
devi ati ons f roma pl atf ormdesi gn standpoi nt
i s moot. However, resul ts shown i n Fi g. 5 sugges
strongl y that f i tti ng the wave crest and trough
si mul taneousl y can have i mportance i n correl ati ng
cal cul ated and measured f orces.
Forces cal cul ated wi th a modi f i ed Ai ry
procedure publ i shed by Wheel er2 are at essen-
ti al l y the same l evel as those of Stokes f or
waves used i n devel opi ng Fi g. 5. Because thi s
method al ways f i ts the crest el evati on of the
wave, there i s no opti on of f i tti ng crest or
hei ght. Accordi ngl y, the f orces tend to exceed
EXYP val ues f or crest- to- hei ght rati os beyond
that of a Stokes wave.
J ahns and Nheel er3 menti on a f ormul ati on of
l themodi f i ed Ai rYcal cul ati ons i n whi ch al l
wavel engthsi n d; pthdecay f uncti onsareset
. ..9
.
..-
2
WAVE_FORCE CALCULATI ONS>FOR
equal to Ai ry wavel engths. Thi s f ormul ati on
gi ves resul ts havi ng the same trend as the_
EXVP val ues i n Fi g. 5 but requi res an upward
adj ustment i n parti cl e vel oci ti es of about 10
percent to gi ve the same f orce val ues.
Compari sons of maxi mumdrag f orces f rom
the bi g wave i n the i rregul ar prof i l es wi th
f orces f romregul ar prof i l es are shown i n Fi g.
6. The i rregul ar prof i l es have every other
crest equal , as i l l ustrated i n Fi g. 6. Re-
sul ts are pl otted f or the l arge crest equal to
46 f t; the i nterveni ng crest ranged f rom
about 3 f t to al most 46 f t. The regul ar waves
and l arge waves i n the i rregul ar prof i l es both
have a peri od of 12 seconds. Forces f or the
regul ar waves about equal those f or the i rreg-
ul ar wave f or any gi ven hei ght. Thi s resul t
i ndi cates that the f orce under the crest of a
l arge wave i s substanti al l y i ndependent of the
hei ght of a nei ghbori ng crest, provi ded the
crest- to- hei ght rati o of the l arge wave i s
adequatel y represented. I nerti al f orces show
the same resul t.
Forces f romStokes waves of hei ghts equal
to those of the EXVP waves are al so pl otted i n
Fi g. 6. Crests of the Stokes waves di f f er f ro~
the EXVP waves except f or the parti cul ar case
that has the crest to hei ght rati o of a Stokes
wave. The i ncrease i n f orce as he wave hei ghl
1
i ncreases i s more pronounced ( - H ) f or Stokes
waves than f or the EXVP waves.
The resul ts of thi s study l end support to
the regul ar prof i l e approach ( i denti cal
successi ve crests) comnonl y used by the oi l
i ndustry f or correl ati ng measured and cal cu-
l ated f orces. Al though these f i ndi ngs are
based on symmtri c, peri odi c waves, we bel i eve
that they hol d true f or waves wi th a nnre
compl ex shape, such as observed waves.
Cal cul ated f orces wi th Stokes , Dean s,
or EPRCO. S wave procedures show about 30%
scatter when correl ated wi th measured f orces
duri ng Hurri cane Carl a. Part of thi s scatter
may be due to wave shape ( nc/ H vari ati ons)
ef f ects of the type studi ed above. These wave
shape ef f ects gi ve vari ati ons i n the f orces of
about 15%f or waves expected i n measured
prof i l es, i . e. , waves of O. 7 > rI c/ H> 0. 530.
For EPRCO. S method, part of the scatter ma~
wel l be due to resi dual errors i n the hydro-
dynami c equati ons.
Stokes- Type Wave Prof i l es
Thi s secti on gi ves resul ts obtai ned wi th {
si mpl i f i ed, di agonal matri x versi on of EXVP. ~
previ ousl y noted, thi s si mpl i f i ed f ormof EXVP
gi ves a hi gh- order sol uti on to the wave probl en
posed by Stokes, as do the methods of Dean and
Chappel ear.
.
.
OKES AND NON- STOKES kl AVES
OTC 2039
A, set of f i ve Stokes V waves was used
i nthe i nvesti gati on, one wave f or each water
I epth: 50, 100, 200, 400, and 800 f eet. The
{ave hei ghts ( 39, 64, 76, 81, and 81 f eet) and
) eri od ( 14 seconds) l i e i n the range of those
) f i nterest f or pl atf ormdesi gn. These pro-
f i l es were used as i nput to EXVP- D and Dean s
nethod. The f i nal waves of EXVP- D were cal cu-
l ated i n the l ast phase of the method by set-
: i ng the error i n Bernoul l i s equati on equal to
~ero.
I n si mi l ar f ashi on, the f i nal waves f or
) ean s method were cal cul ated f romthe ki ne-
nati c boundary. Al so, an addi ti onal Stokes
ti ave( hei ght = 34. 4 f t, peri od = 15. 3 sees,
vater depth = 48. 8 f t) publ i shed by Chappel ear
ti asstudi ed. For al l waves, the EXVP- D and
l ean s cal cul ati ons were of 7th order.
To make the compari son of EXVP- D resul ts
and the resul ts publ i shed by Dean and Chappe-
l ear possi bl e, the errors i n the boundary con-
di ti ons f or Chappel ear s wave were cal cul ated
as f ol l ows:
all. vi
Ki nemati c condi ti on- - E~ =#-
Ui - c Wher
g i s the cel eri ty of the wave.
8@i
D- d+ni - l
Dynami c condi ti on- - Ei -
gat+
~( u~+y~) - ~ , where~=~ ; ED and
. ,
i =l 1
N i s the total number of poi nts i n the prof i l e.
The EXVP- D sol uti on sati sf i es the boundary
condi ti ons f or Chappel ear s wave wi th hi gher
~ccuracy than the rest of the procedures, as
shown i n Fi g. 7. Ki nemati c boundary condi ti on
~rrors f or EXVP- D have a maxi mumval ue of 1. 7
] ercent; dynami c boundary condi ti on errors are
zero. Forces by EXVP- D, Dean, and Chappel ear
methods shoul d be f ai rl y cl ose ( wi thi n 10%) . Th(
i rag f orce f romStokes V, however i s 34%hi gher
than that f romEXVP- D f or thi s parti cul ar wave.
For the set of Stokes waves, the errors i n
the boundary condi ti ons f or Stokes V i ncrease
wi th decre si ng depth, and i n 50 f eet of water
theyare E~=12%, EK=41%. Theerrors f or
EXVP- D show si mi l ar trends, but they are much
smal l er- - f or 50 f eet of water, ED = O%, EK = 2. 5;
The EXVP- D f i nal waves tabul ated i n Fi g. 8 agree
cl osel y wi th the correspondi ng waves f romStokes
V f or water depths greater than 200 f eet. How-
ever, f or depths l ess than 200 f eet, the EXVP- D
waves have sharper crests and smal l er wave
hei ghts f or i denti cal crest hei ghts.
The f orces f romDean and EXVP- D are i n
cl ose agreement f or al l water depths, as shown
i n Fi g. 8. Stokes V and EXVP- D di f f er sl i ghtl y
f or water depths greater than 200 f eet. The

IT(7 7(1Xl K. F. LAMRRAK(_lSAND H. R. BP4NNOF!

c?
!, u -< ------- . . . . . . . . . . . .. :.-... ------- .--- --
22
percent di f f erences between themi ncrease wi th 4. A si mpl i f i ed versi on of EXVP gi ves
decreasi ng depth. For 50 f eet of water, the a hi gh- order- correct sol uti on to
two procedures di f f er by 58% ( Stokes V bei ng Stokes probl emand agrees cl osel y
l arger) . I t i s worth noti ng that the percent
di f f erences i n f orces are comparabl e ( maybe a
i n terms of f orces and wave shapes
wi th Dean s procedure f or wave
bi t l arger) to the percent di f f erences i n the parameters and water depths of i nter-
errors to the boundary condi ti ons. For the est i n pl atf orm desi gn.
50- f t water depth case, the Stokes V prof i l e
contai ns osci l l ati ons, as i l l ustrated i n Fi g. NOMENCLATURE
9. The EXVP prof i l e, i n contrast, i s smooth
f or al l water depths. Engl i sh Symbol s
Thi s study shows that Dean s procedure A : Matri x Coef f i ci ents of the Vel oci ty
and EXVP- D agree cl osel y i n boundary condi ti on
nm
Potenti al ( ~)
errors and wave f orces f or Stokes- type waves.
Stokes V sati sf i es poorl y the boundary con- B : Matri x Coef f i ci ents of the Vel oci ty
di ti ons f or water depths l ess than 200 f t and
nm
Potenti al
cal cul ates conservati ve f orces.
c : Wave Cel eri ty
CONCLUSI ONS
d : Di stance f romBottomto Mean Water
A new wave particle velocity procedure Level
( EXVP) has been demonstrated f or waves of
si mpl e shapes wi th more- or- l ess arbi trary wave En( t) : Coef f i ci ent of the Vel oci ty Potenti al
crest- to- hei ght rati os ( wave shapes) . Thi s
Expansi on i n Space
method sati sf i es the equati ons of moti on and
ED
gi ves good accuracy i n the boundary condi ti ons . . : Error i n the Dynami c Boundary Con-
f or the waves studi es. The method, because of J di ti on ( at l ocati on j and ti me
i ts f l exi bi l i ty i n accuratel y treati ng waves i nstance i )
wi th arbi trary shapes, has potenti al f or i m-
ED
provi ng correl ati ons of cal cul ated and measured i : E~j f or a given location
wave f orces. The procedure has been appl i ed i n
a study of ef f ects of wave shape on wave f orces.
ED
: Percent Error i n the Dynami c Boundary
A si mpl i f i ed f ormof EXVP has been compared wi th Condi ti on
other sol uti ons to the wave probl em posed by
Stokes. The f ol l owi ng concl usi ons are drawn:
EK
i j :
Error i n the Ki nemati c Boundary Con-
di ti on ( at l ocati on j and ti me
1. Maxi murnwave f orces on pi l es depend i nstance i )
mi l dl y on ei ther crest el evati on or
hei ght, provi ded one i s f i xed; how-
EK
i
: EKij f or a gi ven l ocati on
ever, some scatter i n publ i shed
correl ati ons of measured and cal cu-
EK
: Percent error i n the Ki nemati c Boundar~
l ated f orces may be attri butabl e to Condi ti on
i nabi l i ty to accuratel y sol ve hydro-
dynami c equati ons f or arbi trary EXVP : Extended Vel oci ty Potenti al
crests or hei ghts.
EXYP- D : A $tokes Wave Versi on of EXVP
2. The regul ar wave prof i l e approach
( successi ve crests and troughs Fn( t) : Coef f i ci ent of the Vel oci ty Potenti al
i denti cal ) f or correl ati ng m?asured Expansi on i n Space
and cal cul ated f orces i s supported
by a f i ndi ng that wave f orces depend g : Accel erati on of Gravi ty
onl y mi l dl y on the shapes of waves
adj acent to the one of i nterest. kn : Wave Number of a Harmoni c Wave
( kn = 2m/ Ln)
3. The capabi l i ty of EXVP to gi ve
accurate sol uti ons f or more- or- l ess Ln : Wave Length of a Harmoni c Wave
arbi trary wave shapes reduces pre-
vi ous constrai nts to f i tti ng ei ther MWL : Level of Undi stri buted Water Surf ace
wave crest or hei ght i n correl ati ng ( mean water l evel )
measured and cal cul ated f orces.
P: Hydrodynami c Pressure
Q:
The l east- squares sumof the errors
i n the l l oundaryCondi ti ons
. . - . . . - =_. . . =- -- - : . +
_..
hi
WAVE FORCE CALCULATI Of $SFOR
: Ti me
: Wave Peri od of a Harmoni c Wave
n
I : Hori zontal Component of the Water
Parti cl e Vel oci ty
I : Verti cal Component of the Water
Parti cl e Vel oci ty
d : Vector Vel oci ty of Water Parti cl es
( , x : Hori zontal Di stance
72
-Y
: Verti cal Di stance
Week Symbol s
- . .
-1
: Wave Surf ace El evati on measured
f romthe MWL
) : Densi ty of Water
D : Vel oci ty Potenti al Functi on
: Angul ar Wave Frequenci es ( wm= 2n/ Tm)
i m
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors woul d l i ke to thank Mi ke H.
Brady of Esso Producti on Research Co. f or hi s
hel p i n the i mpl ementati on of the numeri cal
opti mi zati on procedure.
REFERENCES
1. Mori son, J . R. , J ohnson, L. W. , O Bri an,
M. P. , Schaaf , S. A. , The Force
Exerted by Surf ace Waves on Pi l es,
Petrol eumTrans. , 18Q, TP 2846 ( 1950) ,
149- 154.
2. Wheel er, J . D. , Method f or Cal cul ati ng
. Forces Produced by I rregul ar Waves,
J ournal of Petrol eumTechnol ogy, Vol .
22, March ( 1970) , 359- 367.
3. J ahns, H. O. , Wheel er, J . D. , Long- Term
Wave Probabi l i ti es Based on Hi nd-
casti ng of Severe Storms, J ournal of
Petrol eumTechnol ogy, Vol . 25, Apri l
( 1973) , 473- 486.
4. Burke, B. G. , Ti ghe, J . T. , ATi meSeri es
Model f or Dynami c Behavi or of Of f shore
Structures, Sot. of Pet. Eng.
Transacti ons, Vol . 253, 1972.
5. Lamb, H. , H drod nami cs, Dover, New York,
New y-
; TOKESANDNON- STOKES WAVES
OTC 203
6. Chappel ear, J . E. , Di rectNumeri cal
Cal cul ati on of Wave Properti es,
J ournal of Geophysi cal Research,
Vol . 66, No. 2, February ( 1961) .
7. Dean, R. G. , StreamFuncti on Represen-
tati on of Nonl i near Ocean Waves,
J ournal of Geophysi cal Research,
Vol . 70, No. 18, September 15,
( 1965) .
8 stokepo)GY !3!P!2wVol 1$ Cambridge
.
9. Evans, D. J . , Anal ysi s of Wave Force
Data, J ournal of Petrol eumTechno-
l ogy, Vol . 22, March ( 1970) , 347- 358.
10. Dean, R. G. , Aagaard, P. M. , Wave Forces:
Data Anal vsi s and Enai neeri na Cal cu-
11. Farr
l ati on I l e{hod, J our~al of P~trol eum
Technol ogy, Vol . 22, March ( 1970) ,
368- 375.
s, R. H. , and Law, V. J . , Trans-
f ormati onal Di scri mi nati on f or Un-
constrai ned Opti mi zati on, I EC
Fundamental s, Vol . 11, ( 1972) .
APPENDI X
VELOCI TY POTENTI AL SOLUTI ON FOR GRAVI TY WAVES
~heory
I rrotati onal f l ui d f l ow can be descri bed
ti i th a si ngl e- val ued f uncti on, the vel oci ty
~otenti al ( 0) . The f l ow vel oci tv ( ~) i s rel ated
.,
to the vel oc~ty potenti a
+
W= - ; 0, or
L+, v=- g
where U and V are the hori zontal and vert
components of vel oci ty.
The equati ons of moti on and boundary
di ti ons f or a wave ( n) i n water de~th d al
cal
con-
e
The EXVP vel oci ty potenti al shown i n Fig. 1. -
to sati sf y the equati on of moti on and boundary
condi ti ons i s:
O( x, z, t)
Fn( t) si n
I f the expans
si ve waves,
= z cosh( knz) [ En( t) cos knx +
n
knx]
on of Q i s restri cted to progres-
. ,,
- .e -
1. . . .
OTC 2039
K. F, LAMBRAKOS Pi
N M
@( x, z, t) = ; cosh( knz) [ Anmcos( knx- umt) +
n, m
Bnmsi n( knx- umt) ] ( A- 1)
where kn, urn, AnmBnm are constants.
Thi s def i ni ti on of the vel oci ty potenti al
di f f ers f romprevi ous def i ni ti ons. For each
f requency ( u. ) , the EXVP i ncl udes not one wave
l ength ( as o~her potenti al s use) , but a set of
wave l engths {k. }. Consequentl y, the harmoni c
wave componentsJ f or a gi ven f requency i n the
vel oci ty potenti al propagate wi th di f f erent
phase vel oci ti es def i ned by the rati o ~. / kj .
Thi s capabi l i ty i s requi red to sati sf y \ he
boundary condi ti ons i n the case of non- Stokes
waves wi th i mproved accuracy.
I n i ts f uncti onal f orm, the vel oci ty
potenti al f rom( A- 1) sati sf i es the conti nui ty
equati on and the boundary condi ti ons on the
bottom. The constants ( kn, urn, Anm, Bri m) are
determi ned f romthe ki nemati c boundary con-
di ti on and the dynami c boundary condi ti on f or
that l ocati on i n space ( x) f or whi ch the wave
prof i l e i s gi ven.
Bernoul l i s equati on def i nes the hydro-
dynami c pressure ( P) everywhere i n the f l ui d:
P
.
- z+d- ~
P9
29 ( U2
~vz) +l ~
g at
( A- 2)
Si nce the pressure on the f ree surf ace i s
assumed to be known ( normal l y taken equal to
zero) , equati on ( A- 2) consti tutes an expressi on
f or the wave prof i l e, i . e. :
dx, t)=; ~- ~
( U2+ V2) ( A- 3)
where the ri ght- hand si de of ( A- 3) i s eval uated
on the f ree surf ace. Thus, Bernoul l i s equati on
i s sati sf i ed everywhere except the l ocati on ( x)
f or whi ch the wave prof i l e i s known.
EXVP Numeri cal Computati on
The constants i n the extended vel oci ty
potenti al are cal cul ated through a numeri cal
f i t of the ki nemati c and dynami c boundary con-
di ti ons. I f the wave prof i l e ( i I )i s gi ven as
a f uncti on of ti me f or a l ocati on x ( normal l y
taken as zero) , the EXVP procedure assumes the
prof i l e to be peri odi c i n ti me ( t) and space
( x) .
H. R. BRANNON
The peri odi ci ty i n ti me i s taken to be th
ti me span of the gi ven wave prof i l e. The f re-
quenci es {u. } whi ch enter i nto ( A- 1) are then
cal cul ated & f ol l ows:
i
=i ti l
where 01 =
I / Tl and T7 i s the peri od of the
wave prof i l e.
The peri odi ci ty i n space ( kl = 2T/ Ll wher
L1 i s the wave l ength f or WI ) i s cal cul ated by
the computer procedure. The set of {kj } i n
( A- 1) are obtai ned f romkl :
kj = j kl
Thus, once the wave prof i l e i s speci f i ed, the
unknown constants are kl , {A }, {Bri m}. The
[ m programcal cul ates these wi t an i terati ve non
l i near regressi on techni que based on l east-
squares mi ni mi zati on.
The f i rst esti mates of the unknowns are
cal cul ated f roml i near theory. Wi th these
val ues f or the constants, the errors i n the
ki nemati c and dynami c boundary condi ti ons are
cal cul ated f or every xi and t. where Xj = ( j - 1
AX and ti ( i -
~
l)At (see gri d . The i ncrement
i i stance AX is l ess than or equal to hal f the
i s
i n
shortest wave l ength and the ti me i ncrement At
l ess than or equal to hal f the shortest ~er
the wave.
x L1
(*j,ti)
/
L
:i- -
r heerrors are summed
t i n the l east- squares
, K
i j
*+U*- V]
x.. ,
1
over al l poi nts
sense, i . e. , i f
+3
t
nxan
t,+
( A
I([A]> [B], [k]) =z [(E~j)2+( ED ) 2]
i , j
..-+ . Y
.:,.::
.
..
56 WAVE. FORCE CALCU! ATI ONS=FO
The deri vati ves of n requi red i n ( A- 4) are
cal cul ated f romBernoul l i s equati on by
setti ng E?. = O. The EXVP procedure uses a
IJ
vari ant of the Gauss- Newton techni que,
~~whi ch
i mproves on the f i rst esti mates of [ A] , [ B] ,
and kl to mi ni mi ze the val ue of the f uncti on Q.
EXVP- D Sol uti on to Stokes Probl em
For the cal cul ati on of Stokes- type wave
shapes, the EXVP- D procedure works as f ol l ows:
Once a set of wave parameters [ ( wave crest,
wave peri od) , or ( wave hei ght, wave peri od) ]
i s speci f i ed,
1.
2.
An approxi mate wave shape i s
cal cul ated f romStokes V. Other
waves may be used as the f i rst
guess, but the Stokes V wave has
been f ound qui te conveni ent and
ti me conservi ng.
The EXVP- D programcal cul ates on
the basi s of the approxi mate wave
shape the i ni ti al val ues f or the
STOK~_AND_NON- STOKES WAVES
OTC 2~
vel oci ty potenti al coef f i ci ents
and wave l ength f roml i near wave
theory. The order of EXVP- D
requi red i s read i nto the program
at the begi nni ng.
3. Wi th the prof i l e and the vel oci ty
potenti al coef f i ci ents, errors i n
the boundary condi ti ons are cal cu-
l ated and summed as shown i n ( A- 4) .
The programmi ni mi zes wi th an i terati ve
regressi on techni que the error Q by varyi ng
the vel oci ty potenti al coef f i ci ents and the
wavel ength.
I n the end the procedure provi des a wave
prof i l e that propagates wi thout def ormati on
and has a crest or hei ght very cl ose to that
of the i ni ti al prof i l e, Al so, a set of vel oci ty
potenti al coef f i ci ents, al ong wi th a wavel ength,
i s avai l abl e f or the cal cul ati on of wave f orces.
The f i nal prof i l e and the vel oci ty potenti al
sati sf y exactl y the dynami c boundary condi ti on
and approxi mate cl osel y the ki nemati c boundary
condi ti on.
.
fame ~ .
- Tfcm-Stokes W&ves Stu&ied
...
)
.>,; .
, ----
. .
Regul ar Waves ( EXVP)
. =
Wave No Wave Hgt Wave Crest Water Depth
( f t) ( f t) ( f t)
1 91. 8 46. 8 400
2 87. 9 46. 6 400
84. 1 46. 3 400
: 46. 0 400
5 $%: 45. 8 400
6 74. 2 45. 5 400
Wave Peri od = 14 sec
75. 7 46. 2 400
$ 81. 3 46. 7 400
3 91. 3 47. 1 400
Wave Peri od = 12 sec
_,.-
.
Regul ar Waves ( EXVP)
Wave Hgt Nave Crest Water Depth
( f t) ( f t) (f t)
80. 8 41. 9 400
80. 7 43. 2 400
80. 6 44. 5 400
80. 5 45. 8 400
80. 4 47. 2 400
80. 3 48. 5 400
Wave Peri od = 14 sec
I rregul ar Waves ( EXVP)
66. 3 45. 6 400
79. 2 46. 5 400
91. 0 47. 0 400
Wave Peri od = 24 sec
( f or center porti on, T=12 see)
-.. L ._ -.
n A MWL
/
(MEAN
WATER LEVEL)
v
L ( x, d u dWATER DEPTH
,~,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
z
x
SEA BOTTOM
/.,/
WATER PARTICLE VELOCITY
HORIZONTAL COMPONENT: U = -a:
VERTICAL COMPONENP
v=-~
az
VELOCITY POTENTIAL, @ IX,z,t)
X,2; DISTANCE; t TIME
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
CONTINUITY # + # = O
BERNOULLIS: z+!-+~ [U2+VZ]J:=0
P9
P: HYOROOYNAMIC PRESSURE
g: GRAVITATIONAL CONSTANT
P WATER OENSITY
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
GOTTOM: V = 0
SURFACE, ~ + U~x -V-O ,.. KINEMATIC
~+; ++[uz+vz]-; g - 0 OYNAMIC
m WAVE SURFACE
Fig. I - Two-dimensional irrotat iona
fluid flow; incompressible, non-
viscous fluid.
APPROACH 1:
WAVE OF INTEREST
{,
/,
vi
h
CHAPPELEARS
I
PROCEDURE:
WAVE PROFILE:
BOUNOARY ERRORS
L_-i ACTUAL WAVE PROFILE
STOKES V, DEAN3, CHAPPELEARS
PERIOOIC [REGULAR), SHAPE SPECIFIEO BY Hjd, T
OEAN, CHAPPELEAR - SMALL
STOKES V-SMALL IN DEEP WATER
LARGE IN SHALLOW WATER
APPROACH II: /-WAVE OF INTEREST
,
I
T ZACTALWAVE pRo~,LE,
EPRCOS
PROCEOURE DEANS, EPRCO$
WAVE PIIOFILEI OEANS - PERIoOIC (R EGULARI, SHAPE ApprOXimateS
bCTUAL WAVE
EPRCO?3 - ACTUAL WAVE PROFILE
BOUNOARV ERRORSI LARGER THAN APPROACH I
Fig. 2 - Wave particle velocity
calculations.
APPROACHI
REGULAR PROFILE: Periodic, NOT SPECIFIED BY H, TANDd
WAVE OF INTEREST
1 TEXVP WAVE PROFiLE
//-),
I I
ACTUAL WAVE PROFILE
APPROACH II
IRREGULAR PROFILE: PERIODIC (SYMMETRIC), NOT S=ECIFIEO BVH, TANOd
I
I u
APPROACH III!
IRRECIULAR PROFILE: PERIOOIC (ASYMMETRIC), NOT SPECIFIED BY H, TANOd
I
Fig. 3 - Extended velocity poten-
tial/wave profiles.
,. I
0.5 x 10-~
0.4
[
EXVPWAVE PROFILE
U.3 -
0.2 -
al
12345
04 b
1
-0.1
-0.2
-0-3 -
-0.4
-0.5 ~x 10-1
. .
. .. . - v l / M ( 3
()
an - 13.10 RMS ~ -
*. ,.
.- .
Fi g. 4 - EXVP f i t to the ki nemati c
boundary condi ti on.
~..
_,
60 XI03
G EXVP X STOKES VWAVE
[ --- - = -
qc = 46.OFT
H = 81.3FT
50
40
d+~c
qc = 46. OFT
1 =
/
UIUldZ; Iu = FD/(0.97 CD. D)
30
0
IN
/\
20 I
I I I [ I 1
0.50 0.52 0.54 0.56 0.58 0.60 0.62
WAVECRESTIWAVE HEIGHT(flc/H)
60 X103
r
2
50
u
Cn
\
~k 40
L
1
X STOKESVWAVE G EXVP
j 30
qc = 45.2FT
H = 80.OFT
20
I I I I I I
0.50 0.52 0.54 0.56 0.58 0.60 0.62
WAVECREST/WAVE HEIGHT(qc/H)
Fi g. 5 - Maxi mum drag f orce vs wave
crest/ wave hei ght.
. .. -:.&. .. . 1- .
1
t 30
/
d+~C
,Iu= Ulllldz; Iu = FD/(0.97 .CD . D)
- 20
0
U: HORIZONTAL VELOCITY
d: WATER OEPTH
10
0.688 0.575 0.515
-
II. / H (EXVP WAVES)
I I I I I I
o
I I I
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 ~0
I
100
WAVE HEIGHT (FT)
Fi g. 6 - Maxi mum drag f orce vs
wave hei ght.
DYNAMICBOUNOARY ERROR KINEMATICBOUNOARY ERROR
Vs Vs
0.57
PHASE ANGLE
o.4-
0.3-
0.2-
i=
&
0.1
w=
Y
~o
x
ala
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5 111111111
0 20 40 m m 100 120 140 ,~ ,~
PHASE ANGLE (DEGREEs)
PHASEANGLE (DEGREES)
o STOKES V(EK=37%, ED =16%)
G EXVP-O(EK =l.7%, ED=0.0%)
a J. E. CHAPPELEAR
A R.G.DEAN
STOKESVWAVE: WD = 48,8FT
WH =34,4FT
WT = 15.3 SEC
Fi g. 7 - Errors i n the boundary condi ti ons -
Stokes V wave studi ed by Chappel ear and
Dean.
.,.,.,
I
loo
90 -
N- 80 -
H
Q
+ 70
u.
1
60 -
E
n 50 -
Q
h
2 40
\
~n 30
II
3 20 -
10 -
WAVE
STOKES V EXVP-D
No. WD WH Wc WD WH Wc
1 50 39 30.1 50 86 29.7
2 100 64 44.5 100 61 44.5
3 200 76 45.9 200 75 45.9
4 400 81 45.8 400 81 45.9
5 800 81 45.5 800 81 45.9
*ALL QUANTITIES ARE IN FEET
WAVE PERIOD = 14sEc
CD = DRAG COEFFICIENT
D = PILE DIAMETER
1 = f UIUldz - U = HORIZONTAL VELOCITY
III STOKES V
O DEAN, EXVP-D
01
I I I I I I I I
g) 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
WATER DEPTH (FT)
Fi g. 8 - Maxi mum drag _f orce (FD) vs
water depth.
80(
70
60
50
40
STOKES V WAVE: WD = 50 FT
WH = 39 FT
WT = 14 SEC
EXVP-D WAVE: WD = 50.0 FT
WH = 36.0 FT
WT = 14 SEC
G STOKESV
O EXVP-D
I I I I I 1 I I
20 40 ,, 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
:, PHASE ANGLE (DEGREES)
Fi g. 9 - Wave prof i I e vs phase
angl e.