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Job Satisfaction Overview

Job satisfaction is the most widely investigated job attitude as well as one of the most extensively researched subjects in Industrial/Organizational Psychology (Judge & hurch! "###$% &any wor' motivation theories have re(resented the im(lied role of job satisfaction% In addition! many wor' satisfaction theories have tried to ex(lain job satisfaction and its influence! such as) &aslow*s (+,-.$ /ierarchy of 0eeds! /ertzberg*s (+,12$ 3wo45actor (&otivator4/ygiene$ 3heory! 6dam*s (+,17$ 89uity 3heory! Porter and :awler*s (+,12$ modified version of ;room*s (+,1-$ ;I8 &odel! :oc'e*s (+,1,$ <iscre(ancy 3heory! /ac'man and Oldham*s (+,=1$ Job haracteristics &odel! :oc'e*s (+,=1$ >ange of 6ffect 3heory! ?andura*s (+,==$ @ocial :earning 3heory! and :andy*s (+,=2$ O((onent Process 3heory% 6s a result of this ex(ansive research! job satisfaction has been lin'ed to (roductivity! motivation! absenteeism/tardiness! accidents! mental/(hysical health! and general life satisfaction (:andy! +,=2$% 6 common idea of the research has been that! to some extent! the emotional state of an individual is affected by interactions with their wor' environment% Peo(le identify themselves by their (rofession! such as a doctor! lawyer! or teacher% 6 (erson*s individual well4being at wor'! therefore! is a very significant as(ect of research (Judge & Alinger! "##=$% 3he most widely acce(ted ex(lanation of job satisfaction was (resented by :oc'e (+,=1$! who defined job satisfaction as Ba (leasurable or (ositive emotional state resulting from the a((raisal of one*s job or job ex(eriencesC ((% +.#-$% 6dditionally! job satisfaction has emotional! cognitive and behavioral com(onents (?ernstein & 0ash! "##2$% 3he emotional com(onent refers to feelings regarding the job! such as boredom! anxiety! or excitement% 3he cognitive com(onent of job satisfaction refers to beliefs regarding oneDs job! for exam(le! feeling that oneDs job is mentally demanding and challenging% 5inally! the behavioral com(onent includes (eo(leDs actions in relation to their wor'% 3hese actions may include being tardy! staying late! or (retending to be ill in order to avoid wor' (?ernstein & 0ash! "##2$% 3here are two ty(es of job satisfaction which are based on the level of em(loyeesD feelings regarding their jobs% 3he first! and most studied! is global job satisfaction! which refers to em(loyeesD overall feelings about their jobs (e%g%! EOverall! I love my job%E$ (&ueller & Aim! "##2$% 3he second is job facet satisfaction! which refers to feelings about s(ecific job as(ects! such as salary! benefits! and the 9uality of relationshi(s with oneDs co4wor'ers (e%g%! EOverall! I love my job! but I my schedule is difficult to manage%E$ (&ueller & Aim! "##2$% 6ccording to Aerber and am(bell (+,2=$! measurements of job facet satisfaction may be hel(ful in identifying which s(ecific as(ects of a job re9uire im(rovements% 3he results may aid organizations in im(roving overall job satisfaction or in ex(laining organizational issues such as high turnover (Aerber & am(bell! +,2=$% 3here are several misleading notions that exist about job satisfaction% One such fallacy is that a ha((y em(loyee is a (roductive em(loyee! which is not always the case (@y(ta'! &arsland! & Flmer! +,,,$% >esearch has offered little su((ort that a ha((y em(loyee is (roductiveG furthermore! some research has suggested that causality may flow in the o((osite direction! from (roductivity to satisfaction (?assett! +,,-$% 6nother fallacy is that (ay is the most im(ortant factor in job satisfactionG however! em(loyees are more satisfied when they enjoy the environment in which they wor' (?erry! +,,=$% 6n individual can have a high (aying job and not be satisfied because it is boring and lac's sufficient stimulation% In fact! a low (aying job can be seen as satisfying if it is ade9uately challenging or stimulating% 3here are numerous factors that must be ta'en into consideration when determining how satisfied an em(loyee is with his or her job and it is not always easy to determine which factors are most im(ortant to each em(loyee% Job satisfaction is very circumstantial and subjective for each em(loyee and situation that is being assessed%

Figure 1.

om(onents of job satisfaction (3he Pennsylvania @tate Fniversity! "#+#$%

Causes of Job Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction


@ince (eo(le tend to be evaluative! they loo' at their wor' ex(eriences in terms of li'ing or disli'ing and develo( feelings of satisfaction or dissatisfaction regarding their job as well as the organization in which they wor' (Jex! "##"$% 3here are many (robable influences that affect how favorably an individual a((raises his or her job) s(ecifically! an individual*s attitude toward his or her job% 3hrough years of extensive research! I/O (sychologists have identified numerous variables that seem to contribute to either job satisfaction or organizational commitment (Hlisson & <uric'! +,22$% 3o ex(lain the develo(ment of job satisfaction! researchers have ta'en three common a((roaches) job characteristics! social information (rocessing (organizational characteristics$! and dis(ositional (wor'er characteristics$ (Hlisson & <uric'! +,22G Jex! "##"$% Job Characteristics In relation to the job characteristics a((roach! research has revealed that the nature of an individual*s job or the characteristics of the organization that the individual wor's for (redominantly determines job satisfaction (Jex! "##"$% 6ccording to /ac'man and Oldham (+,2#$ a job characteristic is an as(ect of a job that generates ideal conditions for high levels of motivation! satisfaction! and (erformance% 5urthermore! /ac'man and Oldham (+,2#$ (ro(osed five core job characteristics that all jobs should contain) s'ill variety! tas' identity! tas' significance! autonomy! and feedbac'% /ac'man and Oldham (+,2#$ also defined four (ersonal and wor' outcomes) internal wor' motivation! growth satisfaction! general satisfaction! and wor' effectiveness% 3hese characteristics have been added to the more (o(ular dimensions of job satisfaction assessment) the wor' itself! (ay! (romotional o((ortunities! su(ervision! and co4wor'er relations (@mith! Aendall! & /ulin! +,1,$% 6 common (remise in research of the effects of job circumstances on job satisfaction is that individuals determine job satisfaction by com(aring what they are currently receiving from the job and what they would li'e to or believe that

they should receive (Jex! "##"$% 5or exam(le! if an em(loyee is receiving an annual salary of I-7!### and believes that he or she should be receiving a salary of I-.!### than he or she will feel satisfactionG however! if the em(loyee believes that he or she should be receiving I7.!### than he or she will feel dissatisfaction% 3his com(arison would a((ly to each job facet including) s'ill level! seniority! (romotional o((ortunities! su(ervision! etc% (Jex! "##"$% 6ccording to :oc'e (+,=1$! this (rocess becomes com(lex since the im(ortance of wor' facets differs for each individual% 5or exam(le! one em(loyee may feel that (ay rate is extremely im(ortant while another may feel that social relationshi(s are more im(ortant% 3o ex(lain the effects of these differences! :oc'e (+,=1$ (ut forward the ideas of the range of affect theory% 3he hy(othesis of this theory is that em(loyees weigh facets differently when assessing job satisfaction (:oc'e! +,=1$% onse9uently! this leads to an individual measure of satisfaction or dissatisfaction when ex(ectations are or are not met% 5or exam(le! the job satisfaction of an em(loyee who (laces extreme im(ortance on (ay would be (ositively im(acted if he or she receives a salary within ex(ectation% onversely! his or her level of (ay would minimally im(act the job satisfaction of an em(loyee who (laces little im(ortance on (ay%

Figure 2. Job @atisfaction &odel (5ield! "##2$%

Social information processing (organizational characteristics) ?ased mainly on 5estinger*s (+,7-$ @ocial om(arison 3heory! Jex ("##"$ ex(lains that during social information (rocessing! em(loyees loo' to cowor'ers to ma'e sense of and develo( attitudes about their wor' environment% In other words! if em(loyees see that their co4wor'ers are (ositive and satisfied then they will most li'ely be satisfiedG however! if their co4wor'ers are negative and dissatisfied then the em(loyee will most li'ely become dissatisfied as well% 6ccordingly! organizations are counseled that new hires can become BtaintedC during the socialization (rocess if they are (laced around em(loyees who are dissatisfied (Jex! "##"$% 6lthough laboratory studies have found that

social4information has a (revailing im(act on job satisfaction and characteristic (erce(tions! organizational tests have been less su((ortive (Jex & @(ector! +,2,$% Jeiss and @haw conducted a study where the subjects viewed a training video where assembly line wor'ers either made (ositive or negative comments about their jobs% 3he subjects who viewed the video were then given the o((ortunity to (erform the job% 3he study found that the subjects who were shown the (ositive video enjoyed (erforming the job tas's more than the subjects who viewed the negative ta(e (6amondt! "##,$% &irolli! /enderson and /ills (+,,2$ also conducted a similar study% In this study! the subjects (erformed a tas' with two ex(erimenters who were (retending to be other subjects (the study referred to them as confederates$% In one condition! (ositive comments were made by the confederates about the job and how much they enjoyed it% In the second condition! the confederates made negative comments about the job and how much they disli'ed it% In the control condition! no (ositive or negative comments were made regarding the job% 3he actual subjects ex(osed to the confederates who made (ositive comments rate the job tas's as more enjoyable than the subjects ex(osed to the negative comments by the confederates% 3his further su((orts social information (rocessing theory (6amondt!"##,$% Henerally! Bthe research on social information (rocessing theory su((orts the idea that social environment does have an effect on em(loyees* attitudes and behaviorsC (6amondt! "##,! (%.=-$% 6s an a((lication of social information (rocessing theory! an I3 com(any in Hermany! 0etzwer'! im(lemented rules in their contracts% 8m(loyees who wor' at this com(any must sign a contract agreeing not to whine or com(lain% 3hey have even fired em(loyees for excessive whining (6amondt! "##,$% Dispositional (worker characteristics) Internal dis(osition is the basis of the latest method to ex(laining job satisfaction and hints that some (eo(le are inclined to be satisfied or dissatisfied with their wor' no matter the nature of the job or the organizational environment (Jex! "##"$% &ore sim(ly! some (eo(le are genetically (ositive in dis(osition (the glass half full$! whereas others are innately negative in dis(osition (the glass half em(ty$% 5or instance! a study of twins who were reared a(art (same genetic characteristics but different ex(eriences$ found that .# (ercent of inconsistency in satisfaction was accredited to genetic factors (6rvey! ?ouchard! @egal! & 6braham! +,2,$% 5urthermore! although individuals change jobs and em(loyers! individual dis(osition has been shown to be consistent by the use of survey results of job satisfaction (@taw & >oss! +,27$% 6dditionally! @taw! ?ell! and lausen (+,21$ also found that adolescent evaluations of affective dis(osition were correlated with adult job satisfaction for as many as forty years later% &any years of research has been conducted on the dis4(ositional source of job satisfaction and has (resented strong evidence that job satisfaction! to some extent! is based on dis(osition (Judge & :arsen! "##+$% <is4(ositional affect is the (redis(osition to ex(erience related emotional moods over time (Judge & Aammeyer4&ueller! "##2$% 6ccordingly! this a((roach assumes that an em(loyee*s attitude about his or her job originates from an internal (mental$ state% Positive affect is a (redis(osition favorable to (ositive emotional ex(erience! whereas negative affect is a (redis(osition to ex(erience a wide array of negative emotions (Jatson! lar'! & arey! +,22$% Positive affective (eo(le feel enthusiastic! active! alert! and o(timistic (Jatson! lar'! & 3ellegen! +,22$% On the contrary! negative affective (eo(le feel anger! contem(t! disgust! guilt! fear! and nervousness (Jatson! lar'! & 3ellegen! +,22$% 3here is also strong evidence su((orting dis(osition causing job satisfaction from a @ocial ognitive as(ect as well% ausation through dis(osition indicates that job satisfaction can be determined by an individualDs general overall outloo'% In (sychology! ognitive 3heory of <e(ression states that individual*s thought (rocesses and (erce(tions can be a source of unha((iness% 5urther! the automated thoughts and (rocesses (?ec'! +,2=$ resulting from irrational and dysfunctional thin'ing (er(etuate emotions of de(ression and unha((iness in individuals% Judge and :oc'e (+,,"$ examine these conce(ts in detail% 3hey discuss cognitive (rocesses li'e (erfectionism! over4 generalization! and de(endence on others as causation for de(ression leading to unha((iness% 3hey claim that subjective well4being resulting from an affective dis(osition leads to individuals ex(eriencing information recall

regarding their job% In short! ha((y individuals tend to store and evaluate job information differently than unha((y individuals do% 3his ty(e of recollection indicates that job satisfaction can be influenced by subjective well4being% 3ait! Padgett! and ?aldwin (+,2,$ (erformed a meta4analytic review discovering an average correlation between job and life satisfaction to be %--! which su((orts the theory of a dis(ositional effect on job satisfaction% In addition! /oward and ?ray (+,22$ determined through a study they (erformed on 63&3 managers that motives such as ambition and desire to get ahead serve as some of the strongest (redictors for advancement% 6lso! ?andura (+,21$ states that individualDs as(irations become their standards of self4satisfaction indicating that those with high goals! theoretically! should be harder to satisfy than (eo(le with low goals% 3his would indicate that a high level of ambition resulting from high standards can (oint to a lower satisfaction as an end result% In addition! it is oftentimes the case that unsatisfied wor'ers are highly ambitious but unha((y as a result of their inability to be (romoted within an organization% 5or this reason! ambition can negatively influence job satisfaction% /owever! Judge and :oc'e caution that dysfunctional thin'ing is not singularly res(onsible for dis(ositional factors affecting job satisfaction% 3hey mention self4esteem! locus of control! self4efficacy! intelligence! and ambition as well% 6ll three of the above mentioned causes have been found to contribute to job satisfactionG however! researchers have not conducted simultaneous com(arison of all three of these a((roaches (?a'er! "##-$% Job characteristics have been shown to im(act job satisfaction (?a'er! "##-$% >ecent studies on social informational (rocessing have found that leadershi( actions influence job satisfaction (?a'er! "##-$% ;arious research findings have indicated that a relationshi( between dis(osition and job satisfaction does in fact exist% 5or instance! Jeiss and ro(anzano (+,,1$ advocate that emotionally significant (rocedures at wor' may be influenced by dis(osition! which in turn influences job satisfaction% Job characteristics have been favored in research (3homas! ?ubholtz! & Jin'les(echt! "##-$G however! less research has been conducted on the dis4(ositional a((roach! since it is fairly new ( outts & Hruman! "##7$%

Figure 3. 5acets of job satisfaction (/ac'man & Oldham! +,2#G @mith! Aendall! & /ulin! +,1,$%

Life Satisfaction :ife satisfaction is often considered se(arately from job satisfaction with regards to (roductivity in the wor'(lace! but as the majority of this research is correlational! it is beneficial to ex(lore (otential relationshi(s between these two factors themselves rather than strictly with regards to (erformance% >esearch suggests there is in fact a significant relationshi( between job satisfaction and life satisfaction! with a correlation of %-- (based on a meta analysis of .studies with a combined sam(le size of +,!2++$% (3ait et al%! +,2,$ Jith this relationshi( being correlational! causation cannot be determined! though it is suggested that the nature of the relationshi( is reci(rocal or bi4directional% (Judge et al%! +,,.$ In other words! life satisfaction may (ositively influence job satisfaction! and job satisfaction will also (ositively influence life satisfaction% onversely! some research suggests that life satisfaction often (recedes and is a good (redictor of job satisfaction44some directionality (Judge et al%! +,,.$% Jhichever the case may be! it cannot be

ignored that there is a significant relationshi( between job satisfaction and life satisfaction based on correlational research (Jones! "##1$% Other actors It is difficult to establish all the antecedents leading towards job satisfaction% /owever! an additional construct that suggests a (ositive correlation to job satisfaction not yet discussed is engagement% In a meta4analysis! the correlation between job satisfaction and engagement is %"" (/arter! @chmidt! & /ayes! "##"$% @tirling ("##2$ notes that "# (ercent of engaged individuals do 2# (ercent of the wor'% 3herefore! it is vital to continue to cultivate job satisfaction among these highly (roductive individuals% Opponent !rocess "heor# O((onent (rocess theory was (ro(osed by :andy (+,=2$ as a theory of job satisfaction! based on the ideas of @olomon and orbit (+,=.$% 3his theory Bim(lies that each wor'er has a ty(ical or characteristic level of job satisfaction that could be called the (erson*s steady state or e9uilibrium levelC (?rief! +,,2! (% .#$% Jhen changes occur in a job (osition or wor' situation this causes dise9uilibrium! however! over time the em(loyee*s satisfaction level will return to the e9uilibrium state (?rief! +,,2$% 6n exam(le of this would be a (ay raise% 3he raise would cause satisfaction to increase! but eventually the wor'er*s satisfaction will return to the steady state% 3his theory has not yet been tested extensively through research% >esearch does show that job satisfaction levels remain fairly stable over time and that changes in the satisfaction levels are often only tem(orary (?rief! +,,2$%

"he $mportance of Job Satisfaction


6s mentioned in the overview! job satisfaction has been lin'ed to many variables! including (erformance! absenteeism! and turnover! which will be discussed further in this section% Job satisfaction is significant because a (ersonDs attitude and beliefs may affect his or her behavior% 6ttitudes and beliefs may cause a (erson to wor' harder! or! the o((osite may occur! and he or she may wor' less% Job satisfaction also affects a (ersonDs general well4being for the reason that (eo(le s(end a good (art of the day at wor'% onse9uently! if a (erson is dissatisfied with their wor'! this could lead to dissatisfaction in other areas of their life% %mplo#ee performance 3he lin' between job satisfaction and job (erformance has a long and controversial history% >esearchers were first made aware of the lin' between satisfaction and (erformance through the +,"-4+,.. /awthorne studies (0aidu! +,,1$% @ince the /awthorne studies! numerous researchers have critically examined the idea that Ea ha((y wor'er is a (roductive wor'erE% >esearch results of Iaffaldano and &uchins'y (+,27$ have found a wea' connection! a((roximately %+=! between job satisfaction and job (erformance% On the other hand! research conducted by Organ (+,22$ discovered that a stronger connection between (erformance and satisfaction was not found because of the narrow definition of job (erformance% Organ (+,22$ believes that when the definition of job (erformance includes behaviors such as organizational citizenshi( (the extent to which oneDs voluntary su((ort contributes to the success of an organization$ the relationshi( between satisfaction and (erformance will im(rove% Judge! 3horeson! ?ono! and Patton ("##+$ discovered that after correcting the sam(ling and measurement errors of .#+ studies! the correlation between job satisfaction and job (erformance increased to %.#% It is im(ortant to note that the connection between job satisfaction and job (erformance is higher for difficult jobs than for less difficult jobs (@aari & Judge! "##-$% 6 lin' does exist between job satisfaction and job (erformanceG however! it is not as strong as one would initially believe% 3he wea' lin' may be attributed to factors such as job structure or economic conditions% 5or exam(le! some jobs are designed so that a minimum level of (erformance is re9uired which does not allow for high satisfaction% 6dditionally! in times of high unem(loyment! dissatisfied em(loyees will (erform well! choosing unsatisfying wor' over unem(loyment%

EIn "##1! researcher &ichelle Jones analyzed three studies (ulling together =- se(arate investigations of job satisfaction and job (erformance in +"!### wor'ers% @he wrote) D3he conclusions drawn by these researchers! and many others! indicate the (resence of a (ositive! but very wea'! relationshi( between job satisfaction and job (erformance%D Jones argues we have been measuring the wrong 'ind of satisfaction% Instead of job satisfaction! we should be loo'ing at the lin' between overall satisfaction with life and out(ut at wor'E (?right! "##2$% In this study! Jones im(lies that the more satisfied someone is with their life in general! the more (roductive we will be in our jobs% %mplo#ee absenteeism It seems natural to assume that if individuals disli'e their jobs then they will often call in sic'! or sim(ly loo' for a new o((ortunity% Ket again! the lin' between these factors and job satisfaction is wea'% 3he correlation between job satisfaction and absenteeism is %"7 (Johns! +,,=$% It is li'ely that a satisfied wor'er may miss wor' due to illness or (ersonal matters! while an unsatisfied wor'er may not miss wor' because he or she does not have any sic' time and cannot afford the loss of income% Jhen (eo(le are satisfied with their job they may be more li'ely to attend wor' even if they have a coldG however! if they are not satisfied with their job! they will be more li'ely to call in sic' even when they are well enough to wor'% %mplo#ee turnover 6ccording to a meta4analysis of -" studies! the correlation between job satisfaction and turnover is %"- ( arsten & @(ector! +,2=$% One obvious factor4affecting turnover would be an economic downturn! in which unsatisfied wor'ers may not have other em(loyment o((ortunities% On the other hand! a satisfied wor'er may be forced to resign his or her (osition for (ersonal reasons such as illness or relocation% 3his holds true for our men and women of the F@ 6rmed 5orces! who might fit well in a job but are often made to relocate regardless% In this case! it would be next to im(ossible to measure any correlation of job satisfaction% 5urthermore! a (erson is more li'ely to be actively searching for another job if they have low satisfactionG whereas! a (erson who is satisfied with their job is less li'ely to be job see'ing% Correlation vs& causation Jhile one may wish to understand which variables increase or decrease job satisfaction! it is im(ortant to remember that correlation is not e9uivalent to causation (@teinberg! "##2$% >esearch has shown that there is a correlation between job satisfaction and (erformance! turnover! and absenteeism% 6 correlation indicates that there is a relationshi( between these variablesG however! it does not ex(lain Ewhich variable! if either! caused the relationshi(E (@teinberg! "##2! (% -+,$% It is entirely (ossible that an outside variable is res(onsible for the correlation (@teinberg! "##2$% 5or exam(le! job satisfaction and job (erformance are (ositively correlated (when job satisfaction increases! job (erformance increases$% /owever! for one (erson! satisfaction may increase because (erformance increases! whereas! for another! (erformance may increase because satisfaction increases% It is im(ossible to tell whether job satisfaction causes increased job (erformance or that job (erformance causes increased job satisfaction based on correlation alone%

3he following is a list of alternative ex(lanations of a correlation (Pearson! "#+#$)

'everse causation 4 3he causal direction is o((osite what has been hy(othesizedG e%g%! job (erformance causes an increase in job satisfaction rather than the other way around% 'eciprocal causation 43he two variables cause each otherG e%g% high job satisfaction causes high job (erformance which then increases job satisfaction% Common(causal variables 4;ariables not (art of the research hy(othesis cause both the (redictor and the outcome variableG e%g% individual dis(osition may cause both satisfaction and job (erformance% Spurious relationship 43he common4causal variable (roduces and Bex(lains awayC the relationshi( between the (redictor and outcome variablesG e%g%! individual differences in dis(osition as described above% %)traneous variables 4;ariables other than the (redictor cause the outcome variable but do not cause the (redictor variableG e%g%! (ressure from a su(ervisor causes high (erformance% *e+iating variables 4;ariables caused by the (redictor variable in turn cause the outcome variableG e%g% ex(erience could cause high (erformance which then could cause satisfaction ((erformance would be the mediating variable$%

Figure 4. Job satisfaction correlation (Iaffaldano & &uchins'y! +,27G Johns! +,,=G

arsten & @(ector! +,2=$%

,pplication of Job Satisfaction in the -orkplace


3he a((lication of job satisfaction in the wor'(lace is a tough conce(t to gras( due to its individualistic and circumstantial nature% Jhat one em(loyee desires from their wor'! another may not% 5or instance! one em(loyee may (ut their salary in high regard! while another may find autonomy most im(ortant% Fnfortunately! one as(ect alone will most li'ely not affect an em(loyeeDs job satisfaction% 6ccording to @y(ta'! &arsland! and Flmer (+,,,$! there are numerous as(ects of a job that an organization can manage to increase satisfaction in the wor'(lace! such as)

Compan# !olicies ( Policies that are clear! fair and a((lied e9ually to all em(loyees will decrease dissatisfaction% 3herefore! fairness and clarity are im(ortant and can go a long way in im(roving em(loyee attitude% 5or exam(le! if a com(any has a (olicy for lunch brea's that are the same length and time for everyone! em(loyees will see this as the norm and it will hel( cut down on wasted time and low (roductivity% Salar#/.enefits ( &a'ing sure em(loyee salaries and benefits are com(arable to other organization salaries and benefits will hel( raise satisfaction% If a com(any wishes to (roduce a com(etitive (roduct they must also offer com(etitive wages% In addition! this can hel( reduce turnover! as em(loyees are more satisfied when (aid com(etitive wages than if they are being under(aid% $nterpersonal/Social 'elations ( 6llowing em(loyees to develo( a social as(ect to their job may increase satisfaction as well as develo( a sense of teamwor'% o4wor'er relationshi(s may also benefit the organization as a wholeG given that! teamwor' is a very im(ortant as(ect of organization (roductivity and success% &oreover! when (eo(le are allowed to develo( wor' relationshi(s they care more about (ulling their own weight and not letting co4wor'ers down%

-orking Con+itions 4 Aee(ing u( to date facilities and e9ui(ment and ma'ing sure em(loyees have ade9uate (ersonal wor's(ace may decrease dissatisfaction% 6 cram(ed em(loyee is a frustrated em(loyee (lus faulty e9ui(ment (rovides frustration in trying to get wor' done% ,chievement 4 &a'ing sure em(loyees are in the (ro(er (ositions to utilize their talents may enhance satisfaction% Jhen em(loyees are in the (ro(er role and feel a sense of achievement and challenge! their talents will be in line with the goals best suited for them% 'ecognition 4 3a'ing the time to ac'nowledge a job well done may allow for satisfaction% Positive and constructive feedbac' boosts an em(loyeeDs morale and 'ee(s them wor'ing in the right direction% ,utonom# 4 Hiving em(loyees the freedom of ownershi( of their wor' may hel( raise satisfaction% Job satisfaction may result when an individual 'nows they are res(onsible for the outcome of their wor'% ,+vancement 4 6llowing em(loyees! who show high (erformance and loyalty! room to advance will hel( ensure satisfaction% 6 new title and sense of res(onsibility can often increase job satisfaction in an em(loyee% Job Securit# 4 8s(ecially in times of economic uncertainty! job security is a very high factor in determining an em(loyeeDs job satisfaction% Hiving an em(loyee the assurance that their job is secure will most li'ely increase job satisfaction% -ork(life .alance !ractices4 In times where the average household is changing it is becoming more im(ortant for an em(loyer to recognize the delicate balancing act that its em(loyees (erform between their (ersonal life and wor' life% Policies that res(ond to common (ersonal and family needs can be essential to maintaining job satisfaction%
6 study (ublished by 3he 5amilies and Jor' Institute shows that! des(ite the numerous as(ects of a job! there are a few that s(ecifically allow for greater im(rovement of satisfaction% 6ccording to their study! wor'(lace su((ort and job 9uality collectively account for =# (ercent of the factors influencing job satisfaction% @ur(risingly! earnings and benefits only account for " (ercent (8m(loyee >etention /ead9uarters! n%d%$%

Figure 5. 5actors im(acting job satisfaction (8m(loyee >etention /ead9uarters! n%d$%

Jhen it comes to a((lying job satisfaction in the wor'(lace! it is im(ortant to loo' at all as(ects of job satisfaction% 6ll em(loyees are different and have different views ma'ing job satisfaction extremely hard to researchG however! 8verett (+,,7$ suggests that most res(onsible em(loyees as' themselves the following 9uestions)

Jhen have I come closest to ex(ressing my full (otential in a wor' situationL Jhat did it loo' li'eL Jhat as(ects of the wor'(lace were most su((ortiveL Jhat as(ects of the wor' itself were most satisfyingL Jhat did I learn from that ex(erience that could be a((lied to the (resent situationL
In order for the em(loyee to answer these 9uestions! job satisfaction must be fully de(loyed within the organization% :isted in the above section are numerous as(ects that organizations can utilize to hel( increase satisfaction% In addition to these as(ects! organizations must also loo' at the needs of the em(loyee% 5or exam(le! an em(loyee! who is a great asset to the com(any as he or she is highly educated and motivated! may have (ersonal issues such as daycare% 6s a remedy! an organization might be flexible with wor' arrangements! (ossibly allowing telecommuting! which would create a win4win situation for the em(loyee and the organization% 6dditionally! an organization should (rovide more o((ortunities for em(loyees to hel( increase job satisfaction% onse9uently! this would (ea' an interest in the em(loyee! allowing him/her to ta'e more (ride in his or her wor'% 6lthough research

might be difficult for job satisfaction theories! es(ecially within the correlation field! there is just enough to hel( em(loyees and organizations become successful and enjoy their jobs (rovided the right ty(e of leadershi( is at the helm%

*easures of Job Satisfaction


3he following are measures of job satisfaction as outlined by 5ields ("##"$)

Overall Job Satisfaction 4 ammann! 5ichman! Jen'ins! and Alesh (+,2.$ develo(ed this measure as (art of the &ichigan Organizational 6ssessment Muestionnaire (O6M$% In this measure three items are used to describe an em(loyee*s subjective res(onse to wor'ing in the s(ecific job and organization (5ields! "##"! (% "#$% Job Descriptive $n+e) (JD$) 4 3his was originally develo(ed by @mith! Aendall! and /ulin (+,1,$% 3here are =" items on this index which assess five facets of job satisfaction which includes) the wor'! (ay! (romotions! su(ervision! and cowor'ers% 3hrough the combination of ratings of satisfaction with the faces! a com(osite measure of job satisfaction is determined% >oznows'i (+,2,$ u(dated the J<I to include wor' atmos(here! job content and wor' technology% 6 shorter! .#4item version! was develo(ed by Hregson (+,,#$ based on 1 items which included wor'! (ay! (romotions! su(ervision and co4wor'ers (5ields! "##"! (% ".$% /lobal Job Satisfaction 4 Jarr! oo'! and Jall (+,=,$ develo(ed this measure which includes +7 items to determine overall job satisfaction% 3wo subscales are used for extrinsic and intrinsic as(ects of the job% 3he extrinsic section has eight items and the intrinsic has seven items (5ields! "##"! (% "=$% Job Satisfaction 'elative to %)pectations 4 ?acharach! ?amberger! and onley (+,,+$ develo(ed this measure% It assesses the degree Bof agreement between the (erceived 9uality of broad as(ects of a job and em(loyee ex(ectationsC (5ields! "##"! (% 1$% It is most effective to determine how job stresses! role conflicts! or role ambiguities can hinder an em(loyee from meeting job ex(ectations (5ields! "##"! (% 1$% *innesota Satisfaction 0uestionnaire 4 3he long form of this survey is made u( of +## 9uestions based on "# sub scales which measure satisfaction with Bability! utilization! achievement! activity! advancement! authority! com(any (olicies and (ractices! com(ensation! co4wor'ers! creativity! inde(endence! moral values! recognition! res(onsibility! security! social service! social status! su(ervision4human relations! su(ervision4technical variety! and wor'ing conditionsC (5ields! "##"! (%=$% 3here is a short version of the &@M which consists of "# items% 3his can also be se(arated into two subscales for intrinsic and extrinsic satisfaction% Job in /eneral Scale 4 3his measure was develo(ed by Ironson! @mith! ?rannic'! Hibson! and Paul (+,2,$% It consists of +2 items which describe global job satisfaction and can be used in conjunction with the J<I! which assesses satisfaction with five job facets% 3his was develo(ed to Bassess global satisfaction inde(endent from satisfaction with facetsC (5ields! "##"! (%,$% Job Satisfaction Surve# 4 3his was develo(ed by @(ector (+,27$ and contains .1 items based on nine job facets% 3he job facets include (ay! (romotion! su(ervision! benefits! contingent rewards! o(erating (rocedures! co4wor'ers! nature of wor' and communication% Jhen it was initially develo(ed! it was s(ecific to job satisfaction in human service! non(rofit and (ublic organizations (5ields! "##"! (%+-$% Job Satisfaction $n+e) 4 @chriescheim and 3sue! (+,2#$ develo(ed this measure% It consists of six items that form and index which determines overall job satisfaction% 3he items are the wor'! su(ervision! co4wor'ers! (ay! (romotion o((ortunities! and the job in general (5ields! "##"! (% +1$% Job Diagnostic Surve# 4 /ac'man and Oldham (+,=-$ develo(ed this survey which measures both overall and s(ecific facets of job satisfaction% 3here are three dimensions of overall job satisfaction which includes general satisfaction! internal wor' motivation! and growth satisfaction! which are combined

into a single measure% 3he facets which are measured on the survey include security! com(ensation! co4 wor'ers! and su(ervision (5ields! "##"! (% "#$% Career Satisfaction 4 Hreenhaus! Parasuraman! and Jormley (+,,#$ develo(ed this measure% 3his is a measure of career success! as o((osed to job satisfaction% It assesses general satisfaction with career outcome! but also satisfaction with career (rogress (5ields! "##"! (% ",$%
5ields outlines s(ecific ty(es of em(loyee satisfaction measures which describe an em(loyee*s satisfaction with one or more as(ects of their job% 3hese include the following (5ields! "##"$)

(+,21$%

%mplo#ee Satisfaction with $nfluence an+ Ownership develo(ed by >osen! Alein! and Koung Satisfaction with -ork Sche+ule le)ibilit# develo(ed by >othausen (+,,-$% Satisfaction with *# Supervisor develo(ed by @car(ello and ;andenberg (+,2=$%

'esearch on Job Satisfaction


Job satisfaction is the most fre9uently studied variable in organizational behavior (@(ector! +,,=$% >esearch on job satisfaction is carried out by various methods) interviews! observation! and 9uestionnaires% 3he 9uestionnaire is the most fre9uently used research method because it is unrestrained in nature% >esearchers can use an existing assessment tool! or scale! as a means of assessment% Fsing an existing scale (rovides the researcher with a valid! reliable! and consistent construct when assessing job satisfaction% Job satisfaction can be assessed using a general scale! facet satisfaction scale or global satisfaction scale% 3he Jobs <escri(tive Index (J<I$ is the most (o(ular job satisfaction assessment tool with researchers (@(ector! +,,=$% 3he J<I is bro'en down into five faucets of satisfaction) wor'! (ay! (romotion! su(ervision! and cowor'ers% 3he most significant research study that shows the im(ortance of job satisfaction is the /awthorne studies (&uchins'y! +,27$% 3he (ur(ose of the study was to research the relationshi( between lighting and efficiency% 3he ex(eriment was conducted in +,"- by researches from Jestern 8lectric and /arvard Fniversity at the /awthorne Jor's of the Jestern 8lectric om(any% ;arious sets of lights! at various intensities! were set u( in rooms where electrical e9ui(ment was being (roduced% 3he amount of illumination! (bright! dim! or a combination$ (rovided to the wor'ers! seemed to have no effect on (roduction% 3he results of the study were so unex(ected that further investigation revealed many (reviously un'nown as(ects of human behavior in the wor'(lace% >esearchers learned that factors other than lighting effect wor'erDs (roductivity% 3he wor'ers res(onded (ositively to the attention they were receiving from the researchers and as a result! (roductivity rose% Job (erformance continued to im(rove because of the novelty of the situationG when the novelty wore off! (roduction returned to its earlier level% >esearch has offered little su((ort that a ha((y em(loyee is (roductiveG in fact! research suggests that causality may flow in the o((osite direction from (roductivity to satisfaction (?assett! +,,-$% >esearch on this theory su((orts that job satisfaction is an im(ortant factor not only for em(loyees but for organizations as well% 5or exam(le! in a research survey by Hrant! 5ried! and Juillerat ("#+#$ at a large ban'! managers found that ban' tellers were very dissatisfied with their jobs! stating that they were Ejust glorified cler'sE% 3hey also said that their jobs were boring and that they felt micromanaged because they were unable to ma'e decisions! even small ones! without the a((roval of their managers% In this case! the managers of the ban' decided to re4design the teller jobs to increase job satisfaction% 0ew tas's were added to (rovide variety and the use of a broad range of s'ills% In addition to their chec' cashing! de(osit and loan (ayment tas's! they were trained to handle commercial and travelerDs chec's and (ost (ayments on line% 3he tellers were also given more autonomy in their rolesG they were given decision4ma'ing res(onsibilities% 5inally! when feedbac' time a((roached! the managers felt that by re4designing the role of the teller they were giving the tellers res(onsibility for their own customers% In this (articular case! it was found that job satisfaction had increased% 6 survey was ta'en six months later and it was found that not only were the tellers more satisfied with their role but they were also more committed to the organization% 5inally! during em(loyee/manager evaluations! it was found that there was an increase in (erformance

by the tellers and that the job satisfaction (rovided by the job redesign had effects lasting at least four years (Hrant! 5ried! & Juillerat! "#+#$% 6ccording to another study by @y(ta'! &arsland! and Flmer (+,,,$ satisfied em(loyees tend to be more (roductive! creative and committed to their em(loyers% 5urthermore! recent studies have shown that there is a direct correlation between staff satisfaction and (atient satisfaction% In the case of the (hysicianDs office! the study found that not only were the em(loyees and (atients more satisfied! the (hysicians found an increased level of job satisfaction as well% 3he study conducted in the (hysicianDs office was based on /erzbergDs &otivation4/ygiene 3heory% /ygiene factors are related to the wor' environment and include) com(any (olicies! su(ervision! salary! inter(ersonal relations and wor'ing conditions% &otivators factors are related to the job and ma'e em(loyees want to succeed and include) achievement! recognition! the wor' itself! res(onsibility and advancement% 6ccording to /erzberg! once the hygiene issues are addressed! the motivators (romote job satisfaction and encourage (roduction% In a((lying /erzbergDs theory to the real life (hysicians (ractice! the study first addressed the hygiene factors Ebecause these are im(ortant to creating an environment which em(loyee satisfaction and motivation are even (ossibleC (@y(ta'! &arsland! & Flmer! +,,,$% 3he study discussed in detail each as(ect of the hygiene factors and how the (hysicians could a((ly these factors to create an environment that (romoted job satisfaction% 3he study then moved on to the motivators and again discussed in detail the as(ects of each factor% 5inally! Eby creating an environment that (romotes job satisfaction! you are develo(ing em(loyees who are motivated! (roductive and fulfilledC (@y(ta'! &arsland! & Flmer! +,,,$% 3he image below (rovides a visual between the differences in motivators and de4motivators in job satisfaction%

Figure 6% /erzbergDs 3wo45actor 3heory (/erzberg! +,12G /erzberg! &ausner! & @nyderman! +,7,$%

"he Conse1uences of Job Dissatisfaction

6ccording to the exit4voice4 loyalty4neglect framewor' (5arrell! +,2.$! em(loyees* res(onse to dissatisfaction with the wor'(lace can ta'e four forms! each of which differs from the others on two dimensions) active vs% (assive and constructive vs% destructive% 3he four res(onses are)

+%

%)it) exit refers to behavior aimed at leaving the com(any! such as loo'ing for a new job% 8xit is destructive and active res(onse% "% 2oice) voice refers to em(loy initiative to im(rove conditions at the organizations! for exam(le! offering ideas on who to im(rove the business% ;oice is an active and constructive res(onse% .% Lo#alt#) loyalty refers an em(loyee*s attitude of trust toward the organization% It can manifest itself as a (assive but o(timistic ho(e for im(rovements to come about% :oyalty is a (assive but constructive% -% 3eglect) neglect occurs when an em(loyee shows absenteeism! shows u( late to wor'! and ex(ends less effort at wor'% ?y (erforming inade9uately at wor'! the em(loyee is allowing conditions to deteriorate% 0eglect is (assive and destructive%

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>eview! 1+) -7"44-1=% @mith! P% %! Aendall! :% &%! & /ulin! hicago! I:) >and &c0ally% % :% (+,1,$% 2easure"ent o$ satis$action in *or1 and retire"ent.

@(ector! P% 8% (+,,=$% #o6 satis$action- A!!lication% assess"ent% cause and conse?uences % 3housand Oa's! 6) @age Publications! Inc% >etrieved from htt()//boo's%google%com/boo'sLidNn 'Q&Ojs#Qc &(rintsec% @taw! ?% &%! ?ell! 0% 8%! & lausen! J% 6% (+,21$% 3he dis(ositional a((roach to job attitudes) 6 lifetime longitudinal test% Ad"inistrative ,cience ;uarterly% 31% 714==% @taw! ?% &%! & >oss! J% (+,27$% @tability in the midst of change) 6 dis(ositional a((roach to job attitudes% #ournal o$ A!!lied Psychology% &)% -1,4-2#% @teinberg! J% ("##2$% ,tatistics alive@% 3housand Oa's! 6) @age Publications! Inc% >etrieved from htt()//boo's%google%com/boo'sLidNnmMH/I0#fzF % @tirling! J% ("##2$% ultivate commitment% 4ee1end Australian% (% ,% @wift! J% ("##=$% areer Path 4 Overall job satisfaction falls des(ite wage rises% Post 2agazine! (% ""% @y(ta'! J%&%! &arsland! <%J%! & Flmer! <% (+,,,$% Job satisfaction) Putting theory into (ractice% Fa"ily Practice 2anage"ent% >etrieved from htt()//www%aaf(%org/f(m/,,+###fm/"1%html% 3ait! &%! Padgett! &%K%! & ?aldwin! 3%3% (+,2,$% Job and life satisfaction) 6 reexamination of the strength of the relationshi( and gender effects as a function of the date of the study% #ournal o$ A!!lied Psychology! =-! 7#"47#=% 3asnim! @% ("##1$% #o6 satis$action a"ong $e"ale teachers% (&astersD thesis$% >etrieved from htt(s)//bora%uib%no/handle/+,71/+-=-% 3he Pennsylvania @tate Fniversity% ("#+#$% Job satisfaction) <o I li'e my jobL 4or1 attitudes and "otivation% 3he Pennsylvania @tate FniversityG Jorld am(us% 3homas! 6%! ?ubholtz! J% %! & Jin'les(echt! % @% ("##-$% Job characteristics and (ersonality as (redictors of job satisfaction% Organizational Analysis% 12("$! "#74"+,% >etrieved from htt()//ezaccess%libraries%(su%edu/loginLurlNhtt()//search%ebscohost%com/login%as(xLdirectNtrue% ;room! ;% /% (+,1-$% 4or1 and "otivation. 0ew Kor'! 0K) Jiley% ;room! ;% /% (+,,7$% 4or1 and "otivation A2nd ed.B% 0ew Kor'! 0K) Jiley% Jatson! <%! lar'! :% 6%! & arey! H% (+,22$% Positive and negative affectivity and their relation to anxiety

and de(ressive disorders% #ournal o$ A6nor"al Psychology% <&(.$! .-14.7.% Jatson! <%! lar'! :% 6%! & 3ellegen! 6% (+,22$% <evelo(ment and validation of brief measures of (ositive and negative affect) 3he P606@ scales% #ournal o$ Personality and ,ocial Psychology% 54% +#1.4+#=#% Jeiss! /% &%! & ro(anzano! >% (+,,1$% 6n effective events a((roach to job satisfaction% In ?%&% @taw & :% :% ummings (8ds%$! (esearch in organizational 6ehavior (;ol% +2! ((% +4=-$% Hreenwich! 3) J6I Press%

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