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Chapter 9 - Attitudes

Chapter 9 Attitudes
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, students should be able to: Describe the nature and characteristics of attitudes and their influence over consumer behaviour Discuss the ways consumer attitudes are formed Outline the application of various attitude theories to consumer behaviour Discuss the functions of attitudes Describe how consumer attitudes are measured Discuss the processes used to change consumer attitudes.

CHAPTER TOPICS
1. The nature of attitudes Attitudes vary in their strength Attitudes reflect a consumers values Attitudes are learned Different situations influence attitudes Consumer attitude trends How are attitudes formed? Conditioning Modelling Cognitive learning Attitude models The tri-component model of attitudes Fishbeins multi-attribute model of attitudes Functions of attitudes Adjustment function Ego defensive function Value expressive function Knowledge function Attitude measurement Likert scales Semantic differential scales Measuring purchase intention Attitude change Attitude change via affect (influencing feelings) Attitude change via cognitions (influencing beliefs) Changing attitudes by encouraging a change in behaviour Changing attitudes by changing what is normal Influences on attitude formation and change Source credibility Message characteristics Media characteristics Receiver characteristics Case in point 9.1Teenagers attitudes towards bicycle helmets Case in point 9.2Changing attitudes about smoking

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Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb

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Chapter 9 - Attitudes

1.

The nature of attitudes

An attitude is defined as a learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favourable or unfavourable manner with respect to a given object. Attitudes help consumers make decisions in the marketplace. This is the third stage of the consumer decision process. However, attitudes cannot be formed before the consumer understands the features and benefits of products. Once the benefits are understood, the consumer can then evaluate the brand (and form a favourable or unfavourable attitude toward it). Attitude theories revolve around the idea that attitudes are formed when new information forms interconnections with other attitudes to create organised patterns. For example (through information search), attitudes towards smoking in public places will be influenced by (a) whether the person smokes or not, (b) knowledge of friends or family with smoking-related illnesses, and (c) their pre-existing knowledge about the effects of passive smoking. A favourable attitude does not always equate to a purchase. For example: a) The consumer may not be able to afford the item b) The store might be out of stock (situation) of the preferred brand c) The decision may not be that important to the consumer, so its easy to change ones mind d) Competitor activity like a sale price or promotion might influence a brand-switching decision. Attitudes vary in their strength The intensity of a consumers attitude depends on how strongly consumers feel about something. An example to demonstrate this point is a federal or state election. If a consumer (or voter) feels strongly about Australias participation in the Iraq war, then this issue, over all others, will influence their decision about who they will vote for. There is no such thing as a neutral attitude. You either have an attitude or you do not. Attitudes must have an object. The object is the product, idea, product category, brand, service, environmental trend or issue, product use, advertisement, price, or retailer. Refer to the Interactive Class Exercises below. Attitudes reflect a consumers values Attitudes reflect a persons values. For example, if someone believes that their efforts do make a difference in saving the environment, they will use green bags for their shopping, and get involved in issues that they dont agree on. Not all consumer values are as strong as each other. A consumer has central and peripheral values (which will be addressed in Chapter 10). Central values are core values that have greater personal significance to an individual. Peripheral values are somewhat important, but can be more easily changed than central values. Look for examples here, through the Interactive Class Exercises. The centrality of attitudes refers to the way in which attitudes are related to a consumers core values. Self -concept and attitudes towards oneself are important, as self-identity is a representation of central values. Attitudes are learned Consumers learn attitudes by building information up in their memory. This may be strengthened or weakened by various stimuli. Attitudes are formed as a result of direct experience with the product, information acquired from others, and exposure to mass media. Social influences like family and friends can have a greater influence on attitudes than a marketers message. Consider why a child often goes for the same football team as their parents. They learned that was the best team to go for, local or not! Different situations influence attitudes Attitudes can change over time, and with different circumstances. Ask for examples here, such as never eating dessert, unless you have guests; always buying the same brand unless the store is out of stock, etc.

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2.

Consumer attitude trends

Marketers need to track consumer attitude trends, to identify opportunities or threats in their marketing environment. The Eye on Australia research study is an annual survey that reports on consumer trends and community attitudes. The Net Search activity (text, p. 253) encourages students to look up the website and discover the most recent trends.

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How are attitudes formed?

Attitudes are learned and can change over time and across different situations. A consumer can develop an attitude, but it may not remain the same forever. Learning principles can help us understand how attitudes are formed. The key influences are discussed below. Conditioning Chapter 6 addressed how learning can occur over time as a result of repeated exposure to stimuli. This is called classical conditioning. For example, if we are exposed continually to the message there is no substitute for quality from Arnotts, we will learn that Arnotts is a quality biscuit brand. Another learning principle is operant conditioning, where we receive rewards (or avoid punishments) if we behave in a certain way. If we are awarded with high interest for not withdrawing money and for depositing into a savings account at least twice a month, we will endeavour to save more vigorously than without these incentives. Modelling Modelling involves consumers developing attitudes that reflect the attitudes of those they trust or regard highly. This is also known as vicarious learning. Our attitudes may be influenced by family, friends, celebrities or famous sportspeople. This is the main reason why marketers use celebrities or those in authority in their marketing communications. Cognitive learning The other learning theory that influences attitudes is cognitive learning. This involves problem solving or reaching logical conclusions based on information. This type of attitude formation is most likely formed for high involvement products. However, low involvement product categories have used cognitive learning to change ingrained attitudes by outlining benefits for using their product, or costs for not using it. For example, the put some pork on your fork campaign simply provided a slogan to remember (rote learning) but also outlined benefits of eating the other white meat (cognitive learning). Consumer inertia is present when consumers buy a brand out of habit, because they know it meets their needs. Little thinking is required here, but there is also little brand loyalty. Internet grocery shopping in a way relies on consumer inertia, since it is far quicker to use a previous shopping list and simply check the products, than it is to search for weekly specials and read product information.

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Attitude models

Two attitude models were discussed in your text: the tri-component model and Fishbeins multi-attribute model. The tri-component model of learning According to the tri-component attitude model, attitudes consist of three elements: cognitive, affective and conative (or behavioural). Recall at the beginning of this lecture guide, students were asked a number of questions relating to attitude. The examples chosen represented the three elements of attitude. Ask students how they feel about no smoking in public places like bars? What do they think of the different political parties policies on terrorism? What have their water saving actions been like with water restrictions in place? Affect (feelings)

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Affect is based on psychological nervous responses to an object. In other words, the affective element consists of the consumers emotions or feelings. For example, I hate people who drink and drive. Cognitions (beliefs) The cognitive component of an attitude refers to what a person believes to be true about an idea, event, person, activity or object. Cognitions or beliefs include existing knowledge or experience with or about an object which allows the consumer to form perceptions or beliefs. Relating back to the affect example, the cognitive element of the attitude is that people who drink and drive are wrongthey could kill someone innocent. Behaviour The behaviour (or conative component as it is often called) relates to the likelihood that, or tendency of how, an individual will react to the attitude object. This includes our public observable behaviour. Relating back to the previous example, the conative element of the attitude could be that I hate drink driving so much, I steal drinkers car keys! This model reinforces the need to monitor social trends, because attitudes are often expressed in these trends. Consider the trend of believing that take-away foods are unhealthy. Many consumers believe that takeaway foods are unhealthy (cognitive) and would feel guilty if their child was overweight eating this type of food (affect) so they stopped visiting stores like KFC and McDonalds on a regular basis (behaviour). In response to this, Subway, the healthy take -away food alternative, is opening franchises across Australia, with a lot of success; and many of the other take-away food giants have introduced healthy alternatives for consumers. The Interactive Class Exercises below encourage students to work in groups to develop the three components of an attitude. The Discussion Exercises also have an example for students to work on. Fishbeins multi-attribute model of attitudes The multi-attribute model is so-called because it assumes that attitudes have many attributes that influence them. For example, we might like the Accor brand of hotels because of the benefits Advantage Plus members receive, there is consistency in quality of accommodation, we always have good service, and accommodation is very easy to book. The differences between the tri-component model and the multi-attribute model are: The Fishbein model focuses mainly on the affective (feelings) component of attitudes The Fishbein model considers the strength or intensity of the multiple attributes that influence attitudes The Fishbein model distinguishes between intentions and behaviour, with behaviour determined more by intentions than attitudes The Fishbein model allows strength of attributes to be measured and more than one attribute to be considered at a time. Fishbein developed variations of his multi-attribute model, including: a) The Attitude-Toward-Object ModelThe consumers attitude toward the object is a function of the existence and assessment of certain beliefs. b) The Attitude-Toward-Behaviour ModelThe consumers attitude toward behaving or acting with respect to an object, rather than the attitude toward the actual object. c) Theory of Reasoned Action ModelA more comprehensive framework of attitude components incorporating cognitive, affective and conative components. The three steps of Fishbeins model include (1) attitudes need to be identified; (2) consumer intentions then need to be determined; (3) behaviour is then predicted based on these intentions. Marketers use multi-attribute models to: See how one brand is positioned in comparison to the competition Determine the attributes that are most important for consumers Determine if there are differences in attribute importance across different target audiences Identify unmet needs in the market. Page 4

Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb

Chapter 9 - Attitudes

This model does not take into account the extent of influence of situational factors like out of stock, weather changes, etc. Refer to the Interactive and Discussion Exercises to assess students understanding of the model.

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Functions of attitudes

Attitudes have four main functions. Adjustment function The adjustment function of attitudes is based on people seeking out group acceptance to gain praise or rewards or avoid punishment. For example, a child enjoys swimming lessons because their instructor praises them for their efforts. The child wants to return again because they enjoyed the experience. Ego defensive function The ego defensive attitude function acts as a protection mechanism for the ego. Marketers can use their knowledge of this function by showing that their brand is the in onedont be caught with anything else. Bonds and their dont get caught with your pants down catchphrase reflect this function.

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Value expressive function The value expressive function reflects a consumers values and self-image. A marketer of razors can utilise their knowledge of this function by portraying a young man as desirable because of his smooth skin, with others having rougher or less desirable skin. The self-concept image being addressed here is that you are more desirable to the opposite sex if you use this brand. Lynx deodorants for men also use this function in their promotions. Other values that could be considered here include Buy Australian (patriotic), family, environmentally conscious, etc. Knowledge function The knowledge function of attitudes is based on a consumers beliefs, and perceived knowledge of the product. For example, advertisers that give consumers a clear reason to buy by outlining a unique attribute or a list of benefits are using the knowledge function.

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Attitude measurement

Quantitative research techniques can be used to measure attitudes. The key to measuring attitudes is to understand those attributes salient (or most important) to consumers. It is no use providing a benefit that consumers do not consider important at all. For example, male and female dog food would probably not take off, given that consumers dont believe that is a very important attribute to consider. Likert scales Likert scales can be used to measure attitudes by offering respondents a list of attitude statements. Respondents are asked to express agreement or disagreement with the statement on a five-point scale. The respondent indicates their level of agreement on the numerical scale. This level of agreement provides an indication of the salience of that attribute. The results are then quantified by calculating the value of all responses. Refer to page 261 (text) for an example of the type of questions used in a Likert scale. These types of scales typically refer to the affective (or feeling) component of an attitude. Semantic differential scales A semantic differential scale is a seven-point rating scale with end points associated with bi-polar labels that have specific semantic meanings. Respondents are required to rate objects on a number of itemised scales bounded at each end by bi-polar objectives. For example, fun boring. These statements tend to measure consumer beliefs (cognitions) about an object. Measuring purchase function Favourable attitudes toward a brand do not guarantee purchase. Marketers therefore also need to measure purchase intention, although favourable attitudes have to exist before a consumer purchases a product. Consider the examples on page 262 (text) for examples of measuring the likelihood of purchase for Colgate toothpaste. The Interactive Exercises give students the opportunity to practice developing questions using these attitude scales.

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Attitude change

Ask students to consider something they feel strongly about. Perhaps parents parking in No Parking zones when they drop off or pick up their kids from school. Maybe its about children taking seats on trains in peak hour. Ask them what it would take for them to change their attitude. It will soon become clear that attitudes are hard to change. Difficult to change but not impossible. There are two conditions that make it possible to change someones attitudes: a) The object of the attitude doesnt provide the satisfaction that it o nce did. b) Attitudes can change when the consumers aspirations change.

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The essence of this means that marketers can encourage consumers to trial their brand over the consumers preferred one by showing how their offering is superior, or in encouraging consumers to reach for their ideal self-concept. Changing an attitude can take a long time and cost a company a lot of money. Meat & Livestock Australia (Net Search activity on p. 257, text) has achieved remarkable results by changing peoples attitudes on the consumption of red meat, but this campaign has run for many years, and needs to be continually used to maintain these positive attitude levels. Attitudes based on central values (like family) are hard to change. However, peripheral values, like those associated with low involvement products, are much easier to change. If marketers can change attitudes, it is anticipated that a consumers behaviour will also change. However, attitude change can result in any one of the three components of attitudeaffect, cognitive or behaviouralundergoing a change. Once one of these elements changes, it is likely that the other elements will also change. In addition, a persons self concept has a large influence over attitudes, so marketers should address this area if they want to change attitudes. Some of the key areas to consider include: The greater the involvement level the harder it is to change attitudes When consumers have little information to draw on, it is easier to change attitudes Consumer attitudes are relatively weak when there are many acceptable brands to consider There is a greater chance of changing attitudes, if a message is attributable to a credible source Constant exposure and repetition can increase the likelihood of attitude change. The text provides a case study on the Victorian Transport Accident Commission (pp. 264 265). Attitude change via affect (influencing feelings) There are three ways to change attitudes influencing the affect component: 1. ConditioningContinually exposing the audience to jingles, cute images, and catchy tag lines may generate a positive image. 2. Feelings towards advertisement/communicationthere is a strong correlation between liking an ad and liking a brand. Using a popular celebrity or sportsperson like Ian Thorpe can enhance positive feelings towards the brand. However, academic research does not necessarily prove this is the case. 3. Mere exposurePresenting an ad (with high frequency) may lead to a positive attitude. Attitude change via cognitions (influencing beliefs) This can occur when consumers are given new information to add to their existing beliefs about a brand. There are four main approaches to influencing attitudes by influencing beliefs: 1. Changing consumers beliefs about the attributes of a brandchanging what consumers think about various attributes of a product. For example, there are good fats and bad fats, and the good fats exist in yoghurt and cheese. 2. Influencing consumers to change the importance of beliefs about a product changing what consumers think is the most important attribute, such as that the iron in red meat is more important than the fat content. 3. Changing consumers beliefs about the ideal brandthis can be achieved through authoritative statements (e.g. from a spokesperson) on how a brand is superior. 4. Adding new beliefs about a brandproviding new information altogether, such as attributes not previously considered by consumers, or new details such as imagine Energy Australia is currently running a campaign to prove how individual actions save money and energy supplies, with ads on Did you know. Attitude change by encouraging a change in behaviour This is very commonand usually occurs when our behaviour changes by trialling a new product. This can be done through test drives, samples or coupons. Sales promotion techniques are often used to induce immediate behaviour by consumers, with the hope that once they try the product, they will buy it again. Changing attitudes by changing what is normal

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This involves targeting what consumers view as acceptable behaviour, and encouraging them to think differently. The text provides the example of the Meat & Livestock Australia. Typically community service announcements look at this approach, to show that it is normal to have regular breast checks, to donate blood regularly, to not drink and drive, to not speed in a school zone, etc. Often these types of activities are supported across the community with media exposure, public relations activities like presentations, open days and stalls at community shows, back-up literature, sponsorship at relevant events, and trade involvement.

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Influences on attitude formation and change

Attitudes are formed from information and messages received from a number of sources. The credibility of these sources is important in terms of their extent of influence. Source credibility This refers to the degree of influence of a source based on trustworthiness, attractiveness and expertise. Encourage examples like Oral Bs use of a dentist to advertise their product. Attractivenessthis can include physical appearance, personality and social status (Grant Hackett and Uncle Tobys muesli bars). Expertisethis refers to perceived expertise of the source. For example Dr Harry would do a better job promoting dog food than garden fertiliser. Trustworthinessthe ability of the source to believe in what they are saying. Shane Warne made a blunder here when he advertised an anti-smoking device and then was caught smoking!

Message characteristics The way a message is conveyed is important in determining how effective it will be. Different appeals are relevant to different situations, as are the executional elements of colour, music and language. To challenge students, ask when fear, emotional, humour or sex appeals would be best used. Media characteristics Different media have different advantages and disadvantages. It is important that the media in which you choose to advertise will actually reach your intended audience. To illustrate this point, ask students what type of media would be best for reaching young executives. Receiver characteristics Marketers need to understand the behaviour and motives of the target market. Demographic characteristics like age, gender, income and occupation will go partway to explaining behaviour. But this is not enough other indicators like psychographics (social class, personality, attitudes toward various concepts) must also be considered. Case in point 9.1Teenagers attitudes towards bicycle helmets A research study found that teenagers do not like wearing bike helmets. The reasons for this are associated with ignorance of safety issues and the ways helmets protect, and also the look and comfort of bike helmets. The case study considers ways to encourage teenagers to increase helmet ownership and use. Ask students, using the above models of changing attitudes through affect, cognitive beliefs and behaviour, how they would encourage use of bike helmets. Case in point 9.2Changing attitudes about smoking This case study considers the use of young role models that do not smoke to bring the anti-smoking message home to young people, who still think smoking is cool.

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Ask students if they can think of examples of how celebrities could be used to change attitudes of various target groups. (Sara Henderson and breast screening is an example to use here).

DISCUSSION EXERCISES
1. You are the marketing manager for a health-food company wanting to enter the Australian market. Undertake a search on Australian social trends. Or, as a starting point, visit the Queensland Government Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries website (www.dpi.qld.gov.au/businessservices/12008.html). Outline the consumer attitudes most likely to create opportunities and threats for your business. Consider the three main ways attitudes are formed conditioning, modelling and cognitive learning. What would you consider the greatest influence on attitude formation for the following products? Provide specific examples to justify your answer. a) Beer b) Generic products c) Airline d) Charity 3. 4. Explain a persons attitude toward public transport in view of the tri-component attitude model. Interview ten respondents on their attitudes towards direct debiting as a payment option for child sponsorship for World Vision. Your interview questions need to reflect: a persons feelings towards direct debiting by charities, their beliefs or knowledge on direct debiting, and their likelihood of actually doing it themselves.

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What is your overall conclusion regarding this concept of direct debiting by charities? 5. 6. As a marketer of a new tooth and tongue cleaning toothbrush, what technique(s) would you use to change the attitudes of consumers over the importance of brushing your tongue, not just your teeth? Find and copy two advertisements from the same product category. Ask five people (of different ages) their attitudes towards each advertisement. What are the reasons for people liking the different ads? In your answer, consider the use of celebrities or some type of credible source or character, the type of appeal, the media in which you found the ads and the target audience for the ads.

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