Communism and The Emergence of Democracy

Communism
and the
HARALO WYORA
r
4k
$
i ti !" #*
V
*
*
/"
M
<
$ "
/
I
A
Coor%&oi
Communism and the 'mer(en)e o! *emo)ra)+
,e!ore demo)ra)+ -e)omes an institutiona.ised !orm o! &o.iti)a. author/ it+0 the ru&ture 1ith authoritarian !orms o! &o1er )auses dee& un)er/ taint+ a-out &o1er and out)omes2 3his -ook )onne)ts the stud+ o! demo)ratisation in eastern 'uro&e and Russia to the emer(en)e and )risis o! )ommunism2 W+dra ar(ues that the )ommunist &ast is not sim&.+ a .e(a)+ -ut needs to -e seen as a so)ia. or(anism in (estation0 1here )riti)a. e4ents &rodu)e ne1 e5&e)tations0 memories0 and s+m-o.s that in!.uen)e meanin(s o! demo)ra)+2 ,+ e5aminin( a series o! &i4ota. histori)a. e4ents0 he sho1s that demo)ratisation is not %ust a matter o! institutiona. desi(n0 -ut rather a matter o! )ons)iousness and .eadershi& under )onditions o! e5treme and traumati) in)i4i.it+2 Rather than ado&tin( the o&&osition -et1een non/demo)rati) and demo)rati)0 W+dra ar(ues that the )ommunist e5&erien)e must -e )entra. to the stud+ o! the emer(en)e and nature o! demo)ra)+ in 6&ost/7 )ommunist )ountries2 HARAL* WY*RA tea)hes8o.iti)satthe9ni4ersit+o!Cam-rid(eandis a !e..o1 in :o)ia. and 8o.iti)a. :)ien)es at :t Catharine;s Co..e(e2 He is the author o! Continuities in Polands Permanent Transition 6<=="72
Communism and the 'mer(en)e o! *emo)ra)+

Hara.d W+dra
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbour e, Madrid, Ca!e Tow , Si ga!ore, S"o Paulo Cambridge U i#er$i%& Pre$$ T'e Edi burg' Buildi g, Cambridge CB( )RU, U* Publi$'ed i %'e U i%ed S%a%e$ o+ Ameri,a b& Cambridge U i#er$i%& Pre$$, New York www-,ambridge-org I +orma%io o %'i$ %i%le. www-,ambridge-org/01)23(4)34503 6 7arald 8&dra (225 T'i$ !ubli,a%io i$ i ,o!&rig'%- Sub9e,% %o $%a%u%or& e:,e!%io a d %o %'e !ro#i$io o+ rele#a % ,olle,%i#e li,e $i g agreeme %$, o re!rodu,%io o+ a & !ar% ma& %ake !la,e wi%'ou% %'e wri%%e !ermi$$io o+ Cambridge U i#er$i%& Pre$$;ir$% !ubli$'ed i !ri % +orma% (221 ISBN<4= 01)<2<344<(1225<( eBook >Ne%?ibrar&@ ISBN<42 2<344<(1225<( eBook >Ne%?ibrar&@ ISBN<4= 01)<2<3(4<)3450<3 'ardba,k ISBN<42 2<3(4<)3450<5 'ardba,k
Cambridge U i#er$i%& Pre$$ 'a$ o re$!o $ibili%& +or %'e !er$i$%e ,e or a,,ura,& o+ url$ +or e:%er al or %'ird<!ar%& i %er e% web$i%e$ re+erred %o i %'i$ !ubli,a%io , a d doe$ o% guara %ee %'a% a & ,o %e % o $u,' web$i%e$ i$, or will remai , a,,ura%e or a!!ro!ria%e-
3o Mathieu and Cassia
Contents
Acknowl edgement s " Communism and demo)ra)+ / a &ro-.ematisation
page
4iii "
8art I 3he e5&erientia. -asis o! )ommunism and demo)ra)+ < ? 4 Re4o.utions0 transitions0 and un)ertaint+ 3he &o.iti)a. s+m-o.ism o! )ommunism '5&erien)in( demo)rati) trans!ormations
<> ?" @A A? "=> """ "?C "B< "A> <"C <"> <44 <>B
8art II Criti)a. e4ents and their s+m-o.isations @ B C A 3he rise o! ,o.she4ik &o1er 3he emer(en)e o! the Co.d War 3he arti)u.ation o! dissiden)e 3he )o..a&se o! )ommunism
8art III *emo)ra)+ as a &ro)ess o! meanin(/!ormation > "= "" 3he &o1er o! memor+ 3he !uture that !ai.ed *emo)ra)+ as a )i4i.isin( &ro)ess
Index
4ii
A)kno1.ed(ements
3his &ro%e)t has -een )arried throu(h Duite a !e1 di!!erent sta(es in m+ &ro!essiona. .i!e2 Its inte..e)tua. roots (o -a)k to m+ time at the 'uro&ean 9ni4ersit+ Institute in E.oren)e2 3he theoreti)a. and methodo.o(i)a. sha&e 1as )on)ei4ed 1hen I 1as a .e)turer in the *e&artment o! 8o.iti)a. :)ien)e at the 9ni4ersit+ o! Re(ens-ur(2 Lar(e &ortions 1ere dra!ted durin( a &ost/do)tora. !e..o1shi& at the ')o.e des Hautes 'tudes en :)ien)es :o)ia.es in 8aris0 !or 1hi)h the *euts)her Akademis)her Austaus)hdienst and the Maison des :)ien)es de .;Homme &ro4ided me 1ith (enerous (rants2 Mu)h o! the 1ritin( 1as a))om&.ished at the 9ni4ersit+ o! Cam-rid(e0 1here I ha4e -een tea)hin( &o.iti)s sin)e <==?2 3he s)o&e o! this -ook makes ).ear that I ha4e a))umu.ated hu(e inte..e)tua. and emotiona. de-ts to man+ !riends and )o..ea(ues 1ho ha4e assisted this &ro%e)t 1ith their s)ho.ar.+ 1isdom0 !riend.+ ad4i)e0 and (enerous )riti)ism2 Man+ o! the ideas e5&ounded here ha4e tra4e..ed in re)ent +ears0 (atherin( stimu.atin( su((estions that su-stantia..+ im&ro4ed the ar(ument2 3he audien)es in Montrea.0 FrakoG10 Hiessen0 Warsa10 Ha..e0 Rennes0 Lu-.in0 Canter-ur+0 Re(ens-ur(0 'din-ur(h0 Hranada0 and ,er.in sho1ed e5traordinar+ inte..e)tua. &atien)e 1ith m+ &ro&ositions2 At )ru)ia. %un)tures0 the mora. su&&ort and en)oura(ement o! some he.&ed me to &ursue a &ro%e)t that at times seemed too un1ie.d+ to -e mastered2 M+ (ratitude (oes es&e)ia..+ to Mi)he. *o-r+ !or his !riendshi& and inte..e)tua. )om&.i)it+2 Ar&ad :Iako.)Iai and Ri)hard :ak1a ha4e -een e5treme.+ su&&orti4e0 sho1in( stead!ast -e.ie! in this &ro%e)t2 Jean/8ierre *u&u+0 Les.ie Ho.mes0 and C.aus O!!e (a4e &re)ious and im&ortant ad4i)e at the ri(ht time2 A.thou(h the de-ts in)urred in 1ritin( this -ook are too man+ to -e .isted0 I 1ou.d .ike to e5&ress m+ (ratitude to Mauri)e A+mard0 Verena ,auer0 *anie. ,eer0 Vi)toria ,onne..0 Hinnerk ,ruhns0 8atri)k Cha-a.0 '.ena Che-anko4a0 Marta Cra4eri0 A.e5 *u-en0 Ja)o- 'is.er0 Mar)in Er+-es0 Jean/Eran)Kois Hossiau50 V.adimir Hrade40 Horst/A.!red Heinri)h0 O.i4er Hida.(o0 Wo.!ram HinIen0 ,en Ho..and0 A(nes Hor4aGth0 Jose! Far.0 ,asi. Ferski0 James Fra&!.0 8a1eL Fu(.arI0 *a4id Lane0 'ri) Lan(en-a)her0
4iii
A)kno1.ed(ements
i5
Chris La+ne0 Ju.ie L+n)h0 9.ri)h Mah.ert0 Ismae. Medesma0 Fate Mash0 Mark Mo1ottn+0 Heino M++ssonen0 Leo Ma5 8o..a)k0 :er(ei 8roIoro40 Ro-ert 8+nsent0 H.en Ran(1a.a0 Jutta :)herrer0 Mathias :)hmitI0 A.an :)ott0 Ruth :)urr0 FaIimierI :o-otka0 John :treet0 Marie :trohe0 3o-ias 3hei.er0 V.adimir 3ismaneanu0 Ade 3ra(.er0 '.ena 3ru-ina0 :te&hen We.)h0 Man!red Wi.ke0 A.e5ander Wo..0 Her(ana Yanko4a0 and Jur(en Nimmerer2 Christian :tro-e.;s 1ork as a resear)h assistant 1as e5treme.+ 4a.ua-.e2 John Has.am;s s+m&ath+ !or this &ro%e)t 1as a))om&anied -+ (reat &atien)e and understandin( !or 4arious de.a+s in the )om&.etion o! the t+&es)ri&t2 3he e5traordinari.+ e!!i)ient and thorou(h 1ork o! m+ )o&+/editor0 Faren Anderson Ho1es0 has )onsidera-.+ im&ro4ed the t+&es)ri&t;s Dua.it+2 Here at Cam-rid(e0 the inte..e)tua. s+m&ath+ and (enerosit+ o! m+ )o..ea(ues in the *e&artment o! 8o.iti)s 1ere 4ita.2 John *unn0 'mi.e 8erreau/:aussine0 Mar+ :arotte0 He.en 3hom&son0 and John A2 3hom&son read and )ommented on &arts o! the manus)ri&t2 Andre%a Ni4ko4i) edited the manus)ri&t and (a4e me man+ o&&ortunities to shar&en the ar(ument in en(a(ed dis)ussion2 I am &arti)u.ar.+ (rate!u. to Heo!!re+ Ha1thorn 1ho read and e5tensi4e.+ )ommented on the entire manus)ri&t2 Without his &er)e&ti4e thou(hts and (enerosit+ !ar -e+ond the )a.. o! dut+0 the 1ritin( o! this -ook 1ou.d ha4e -een !ar more o! a stru((.e2 Whi.e this -ook .ea4es man+ Duestions unreso.4ed0 it tries to )ast dou-ts on esta-/ .ished )ertainties2 Meed.ess to sa+0 remainin( errors and ina))ura)ies are entire.+ m+ o1n res&onsi-i.it+2 M+ (ratitude a.so (oes to m+ )o..e(e0 :t Catharine;s0 1hi)h has made me !ee. at home !rom the 4er+ !irst da+2 Last -ut not .east0 it has -een the students at Cam-rid(e 1ho ha4e -een a ma%or sour)e o! ins&iration0 )riti)ism0 and )ha..en(e2 3he (reatest de-t0 ho1e4er0 is to m+ !ami.+2 M+ 1i!e Anne &ut u& 1ith )ount.ess e5)uses !or too man+ e5tensions o! o!!i)e hours and su-stantia. &eriods o! a-sen)e durin( ho.ida+s2 Her enduran)e and un!ai.in( )are !or m+ sou. 1ere de)isi4e in he.&in( me to &erse4ere2 As the+ ha4e -een (ro1in( u& 1ith this -ook0 the s&irited nature o! m+ )hi.dren Mathieu and Cassia has in4i(orated the ar(ument and (i4en meanin( to a -ook that I dedi)ate to them2
"
Communism and demo)ra)+ / a &ro-.ematisation
3he histor+ o! man is o.der than the materia. 1or.d0 1hi)h is the 1ork o! his 1i..0 o.der than .i!e0 1hi)h rests u&on his 1i..2 3homas Mann
As start.in( as the sudden and tota. disinte(ration o! the :o4iet 9nion ma+ ha4e -een0 the )om&.ete o-.i4ion to 1hi)h )ommunism has Dui)k.+ -een )onsi(ned has -een no .ess sur&risin(2 8o.iti)a. ana.+ses o! demo)ratisation in eastern 'uro&e ha4e a.. -ut !or(otten the rise o! )ommunism in Russia a!ter ">"C and its enormous in!.uen)e on the &o.iti)s o! the t1entieth )entur+2 3his -ook -rin(s )ommunism -a)k into the stud+ o! demo)ra)+2 3hereason !orsu)ha returnisnotnosta.(ia !or a!ai.ed &o.iti)a.e5&eriment0 -ut the )on4i)tion that the rash ).assi!i)ation o! )ommunism as an o-%e)t o! stud+ !or historians o4er.ooks its a)ti4e ro.e in sha&in( the &ost/)ommunist order2 3he une5&e)ted )o..a&se o! )ommunism indi)ated that mu)h so)ia. s)ien)e resear)h 1as &re%udi)ed 1ith ideas a-out the immuta-.e and eterna. nature o! )ommunist &o1er2 Its sudden disa&&earan)e not on.+ &re4ented )orre)tions o! this )o(niti4e !ai.ure -ut a.so &ri4i.e(ed 4ie1s on )ommunism as a O.e(a)+; rather than a so)ia. or(anism in (estation2 3he momentous simu.taneoustrans!ormationsin a.. areas o! &o.iti)s and so)iet+ rein!or)ed the &er4asi4e desire in eastern 'uro&e to -reak 1ith una)hie4ed modernisation and anti/.i-era. traditions in the name o! demo)rati) de4e./ o&ment2 *emo)rati) trans!ormations 1ere )on!i(ured as an a((re(ate -od+ o! ru.es and norms0 1hi)h 1ou.d re&.a)e )ommunism;s non/demo)rati) s+stem o! (o4ernment 1ith Western/t+&e mode.s o! demo)ra)+2 :tru)tura. and s+stem/oriented &ers&e)ti4es a.ike ha4e )on)ei4ed trans/ !ormation as &arti)u.arisation0s&e)i!i)ation0or di!!erentiation in theinstitu/ tiona. !rame1ork o! a &o.iti)a. so)iet+2 3his &ositi4ist )on)e&tion o! &o.iti)s0 1hi)h en4isa(es &o1er as an o-%e)ti4e !or)e used to )ontro. -eha4iour and attitudes o! &eo&.e -+ means o! .e(a..+ en!or)ed s+stems o! ru.es0 )on)ea.s the )om&.e5it+ o! the so)io(enesis o! &o.iti)a. order2" Mot sur&risin(.+0
"
Eor the distin)tion -et1een the !un)tiona. and the (eneti) inDuiries into demo)ra)+0 see *ank1art Rusto10 O3ransitions to *emo)ra)+P 3o1ard a *+nami) Mode.;0 Comparative Politics0 <0 ? 6">C=70 ??C/B?2
"
<
Communism and the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+
mu)h o! the theorisation on &ost/)ommunist &o.iti)a. trans!ormations has dis)onne)ted the stud+ o! a ne1 order !rom the &re4ious one2 < Man+ ana.+sts sa1 )ommunism not on.+ as &re4entin( demo)rati) de4e.o&ment -ut a.so as an i..usion0 1hi)h ar(ua-.+ .e!t nothin( to &osterit+2 In a monisti) !ashion0 theories o! demo)rati) )onso.idation ha4e assi(ned the tota.it+ o! re&resentation to O.i-era.; demo)ra)+2 3he+ )on/ sider demo)ra)+ not as a so)ia..+ endo(enous &ro)ess o! histori)a. arti)/ u.ation -ut as -ased on a-stra)t0 .o(i)a. !oundations o! demo)rati) indi4idua.ism0 the autonom+ o! &re!eren)es0 or the institutiona.ised ru.e o! .a12 :u)h demo)rati) essentia.ism %ud(es histori)a. e4o.ution -+ out)omes2 *emo)ra)+ has -e)ome a de4e.o&menta. (oa.0 1here 4a.ues su)h as !reedom0 eDua.it+0 and re&resentation are dis)onne)ted !rom histori)a. e5&erien)e and their )ontin(ent arti)u.ation2 Eor some0 the &otentia.it+ o! and the o-sta).es to demo)ratisation are determined not -+ di!!erent &oints o! de&arture -ut -+ a )ommon destination and the im&erati4e o! )on4er(en)e2? 3his &resumed uni4ersa.it+ o! .i-era. demo/ )rati) arran(ements as a de4e.o&menta. (oa. has o-s)ured the !a)t that the e4o.ution o! demo)ra)+ / -oth as a 4a.ue and as a )onstitutiona. !orm o! (o4ernment / has not -een a (oa. o! histor+0 -ut an Oa))ident;2 4 I! histori)a. determinants are assumed0 the+ tend to -e !ramed in rather a-stra)t -.o)s o! O.e(a)ies;0 O(eneti) )odes;0 or Otime.ess anta(onisms; that either o-stru)t or !a4our transitiona. so)ieties; &o.iti)a. de4e.o&ment into )onso.idated demo)ra)ies2 Con4erse.+0 so)ia.0 &s+)ho.o(i)a.0 and s+m-o.i) !oundations su&&ortin( the rise o! demo)ra)+ under )onditions o! author/ itarian di)tatorshi& ha4e re)ei4ed .itt.e attention2 Whi.e &o.iti)s 1as rein/ 4ented in an en4ironment o! un)ertaint+0 &o.iti)a. ana.+sis a&&roa)hed O&ost/)ommunist; )ountries 1ith a &.ethora o! )ertainties and )ate(orisa/ tions2 9n.ike the )ommunist theor+ a-out the ne)essar+ e4entua. !a.. o! )a&ita.ism0 so)ia. s)ien)e in the West had no esta-.ished theor+ a-out the )risis and -reakdo1n o! state so)ia.ism -e!ore it a)tua..+ o))urred2 3he !ai.ure o! )ommunism 1as taken as &roo! o! demo)ra)+;s su&eriorit+ and su))ess on a (.o-a. s)a.e2 Ho1e4er0 1e ha4e .ar(e.+ ne(.e)ted to inDuire into the nature o! )ommunist &o1er in the :o4iet 9nion0 ho1 it e5&anded into eastern 'uro&e0 and the )risis o! )ommunism -e!ore its )o..a&se2 Vie1ed !rom su)h )u.tura..+ deterministi) &ers&e)ti4es0 )ountries 1ith the O1ron( e5&erien)es; .a)k endo(enous sour)es !or demo)rati) &o.iti)s2
< ? 4
Jon '.ster et a.20 Institutional Design in Post-Communist Societies 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>A70 "/<2 Adam 8rIe1orski0 Democracy and the arket! Political and "conomic #e$orms in "astern "urope and %atin America 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>"70 5ii2 Ro-ert Mi)he.s0 asse& 'uhrer& Intellektuelle( Politisch-so)iologische Au$sat)e *+,--*+.. 6Erank!urt and Me1 YorkP Cam&us0 ">AC70 "A?/@2
In a .e(itimate attem&t to a4oid !urther )on)e&tua. )on!usion and dis/ arra+ a-out demo)ra)+0 the stud+ o! demo)ratisation &ro)esses has usua..+ !o)used on the institutiona.isation o! &o.iti)a. authorit+0 se&arate !rom so)ia.0 e)onomi)0 or )u.tura. !eatures2 @ Histori)a..+0 ho1e4er0 the institu/ tiona. )on)e&tion o! &o.iti)a. demo)ra)+ emer(ed as a -+/&rodu)t o! its so)ia. !oundations2 Aristot.e de!ined demo)ra)+ as a re(ime -ased u&on the &oor !reemen0 &ointin( out that &o4ert+0 not numeri)a. ma%orit+0 is the de)isi4e )riterion !or distin(uishin( demo)ra)+ !rom o.i(ar)h+2 '4en i! the ma%orit+ su&&ort the ru.e o! the ri)h0 the s+stem remains an o.i(ar)h+2 '4en i! the ru.e o! the &oor is -ased on.+ on a minorit+0 it is sti.. termed a demo)ra)+2B A.e5is de 3o)Due4i..e;s &hi.oso&hi)a. anthro&o.o(+ !o)used on &s+)ho.o(i)a. uni4ersa.s su)h as desires0 -e.ie!s0 and attitudes to e5&.ain human a)tion -+ su-sumin( a&&arent.+ di!!erent e4ents under the same headin(2C *emo)ra)+ unites &eo&.e 1ith a &s+)ho.o(i)a. -ond a))ordin( to 1hi)h e4er+-od+ !orms his o1n %ud(ement under the s&e.. o! an in4isi-.e authorit+0 &u-.i) o&inion2 In su)h a 4ie10 so)ia. )onditions o! eDua.it+ &rodu)e &assions0 desires0 and -e.ie!s0 !or 1hi)h an+thin( )an -e sa)ri!i)ed in).udin( .o4e o! .i-ert+2 Here is 1here the indi4idua. is su-ordinated to anon+mous &o1ers su)h as the Ostate;0 the O&eo&.e;0 or Oso)iet+;2 3hese anon+mous &o1ers0 ho1e4er0 are a &re)ondition rather than a resu.t o! aso)ia.eDui.i-rium-asedona))e&tedru.esandnorms2Whi.e 3o)Due4i..e;s Democracy in America 1as )on)erned 1ith re.ati4e.+ &redi)ta-.e out)omes in a &o.iti)a. s+stem o! institutions in eDui.i-rium0 the )entra. idea in his 1ork on The /ld #egime and the #evolution !o)uses on understandin( ho1 the &assa(e!romastateo!eDui.i-riumtoanotherstateo))ursand1hatitentai.s2 3he )o..a&se o! )ommunism demonstrated the in)onsisten)+ o! deter/ ministi) a))ounts2 I! tota.itarianism 1as an o&&ressi4e !or)e )a&a-.e o! )han(in( human nature and in4adin( the de&ths o! the human mind0 ho1 )ou.d )ommunism im&.ode 1ithout an+ )onsidera-.e resistan)eQ I! &o.it/ i)a. demo)ra)+ and autonomous )i4i. so)iet+ 1ere non/e5istent -e!ore the )o..a&se o! )ommunism0 on 1hat (rounds )an one ).aim that autono/ mous &o.iti)a. e.ites 1i.. adhere to an ethi)s o! res&onsi-i.it+ in su&&ortin( demo)rati) transitions and )onso.idationsQ I! modernisation has -een the under.+in( !or)e o! &o.iti)a. de4e.o&ment0 1h+ is the e4o.ution o! demo/ )rati) de4e.o&ment in )ases su)h as &ost/)ommunist Russia )onsidered to -e &ro-.emati) at -estQ I! there has -een a &ro4identia. tenden)+ to1ards
@
B C
3his )on)e&tua. )on!usion is re!.e)ted in more than @@= Osu-t+&es; o! demo)ra)+P *a4id Co..ier and :te4en Le4itsk+0 O*emo)ra)+ 1ith Ad%e)ti4esP Con)e&tua. Inno4ation in Com&arati4e Resear)h;0 0orld Politics0 4>0 ? 6">>C70 4?=/@"2 Aristot.e0 Politics0 ed2 :te&hen '4erson 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">AA70 ,ook i4 "<>=- and ,ook iii "<A=a2 Jon '.ster0 Political Psychology 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>?70 "4=2
demo)ra)+0 1h+ has the .iterature on demo)rati) trans!ormations .ar(e.+ dismissed the e5&erien)es0 -e.ie!s0 4a.ues0 and &s+)ho.o(+ o! so)ia. mo4e/ ments and dissiden)e -e!ore the 4i)tor+ o! the &rin)i&.es o! .i-era. &o.it/ i)a. demo)ra)+Q A &o.iti)a. anthro&o.o(+ o! trans!ormati4e e5&erien)es Western ana.+sts understood demo)ratisation as the set o! &o.iti)a. &ro/ )esses in the e5terna. 1or.d o! state institutions2 3he+ !o)us main.+ on the emer(en)e o! demo)rati) e.e)tions0 4otin( &ro)edures0 &art+ s+stems0 &ar.iaments0 (o4ernments0 e)onomi) a(en)ies0 and .e(a. institutions that 1i.. entai. the eDui.i-rium o! a )onstituted &o.iti)a. order2 Con4erse.+0 this -ook su((ests that an+ inDuir+ into the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+ needs to )onsider the as&irations0 e5&e)tations0 and ho&es !ormu.ated -+ &eo&.e under )onditions o! o&&ression and the denia. o! demo)rati) ri(hts and o&&ortunities2 3o understand the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+0 there!ore0 1e need to en(a(e 1ith the e5&erientia. -asis o! )ommunism -+ e5aminin( the &otentia. !or the emer(en)e o! somethin( ne10 1hose authorit+ in the ne1.+ )onstituted order ma+ -e .e(itimate and dura-.e2 Histori)a..+0 dem/ o)rati) a)tors )ha..en(ed mono.ithi) &o.iti)a. authorit+ not on the -asis o! ).aims that the+ 1ere endo1ed 1ith .e(a. (uarantees0 -ut under )onditions o! e5istentia. un)ertaint+0 e5&osed to threats to their o1n .i!e0 and !unda/ menta..+ a1are o! the -rokenness o! &o.iti)a. rea.it+2 *emo)ra)+ as a )onstitutiona. !orm has at its root un)onstitutiona. a)ts -e+ond the -oun/ daries o! e5istin( .a12 Like a.. &ro)esses o! state/!ormation or )han(es o! re(ime in the modern 1or.d0 )ommunism and demo)ra)+ ha4e -een0 to an im&ortant e5tent0 -ased on a ru&ture o! e.ite )ons)iousness !rom &re4ious orders o! re&resentation and &o.iti)a. authorit+2 *emo)ratisation has not a.1a+s in4o.4ed a meanin(!u. &attern o! (ro1th o! a ne1 re(ime a!ter the -reakdo1n o! an o.d one2 Contin(ent u&on the )onDuest o! the em&t+ s&a)e o! &o1er and its o1n attendant .e(itimisation0 it has -een a .en(th+0 on(oin( &ro)ess o! narrati4e )onstru)tion and s+m-o.i) arti)u.ation2 Rather than ada&t &o.iti)a. rea.it+ to institutions0 4a.ues0 and ideo.o(ies dominant in other (eo&o.iti)a. )onte5ts0 one shou.d tr+ to &ro-.ematise their emer(en)e2 Whi.e &o.iti)a. s)ien)e is .ar(e.+ interested in s&e)i!+in( 4aria-.es and attri-utes o! demo)ra)+ that distin(uish it !rom non/ demo)ra)+0 the inDuir+ into !oundations o! demo)ra)+ shou.d take the ana.+st dee&er into histor+ than he has )ommon.+ -een 1i..in( to (o2 A 8o.iti)a. ana.+sis shou.d de.ineate its o-%e)t o! stud+ -+ takin( into
Rusto10 O3ransitions to *emo)ra)+;2
a))ount ha&haIard and )ontin(ent histori)a. rea.it+2 Whi.e man+ assume a O)ausa.it+; o! demo)ra)+0 1hi)h 1ou.d -e %usti!ied -+ the Oout)ome;0 or tr+ to measure its adeDua)+ 1ith a &redominant Omode.;0 the histori)a. e4o.ution o! demo)ra)+ has not -een a &redetermined )ourse to1ards an end (oa. o! de4e.o&ment2 In Ma5 We-er;s terms0 i! there is an+ mean/ in(!u. usa(e o! Oo-%e)t; at a..0 it )an on.+ -e a histori)a. indi4idua. that is a )om&.e5 set o! )orre.ations in histori)a. rea.it+ that )an -e )onne)ted as )u.tura..+ meanin(!u.2> Whereas the distant ana.+st )an &res)ri-e O1hat demo)ra)+ is;0 the mani!o.d so)ia. !oundations o! a histori)a..+ arti)u.ated &ro)ess are not mere.+ rei!ied O.e(a)ies;0 O)onditions;0 or 4ariations in Oout)omes;0 -ut themse.4es de!ine the o-%e)t o! stud+2 3his -ook sets demo)ra)+ into the dramati) and )ontin(ent )onte5t o! hi(h.+ disru&ti4e e4ents )hara)teristi) o! the rise and !a.. o! )ommunism2 A num-er o! re)ent studies ha4e sho1n ho1 to inte(rate the )ommunist e5&erien)e and its &ra)ti)es in the &rodu)tion o! ne1 meanin(s and s+m-o.s2"= :imi.ar.+0 re)ent 1ork on demo)ratisation has em&hasised the im&ortan)e o! domesti) )u.tura. as&e)ts a(ainst dominant 4a.ue/ -ased inter&retations o! Western/t+&e demo)ra)+2 "" 3he em&iri)a. !o)us o! this -ook is an inter&reti4e understandin( o! (reat e4ents su)h as the O)to-er Re4o.ution0 the :e)ond Wor.d War0 the Osma..; re4o.u/ tions in eastern 'uro&e0 and the disarti)u.ation o! )ommunism2 Whi.e these e4ents entai.ed momentous trans!ormations in the &o.iti)a. and so)ia. 1or.d0 the+ 1ere a.so e5istentia. )rises entai.in( si(ni!i)ant disru&/ tions not on.+ -e)ause &o.iti)a. authorit+ 1as dee&.+ )ontested -ut a.so -e)ause a)Duired meanin(s disso.4ed0 &uttin( &asts and !utures at stake2 3hese )rises 1ere0 to an im&ortant e5tent0 &ro)esses o! )ommunion amon( those de&endent on a )ommon )ause0 as&irin( to a )o..e)ti4e identit+0 1hi)h 1ou.d -e determined a(ainst the outside2
>
"= A(nes
""
Ma5 We-er0 1esammelte Au$sat)e )ur #eligionsso)iologie 63u-in(enP Mohr0 ">AA70 ?=/"2 Hor4aGth and Ar&a Gd:Iako.)Iai0TheDissolutiono$CommunistPower!TheCaseo$ 2ungary 6LondonP Rout.ed(e0 ">><7R :te&hen Fotkin0 agnetic ountain! Stalinism as a Civili)ation 6,erke.e+P 9ni4ersit+ o! Ca.i!ornia 8ress0 ">>@7R :te&hen '2 Hanson0 Time and #evolution! arxism and the Design o$ Soviet Institutions 6Cha&e. Hi.. and LondonP 9ni4ersit+ o! Morth Caro.ina 8ress0 ">>C7R Mi)hae. 9r-an et a.20 The #e3irth o$ Politics in #ussia 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>C7R O.e( Fharkhordin0 The Collective and the Individual in #ussia! A Study o$ Practices 6,erke.e+P 9ni4ersit+ o! Ca.i!ornia 8ress0 ">>>72 Mi)o.ai 8etro0 The #e3irth o$ #ussian Democracy! An Interpretation o$ Political Culture 6Cam-rid(e0 MAP Har4ard 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>@7R Je!!re+ Isaa)0 Democracy in Dark Times 6Itha)a and LondonP Corne.. 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>A7R Ri)hard :ak1a0 ed20 The "xperience o$ Democratisation 6LondonP Ma)mi..an0 ">>>7R John *r+Iek and Les.ie Ho.mes0 Post-Communist Democrati)ation 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <==<7R Lauren)e Whitehead0 Democratisation! Theory and "xperience 6O5!ordP O5!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <==<72
I! these e4ents are in).uded in the stud+ o! demo)ratisation0 it is not -e)ause an+ o! these e4ents is Odemo)rati); in terms o! a )onstitutiona. !orm2 Rather0 these e5&erien)es ha4e had a de)isi4e in!.uen)e on attitudes and &ra)ti)es o! indi4idua.s0 meanin(s o! demo)ra)+0 and the de4e.o&/ ment o! the )on)e&t2 A &o.iti)a. anthro&o.o(+ shi!ts attention a1a+ !rom &ositi4ist or a &riori normati4e mode.s that &re)ede a)tion and to1ards e5&erien)es o! histori)a. ru&tures2 3he dua./!a)eted a&&roa)h )hara)ter/ isti) o! the modern e&isteme either redu)es e5&erien)e to sense &er)e&/ tion0 as in the )ase o! em&iri)ism and &ositi4ism0 or assumes e5&erien)es are )haoti) and unstru)tured0 and there!ore )on)ei4a-.e on.+ throu(h the )ate(ories o! the mind2 3his -ook0 in )ontrast0 understands trans!orma/ ti4e e5&erien)es in a dou-.e sense2 Ana.+ti)a..+0 trans!ormati4e e5&erien/ )es )an -e )onsidered as a methodo.o(i)a. too. -+ 1hi)h to understand the Orationa.it+; o! a)tion in dramati) re4o.utionar+ situations )hara)ter/ ised -+ un)ertaint+ and the -rokenness o! &o.iti)a. rea.it+2 :u-stantia..+0 trans!ormati4e e5&erien)es re!er to the .i4in( throu(h o! e5)e&tiona. )ir)umstan)es at )riti)a. %un)tures -+ )ontem&oraries and the emer(en)e o! ne1 states o! )ons)iousness2 A &o.iti)a. anthro&o.o(+ o! trans!ormati4e e5&erien)es e5amines ho1 -reakdo1ns o! di!!erent &o.iti)a. orders and their attendant s+m-o.i) uni4erses trans!orm )ons)iousness0 meanin(s0 and -e.ie!s in indi4idua.s2 In other 1ords0 the -reakdo1n and the )onso.idation o! a re(ime need to -e set in the )onte5t o! an irru&tion in the &er)ei4ed and s+m-o.i)a..+ sustained0 ordered )ourse o! .i!e2 In the tradition esta-.ished -+ Eriedri)h MietIs)he and Wi.he.m *i.the+0 the &ioneerin( studies -+ Ma5 We-er0 'ri) Voe(e.in0 Mi)he. Eou)au.t0 Mor-ert '.ias0 and C.aude Le!ort ha4e su((ested that the )onstitution o! &o.iti)a. su-%e)ts0 )o..e)ti4e and indi/ 4idua.0 o))urs throu(h e5&erien)es and ensuin( !undamenta. )han(es in )ons)iousness2"< 3he so)ia. !oundations o! &o.iti)s are )ru)ia. -e)ause it is the meanin( o! our e5&erien)e0 and not the onto.o(i)a. stru)ture o! the o-%e)ts su)h as institutions0 states0 or s+stems0 that )onstitutes rea.it+2 "? Linkin( the stud+ o! &o.iti)a. order to the histori)a..+ s&e)i!i) s+m-o.ism o! its institution su((ests that histor+ is not &rimari.+ a seDuen)e o! 1e../ arti)u.ated and sta-.e &o.iti)a. orders2 It is the -rokenness o! &o.iti)a.
"<
"?
3his a&&.ies0 !or instan)e0 to Ma5 We-er;s stud+ o! the s&irit o! )a&ita.ism0 Mor-ert '.ias;s 1ork on )ourt so)iet+ and the )i4i.isin( &ro)ess0 'ri) Voe(e.in;s h+&othesis o! the Hnosti) re4o.t as a sour)e o! modernit+0 or Mi)he. Eou)au.t;s dis)i&.inar+ so)iet+2 Eor a re)ent )on)e&tua.isation o! Ore!.e5i4e histori)a. so)io.o(+; as understandin( the ori(ins o! modernit+0 see Ar&ad :Iako.)Iai0 #e$lexive 2istorical Sociology 6LondonP Rout.ed(e0 <===72 A.!red :)hutI0 Collected Papers0 4o.2 I0 The Pro3lem o$ Social #eality0 ed2 and intro2 Mauri)e Matanson 63he Ha(ueP Martinus Mi%ho!!0 ">C"70 <=C/@>2
rea.it+ and the disso.ution o! order that make u& the essen)e o! histor+2 I! there is )ontinuit+ and re&etition0 it is the re&etition o! disarti)u.ation0 1hi)h shou.d in!orm inDuiries into the esta-.ishment o! &o.iti)a. order2 3his is not -e)ause ru&ture is the ru.e0 -ut -e)ause the e5)e&tiona. )ondition o! disarti)u.ation o! order 1i.. in!.uen)e the arti)u.ation o! ne1 &o.iti)a. authorit+ most &ro!ound.+2 3his is 1h+ understandin( the emer(en)e o! a )onstitutiona. !orm reDuires re)o4erin( the &rima)+ o! the histori)a. e4ent 64v4nementialiser72"4 It (oes a.on( 1ith the need to disen/ tan(.e the so)ia. !oundations o! underdetermined moments o! disorder0 to take into a))ount a ru&ture o! e4iden)e or o! the taken/!or/(ranted2 An understandin( o! the &o.iti)a. as e5&erien)e (oes -e+ond a s)ienti!i) a&&roa)h in 1hi)h kno1.ed(e !inds its se.!/assuran)e -+ de!inin( &o.iti)a. rea.it+ in terms o! a so4erei(n distan)e -et1een the su-%e)t and the so)ia.2"@ 3he institution o! the so)ia. order )annot -e .imited to the )om&arison o! stru)tures and s+stems as o-%e)ti4e !or)es2 Rather0 it is simu.taneous.+ )on!ronted 1ith the Duestion o! its o1n institution2 3he histori)a. &ro)ess o! human re.ations )reates meanin( and &rodu)es markers !or distin(uishin( -et1een true and !a.se0 %ust and un%ust0 and ima(inar+ and rea.2 It a.so esta-.ishes the horiIons o! human -ein(s; re.ations 1ith one another and 1ith the 1or.d2 In Mi)he. Eou)au.t;s terms0 Ohistor+ -e)omes OOe!!e)ti4e;; to the de(ree that it introdu)es dis/ )ontinuit+ into our 4er+ -ein( / as it di4ides our emotions0 dramatises our instin)ts0 mu.ti&.ies our -od+ and sets it a(ainst itse.!;2 "B A &o.iti)a. anthro&o.o(+ o! trans!ormati4e e5&erien)es ado&ts three di!!erent -ut interre.ated &ers&e)ti4es on dis)ontinuit+ in the histori)a. e4o.ution o! )ommunism2 Initia..+0 the emer(en)e o! )ommunism and demo)ra)+ reDuire understandin( the !ormation o! )ons)iousness and dis&ositions o! a)tors in the authorit+ 4a)uum o! the em&t+ s&a)e o! &o1er2 Re4o.utionar+ situations and )riti)a. %un)tures o! histor+ are not on.+ )haoti) and anar)hi)a. -ut a.so ha4e their o1n rationa.it+ that &rodu)es ne1 states o! )ons)iousness2 Eurthermore0 re4o.utionar+ e4ents )an -e a&&roa)hed throu(h the a)ts o! s+m-o.isation that re/esta-.ish the eDui.i-rium .ost -+ the disso.ution o! order0 stru)tures0 and markers o! )ertaint+2 '4entua..+0 one needs to a)kno1.ed(e that su)h e4ents ha4e had enormous e!!e)ts on identities as 1e.. as on inter&retations o! &asts and !utures2 3his is 1h+ inter&retations o! meanin( need to address the &o1er o! memor+ and the de)onstru)tion o! Ose)ond rea.it+; as
Mi)he. Eou)au.t0 Dits et 4crits *+5--*+660 4o.2 IV 68arisP Ha..imard0 <=="70 <?/@2 C.aude Le!ort0 Democracy and Political Theory 6Cam-rid(eP 8o.it+ 8ress0 ">AA70 <<=/"2 Mi)he. Eou)au.t0 OMietIs)he0 Henea.o(+0 Histor+;0 in 8au. Ra-ino10 ed20 The 'oucault #eader 6LondonP 8en(uin0 ">A470 AA2
"4 "@ "B
t1o )ru)ia. methods o! denoun)in( the .o(i) o! 4io.en)e )hara)teristi) o! )ommunism2 A&&roa)hin( the em&t+ s&a)e o! &o1er An im&ortant tradition in demo)rati) theor+ has redu)ed &o1er to the )a&a)it+ o! an institutiona.ised set o! ru.es and norms to )ontro. the a)tions0 -eha4iour0 and res&onses o! )itiIens2 "C 3his 1a+ o! de!inin( &o.iti)a. authorit+ as a )om&.e5 set o! &ro)edures that )om&e. the )om/ &.ian)e o! the )itiIenr+ has !o)used on the .imitin( e!!e)ts o! &o1er throu(h a))ounta-i.it+ and ru.e o! .a12 :imi.ar.+0 )onstitutiona.ism in).udes determinants o! (o4ernmenta. de)isions and &res)ri-ed ru.es that )ontro. the -eha4iour o! )itiIens and in!.uen)e the .e(itimate distri/ -ution o! &o1er amon( (o4ernment o!!i)ia.s2 Histori)a..+ and .o(i)a..+0 ho1e4er0 the )onstitution o! &o1er in a re4o.ution means not the .imi/ tation -ut the !oundation and )orre)t distri-ution o! &o1er2 In the stru(/ (.e o4er the Ameri)an Constitution0 !or instan)e0 the main Duestion 1as not a-out O.imited; (o4ernment -ut a-out ho1 to esta-.ish &o1er2 "A MontesDuieu;s su((estion that O&o1er arrests &o1er; is not s+non+mous 1ith a ).aim that the &o1er o! .a1s )he)ks the &o1er o! man2 La1s do not &re/e5ist their !orma.isation in the sense o! im&osed standards0 )om/ mands0 or &ositi4ist .e(a.it+2 In this s&irit0 a &o.iti)a. anthro&o.o(+ o! trans!ormati4e e5&erien)es trans)ends the ).assi!i)ator+ )ate(or+ o! &o.iti)s as )onstituted &o1er2 Eo..o1in( C.aude Le!ort;s distin)tion -et1een la politi7ue 6&o.iti)s7 and le politi7ue 6the &o.iti)a.70 one must di!!erentiate -et1een t1o rea.itiesP on the one hand0 a &re)onstituted domain o! &o.iti)s as de.imited 1ithin the so)ia. order a(ainst the non/&o.iti)a. !ie.ds o! so)iet+ or the e)onom+R on the other0 the )onditions under 1hi)h a &o.iti)a. order is instituted in so)ia. and histori)a. rea.it+ 1ith the aim at )onstitutin( order on the -asis o! )onstituti4e &rin)i&.es2 3he essen)e o! &o.iti)s is not in the )onstituted order o! norms and ru.es -ut is !ound in the e5)e&tion0 1here the &o1er o! rea. .i!e -reaks throu(h the )rust o! a me)hanism that has -e)ome tor&id throu(h re&etition2"> 3he essen)e o! so4erei(nt+ is not in the mono&o.+ o! san)tion or &o1er -ut in the mono&o.+ o! de)ision2
"C "A ">
Ro-ert A2 *ah.0 A Pre$ace to Democratic Theory 6Chi)a(o and LondonP 9ni4ersit+ o! Chi)a(o 8ress0 ">@B70 "? and "?@2 Hannah Arendt0 /n #evolution 6LondonP Ea-er and Ea-er0 ">B?70 "4B/A2 Car. :)hmitt0 The Concept o$ the Political 6Chi)a(o and LondonP 9ni4ersit+ o! Chi)a(o 8ress0 ">>B70 "@2
>
3he )onditions o! institutiona.ised (o4ernment )on)ea. that )onstitu/ ent &o1er is .o(i)a..+ &rior to )onstitutiona. arran(ements2 Histori)a..+0 the stru)ture o! so4erei(nt+ is .ike.+ to -e arti)u.ated in e5)e&tiona. situations o! an authorit+ 4a)uum2 3hus0 it is reasona-.e to assume that no &o.iti)a. a)t e4er )on!orms to the standard o! -ein( .e(itimate in terms o! a (enera..+ a))e&ted so4erei(n authorit+2 <= As &o.iti)a. a)ts a.1a+s .a)k !u.. .e(itima)+ 1hen ena)ted0 so4erei(nt+ o))urs 1ith a tem&ora. (a& -et1een a)t and the )onsent that a&&ro4es and ena-.es it2 3he Eren)h Re4o.ution not on.+ tar(eted the a-so.ute &o1er o! the monar)h0 -ut had to .e(itimate a ne1.+ ere)ted )onstitutiona. order 1hose !ounders 1ere themse.4es un)onstitutiona.2 3heir authorit+ to set do1n the !unda/ menta. .a1 re.ied on the need to de!ine identities and interests o! the &eo&.e not -+ means o! )onstitutiona..+ (ranted &o.iti)a. authorit+ -ut in a .e(a. 4oid2 :ie+eSs;s distin)tion -et1een )onstituent &o1er and )onsti/ tuted &o1er su((ested that the authorit+ o! the )onstituted &o1er )ou.d not -e (uaranteed -+ the )onstituent &o1er0 as the .atter 1as &rior to the )onstitution itse.!2<" 3he e5er)ise o! rea. &o1er -+ (o4ernment had its roots in the nation as the )onstituent &o1er0 1hi)h 1as su&&osed to -e !ormed so.e.+ -+ natura. .a1 and not to -e su-%e)t to .e(a. &res)ri&tions !ormu.ated in &ositi4e )onstitutions2 3he nationa. 1i.. as the ori(in o! a.. .e(a.it+0 there!ore0 1ou.d a.1a+s -e seen as re.+in( not on a di!!erentiated so)ia. order re(u.ated -+ .a10 -ut on a nationa. s&irit arti)u.ated under e5)e&tiona. )ir)umstan)es2 Eor Rousseau0 the !oundin( o! a (enera. 1i.. as the &re)ondition !or so4erei(nt+ and demo)rati) &arti)i&ation 1ou.d -e &arado5i)a.2 In his 4ie10 !or an emer(in( &eo&.e to !o..o1 the !undamenta. ru.es o! state)ra!t em-odied in the (enera. 1i..0 the e!!e)t 6so)ia. s&irit7 1ou.d ha4e to -e)ome the )ause0 and the )ause 6(ood .a1s7 1ou.d ha4e to -e)ome the e!!e)t2 3he &ro-.em 1as ho1 to esta-.ish either )ondition 1ithout the &re4ious attainment o! the other on 1hi)h it de&ends2 << :eekin( &ra)ti)a. so.utions to this &arado50 the Eren)h re4o.utionaries ans1ered 1ith re&.a)in( the di4ine ri(ht o! kin(s -+ 1hat 'd(ar Tuinet )a..ed a &eo/ &.e/Hod 6peuple-Dieu72<? 3he+ had !o..o1ed Rousseau;s o-ser4ation that0 to esta-.ish the 4a.idit+ o! manmade .a1s0 one a)tua..+ 1ou.d need (ods2 3he task o! !indin( a sound &rin)i&.e o! so4erei(nt+ !or the Eren)h nation
<= <" << <?
8au. Ri)oeur0 O3he 8o.iti)a. 8arado5;0 in Wi..iam '2 Conno..+0 ed20 %egitimacy and the State 6Me1 YorkP Me1 York 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">A470 <@42 'mmanue. Jose&h :ie+eSs0 Political 0ritings0 ed2 Mi)hae. :onens)her 6Indiana&o.is and Cam-rid(eP Ha)kett0 <==?70 "?B/C2 Jean/Ja)Dues Rousseau0 The Social Contract and Discourses0 trans2 and intro2 H2*2H2 Co.e 6LondonP *ent0 ">>?70 ">?/@2 C.aude Le!ort0 "ssais sur le politi7ue 68arisP :eui.0 ">AB70 "CB2
"=
in a re4o.utionar+ situation reDuired &uttin( the .a1 a-o4e man2 <4 On the one hand0 the &eo&.e 1ere to -e)ome )itiIens0 i2e2 su-%e)ts 1ho 1ou.d (o4ern themse.4es2 On the other hand0 to su-stitute a se)u.ar &rin)i&.e !or the -e.ie! in di4ine ri(ht0 the+ 1ou.d need to ins&ire an a1esome0 a.most m+sti)a.0 authorit+2 3he radi)a. reorientation o! &o.iti)a. &ur&ose dre1 not on &re/e5istin( theoreti)a. &rin)i&.es0 -ut reDuired the mo-i.isation in &eo&.e;s minds and hearts o! a -e.ie!0 i! not o! a )u.t0 o! the im&ossi-.e2 Yet0 the &ra)ti)a. -usiness o! re)onstru)tin( a so)ia. order on the -asis o! &o1er!u.0 h+&otheti)a. !utures )ou.d not -e a)hie4ed 1ithout destru)/ tion0 -.oodshed0 and annihi.ation o! human .i!e0 1hi)h &eaked in the re4o.utionar+ terror2 3hus0 the idea.isation o! the 8eo&.e/Hod as the &rin)i&.e o! so4erei(nt+ )ame at the e5&ense o! sa)ri!i)in( .i4es o! human -ein(s that made u& the O&eo&.e;2 Histori)a..+0 there!ore0 the e5)e&tion is not on.+ a theoreti)a. &rin)i&.e2 Modern re4o.utions 1ith their intense )o..e)ti4e 4io.en)e and their .o!t+0 idea.ised 4isions o! h+&otheti)a. !utures ha4e dee&.+ am-i4a.ent e!!e)ts o! destru)ti4e and !ormati4e &o1er2 3he Janus/.ike )hara)ter o! re4o.utions )om-ines the e.e(ant0 a-stra)t0 humanitarian !a)e that is )reati4e o! )onstitutiona. norms 1ith the )rude0 4io.ent0 rather ni(htmarish side 1here the re4o.utionar+ d+nami)s not on.+ o4er)omes theoreti)a. &rin)i/ &.es or )on)e&ts0 -ut a.so destro+s human .i!e2 <@ As C.aude Le!ort has su((ested0 modern demo)ra)+ is ridd.ed 1ith this am-i4a.en)e as it emanates !rom the dramati) )onte5t o! the do1n!a.. o! a-so.utist mon/ ar)h+0 the re4o.utionar+ )on!.i)t -et1een anta(onisti) !or)es stru((.in( to attain &o.iti)a. domination0 and the attendant em&tiness o! the s&a)e o! &o1er2 *emo)ra)+;s )ru)ia. )hara)teristi) )onsists in the disso.ution o! Omarkers o! )ertaint+;2 Whereas -e!ore the nineteenth )entur+ &o.iti)a. so)iet+ re.ied on .ar(e.+ determined re.ations -et1een )or&orate &arts o! so)iet+0 the Odemo)rati) moment; introdu)ed radi)a. indetermina)+ -+ disentan(.in( the .e(itimate -asis o! &o.iti)a. &o1er0 the sour)es o! mora. and .e(a. norms0 and the &rodu)tion o! kno1.ed(e2 3he modern demo/ )rati) re4o.ution 1as a-out the trans!ormation !rom &o1er in)or&orated in t1o kinds o! -odies0 the -od+ o! the kin( and the )or&orate so)ia. -od+2<B In monar)hies0 &o1er 1as in)or&orated in the -od+ o! the kin(0 as the -od+ o! the kin( (a4e the -od+ to so)iet+2 *emo)rati) ru.e0 on the other hand0 is not entit.ed to in)or&orate or a&&ro&riate &o1er0 as the
<4 <@ A>7042 C.aude Le!ort0 The Political 'orms o$ odern Society! 8ureaucracy& Democracy& Totalitarianism 6Cam-rid(eP 8o.it+ 8ress0 ">AB70 ?==/@2
""
e5er)ise o! &o1er -e)omes su-%e)t to a &eriodi) )om&etition !or this &o1er2 ,ein( the ru.e o! the &eo&.e in their o1n interest0 &o1er in a demo)ra)+ emanates !rom the &eo&.e -ut it -e.on(s to no3ody2 3his em&t+ s&a)e o! &o1er )omes a.on( 1ith the Odis/in)or&oration; o! indi/ 4idua.s 1ho are se&arated !rom )or&orate -odies or Onatura.; hierar)hies to -e)ome the sma..est units o! the ne1 t+&e o! so)ia. re.ations2 3his dou-.e dis/in)or&oration o! the so)ia. -od+ and the mono.ithi) &o.iti)a. -od+ means that demo)ra)+ in the modern era must take a))ount o! the de&th o! histori)a. ru&ture and the &ro!ound re4ersa.s in meanin(s0 re&resentations0 and s+m-o.s2 Whi.e this idea o! )onstituent &o1er is )ru)ia. !or modern )onstitution/ a.ism and the idea o! the nation/state0 it a.so intimates that the se&aration -et1een .a1 and 4io.en)e is not as ).ear as )onstitutiona. (o4ernment in modern states 1ou.d su((est2 A.thou(h the state as a s+stem o! )onstitu/ tiona..+ -ased institutions hed(es 4io.en)e -+ mono&o.isin( it0 the 4io.ent nature o! a &re/state )ommunit+ is not remo4ed2 A.read+ in Ho--es;s %eviathan the state o! nature sur4i4es in the &erson o! the so4erei(n2 3he so4erei(n &reser4es his ius naturale contra omnes and thus is not su-%e)t to )i4i. .a1s2<C In)or&oratin( the state o! nature in so)iet+ -e)omes the -asis !or so4erei(nt+0 thus su((estin( a .a)k o! distin)tion -et1een nature and )u.ture0 or 4io.en)e and .a12 3he so4erei(n )onser4es the !reedom to re&ea. the .a1s that trou-.e him and thus Ohe that )an -ind )an re.ease;2 In )ommunist re(imes0 3rotsk+;s )on)e&t o! the &ermanent re4o.ution or Mao;s uninterru&ted re4o.ution s+m-o.ised the )ontinuit+ o! re4o.u/ tionar+ )onstituent &o1er in the )onstituted &o1er o! a Os+stem;2 3he autonom+ o! the )ommunist &art+ and its ).aim to de!ine .a10 histor+0 and kno1.ed(e )oe5isted in a &ara..e. !ashion 1ith the )onstituted e.ements o! the state2 3he authorit+ to de)ide0 in the !orm o! a 4erdi)t on .i!e and death !or the sake o! &reser4in( domesti) &ea)e0 reDuires not mere.+ the de).aration o! an interna. enem+ -ut a !i(ht a(ainst a rea. enem+2<A As Hior(io A(am-en has ar(ued0 the !undamenta. anta(onism o! modern &o.iti)s is not the one -et1een !riend and enem+ -ut -et1een -are .i!e 6)o97 and &o.iti)a. e5isten)e 63ios72<> Whi.e in an)ient Hree)e )o9 did not -e.on( to the &u-.i) rea.m0 modern &o.iti)s is -ased on the entr+ o! )o9 into the s&here o! the &o.is2 3he )onstitutiona. !oundation o! modern demo)ra)+ in ha3eas corpus o! "BC> did not make the o.d su-%e)t
<C <A <>
3homas Ho--es0 %eviathan0 ed2 Ri)hard 3u)k 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>"70 )ha&2 <B0 II2 :)hmitt0 The Concept o$ the Political0 4B/>2 Hior(io A(am-en0 2omo Sacer! Sovereign Power and 8are %i$e 6:tan!ordP :tan!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>A72
"<
o! !euda. re.ations0 the !ree man0 or the !uture )itiIen -ut the -od+ 6 corpus7 the ne1 su-%e)t o! &o.iti)s2 3he re4o.utionar+ ru&ture o! "CA> &ut )ro1d a)tion and -are .i!e on to the sta(e o! &o.iti)s2 3he o4erthro1 o! !euda. order resu.ted in the )onstitution o! so4erei(n &o1er0 1hi)h arti)u.ated &o.iti)a. so)iet+ -+ in).udin( the &o.iti)isation o! -are .i!e 1ith its &oten/ tia..+ -ene!i)ia. and destru)ti4e e!!e)ts2 3he so4erei(n stru)ture o! .a1 deri4es its &e)u.iar and ori(ina. !or)e !rom the state o! e5)e&tion in 1hi)h !a)t and .a1 are indistin(uisha-.e2 ?= I! the e5)e&tion is the stru)ture o! so4erei(nt+0 then it )eases to -e an e5).usi4e.+ &o.iti)a. )on)e&t or %urid/ i)a. )ate(or+2 3he e5)e&tion is the ori(inar+ stru)ture in 1hi)h the )rea/ tion o! .a1 re!ers to .i!e and in).udes it in itse.! -+ sus&endin( it2 3he modern se)u.ar state as the ho.der o! the .e(itimate mono&o.+ o! the means o! 4io.en)e hed(es 4io.en)e in the interests o! the se)urit+ o! its )itiIens -ut it does not make 4io.en)e disa&&ear2 3he state -rou(ht .i!e into the )entre o! &o.iti)s not on.+ in terms o! &rote)tin( ina.iena-.e ri(hts -ut a.so in terms o! .i!e;s &o.iti)isation2 It )ame to dis&ose o! .i!e -+ )ontro..in(0 dis)i&.inin(0 and0 i! ne)essar+0 annihi.atin( it as a too. !or esta-.ishin( and maintainin( &o1er2 Whi.e the re!eren)e to the hi(hest 4a.ue o! the )o..e)ti4e -od+0 human .i!e0 took the &.a)e o! a trans)endenta. Hod0 the disru&tions o! Onorma. &o.iti)s; threatened the -od+/&o.iti) -+ the dan(erous &assions o! )ro1ds and se.!/interested !a)tions0 -ut a.so o! &u-.i) o&inion2 :imi.ar.+0 the state;s )a&a-i.it+ o! 1a(in( 1ar and o! dis&osin( o! the &eo&.e;s .i4es im&.ies the dou-.e &ossi-i.it+ o! e5&e)tin( !rom its o1n mem-ers the readiness to unhesitatin(.+ ki.. enemies and to die !or the nation2 In this 4ein0 modern demo)ra)+ has -een am-i4a.ent a-out .i!e as its hi(hest 4a.ue0 an am-i4a.en)e that is )on)ea.ed in the &rin)i&.e o! &re/ ser4in( human .i!e and di(nit+ in )onstituted &o1er0 -ut that -e)omes a&&arent in the em&t+ s&a)e o! &o1er2 3he &eo&.e are simu.taneous.+ the sour)e o! &o1er and its 4i)tims0 due to the (rantin( o! )ontro. o4er indi4idua.s; .i4es to the state2 Whi.e re4o.utionar+ 4io.en)e e5).udes s&e)i!i) &arts o! the &eo&.e 6in terms o! -are .i!e7 -+ mass 4io.en)e and terror0 it in).udes the O&eo&.e; in terms o! arti)u.atin( the Onation; or the Odi)tatorshi& o! the &ro.etariat; as a re&resentationa. &rin)i&.e 1ith the )a&a)it+ o! )onstituent &o1er2 I! dates su)h as "CA>0 ">"C0 ">@B0 ">BA0 ">A=/"0 or ">A> arouse emotions e4en toda+0 this is -e)ause the )onstitution o! &o.iti)a. authorit+ has not e5).usi4e.+ -een a matter o! &o.iti)a. reason or &ositi4ist .e(a.it+0 -ut has -een (enerated throu(h the
?=
A(am-en0 2omo Sacer0 <C/>2
"?
&o.iti)isation o! -are .i!e2 3he re4o.utionar+ ru&ture in "CA> introdu)ed Odemo)rati) &o.iti)s;0 1ith mode.s o! &o&u.ar so4erei(nt+ su)h as Othe nation; and Ore&u-.i)anism;2 Yet0 the demo)rati) moment o! the re4o.utionar+ ru&ture )ontained the &otentia. !or tota.itarian &o.iti)s2 3o)Due4i..e;s )on)e&tua.isation o! so)ia. demo)ra)+ 1as )hara)terised -+ the &remonition o! its re4ersa.0 a.read+ &resa(in( that o.d notions su)h as des&otism or t+rann+ 1ou.d not -e su!!i)ient to make sense o! it2 ?" 3he &arado5 o! modern demo)ra)+ )onsists in the !a)t that it 1ants to &ut the !reedom and ha&&iness o! men into &.a+ in the 4er+ &.a)e / -are .i!e / that -e!ore had marked their su-%u(ation2?< 3he &o.iti)isation o! &eo&.e;s -odi.+ e5isten)e into the rationa.es o! state order has to a)kno1.ed(e that the demo)rati) moment is not on.+ a-out re&resentation -ut a.so in).udes the dark sides o! demo)ra)+2 A.thou(h demo)ra)+;s &rimar+ 4a.ue has ar(ua-.+ -een the e5&e)tation o! the ha&&iness o! &eo&.e0 it has -een in)a&a-.e o! sa4in( )o90 as the -are .i!e o! the dou-.e so4erei(n )annot -e sa)ri!i)ed +et ma+0 ne4erthe.ess0 -e ki..ed2 Ha4in( said this0 I 1ou.d em&hasise that introdu)in( the em&t+ s&a)e o! &o1er as the e5)e&tion is not intended to ado&t an essentia.ist a&&roa)h to &o.iti)s0 1hi)h 1ou.d root &o.iti)a. order in a !oundationa. &rin)i&.e2 Eoundationa.ist &o.iti)a. &hi.oso&h+ has &ostu.ated0 in a mon/ isti) !ashion0 one sour)e or !oundation o! &o.iti)s2 ?? Whether this !oun/ dation is !ound in se.!/&reser4ation 6Ho--es70 !reedom 6Lo)ke70 reason 6Rousseau0 Fant70 histor+ 6He(e.0 Mar570 or )on!.i)t 6:)hmitt70 there seems to -e a monism o! &o.iti)a. rea.it+2 A simi.ar.+ !oundationa.ist 4ie1 is &resented -+ Hannah Arendt;s idea.isation o! the -e(innin( o! modern &o.iti)s in the uniDue a)t o! !oundation o! the Ameri)an Constitution0 1here &o.iti)a. order 1as esta-.ished de4oid o! a.. se)rets0 .e(ends0 or m+thi)a. ima(inations2 ?4 In her 4ie10 this a)t o! !oundation su))eeded in o4er)omin( the histori)a. )ontinuum -+ &ostu.atin( a start/ in( &oint o! a ne1 )hain o! e4ents0 and a ne1 )ons)iousness o! histori)a. time2 :u)h an idea.isation o! a O-e(innin(; rests u&on a .o(i)a. a-stra)/ tion0 1hi)h e.udes the Duestion o! histor+0 1here une5&e)ted o))urren)es )an (i4e si(ni!i)an)e to !ormer.+ meanin(.ess &atterns and )an (enerate ne1 !orms and st+.es o! e5isten)e in the tissue o! so)ia. .i!e2 3here!ore0 1hi.e so4erei(nt+ arti)u.ates in the e5)e&tion0 this e5)e&tion is not an
?" ?< ?? ?4
A.e5is de 3o)Due4i..e0 Democracy in America! The Complete and :na3ridged0 < 4o.s20 trans2 Henr+ Ree4e 6Me1 YorkP ,antam C.assi)0 <===70 AB>2 A(am-en0 2omo Sacer0 >/"=2 E2R2 Ankersmit0 Political #epresentation 6:tan!ordP :tan!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <==<70 "B?/C=2 Arendt0 /n #evolution2
"4
a-stra)t theor+ o! )haos &re)edin( order0 -ut it &oints to the histori)a..+ )on)rete situation that )omes a-out on)e order is sus&ended2 3he e5)e&tion re&resents the &ermanent.+ &resent as&e)t o! &o.iti)s0 as the rea.isation o! the &ermanent &re)ariousness o! .i!e2 3he irru&tion o! )risis and the dis.o)ation o! e5istin( stru)tures is0 in anthro&o.o(i)a. terms0 a .imina. situation0 1here the si(ni!i)ant u&hea4a. o! e4er+da+ .i!e introdu)es a dramati) dimension on a so)ia. s)a.e2 ?@ As the &ath/-reakin( 1orks o! Mi)he. *o-r+ and Wi..iam :e1e.. ha4e ar(ued0 su)h O)on%un)tura. stru)tures; or O!.uid )on%un)tures; are not sim&.+ )haoti) -ut sho1 )ertain re(u.arities o! thou(ht0 -eha4iour0 and s+m-o.i) Ostru)tures;2?B *ramati) e5&erien)es are not s+non+mous 1ith anar)h+ or so)ia. 4oid -ut are in themse.4es stru)tured and inte..i(i-.e0 and )an -e ana.+sed on their o1n terms2 A )entra. )on)ern !or a ne1 s)ien)e o! &o.iti)s0 as su((ested -+ 3o)Due4i..e0 Voe(e.in0 or Le!ort0 1as to sho1 that the e5isten)e o! &o.iti)a. so)ieties shou.d not -e measured -+ )om&arin( order and disorder2?C Eor these theorists0 the histor+ o! human arran(ements has not -een a series o! 4ariations in s)ienti!i)a..+ measur/ a-.e out)omes -ut an o&en/ended &ro)ess o! tensions -et1een order and disorder0 -et1een truth and the de!ormation o! rea.it+2 Histor+ is not a )ontinuous stream o! meanin(!u. e5isten)e -ut s)attered 1ith si(ni!i)ant disru&tions0 1here meanin(!u. e5isten)e0 truth0 and the sense o! rea.it+ are de!ormed2 O'5isten)e has the stru)ture o! the in/-et1een0 o! the 8.atoni) metaxy0 and i! an+thin( is )onstant in the histor+ o! mankind it is the .an(ua(e o! tension -et1een .i!e and death0 immorta.it+ and morta./ it+0 &er!e)tion and im&er!e)tion0 time and time.essnessR -et1een order and disorder0 truth and untruth0 sense and sense.essness o! e5isten)e2; ?A :o)ia. and indi4idua. .i!e &ro)eed some1here -et1een the ima(inar+ e5tremes o! a-so.ute order and )haoti)0 o!ten anar)hi) )on!.i)t2 Whi.e there is an end.ess tension -et1een the t1o e5tremes as &otentia. s)ena/ rios0 there is a.so remarka-.e simi.arit+ as re(ards the anthro&o.o(i)a. -asis o! su)h disru&tions2
?@ ?B
?C
?A
Vi)tor 3urner0 /n the "dge o$ the 8ush 63u)sonP 9ni4ersit+ o! AriIona 8ress0 ">A@70 <"@/<"2 Mi)he. *o-r+0 Sociologie des crises politi7ues 68arisP 89E0 ">AB7R Wi..iam :e1e..0 OHistori)a. '4ents as 3rans!ormations o! :tru)turesP In4entin( Re4o.ution at the ,asti..e;0 Theory and Society0 <@ 6">>B70 A4"/A"2 3o)Due4i..e0 Democracy in America0 AR 'ri) Voe(e.in0 The ;ew Science o$ Politics! An Introduction 6Chi)a(o and LondonP 9ni4ersit+ o! Chi)a(o 8ress0 ">AC7R Le!ort0 "ssais sur le politi7ue0 <=2 'ri) Voe(e.in0 The Collected 0orks0 4o.2 UII0 Pu3lished "ssays *+---*+6< 6,aton Rou(e and LondonP Louisiana :tate 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>=70 O'Dui4a.en)es o! '5&erien)e and :+m-o.iIation in Histor+;0 "">2
"@
Criti)a. e4ents and their s+m-o.isations 8o.iti)a. trans!ormations hin(e on the !.uid )on%un)ture o! )riti)a. e4ents as the+ o))ur throu(h the simu.taneous emer(en)e o! )onstitutiona. order and the )on)ea.ment o! the method o! its esta-.ishment2 *es&ite their &otentia..+ destru)ti4e e.ements0 e5traordinar+ re4o.utionar+ situations are there!ore not on.+ interru&tions o! &ea)e!u. order -ut the+ a.so )reate interna. !or)es that 1i.. e4entua..+ sustain a ne1 order2 An+ authoritati4e and )onstituti4e a)t o! !oundation is -ound to re4erse )u.tura. re&resen/ tations0 .e(itimate meanin(s0 and the &s+)ho.o(+ o! &u-.i) o&inion2 3hese &ro)esses o! arti)u.ation are re.e4ant !or demo)ratisation0 as the+ them/ se.4es )reate s+m-o.s0 -e.ie!s0 and meanin(s0 1hi)h -e)ome dis)ursi4e &atterns that sustain .e(itima)+2 In man+ 1a+s0 institutions are .ike med/ i)ines2 3heir su))ess de&ends not on.+ on their Dua.it+ or dosa(e -ut a.so on the nature o! the -od+ the+ are a&&.ied to2 3he+ )an su))eed in the .on( term on.+ i! the -od+ a))e&ts the )ure2 3o so.4e the &ro-.em o! )onstituti4e !oundations0 1e need to a))e&t that the notion o! )onstitution har-ours a dou-.e meanin(2 Eirst0 it )on)erns the resu.ts o! su)h )onstituti4e a)ts0 i2e2 )onstitution in the sense o! a 1ritten do)ument and the ru.es and .a1s emanatin( !rom it2?> :e)ond0 it )an re!er to a )onstituti4e a)t that &re)edes a re(ime and )onstitutes a &eo&.e as a &o.iti)a. )ommunit+2 In the understandin( o! 3homas 8aine0 the Ameri)an Constitution 1as not the a)t o! a (o4ern/ ment0 -ut o! a &eo&.e )onstitutin( a (o4ernment2 3he 1riters o! the Ameri)an Constitution understood themse.4es as !ounders re.+in( u&on the authorit+ o! their a)t o! !oundation2 Whi.e the main &ro-.em o! the !ounders o! the 9nited :tates 1as not a-out ho1 to .imit &o1er -ut ho1 to esta-.ish it0 the Eren)h re4o.utionaries 1ere )on)erned 1ith dis/ mant.in( a !euda. order2 3here!ore0 )onstitutiona. &rin)i&.es su)h as the *e).aration o! the Ri(hts o! Man and the CitiIen &ostu.ated ri(hts that did not indi)ate the .imitations o! .a1!u. (o4ernment -ut 1ere its 4er+ !oundation2 3he )onstitutiona. &ro)ess in Eran)e -et1een "CA> and "C>" 1as )on!ronted 1ith the di!!i)u.t+ o! ho1 to make inte..i(i-.e a ne1 )onstitution !or a -od+/&o.iti) that had a natura. )onstitution2 4= Moreo4er0 i! the so4erei(nt+ o! the nation )ou.d )reate a )onstitution de novo0 )ou.d it not -e a-o.ished and re&.a)ed on the (rounds o! the same &rin)i&.eQ
Arendt0 /n #evolution0 "4</@2 Feith Mi)hae. ,aker0 OConstitution;0 in Eran)Kois Euret and Mona OIou!0 eds20 Dictionnaire criti7ue de la #4volution 'ran=aise( Institutions et cr4ations 68arisP E.ammarion0 ">><70 "C>/<=@2
?> 4=
"B
3he nation )an -e desi(nated as the u.timate sour)e o! )onstituent &o1er on.+ i! there is a )redi-.e re)i&ro)it+ -et1een .eaders and !o..o1ers2 3his )annot -e a)hie4ed 1ithout the di!!usion o! demo)rati) )ons)ious/ ness into the so)ia. rea.m2 ,e!ore demo)ra)+ is institutiona.ised0 the O&eo&.e; must a)Duire a se.!/)ons)iousness that &o1er emanates !rom it and is e5er)ised -+ it 6or its re&resentati4es7 !or the (ood o! the 1ho.e )ommunit+2 As the idea o! &o&u.ar (o4ernment rests u&on an un)onstitu/ tiona. a)t0 it must -e ena)ted -+ a s&e)i!i) t+&e o! su-%e)ti4it+2 3he s+m-o.ism -+ 1hi)h a )o..e)ti4e )ommunit+ a))e&ts re&resentation o! its &o1er reDuires that indi4idua.s re)o(nise the Other as a !e..o1 human -ein(2 3o m+ kno1.ed(e0 the most !ar/rea)hin( theor+ that tries to e5&.ain the !oundation o! )u.ture and so)ia. order -+ )onne)tin( the moda.ities o! a histori)a..+ rea. 4io.ent )risis 1ith a (eneratin( &rin)i&.e o! )o..e)ti4e s+m-o.ism that is )onstant.+ hidden on)e )u.ture and so)iet+ are insti/ tuted is ReneG Hirard;s mimeti) theor+2 4" A))ordin( to Hirard0 )u.tura. and so)ia. order is -ui.t u&on the ritua.isation o! a sa)ri!i)ia. uniDue 4i)tim2 :o)ia. order emanates !rom an e5)e&tiona..+ traumati) e5&erien)e 1here0 in the a-sen)e o! -indin( .e(a. re.ations0 the e5&u.sion o! -are .i!e and the )o..e)ti4e re)o(nition o! res&onsi-i.it+ !or this a)t &ro4ide the (enerati4e &rin)i&.e2 Mimeti) theor+ is )on(ruous 1ith the )entra. idea o! modern &o.iti)a. theor+ that 4io.en)e and the !ear o! 4io.en)e are (ener/ ati4e o! order2 3he mimeti) h+&othesis0 ho1e4er0 does not assume man;s innate.+ dan(erous nature -ut )on%e)tures that mimeti) -eha4iour is the anthro&o.o(i)a. )onstant in human re.ations2 9nder )onditions o! .e(a..+ (uaranteed and )u.tura..+ sustained order0 mimeti) re.ations are un)on/ s)ious &ro)esses o! imitation that ha4e a O&ositi4e; )a&a)it+ !or the de4e./ o&ment o! )u.ture0 edu)ation0 and kno1.ed(e2 3heir One(ati4e; )a&a)it+ arises !rom the -ound.essness o! a)tion0 1here .e(a. -oundaries and hierar)hi)a. so)ia. di!!erentiations are sus&ended2 3he re)i&ro)it+ o! a )+).e o! 4en(ean)e and re&risa.s is -rou(ht to an end -+ the murder0 death0 or e5&u.sion o! a sa)ri!i)ia. 4i)tim u&on 1hi)h the )ommunit+ unanimous.+ un-urdens their (ui.t2 3he &h+si)a. annihi.ation o! a 4i)tim -e)omes the (uarantee !or &ea)e and sta-i.it+ in the )ommunit+2 3he e5&u.sion o! the s)a&e(oat is not a mere m+tho.o(i)a. narrati4e -ut a )on)rete murder that -e)omes a so)ia. &ra)ti)e in the ritua.ised )om/ memoration o! this ori(ina. unanimit+24<
4"
4<
RenV Hirard0 >iolence and the Sacred 6,a.timoreP Johns Ho&kins 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">CC70 A"R Hirard0 Things 2idden Since the 'oundation o$ the 0orld 6,a.timoreP Johns Ho&kins 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">AC70 4=2 RenV Hirard0 The Scapegoat 6,a.timoreP Johns Ho&kins 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">A<72
"C
Mimeti) theor+ shares Ho--es;s rea.ism a-out the aso)ia. nature o! man and re%e)ts Aristot.e;s ).aim a-out his natura. so)ia-i.it+2 It is0 ho1/ e4er0 )riti)a. o! the assum&tion o! a h+&otheti)a. state o! nature2 A.thou(h Ho--es;s -io(ra&hi)a. -a)k(round is the e5&erien)e o! disso.ution o! order in the 'n(.ish )i4i. 1ar0 his theor+ o! &o.iti)s is not -ased on histori)a. e5&erien)e -ut on a &hi.oso&hi)a. )onstru)tion0 1hi)h )on/ )ei4es o! 4io.en)e as an o-%e)ti4e !or)e in a h+&otheti)a. state o! nature2 Mimeti) 4io.en)e0 ho1e4er0 re!ers to the )on)rete e5treme e5&erien)es o! -.oodshed0 hatred0 and 4en(ean)e0 1ith their rea. e!!e)ts on -odies0 minds0 and memories24? At the ori(in o! the &a)i!i)ation o! so)iet+ is a Ostrate(+; to e5&e. 4io.en)e that emanates !rom the )entre o! the )om/ munit+ that .i4ed throu(h the a)t o! 4io.en)e2 3he )onseDuen)es o! mimeti) ri4a.r+ im&.+ that the so)ia. !oundations o! order )an -e e5&ressed -+ ana.o(+ to Fant;s unso)ia. so)ia-i.it+0 a))ordin( to 1hi)h the de4e.o&ment o! human )a&a)ities is dri4en -+ indi4idua. )om&etition !or honour0 &o1er0 or &ro&ert+ 1ith the aim o! se)urin( status and re)o(nition2 44 3he re)i&ro)it+ o! 4io.en)e -et1een humans0 the emotiona. rea)tions to su)h 4io.en)e0 and the un)ons)ious &ro)esses o! e5).usion and inte(ration are a.. )ondu)i4e to the &rodu)tion o! )o..e)ti4e s+m-o.ism that sustains order2 Mu)h .ike Hirard0 Ho--es )onstru)ts so)ia. order !rom the &er)e&tion o! the 4i)tim0 not o! the &er&etrator2 Yet Ho--es;s state o! nature is not a histori)a. o))urren)e0 1hi)h 1ou.d -e )hrono.o(i)a..+ &rior to the state0 -ut a &rin)i&.e -ased on a thou(ht e5&eriment that &ro%e)ts 1hat 1ou.d ha&&en on)e this state is disso.4ed24@ In a Ho--esian 4ie10 the autonom+ o! indi4idua. &re!eren/ )es0 as ).aimed -+ di!!erent 4ersions o! demo)rati) indi4idua.ism0 is not a!!e)ted -+ emotions0 -.oodshed0 and 4en(ean)e2 3he state o! nature is a thou(ht e5&eriment0 1here the iso.ation o! indi4idua.s does not a..o1 !or mutua. re)o(nition0 )om&assion0 or re)on)i.iation2 Ho--es;s dee& insi(hts into the &s+)ho.o(+ o! man0 there!ore0 1ere a)hie4ed at the e5&ense o! a -ias in his anthro&o.o(+2 In his s)athin( )ritiDue o! human &assions0 Ho--es made human anthro&o.o(+ 1or.d/immanent -+ e.e4at/ in( the disease o! se.!/)on)eit and &ride into the &rimar+ )hara)teristi) o! the indi4idua.2 Whi.e Au(ustine had distin(uished -et1een the amor Dei and the amor sui0 Ho--es;s so.ution !o)used on the iso.ated indi4idua. 1ho is not oriented to1ards a )ommon &ur&ose or )o..e)ti4e (ood -ut
Eor the (enea.o(+ o! the )on)e&t )risis0 es&e)ia..+ a-out ho1 'n.i(htenment thou(ht e).i&sed the e5&erientia. rea.it+ o! )risis0 see Reinhart Fose..e)k0 Criti7ue and Crisis! "nlightenment and the Pathogenesis o$ odern Society 6O5!ordP ,er( 8u-.ishers0 ">AA72 44 Immanue. Fant0 OIdea !or a 9ni4ersa. Histor+ 1ith a Cosmo&o.itan Intent;0 in Fant0 Perpetual Peace and /ther "ssays0 ed2 3ed Hum&hre+ 6Indiana&o.isP Ha)kett0 ">A?70 <>/4=2 4@ Ho--es0 De cive0 ed2 H2 Warrender 6O5!ordP O5!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">A?70 C>/A=2
4?
"A
moti4ated on.+ -+ his &assions2 In his mode.0 so)ia. and &o.iti)a. re.ations are a means !or the &ursuit o! se.!/&reser4ation -+ indi4idua.s as an a-so.ute end2 3he idea that indi4idua.s not +et in4o.4ed in so)ia. re.ations ori(ina..+ kno1 their o1n interests and the )onseDuen)es o! their )hoi)es0 ho1e4er0 seems to -e .o(i)a..+ in)oherent2 3his indi4idua.isti) theor+ o! so)ia. order does not e5&.ain ho1 se.!/&reser4ation as the )entra. interest o! the indi4idua. emer(es under )onditions in 1hi)h indi4idua.s are !undamenta..+ iso.ated !rom ea)h other2 Eor a so)ia. order to -e &ossi-.e0 indi4idua.s must !irst re)o(nise ea)h other;s 1orth o! -ein( &reser4ed2 :e.!/&reser4ation is a re.ationa. )on)e&t0 as 1e a.. need to see the 1orth o! our &reser4ation re)o(nised -+ other human -ein(s24B Whi.e in Ho--es;s %eviathan the so4erei(n is su-stantia..+ in).usi4e0 as he in)or&orates his su-%e)t as one &erson0 the o4era.. stru)ture o! the so)ia. )ontra)t 1orks on the -asis o! e5).usion2 It .ea4es the so4erei(n outside the re)i&ro)a. )ontra)t o! e4er+one 1ith e4er+one0 makin( this so)ia. )ontra)t a unit+ minus one2 In a simi.ar 4ein0 Rousseau;s idea o! a demo)ra)+ in a nation reDuires the &resen)e o! an enem+ as a &re)ondi/ tion !or a nationa. unit+ and indi4isi-i.it+2 :o)ia. )ontra)t theor+0 -+ ana.o(+ 1ith ).assi)a. m+ths0 !o..o1s the sa)ri!i)ia. .o(i) 1here-+ a 4i)tim is trans!i(ured -oth !or the 1orse as a s)a&e(oat to -e e5&e..ed and !or the -etter in terms o! -rin(in( &ea)e to the )ommunit+2 In the anthro&o.o(+ &ro4ided -+ mimeti) theor+0 the re)i&ro)it+ o! hatred0 4en(ean)e0 and murder )an -e o4er)ome -+ inter&retation2 Rather than to ritua.ise the )o..e)ti4e.+ a&&ro4ed (ui.t o! the 4i)tim0 indi4idua.s ma+ re)o(nise the 4i)tim;s inno)en)e2 In this )ase the &a)i!+in( )onseDuen)e o! ritua. is not in the )ommemoration o! the murder0 -ut in the )ommemoration o! the inno)en)e o! the 4i)tim2 A))ordin( to Hirard0 the Hos&e.s are the on.+ te5ts that un)o4er the me)hanisms u&on 1hi)h m+ths are -ased2 A 4i)tim -e)omes a sa)ri!i)ia. one not due to its &h+si)a. state -ut due to the meanin( as)ri-ed to this state2 3his inherent dem+tho.o(isation is due to the !a)t that the resurre)tion o! Jesus entai.ed a dissident mo4ement in the so)ia. 1or.d2 3he dissemination o! Christian do)trine throu(h the dis)i&.es insisted on the inno)en)e o! the 4i)tim and thus -roke the )ir).e o! ritua. sa)ri!i)e as the !oundation m+th o! )u.ture2 I! it had not -een !or this dissident mo4ement0 the death o! Jesus 1ou.d ha4e -e)ome %ust another m+thi)a. a))ount0 1hi)h 1ou.d ha4e assem-.ed the &er&etrators around the 4i)tim 1ho is -oth sa)ri!i)ed and di4inised2
4B
A.essandro 8iIIorno0 OOn the Indi4idua.isti) 3heor+ o! :o)ia. Order;0 in 8ierre ,ourdieu and James Co.eman0 eds20 Social Theory $or a Changing Society 6,ou.derP West4ie1 8ress0 ">>"70<"A/<"2
">
3he mimeti) )+).e o! 4en(ean)e and 4io.en)e dra1s &eo&.e to !o..o1 the )o..e)ti4e un)ons)ious dri4e to1ards &erse)ution0 denun)iation0 or 1it)h huntin(2 Yet histor+ &ro4ides mani!o.d e5am&.es 1here &eo&.e not on.+ a)t in &ursuit o! their se.!/interest and se.!/&reser4ation2 3he+ )an a.so a)t a(ainst their se.!/interest i! the+ are 1i..in( to sa)ri!i)e their &osition in so)iet+0 their &resti(e0 or e4en their .i!e !or the sake o! denoun)in( the sa)ri!i)ia. .o(i) in the name o! .i4in( in truth2 Histori)a..+0 !reedom )annot -e assumed as a )onstituted (i4en &rote)ted -+ so4erei(nt+ and the .a12 As Jan 8ato)Wka has su((ested0 !reedom is &ossi-.e on.+ as a 1ork o! )ons)ious/ ness that re.ies u&on e5&erien)es o! )ommunities o! !ate2 4C 3he dire)t )on!rontation 1ith the &re)ariousness o! .i!e in the !ront .ines o! a 1ar or in the &ersistent humi.iation -+ a tota.itarian re(ime e5&oses .i!e as unshe./ tered and un&rote)ted -+ the (uarantees o! the ru.e o! .a12 Ereedom )annot -e assumed to &re/e5ist unshe.tered .i!e -ut rather arises !rom the so.idarit+ o! the shakenP that is0 !rom those 1ho ha4e .earnt to )o&e 1ith &re)arious e5istentia. )onditions and to stand u& a(ainst them in a !ear.ess and determined manner2 Hen)e0 an inter&reti4e inDuir+ into demo)rat/ isation o! a (i4en &o.iti)a. order shou.d a4oid the !ata.ist tem&tation o! man;s su-ordination to state 4io.en)e as 1e.. as the idea.ist tem&tation o! seein( .i-era. demo)ra)+ as a de4e.o&menta. (oa.2 Rather0 it needs to &ro-.ematise ho1 )ommunities o! !ate make sense o! the un)onstitution/ a.it+ o! &o.iti)a. e5isten)e2 A&&roa)hin( the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+0 there!ore0 reDuires an en(a(ement 1ith e4ents in 1hi)h man+ o! the taken/!or/(ranted essentia.s o!demo)ra)+ su)h asso4erei(nt+0 ru.eo! .a10 or indi4idua. !reedom are not on.+ not (i4en -ut su-stantia..+ threatened2 Communities o! !ate )an &otentia..+ (i4e rise to Otraditions; 1ith a !u..+ de4e.o&ed identit+0 or e4en to Omo4ements;0 1hi)h are &o.iti)a..+ a)ti4e 1ithin histor+ and 1hose !uture -e)omes an e5&.i)it )on)ern o! its mem-ers2 4A 3he !ormation o! meanin( does not de&end on time.ess and trans/histori)a. s+m-o.s 1ith an un)han(ea-.e )ontent0 -ut rather emer(es as s+m-o.i) &ro)esses o! si(ni/ !i)ation that ma+ either &.a)ate or arouse mass &u-.i)s24> In 'ri) Voe(e.in;s 4ie10 s+m-o.isations o! e5&erien)es are attem&ts at makin( sense o! the un)ertaint+ o! e5isten)e -+ restorin( .e(itimate and meanin(!u. e5isten)e2 When stru)tura. )onstraints o! &o.iti)a. authorit+0 so)ia. )ontro.0 .e(a. order0 or tradition are 1eakened0 the )risis threatens the -asis o! human
4C 4A 4>
Jan 8ato)Wka0 2eretical "ssays in the Philosophy o$ 2istory0 ed2 James *odd 6Chi)a(o and La :a..eP O&en Court0 ">>B70 ?A/> and "?4/@2 :te!an Ross-a)h0 1nostic 0ars! The Cold 0ar in the Context o$ a 2istory o$ 0estern Spirituality 6'din-ur(hP 'din-ur(h 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>>70 "@2 8eter ,er(er and 3homas Lu)kmann0 The Social Construction o$ #eality 6London and Me1 YorkP 8en(uin ,ooks0 ">BB70 ""?2
<=
e5isten)e and demands an e5istentia. res&onse to it2 3here!ore0 the stud+ o! human arran(ements 1ith a 4ie1 to !a)ts0 data0 and e4ents in the e5terna. 1or.d is on.+ one im&ortant )om&onent o! O&o.iti)a. rea.it+;2 Human arran(ements are a.so a .itt.e 1or.d0 a )osmion0 i..uminated 1ith meanin( !rom 1ithin -+ the human -ein(s 1ho )ontinuous.+ )reate and -ear it as the mode and )ondition o! their se.!/rea.isation2 @= In )urrent usa(e0 s+m/ -o.s e4oke an im&ression o! -ein( re&resentati4e o! somethin( rea.0 turnin( them into a de)orati4e e.ement2 3he notion o! a mere.+ Os+m-o.i); a)t0 !or instan)e0 a&&ears to o&&ose it to the Orea.; e!!e)ts o! materia. !or)es2 :+m-o.isations0 ho1e4er0 do not &re/e5ist a)tion -ut are en(endered -+ histori)a. e5&erien)es2 :+m-o.isations stand !or0 e4oke0 or -rin( into -ein( somethin( e.se0 somethin( a-sent2 3he+ denote a kind o! re.ationshi& 1here-+ )ertain )om&onents e5ist e.se1here -ut are )onne)ted 1ith others that are &resent2 Ori(ina..+0 the Hreek 1ord su((ested that a s+m-o. 1as a token0 the &resent ha.! o! a -roken )oin or meda.0 1hi)h &er!ormed its so)ia. !un)tion -+ re)a..in( the a-sent ha.! to 1hi)h it )ou.d ha4e -een &otentia..+ re)onne)ted2 3he 4er- sym3allein meant Oto tr+ an inter&reta/ tion0 to make a )on%e)ture --- to in!er !rom somethin( im&re)ise0 -e)ause in)om&.ete0 somethin( e.se that it su((ested0 e4oked0 re4ea.ed0 -ut did not )on4entiona..+ sa+;2@" :+m-o.isation is not a-out a (i4en meanin( that &re!i(ures the e5&eri/ en)eR it is the sear)h !or meanin( in e5istentia. un)ertaint+2 3akin( into a))ount the 4a(ueness0 .ooseness0 and &artia. Dua.it+ o! the re!eren)e0 s+m-o.isin( is Oan e5a)t re!eren)e to somethin( inde!inite;2 @< :+m-o.isation is a )u.tura..+ )reati4e a)t in res&onse to the means/to/end )onte5ts o! situationa. &remises0 1hen thinkers0 &o.iti)a. .eaders0 or so)ia. mo4e/ ments re!er to ea)h other in order to ).ari!+ their )on)erns to them/ se.4es and to others2 :+m-o.isations are meanin(!u. to )ontem&oraries in a 1a+ that o!ten )ontradi)ts the o-ser4er;s 4ie12 Conditions o! the harshest re&ression ma+ -e asso)iated 1ith !reedom0 1hereas &o.iti)a. .i-era.isation ma+ -e e5&erien)ed as &re)ariousness and un)ertaint+2 3he )ru)ia. &oint is not to &res)ri-e the out)omes o! re4o.utions0 1ars0 and transitions2 Rather0 &o.iti)a. inDuir+ shou.d maintain the o&en/endedness o! )omin( to terms 1ith )riti)a. &o.iti)a. e4ents2 8o.iti)a. )rises &rodu)e ne1 s+m-o.s in order to make sense o! the disru&tions o! a )ommunit+;s &o.iti)a. e5isten)e2 '4er+ a)t o! s+m-o.isation &uts these ne1 s+m-o.s at
@= @" @<
Voe(e.in0 The ;ew Science o$ Politics0 <C/4"2 *on Hande.man0 odels and irrors! Towards an Anthropology o$ Pu3lic "vents 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>=70 "</"?2 Hanna 8itkin0 The Concept o$ #epresentation 6,erke.e+P 9ni4ersit+ o! Ca.i!ornia 8ress0 ">BC70BC2
<"
risk0 in!.e)tin( the meanin(s o! su)h s+m-o.s or trans!ormin( them -+ the un)ertain )onseDuen)es o! &ra)ti)es2@? *emo)ratisation )an -e seen as a seDuen)e o! s+m-o.isations0 1ith a m+riad o! Duests !or a ne1 s+m-o.i) uni4erse0 1hi)h -oth &re)edes and !o..o1s ru&tures2 *emo)rati) trans!ormations de&end on three dimensions o! so)ia..+ mediated dramati) a)tion and the !ormation o! mean/ in( as &art o! e5istentia. re&resentation2 @4 Eirst0 there is the institutiona. !orma.isation 6mise en $orme70 1hi)h su((ests that the disso.utions o! &o.iti)a. order not on.+ a!!e)t .a1 and institutions -ut a.so im&.+ the &o.iti)isation o! -are .i!e0 1here &eo&.e;s .i4es0 identities0 and re&resenta/ tions are at stake2 :e)ond0 there is the arti)u.ation o! meanin(!u. re.ations 6mise en sens70 1hi)h reDuires the su-ordination to authorit+ to -e a))e&/ ted0 trusted0 and .e(itimised -+ the &u-.i)2 '5istentia. re&resentation is the &re)ondition !or endo1in( &o.iti)a. &o1er 1ith a meanin(!u. ).aim to re&resent so)iet+ authoritati4e.+2 Eina..+0 there is the &er!ormati4e e.e/ ment in the re&resentation o! &o1er 6mise en sc?ne70 1hi)h su((ests that a &o.iti)a. so)iet+ )annot maintain its e5isten)e 1ithout re&resentin( the idea o! its institution -+ a ran(e o! s+m-o.s and their ritua.isation2 A.thou(h the O)to-er Re4o.ution re&resents the -e(innin( o! modern Russia0 its meanin( has -een the o-%e)t o! )onsidera-.e historio(ra&hi)a. and &o.iti)a. )ontention2 :ta.in;s (oa. to )reate a so)ia. and e)onomi) -asis attuned to the ideo.o(i)a. ).aims o! Mar5ism/Leninism entai.ed a ru&ture 1ith the m+th o! the ,o.she4ik Re4o.ution2 Eor 3rotsk+0 :ta.inism 1as a )ounter/re4o.ution0 as 1as the Hun(arian re4o.ution !or the :o4iets2 A.thou(h the s+stem the ,o.she4iks esta-.ished in the name o! OOthe di)tatorshi& o! the &ro.etariat;; 1as a re&ressi4e one0 the use o! this s+m-o.i) !ormu.a im&.ied that a )ommunist so)iet+ 1as0 instead0 demo/ )rati)2 3he s+m-o. o! the 8eo&.e/as/One / as the )arrier o! &o.iti)a. de4e.o&ment0 modernisation0 and the dream o! the rea.m o! !reedom !rom o&&ression / denied interna. di4isions2 A.thou(h the )ommunists a&&ro&riated the Hreat Eather.and War as a s+m-o. !or a nationa. re4o/ .ution0 the so)ia. e5&erien)e o! the :e)ond Wor.d War in the :o4iet 9nion !or .ar(e &arts o! the &o&u.a)e )ame do1n to a !irst Ode/ :ta.inisation;0 re&.a)in( re&ression 1ith a sense o! se.!/determination2 3he Co.d War di4ided the 1or.d in a Mani)haean s&irit0 su&&orted -+ t1o o4erar)hin( )o..e)ti4e s+m-o.isations0 1hi)h endo1ed &o.iti)a. ru.e 1ith meanin( on the (rounds o! the m+ths o! tota.itarianism and o! anti/ !as)ism2 Whi.e the t1o t+&es o! &o.iti)a. s+stems 1ere anta(onisti) in their
@? @4
Wi..iam H2 :e1e.. %nr0 O3he Con)e&t o! Cu.ture;0 in L+nn Hunt and Vi)toria ,onne..0 eds20 8eyond the Cultural Turn 6,erke.e+P 9ni4ersit+ o! Ca.i!ornia 8ress0 ">>>70 @"2 Le!ort0 "ssais sur le politi7ue0 <A</?2
<<
!un)tiona. set/u& and mora. !oundations0 this non/)ommuni)ation 1as )ru)ia. -oth !or the se.!/!ashionin( o! the .i-era. demo)rati) mode. in the West and !or the &s+)ho.o(i)a. attra)tion demo)ra)+ a)Duired in the 'ast2 A.thou(h de/:ta.inisation in :o4iet Russia and the )ha..en(es to )ommun/ ist &o1er in the re4o.utions o! ">@B0 ">BA0 or ">A= !ai.ed to dis)ontinue )ommunist &o1er0 the+ (enerated a &o1er!u. )ounter/s+m-o.ism that 1as to denoun)e the sa)ri!i)ia. .o(i) o! )ommunist &o1er2 *emo)ra)+ as a &ro)ess o! meanin(/!ormation 3he notion o! s+m-o.i) arti)u.ation re!ers to nothin( .ess than the histor/ i)a. &ro)ess -+ 1hi)h &o.iti)a. so)ieties / the nations0 the em&ires / rise and !a..0 as 1e.. as the e4o.utions and re4o.utions -et1een the t1o termina. &oints2 I! e5istentia. )risis is the e5&erientia. -a)k(round to the arti)u.ation o! &o.iti)a. so)iet+0 &o.iti)a. trans!ormations reDuire a stud+ o! the )onditions o! re&resentation0 1here a &eo&.e authorise re&resenta/ ti4es to a)t !or them2 In order to -e authorised to a)t0 a re&resentati4e needs to re.+ u&on a )redi-.e re)i&ro)it+ 1ith those 1ho )on!erred this authorisation2@@ An e5&erientia. a&&roa)h to demo)ratisation )om&.e/ ments a .e(a.ist/&ositi4ist understandin( o! demo)ra)+ as a )onstitutiona. !orm2 In terms o! a..e(ian)e and .e(itima)+0 there!ore0 re&resentation reDuires su)h a )on(ruit+ &rior to its .e(a..+ or )onstitutiona..+ en!or)ed a)t2 In terms o! its s+m-o.i) &o1er0 ho1e4er0 re&resentation (oes -e+ond the )onstitutiona. sense2 It reDuires that &o1er must -e a))e&ted su-/ %e)ti4e.+ as re&resentati4e in the e5istentia. sense o! rea.isin( the idea o! the institution2 3his -ook )om&.ements the standard 4ie1 that )on)ei4es demo)rat/ isation &ro)esses as )hara)terised -+ the re4o.utionar+ e!!e)ts o! -ureau/ )rati) rationa.isation and institutiona. di!!erentiation2 @B In institutiona. a))ounts0 the re4o.utionar+ !or)e )omes !rom outside0 as it rests u&on te)hni)a. means that sha&e the order o! thin(s most &ro!ound.+2 As a )onseDuen)e0 rationa. (oa./settin( modi!ies and in)reases the )onditions o! ada&ta-i.it+ o! human -ein(s to the e5terna. 1or.d2 Charismati) authorit+0 on the other hand0 )onsists in -e.ie!s o! re4e.ation and heroi) )reati4it+2 :u)h -e.ie!s re4o.utionise !rom inside as the+ (ras& the s&irit o! human -ein(s -e!ore sha&in( institutiona. order and the materia. 1or.d2 A)ts o! resistan)e -+ indi4idua.s or (rou&s ma+ re4o.utionise0 in that the+ make )redi-.e ).aims !or e5istentia. re&resentation2 3he o&&osition -et1een e5terna. and interna. s&heres is not 1ithin the &erson or the
@@ @B
Voe(e.in0 The ;ew Science o$ Politics0 ??2 Ma5 We-er0 0irtscha$t und 1esellscha$t0 @th edn 63u-in(enP Mohr0 ">A=70 B@C/A2
<?
e5&erien)es o! the )reator o! ideas or deeds2 Rather0 the di!!eren)es are in the moda.ities o! ho1 the+ are interna..+ a&&ro&riated -+ those 1ho are dominated and .ed0 ho1 the+ are .i4ed throu(h2 In a master.+ dis)ussion o! the anthro&o.o(i)a. !orms o! the )on)e&t o! O&o1er;0 Heinri)h 8o&itI disti..ed !our !undamenta. )onditions2 @C 3he !irst )ondition is the &o1er o! a)tion0 -+ 1hi)h man in!.i)ts in%uries and remains 4u.nera-.e to &h+si)a. atta)ks2 3he se)ond t+&e is instrumenta. &o1er0 1hen the threat o! &unishment and &romise o! re1ard )an -e used to )ontro. -eha4iour or esta-.ish &ermanent su-ordination2 Yet0 the )a&a)it+ to im&ose one;s 1i.. on others -+ instrumenta. &o1er has natura. .imits2 '4en tota. or a-so.ute &o1er )an -e )onstrained -+ a)ts o! mart+r/ dom or t+ranni)ide2 3he indi4idua. 6and sometimes )o..e)ti4e7 de!ian)e o! the &ressure to )om&.+ 1ith )ommunist ritua.s0 !or instan)e0 &osed a )on)rete threat to in)um-ents o! a &o1er!u. state2 3he third )ondition re.ies u&on the distin)tion -et1een Oe5terna.; and Ointerna.; &o1er2 Interna. &o1er does not need the e5terna.isations o! .e(a. or mi.itar+ threats0 -ut en!or)es )on!ormit+ in situations 1here a)tions )annot -e )ontro..ed2 3his t+&e o! &o1er re.ies u&on the anthro&o.o(i)a. need !or orientation0 the need !or +ardsti)ks 6 a-sta3s-8edur$tigkeit7 or markers o! )ertaint+2 '4en i! this t+&e o! &o1er has .ost its trans)endenta. .e(itima/ tion0 the se)u.ar state has &rodu)ed markers o! )ertaint+ su)h as the -ordered territor+0 1hi)h )ontains the nation0 or demo)ra)+0 re!.e)tin( the eDua.it+ o! human -ein(s2 ,e+ond the &o.iti)a. im&a)t o! e5terna. markers o! )ertaint+0 Ointerna.; &o1er a.so seeks )on!irmation throu(h re)o(nition2 3he !ourth )ondition dra1s on the &o1er o! data/settin(0 s+stemati) )ontro.0 and the modi!i)ation o! the natura. 1or.d !or human &ur&oses2 ,+ )han(in( the natura. en4ironment !or our &ur&oses0 1e e5er)ise &o1er o4er nature -ut a.so o4er humans2 8.annin( and en(ineer/ in( determine )onditions o! .i!e0 s&a)es o! !reedom0 and )onstraints on &eo&.e2 An+ ne1 te)hno.o(i)a. arte!a)t adds a !urther rea.it+ to human .i!e0 in!.uen)in( &eo&.e not mere.+ -+ o-%e)ts or materia. )onstru)tions0 -ut &rimari.+ throu(h the &rodu)er;s 1i.. to e5er)ise &o1er o4er the )onditions o! human .i!e2 Modern &o.iti)a. s&irit has -een )hara)terised -+ a &o1er!u. mer(er o! the third and !ourth )onditions 1ith attem&ts to rationa..+ desi(n entire s+stemi) orders that 1ou.d re&.a)e e5istin( rea./ ities 1ith -etter ones2 @A A.thou(h the desi(n o! modern &o.iti)s re.ied hea4i.+ on the -ureau)rati)/s)ienti!i) data/settin( &o1er0 this t+&e o! &o1er needs s+m-o.i) markers o! )ertaint+ to sustain it2
@C @A
Heinri)h 8o&itI0 Phanomene der acht 63u-in(enP Mohr0 ">><70 ""/?>2 N+(munt ,auman0 odernity and the 2olocaust 6Itha)aP Corne.. 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">A>72
<4
A &ro-.ematisation o! )ommunism and demo)ra)+ hin(es on the re.a/ tionshi& -et1een the a)ts o! s+m-o.isation that )reated &o.iti)a. authorit+ around the sa)ri!i)ia. .o(i) o! )ommunist &o1er and those s+m-o.isations that e5&osed them as de!ormin( .i!e0 truth0 and rea.it+2 '4en i! re4o.utionar+ )ha..en(es !ai.ed to &rodu)e a demo)rati) Oout)ome;0 the+ -eDueathed a &o.iti)a. s+m-o.ism0 )ommuni)ati4e memor+0 and )i4i) )ons)iousness2 I! .ooked at throu(h the .ens o! a theor+ o! re(ime )onso.idation in (enera.0 the sta-i.it+ o! the :o4iet/t+&e re(imes seemed to -e as &re)arious as an+ )onstru)tion o! a &o.iti)a. -od+ in the em&iri)a. 1or.d2 @> *issiden)e0 !or instan)e0 1as &rimari.+ neither a &o.iti)a. &hi.oso&h+ o! demo)rati) .i-/ era.isation nor an o&&osition strate(+ 1ith a distin)ti4e &o.iti)a. a(enda2 It 1as an e5istentia. res&onse to the atta)k on the -asi)s o! human .i-ert+ and the &o1er.essness in!.i)ted on so)ieties -+ :o4iet mi.itar+ inter4en/ tion and re&ressi4e &o.iti)s2 Re%e)tin( the )o..e)ti4e .o(i) o! sha&in( the )ons)iousness o! the masses -+ or(anisin( them institutiona..+0 it .e!t it u& to the indi4idua. to de4e.o& his su-%e)ti4it+ as an a)t o! mora. &er!e)tion/ ism0 not o! &o.iti)a. &artisanshi&2 B= *issiden)e .a)ked a re4o.utionar+ uto&ia and renoun)ed &o1er &o.iti)s -ut )ou.d dra1 on so)ia. and )u./ tura. memor+ o! !reedom0 so.idarit+0 and &o&u.ar se.!/a!!irmation2 In )on%un)tion 1ith the &s+)ho.o(i)a. a&&ea. o! the West0 dissiden)e &ro/ moted the e5istentia. a.ternati4e o! an indi4idua.;s re%e)tin( the s+stem -+ his or her .i!e/)ondu)t and the O)are o! the sou.;2B" Eormu.ated as a .on(/standin( di)hotom+ in &o.iti)a. thou(ht0 the s+m-o.i) arti)u.ation o! demo)ra)+ rests u&on a Orea.ist; stand&oint that en(a(es in the su-stan)e o! the -rokenness o! &o.iti)a. rea.it+0 1here )on!.i)tin( 4ie1s on &o.iti)a. e5isten)e are not mediated -+ the )ertainties o! )onstitutiona..+ (uaranteed and &redi)ta-.e &o.iti)a. re.ations2 As Ma)hia4e..i made ).ear0 rea.ism is not )on!ined to the inter&.a+ o! !or)es -ut reDuires re!.e5i4it+ -+ .eaders in their attem&t to a)Duire and maintain &o1er2 In su)h a 4ie10 the )onstitution o! demo)ra)+ is not on.+ a Duestion o! 4io.en)e and ne)essit+ -ut a.so o! )ons)iousness0 .i!e/)ondu)t0 and s&iritua. .eadershi&2 3heoreti)a..+0 this -ook su((ests that an+ mirrored o&&osition -et1een )ommunism and demo)ra)+ is !.a1ed2 Communism 1as not on.+ an anti/ demo)rati) re(ime -ased on a mi.itar+ ma)hine0 -ureau)rati) re&ression0
@>
B=
B"
:te&hen Hanson0 O*e!inin( *emo)rati) Conso.idation;0 in Ri)hard Anderson et a.20 Postcommunism and the Theory o$ Democracy 68rin)etonP 8rin)eton 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <=="70"<B/@"2 Va).a4 Ha4e.0 O3he 8o1er o! the 8o1er.ess;0 in John Feane0 ed20 The Power o$ the Powerless! Citi)ens Against the State in "astern "urope 6LondonP Hut)hinson and Co20 ">A@70<?/>B2 8ato)Wka0 2eretical "ssays0 C>/""A2
<@
the destru)tion o! meanin(!u. ties and re.ations -et1een indi4idua.s0 a )ontem&t !or human -ein(s0 and a deterministi) 4ie1 o! histor+2 Its a-so.ute &o.iti)s a.so (enerated a )i4i.isation and a 1a+ o! .i!e0 in 1hi)h &eo&.e had to make sense o! their e5isten)e 1ith 1hat 1as there2 Histori)a..+0 the O)to-er Re4o.ution0 the emer(en)e o! the Co.d War0 the rise o! dissiden)e0 and the disarti)u.ation o! )ommunism are e5treme.+ )om&.e50 hi(h.+ di4erse0 and )ontested &o.iti)a. &henomena in their o1n ri(ht2 Hi4en the in!initude o! e5istentia. %ud(ements in an end.ess num-er o! e4ents0 it 1ou.d -e !uti.e to ).aim that an+ e4ent has a de!inite !ina. meanin( !or di!!erent (rou&s or so)ieties at di!!erent times in histor+2B< 3here!ore0 it 1ou.d -e a-surd to ar(ue that the arti)u.ation o! ,o.she4ik &o1er 1as sim&.+ Oundemo)rati); or the arti)u.ation o! dissi/ den)e sim&.+ Odemo)rati);2 3he Co.d War not on.+ entai.ed the di4ision o! a Otota.itarian; 'ast and a Odemo)rati); West0 -ut a.so endo1ed the )on)e&t o! demo)ra)+ 1ith a Duasi/ma(i)a. attra)tion2 3he )ommon ).assi!i)ation into O&re/)ommunist;0 O)ommunist;0 and O&ost/)ommunist; &asts redu)es .e(a)ies to stru)tura. )onstraints that rest u&on o-so.ete mode.s o! &o.iti)a. de4e.o&ment2 *emo)ratisation as meanin(/!ormation understands the &ast not as a .e(a)+0 1hi)h 1ou.d &re)ede a ne1 sta(e o! &o.iti)a. de4e.o&ment2 An+ stud+ o! a .e(a)+ not on.+ risks turnin( into a mora.isti) )rusade -ased u&on a ).ear di4idin( .ine -et1een 1hat is (ood and 1hat is to -e )ondemned0 -ut a.so studies )ontem&orar+ &ro-.ems o! %usti)e0 truth0 and mora.it+ -+ sim&.+ -.amin( the O&ast;2 A.thou(h )ommunism annihi.ated the &ast -+ or(anised !or/ (ettin(0 )ha..en(es to )ommunist &o1er remained sour)es o! resistan)e and s+m-o.ised a Duest !or truth and meanin( as 1e.. as as&irations !or !reedom2 A.ternati4e memories o! di!!erent O&asts; 1ere so)ia..+ and )u.tura..+ a4ai.a-.e and &ro4ed in!.uentia. in arti)u.atin( the )ommunit+ o! the O&eo&.e;2 :imi.ar.+0 )ommunism;s institutiona.isation o! uto&ia esta-.ished the authorit+ o! an ima(inar+ Ose)ond; rea.it+2 Communism &romoted m+thi)a. rea.ities / su)h as Oenem+;0 the O)orre)t .ine;0 and the &ros&e)ti4e !uture transition to an idea. state o! !u.. !reedom / into markers o! )ertaint+2 In order to o4er)ome this ima(inar+ rea.it+ o! a !uture &aradise0 the indi4idua.isation o! .i!e/)ondu)t and a s+m-o.ism that 1ou.d stren(then the )i4i) s&irit o! the )itiIenr+ 1ere reDuired2 Con)e&tua. histor+ 68egri$$sgeschichte7 is )a&a-.e o! ).ari!+in( the mu.ti/ &.e strati!i)ation o! meanin( des)endin( !rom )hrono.o(i)a..+ se&arate &eriods2 ,e+ond a stri)t a.ternation o! dia)hron+ and s+n)hron+ it re.ates to the simu.taneit+ o! the non/)ontem&oraneous2 It ).aims that the histori)a.
B<
Ma5 We-er0 /n the ethodology o$ the Social Sciences0 trans2 and ed2 'd1ard A2 :hi.s and Henr+ A2 Ein)h 6H.en)oe0 ILP Eree 8ress o! H.en)oe0 ">4>70 CA2
<B
de&th o! a )on)e&t is not identi)a. 1ith the )hrono.o(i)a. su))ession o! its meanin(s2 Rather0 the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+ / des&ite numerous in!.uen)es !rom Ooutside; / has -een0 to an im&ortant e5tent0 a Duest !or meanin( and se.!/(roundin( in res&onse to traumati) e5&erien)es O1ithin; )ommunism2 3rans!ormati4e e5&erien)es in the e4o.ution o! )ommunism modi!ied s+m-o.i) 1or.ds -+ arti)u.atin( a ne1 !orm o! re&resentation0 a ne1 s&irit0 -ut a.so -+ )han(in( attitudes to1ards the &ast and the !uture2 *emo)ratisation has -een a &ro)ess o! meanin(/ !ormation -+ 1hi)h the eradi)ation o! enemies throu(h rea. 4io.en)e is o4er1ritten throu(h a)ts that s+m-o.ise rather than destro+ enemies2 Whi.e )ommunism re.ied on hea4+ )oer)ion and the identi!i)ation o! the enem+0 the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+ re.ied on a)ts o! denoun)in( this sa)ri!i)ia. .o(i) o! 4io.ent re)i&ro)it+2 Eor the re)i&ro)it+ o! ritua.isti) 4io.en)e and !ear0 dissiden)e su-stituted mutua. re)o(nition and the a!!irmation o! the ina.iena-.e nature o! human .i!e and di(nit+2 3he )i4i.isin( &ro)ess o! demo)ratisation 1ou.d make the entire &eo&.e &ar/ ti)i&ate not in the e5).usion o! an enem+ -ut in the s+m-o.isation o! )ommunists as the OOther;2 A.thou(h it has -een histori)a..+ uniDue0 it has had su-stantia. simi.arities 1ith the histor+ o! demo)ratisation o! 1estern 'uro&e2 ,e!ore -e)omin( the most su))ess!u. and uni4ersa..+ a))e&ted )onstitutiona. !orm o! (o4ernment0 the rise o! demo)ra)+ in the Western 1or.d &ro4ided an ur(ent ho&e and a 4ision o! !reedom0 o!ten in o&&osition to the dominant &o.iti)a. authorit+ o! the times2 Methodo.o(i)a..+0 this -ook a-stains !rom the &ositi4isti) e!!ort to ada&t &o.iti)a. rea.it+ to the ).assi!i)ator+ )ertaint+ o! )auses0 sta(es0 or seDuen)es o! &o.iti)a. de4e.o&ment2 It is insu!!i)ient to see demo)ra)+ as an institutiona.ised !orm o! (o4ernment0 1hose rationa..+ -ased di4ision o! .a-our re.ies u&on essentia.ist assum&tions and a-stra)t &rin)i&.es su)h as demo)rati) indi4idua.ism or the ru.e o! .a12 Contrar+ to its re)ent trium&hant ad4an)e0 demo)ra)+ throu(hout the )enturies 1as more an o-%e)t o! &hi.oso&hi)a. inDuir+ than a s+stem o! &o.iti)a. &ra)ti)e2 A )om&arati4e t+&o.o(+ o! e5&erien)es does not ).aim to dis)o4er the roots or ori(ins o! )ommunist or demo)rati) Oidentit+;2 *es&ite the o-ser4er;s tenden)+ to assume &ro!ound intentions0 meanin(s0 and immuta-.e ne)essities at 1ork in histori)a. &ro)esses0 the true histori)a. sense )on!irms our e5isten)e amon( a &ro!usion o! entan(.ed e4ents 1ithout e5terna. .andmarks2 B? Contrar+ to Ohistori)ist; ar(uments a-out the uniDueness o! e4er+ so)iet+0 e4er+ )u.ture0 and e4er+ e&o)h0 this -ook &ro4ides (enera.ised &ro&ositions on the (rounds o! an ana.+ti)a.
B?
Eou)au.t0 OMietIs)he0 Henea.o(+0 Histor+;0 A"/>2
<C
)orre.ation o! histori)a..+ uniDue and )ir)umstantia. )ases2 Erom the &ers&e)ti4e o! a )om&arati4e t+&o.o(+ o! e5&erien)es0 demo)rati) trans/ !ormations )annot -e a-out -ein(0 essen)e0 or identit+2 What 1orks !or a )onstituted s+stem o! (o4ernment seems to -e insu!!i)ient !or under/ standin( the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+ as a histori)a..+ )ontin(ent &ro/ )ess2 3he 4a.idit+ o! the &ro&ositions )annot -e Otested; o-%e)ti4e.+ -ut needs to -e )om&osed -+ &.a)in( them in the histori)a. !ie.d o! e5&erien)es and their s+m-o.isations0 i2e2 in the time dimension o! the em&t+ s&a)e o! &o1er and the arti)u.ation o! &o.iti)a. so)iet+ itse.!2 3hus0 the eDui4a.en)e o! )riti)a. e4ents is not in the simi.arit+ o! institutiona. out)omes0 1hi)h 1i.. -e di!!erent in an+ indi4idua. )ase2 Rather0 the eDui4a.en)e is in the arti)u.ation o! ne1 s+m-o.s0 1hi)h res&ond to and make sense o! an e5istentia. )risis2 *es&ite ea)h instan)e;s histori)a. uniDueness and de&enden)e on s&e)i!i) )ir)umstan)es0 this sear)h !or meanin( is ne4erthe.ess )entra. to a so)ia. s)ienti!i) inDuir+2 B4 As 1ork in )u.tura. anthro&o.o(+ has ).aimed0 dra1in( (enera. &ro&ositions !rom histori)a. detai. is the -asis o! an+ s)ienti!i) theor+2 B@ :tru)ture o! the -ook 3his -ook is di4ided into three &arts2 8art I &ro&oses an inter&reti4e a&&roa)h to )ommunism and demo)ra)+ -ased on the e5&erientia. -asis o! )ons)iousness and meanin(/!ormation2 Cha&ter < )on)e&tua.ises &eri/ ods o! hi(h un)ertaint+ as !.uid )on%un)tures0 1here the situationa. .o(i) o! a)tion is !ormati4e o! &o.iti)a. )ons)iousness2 Cha&ter ? ar(ues that )ommunism 1as a &o.iti)a. re.i(ion0 1hose institutiona.isation o! uto&ia and m+tho.o(i)a. )onstru)tions o! rea.it+ !ai.ed to set )onstituti4e !oun/ dations o! &o.iti)a. order2 Cha&ter 4 e5amines demo)rati) trans!orm/ ations 1ith a 4ie1 to the im&a)t o! dramati) e4ents on su-%e)ti4it+ and meanin(/!ormation2 It ).aims that the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+ o))urred O1ithin; )ommunism0 in4o.4in( indi4idua. a)ts o! inter&retation and nar/ rati4e re)onstru)tion that 1ou.d turn the &eo&.e into a su-%e)t o! &o.iti)s2 8art II sets out to (i4e an inter&reti4e a))ount o! !our )riti)a. e4ents o! re4o.utionar+ s)o&e 1ith a 4ie1 to their s+m-o.isations2 Cha&ter @ ana.+ses the rise o! ,o.she4ik &o1er 1ith re!eren)e to the s+m-o.ism o! the di)tatorshi& o! the &ro.etariat and the &ermanent re4o.ution in one )ountr+2 Cha&ter B )on)e&tua.ises the :e)ond Wor.d War as a so)ia. re4o.ution and su((ests that this .imina. e5&erien)e 1as )ru)ia. !or the di4ision o! t1o 1or.ds in the Co.d War2 Cha&ter C seeks to understand the
B4 B@
Voe(e.in0 Pu3lished "ssays *+---*+6<0 "<"/<2 C.i!!ord HeertI0 The Interpretation o$ Cultures 6Me1 YorkP ,asi) ,ooks0 ">C?70 @"/<2
<A
arti)u.ation o! dissiden)e as a Duest !or meanin( in res&onse to the 4io.ent o4erthro1 o! &eo&.e;s re4o.utions2 Cha&ter A e5amines the disarti)u.ation o! )ommunism 1ith a 4ie1 to transitiona. un)ertaint+ and the demise o! s+m-o.so! demo)ra)+2 8art III )on)e&tua.isesdemo)ratisation as a &ro)ess o! meanin(/!ormation2 Cha&ter > e5&ounds that !orms o! so)ia. memor+ su)hasthose re&resentin(a)ts o!resistan)e to)ommunism 1ere)ru)ia. !or the emer(en)e o! demo)rati) )ons)iousness2 Cha&ter "= .inks the di!!usion o! demo)rati) )ons)iousness to indi4idua. a)ts o! re%e)tion o! the se)ond rea.it+ that had -eenesta-.ished -+the &o.iti)a.s+m-o.ism o! )ommunism2 Eundamenta..+0 demo)rati) Oidentit+; re.ied on the &o1er o! indi4idua.s to denoun)e the ritua.isti) 4io.en)e -+ their o1n .i!e/)ondu)t2 Cha&ter "" )ontrasts essentia.ist assum&tions a-out demo)rati) )onso.idation 1ith the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+ as a series o! inter&reti4e a)ts o! o4er)omin( 4io.en)e2 Rather than assumin( an e5istin( institutiona. Omode.; o! )i4i./ ised0 non/4io.ent )on!.i)t reso.ution0 it ar(ues that demo)ra)+ has -een a )i4i.isin( &ro)ess0 1here )onditions o! in)i4i.it+ and 4io.en)e 1ere o4er/ )ome -+ the &o1er o! )ons)iousness2
Part I
3he e5&erientia. -asis o! )ommunism and demo)ra)+
<
Re4o.utions0 transitions0 and un)ertaint+
One;s o1n !ree and un!ettered 4o.ition0 one;s o1n )a&ri)e0 ho1e4er 1i.d0 one;s o1n !an)+0 in!.amed sometimes to the &oint o! madness / that is the one -est and (reatest (ood0 1hi)h is ne4er taken into )onsid/ eration -e)ause it 1i.. not !it into an+ ).assi!i)ation0 and the omission o! 1hi)h a.1a+s sends a.. s+stems and theories to the de4i.2
E+odor *osto+e4sk+
3he .o(i) o! out)ome Re4o.utions re4erse &o.iti)a. stru)tures to su)h an e5tent that &o.iti)a. ana.+sis )an hard.+ es)a&e a&&roa)hin( them as an out)ome o! a s&e)i!i) histori)a. de4e.o&ment2 3he dee& &o.iti)a. and so)ia. trans!ormations in the 1ake o! re4o.utions on -oth the domesti) and internationa. .e4e. .ar(e.+ e).i&sed the situationa. &remises o! the Eren)h Re4o.ution in "CA> or the Russian Re4o.ution in ">"C2 3he !o)us on the out)omes o! re4o.utions su)h as the -irth o! the nation/state0 re&u-.i)anism0 or the )onso.idation o! :o4iet )ommunism do1n&.a+s the im&ortan)e o! tur/ moi.0 4io.en)e0 and un)ertaint+2 :imi.ar.+0 the re4o.utions o! ">A> in eastern 'uro&e and soon a!ter in the )o..a&sin( :o4iet 9nion 1ere a.most immediate.+ a&&roa)hed !rom the de4e.o&menta. &ers&e)ti4e o! Otransi/ tions to demo)ra)+;2 Animated -+ normati4e e5&e)tations o! stru)ture and order0 inter&re/ tations o! radi)a. )han(e in modern &o.iti)a. so)ieties ha4e &ri4i.e(ed a 4ie1 on &o.iti)a. trans!ormations that 1as (uided -+ (oa.s o! de4e.o&ment or &o.iti)a. modernisation2 " In a simi.ar 4ein0 the )ata).+smi) &o1er o! histori)a. re4o.utions has indu)ed ana.+sts to 4ie1 their )ausa.it+ as -ein( rooted in somethin( akin to !ateP re4o.utions are not madeR the+ )ome2<
:amue. Huntin(ton0 Political /rder in Changing Societies 6Me1 Ha4en and LondonP Ya.e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">BA70 "/>=2 3heda :ko)&o.0 States and Social #evolutions! A Comparative Analysis o$ 'rance& #ussia& and China 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">C>70 "C2
" <
?"
?<
:tru)tura. a&&roa)hes ha4e .ikened re4o.utions to o-%e)ts o! histori)a. de4e.o&ment0 1here the so)ia. &re)onditions o! the transitiona. or re4o.u/ tionar+ &eriod are dis)onne)ted !rom desired or e5&e)ted out)omes2 3he+ seem to understand &o.iti)a. anta(onism in terms o! Oo-%e)ti4e; !or)es that o&&ose ea)h other2 3hus0 the re4o.utionar+ ).ass stands a(ainst the -our(eoisie0 so)iet+ )om&etes 1ith the state0 and )ommunism and demo)ra)+ are thou(ht to -e at e5treme ends o! the s&e)trum2 3his -i!ur)ation o! ana.+ti)a. 4ie1&oints re!.e)ts the o-ser4er;s re.u)tan)e to en(a(e in the )haoti) histori)it+ o! su)h &eriods o! un)ertaint+2 Re4o.utionar+ or transitiona. un)ertaint+ is the e5)e&tion0 1here the su-stan)e o! histori)a. a)tion is marred -+ disru&ti4e 4io.en)e0 turmoi.0 and un)ertaint+2 3he transitiona. un)ertaint+ that seiIes ho.d o! a &o.it/ i)a. so)iet+ is seen as Oa-norma.it+; 1here Onorma. s)ien)e methodo.o(+; does not a&&.+R ana.+sts are keen to make u& !or this -+ -rid(in( the (a& -et1een one s+stem and another2 3his )ha&ter ar(ues that un)ertaint+ )an -e methodo.o(i)a..+ norma.ised2 Rather than a&&roa)hin( dee& un)ertaint+ -+ )onsiderin( the di)hotomi) se&aration -et1een )auses and out)omes0 I ar(ue that the su-stan)e o! the situationa. &remises )reates )ons)iousness2 Without &retendin( an+ )om&.ete t+&o.o(+0 one )an out.ine three ma%or as&e)ts o! out)ome/.o(i) that -+&ass the )haoti) su-stan)e o! the em&t+ s&a)e o! &o1er2 The logic o$ causality A num-er o! authoritati4e studies ha4e e5amined the ori(ins o! demo)/ ra)+ and tota.itarianism2 ? ,arrin(ton Moore;s 1ork on the so)ia. ori(ins o! demo)ra)+ and di)tatorshi& 1as )on)erned 1ith Oim&ortant sta(es in a &ro.on(ed so)ia. &ro)ess 1hi)h has 1orked itse.! out in se4era. )ountries;24 He identi!ied three routes to the modern 1or.d0 1hi)h !o./ .o1ed &aths to1ards 1hat 1ou.d -e)ome either the demo)rati)0 the !as)ist0 or the )ommunist 4ariant o! modernit+2 In a simi.ar 4ein0 &o.iti)a. so)io.o/ (ists intend to retrie4e a )ausa.it+0 to e5&.ain ho1 and 1h+ a s&e)i!i) order had to )o..a&se at the 4er+ moment o! re4o.ution or &o.iti)a. transition2 @ 3hus0 Char.es 3i..+;s 1ork on re4o.utionar+ 4io.en)e o4er the &ast three )enturies has di!!erentiated -et1een Orea)ti4e;0 -a)k1ard/.ookin(0 .o)a..+
?
4 @
Hannah Arendt0 The /rigins o$ Totalitarianism 6LondonP Heor(e A..en0 ">@"7R J2L2 3a.mon0 The /rigins o$ Totalitarian Democracy 6LondonP :e)ker X War-ur(0 ">@<72 ,arrin(ton Moore0 Social /rigins o$ Dictatorship and Democracy! %ord and Peasant in the aking o$ the odern 0orld 6,ostonP ,ea)on 8ress0 ">BB70 i52 Eor a )ritiDue0 seeWi..iam :e1e.. %nr0 O3hree3em&ora.itiesP3o1ard an '4ent!u. :o)io.o(+;0 in 3erren)e M)dona.d0 ed20 The 2istoric Turn in the 2uman Sciences 6Ann Ar-orP 9ni4ersit+ o! Mi)hi(an 8ress0 ">>B70 <4@/A=2
??
oriented 4io.en)e0 and O&roa)ti4e;0 !or1ard/.ookin(0 nationa..+ oriented 4io.en)e2B Whi.e 3i..+;s distin)tion -et1een re4o.utionar+ situations and re4o.utionar+ out)omes is use!u. as !ar as the di!!erentiation -et1een &o&u.ar )ontention and the trans!ormation o! &o1er is )on)erned0 there is an im&ortant risk in4o.4ed2 Eo..o1in( an out)ome/.o(i)0 the histori)a. resu.t is not on.+ the -asis !or the e5&.anation o! a ne1 )ondition2 It a.so -e)omes the startin( &oint !or 4indi)atin( the ori(in o! a re(ime0 ).ass0 or identit+2 Ca&ita.ist de4e.o&ment and state )entra.isation are seen as o))urrin( o!!sta(e0 as e4er/&resent and e4er/risin( !or)es2 3he re4o.u/ tionar+ situations and the 4io.en)e in4o.4ed hin(e on in4isi-.e )auses0 1hi)h make situations .ar(e.+ e!!e)ts0 ne4er )auses0 o! )han(e2 3heda :ko)&o.;s )om&arati4e 1ork on so)ia. re4o.utions in Eran)e0 Russia0 and China .o)ates the )auses !or re4o.ution in a )om&.e5 set o! !is)a. )rises o! the state -ased on mi.itar+ -a)k1ardness as a resu.t o! interstate )on!.i)t0 1hi)h is e5a)er-ated -+ the resistan)e o! re)a.)itrant .and.ords2C In order to mo4e !rom &o.iti)a. re4o.utions to so)ia. re4o.u/ tions 1ith a trans!ormation o! the )ountr+;s ).ass stru)ture0 mass u&ris/ in(s o! a 1e../or(anised and autonomous &easant ).ass are reDuired2 3hese )ausa. !a)tors are )on)e&tua.ised in this orderP !a)tor one indu)es a &o.iti)a. )risisR the addition o! !a)tor t1o turns the &o.iti)a. )risis into a &o.iti)a. re4o.utionR e4entua..+0 !a)tor three turns the &o.iti)a. re4o.ution into a so)ia. re4o.ution2 3he )ausa.it+ in this ana.+sis 1orks 1ith se&arate Otria.s; o! an e5&eriment0 1hi)h ha4e to -e -oth eDui4a.ent and inde&end/ ent2 3he &rin)i&.e o! eDui4a.en)e im&.ies that ea)h ne1 tria. 6in this )ase0 ea)h ne1 re4o.ution7 shou.d -e a (enuine re&.i)ation o! ear.ier tria.s0 1ith a.. re.e4ant 4aria-.es he.d )onstant2 3he re.e4ant tem&ora.it+ in this .o(i) is &ure.+ interna. to the tria.P the &osited )ausa. !a)tors must e5ist &rior to their &osited )onseDuen)e2 ConseDuent.+0 the three (reat so)ia. re4o.u/ tions -e)ome a uni!orm ).ass o! o-%e)ts (o4erned -+ identi)a. )ausa. .a1s0 1hi)h are seen as )ausa..+ inde&endent !rom ea)h other2 :imi.ar.+0 e5&.anations o! the )o..a&se o! )ommunism ha4e re&rodu)ed assum&tions on the eDui4a.en)e o! )ausa. stru)tures0 1here .e(a)ies o! the &ast are not )onne)ted to )on)rete e5&erien)es -ut are su&&osed to -e )ausa..+ inter)onne)ted2 A In su)h a 4ie10 &ost/)ommunist states inherit !rom the &ast re(ime materia. .e(a)ies0 )onstraints0 sets o! ha-its0 and )o(niti4e !rames2 Eurthermore0 there is a tur-u.ent )on!i(uration o! ne1 a)tors and ne1 o&&ortunities that emer(e as the o.d re(ime .oses its
B C A
Char.es 3i..+0 "uropean #evolutions *@+A-*++A 6O5!ordP ,.a)k1e..0 ">>?70 <?2 :ko)&o.0 States and Social #evolutions2 Jon '.ster et a.20 Institutional Design in Post-Communist Societies 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>A72
?4
re&ressi4e (ri& on so)iet+2 Eina..+0 a ne1 )onso.idated institutiona. order is s.o1.+ a&&earin( 1hi)h is .ike.+ to institutiona.ise a(en)+ and &ro4ide !or a measure o! sustaina-i.it+2 A.thou(h the &o1er o! the &ast is a)kno1./ ed(ed0 this !rame1ork o4erem&hasises the sta-i.it+ o! .e(a)ies0 takin( )ommunism as a )onso.idated s+stem 1here the mono&o.isation o! &o.it/ i)a. &o1er a.. -ut sus&ended autonom+ o! human a)tion2 Eo..o1in( the 1ides&read tenden)+ to ).assi!+ Russian and east 'uro&ean histor+ in de4e.o&menta. sta(es su)h as &re/)ommunist0 )ommunist0 and &ost/ )ommunist &asts0 the determinants o! the emer(en)e o! the ne1 order are seen as inde&endent !rom the !a)tors that )aused the -reakdo1n o! the o.d re(ime2 Re)ent resear)h on &o.iti)a. trans!ormation has ar(ued that one has to (o -e+ond the .inear statement that Ohistor+ matters; or Ohistor+ strikes -a)k;2 Rather0 )ontentious memories and meanin(s o! histori)a. e4ents in!.uen)e trans!ormati4e &eriods o! re)onstru)tion2 > *es&ite their sensi/ ti4it+ to the mu.ti&.i)it+ o! &asts and &aths0 ho1e4er0 e4en these a&&roa)hes tend to see ">A> in terms o! a )ausa.it+ that e5&.ains the 4i)tor+ o! )a&ita.ist demo)ra)+2 3he+ &ostu.ate the out)ome o! &o.iti)a. e)onom+ in a )ountr+ -+ tra)in( -a)k mu.ti&.e &aths !rom 1hi)h &ost/ so)ia.ist &o.iti)a. and e)onomi) institutions e4o.4ed2 3he )on)e&t o! Ore)om-inant )a&ita.ism;0 !or instan)e0 su((ests that e)onomi) re!orms in eastern 'uro&e !o..o1ed di!!erent &aths o! e5tri)ation -+ re)om-inin( di!!erent institutiona. &atterns !rom their )ommunist &ast2 Ho1e4er0 su)h a&&roa)hes ne(.e)t the !a)t that the under.+in( )on)e&tua. and institu/ tiona. rea.it+ o! )a&ita.ism 1ith 1hi)h these a&&roa)hes o&erate is the resu.t o! a.to(ether di!!erent0 )om&.e50 and in themse.4es Duite ha&haIard &ro)esses o! O&ath/de&enden)e; in 1estern 'uro&e0 i2e2 in a )om&.ete.+ di!!erent histori)a. en4ironment2 "= ,+ tr+in( to e5&.ain the out)ome o! a transition &ro)ess usin( a histori)a. seDuen)e0 &ath/de&enden)e assumes a .a1/.ike un!o.din( o! histori)a. de4e.o&ment2 It thus attri-utes a s&e)i!i) resu.t to the s&e)i!i)it+ o! its &ath2 The logic o$ heroism 3he a.most o-sessi4e need to )on)ei4e a (i4en &o.iti)a. order as the out)ome o! a s&e)i!i) )ausa.it+ is )om&.emented -+ the simi.ar.+ o-sessi4e idea that the &resent is the )onseDuen)e o! the intentions and (oa.s
> La "=
GsI.oG ,rusIt and *a4id :tark0 Post-Socialist Pathways! Trans$orming Politics and Property in "ast Central "urope 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>A72 Mi)he. *o-r+0 O8aths0 Choi)es0 Out)omes0 and 9n)ertaint+;0 in *o-r+0 ed20 Democratic and Capitalist Transitions in "astern "urope 6*ordre)htP F.u1er0 <===70 @<2
?@
&ursued -+ e5)e&tiona. indi4idua.s2 An im&ortant trend in so)ia. e5&.an/ ation su((ests that an indi4idua. .eader or )o..e)ti4e (rou&s su)h as an e.ite or a so)ia. ).ass master a situation o! anar)h+ and disorder2 3his tenden)+ has t1o im&ortant sour)es in &o.iti)a. and so)ia. thou(ht2 Eirst0 it is asso)iated 1ith the Ma)hia4e..ian idea a-out the virtuB o! an indi4idua. a)tor as !or(in( a &o.iti)a. order a))ordin( to his .ikin(2 3he )om&.e5 &ro)esses that ushered in the modern nation/state trans!erred the &rin)i/ &.e o! &o1er &o.iti)s !rom &rin)e.+ so4erei(nt+ to the so4erei(n )o..e)ti4/ it+ o! the nation and rein!or)ed the heroism in s+m-o.i) atta)hment to and sa)ri!i)e !or the nation2 :e)ond0 there is the in!.uentia. Mar5ist a&&roa)h a))ordin( to 1hi)h the )ontinuous stru((.e !or domination -et1een ).asses 1i.. ine4ita-.+ .ead to the 4i)tor+ o! the )o..e)ti4e ).ass o! the &ro.etariat2 In .ine 1ith hero identi!i)ation as one o! the most !undamenta. me)hanisms o! )omin( to terms 1ith a )risis in man+ m+ths o! humanit+0 either 4ie1 %usti!ies out)omes -+ indi4idua. heroi) a)tion2"" 3his Oheroi) i..usion;"< su((ests that indi4idua. a)tors or )o..e)/ ti4e (rou&s are endo1ed 1ith dis&ositions that &ro4ide them 1ith strate/ (i)a..+ and ta)ti)a..+ adeDuate -eha4iour durin( this )risis2 Whi.e0 &rior to the Russian Re4o.ution0 !or instan)e0 Mar5ist/Leninist ana.+sis had stressed the o-%e)ti4e &atterns o! Russian authoritarianism and e)onomi) -a)k1ardness0 durin( the re4o.utionar+ )risis a.. o! a sudden the su-%e)/ ti4it+ o! Lenin -e)ame the (uidin( !or)e in trans!ormin( the o-%e)ti4e order2 Assum&tions o! the e5)e&tiona. Dua.it+ o! uniDue.+ determined .eaders su)h as Lenin 1ere re&rodu)ed in the .iterature on demo)rati) transitions2 3he indi4idua.;s autonomous 1i.. &o1er and his insi(ht into the a&&ro&riateness o! a)tion &ro4ided !or a s&e)i!i) t+&e o! su-%e)ti4it+ needed to O)ra!t demo)ra)ies;2"? 3he in!.uentia. su-dis)i&.ine o! transito.o(+ 1as interested in hi(h.+ underdetermined moments o! un)ertaint+2 "4 As an ear.+ 1ork on tran/ sitions ar(ued0 su)h trans!ormations 1ou.d reDuire a theor+ o! a-nor/ ma.it+ in 1hi)h the une5&e)ted and the &ossi-.e are as im&ortant as the usua. and the &ro-a-.e2 When so)ia. and &o.iti)a. di!!erentiation is .o10 ru.es and norms are 4o.ati.e0 and de)ision &ro)esses risk -ein( )au(ht in a )onstant !.u50 norma. so)ia. s)ien)e methodo.o(+ seems to -e
"" "< "? "4
Jose&h Cam&-e..0 The 2ero with a Thousand 'aces 6LondonP Eontana 8ress0 ">4>72 Mi)he. *o-r+0 Sociologie des crises politi7ues 68arisP 8resses de .a Eondation Mationa.e des :)ien)es 8o.itiDues0 ">AB72 Hiuse&&e *i 8a.ma0 To Cra$t Democracies! An "ssay on Democratic Transitions 6,erke.e+P 9ni4ersit+ o! Ca.i!ornia 8ress0 ">>=72 8hi.i&&e :)hmitter and 3err+ Far.0 O3he Con)e&tua. 3ra4e. o! 3ransito.o(ists and Conso.ido.o(istsP Ho1 Ear to the 'ast :hou.d 3he+ HoQ;0 Slavic #eview0 @?0 " 6">>470 "C?/A@2
?B
ina&&ro&riate !or (ras&in( su)h &ro)esses ana.+ti)a..+2 "@ Me4erthe.ess0 the )on)e&t o! transition remained !o)used on the stru)tura. !eatures o! O!rom; and Oto; &hases2 3his di)hotomisation o! &ers&e)ti4es on the &ost/ )ommunist &eriod )asts a shado1 on assessments o! the &o.iti)a. e4o.u/ tion o! )ommunism itse.!2 :in)e the )on)e&tua. too.s and methods 1ere attuned to the a!termath o! s+stemi) )o..a&se0 the &ro-.ematisation o! re4o.utionar+ &hases o! un)ertaint+ &rior to the -reakdo1n o! )ommu/ nism re)ei4ed .ess attention2 ConseDuent.+0 the )om&arati4e stud+ o! &ost/)ommunist transitions has .ar(e.+ -een !o)used on the &rereDuisites !or the e5&e)ted re(ime t+&e 6su)h as a .i-era./demo)rati) arran(ement70 thus e5).udin( )on)e&tua. dis)ussions o! transition2 "B 3hus0 transition0 -+ de!au.t0 has 1ide.+ remained a ne(ati4e )on)e&t0 1hi)h tries to e5&ress the unstru)tured &eriod -et1een t1o &otentia. e5tremes )hara)terised -+ s+stemi) sta-i.it+2 3heorists 1ho &ortra+ re(ime trans!ormations as an irresisti-.e d+nam/ i)s o! indi4idua.ism tend to e5).ude the moda.ities o! the emer(en)e o! )ons)iousness0 -e.ie!s0 and attitudes on the (rounds o! a .o(i)a. a-stra)/ tion2 A re)ent stud+ on re(ime di4ersit+ a!ter )ommunism &ro&osed an onto.o(i)a. )on)e&tion o! )ausa. me)hanism2 "C In this 4ie10 )ausa. me)h/ anisms are &ro)esses that )on4ert )ertain in&uts into out&uts0 -rin(in( a-out the e!!e)ts that )an -e seen as )auses o! so)ia. &henomena2 3he o-%e)ti4e is to shi!t the .e4e. o! )ausa. &ro)ess ana.+sis !rom that o! a((re(ates and stru)tures to indi4idua. a)tion under )onstraints2 3his onto.o(i)a. )on)e&tion re.ies u&on a O1eak methodo.o(i)a. indi4idua./ ism;0 1hi)h .inks the &re!eren)es and dis&ositions o! &eo&.e to the so)ia. kno1.ed(e the+ ha4e a)Duired2 Me4erthe.ess0 onto.o(i)a. sta-i.it+ su(/ (ests that indi4idua. a)tion )an -e &redi)ted to o-e+ s&e)i!i) .a1/.ike me)hanisms or -e a&&ro&riate 1ith a (i4en s+stem o! norms and 4a.ues2 The logic o$ appropriateness Out)ome/.o(i) tends to measure the dis&ositions and intentions o! &o.it/ i)a. a)tors on the -asis o! ho1 a&&ro&riate their -eha4iour is 1ith re(ard
"@
"B "C
Hui..ermo O;*onne.. et a.20 eds20 Transitions $rom Authoritarian #ule! Prospects $or Democracy0 4o.2 IV0 O;*onne.. and 8hi.i&&e :)hmitter0 Tentative Conclusions A3out :ncertain Democracies 6,a.timore and LondonP Johns Ho&kins 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>"70 </B2 Herardo L2 Mun)k0 O3he Re(ime TuestionP 3heor+ ,ui.din( in *emo)ra)+ :tudies;0 0orld Politics0 @4 6<=="70 "<4/B2 Her-ert Fits)he.t0 OA))ountin( !or 8ost)ommunist Re(ime *i4ersit+P What Counts as a Hood CauseQ;0 in HrIe(orI 'kiert and :te&hen '2 Hanson0 eds20 Capitalism and Democracy in Central and "astern "urope 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <==?704>/AB2
?C
to institutiona.ised .o(i)s su)h as ).asses0 .eaders0 or &o.iti)a. re(imes2 3his .o(i) o! a&&ro&riateness has &ermeated dominant inter&retations o! ma%or re4o.utions2 3heorists tend to read meanin(s o! an e4ent not 1ith re(ard to the &otentia. o! the situation -ut 1ith re(ard to the &ost/ re4o.utionar+ order2 A &rominent e5am&.e is the idea that the a-o.ition o! !euda.ism -+ the Eren)h Mationa. Assem-.+ on 4 Au(ust "CA> re&.a)ed aristo)rati) ineDua.it+ 1ith -our(eois ineDua.it+2 :u)h a %ud(ement 1ith hindsi(ht ne(.e)ts that mone+ at this )on%un)ture 1as seen as the (reat eDua.iser0 as the uni4ersa. too. !or destro+in( aristo)rati) &ri4i.e(e2 In a simi.ar 4ein0 rootin( :o4iet )ommunism either in the Oine4ita-i.it+; o! a so)ia.ist re4o.ution or in Lenin;s 4o.untarism !o..o1s a -i!ur)ation o! ana.+sis moti4ated -+ e5/&ost %usti!i)ation2 :u)h a -i!ur)ation dis)on/ ne)ts the O-e!ore;0 i2e2 the so)ia. !or)es o! re4o.utionar+ e!!er4es)en)e0 !rom the Oa!ter;0 i2e2 the heroi) a)hie4ement o! Lenin and the &ro.etariat2 It ne(.e)ts the !a)t that the o-%e)ti4e status o! the ,o.she4ik &art+ as an outsider se)t and the &art+;s serious interna. disa(reements throu(hout ">"C made a ,o.she4ik su))ess Duite un.ike.+2 3he re-irth o! )i4i. so)iet+ under perestroika in the .ate ">A=s as a mo4ement !rom O-e.o1; is dis/ )onne)ted !rom state )onso.idation a!ter ">>"0 1hi)h 1as )ondu)ted -+ a stron( &residen)+ !rom Oa-o4e;2 3his -i!ur)ation disre(ards the so)ia. e!!er4es)en)e and mass a)ti4ism o! the Hor-a)he4 era2 :imi.ar.+0 it in4o.4es im&osin( a .o(i) o! a&&ro&riateness on histori)a. rea.it+0 i! 8o.and;s e.ite/ne(otiated Ore4o.ution !rom a-o4e; at the round/ta-.e in ">A> is seen as )ausa..+ inde&endent !rom :o.idarnoG)G;s Ore4o.ution !rom -e.o1; in ">A=2 3here has -een a noti)ea-.e tenden)+ in transition studies to1ards )on)ei4in( &o.iti)a. )han(e -+ measurin( the a&&ro&riateness o! inten/ tions 1ith re(ard to a normati4e.+ desira-.e mode. o! a .i-era. demo)rati) arran(ement o! &o.iti)a. authorit+2 Whether transitions are de!ined as the inter4a. -et1een one &o.iti)a. re(ime and another0 or as the &assa(e !rom a non/demo)rati) to a demo)rati) re(ime0 the )on)e&t;s stron( tenden)+ to1ards a me)hanisti) t1o/ste& mo4ement has -een )ons&i)uous2 3his reDuires -rid(in( the a&&arent stru)tura. 4oid -et1een t1o a((re(ate &eriods0 1hen sta-i.it+ (i4es 1a+ to !.u5 and un)ertaint+0 1hen ru.es and norms are )ontested and &asts and !utures are at stake2 3ransition studies su((est that some indi4idua.s or a ).ass inside the &re/re4o.utionar+ s+stem are endo1ed 1ith a trans!ormati4e dis&osition that 1ou.d -e in tune 1ith the institutiona. .o(i) o! the &ost/re4o.utionar+ s+stem2 3hus0 the+ tend to e5).ude the re.e4an)e o! this histori)a. e5&erien)e !or the sake o! the .o(i)a. )oheren)e o! a normati4e mode.2 3he use o! .o(i)a..+ di!!erent 4aria-.es su((ests a t1o/ste& mo4ement0 1hi)h dis)onne)ts &o.iti)a. rea.it+ !rom its e5&erientia. -asis2 In &ra)ti)a.
?A
terms0 re4o.utionar+ or transitiona. &ro)esses a&&ear as re.ations -et1een t1o entities or states o! a!!airsP that e5istin( -e!ore0 and that e5istin( a!ter1ards2 Whi.e this -i!ur)ation dis)onne)ts e5&erien)es O-e!ore; and Oa!ter;0 it &re/em&ti4e.+ )onne)ts them -+ assumin( that the a)tors; dis&ositions 1ere (uidin( the out)ome2
3he situationa. .o(i) o! a)tion 3hese di!!erent !a)ets o! out)ome/.o(i) )on)ur in assumin( some under/ .+in( and in4isi-.e stru)tura. ne)essit+ a))ordin( to 1hi)h &o.iti)a. e4o/ .ution o))urs2 :)ho.ars tend to O!reeIe; and O!ra)ture; histor+ -+ treatin( the histories o! re4o.utions or transitions as i! the+ took &.a)e in iso.ation !rom one another0 rather than as a seDuen)e o! histori)a..+ )onne)ted e4ents2 3he+ either introdu)e O)ausa.it+; as an in4isi-.e &o1er that %usti/ !ies out)omes or the+ assume that dis&ositions o! indi4idua.s are (uided -+ (oa.s o! de4e.o&ment that are someho1 uni4ersa. or Otrans/histori)a.;2 Causa. me)hanisms0 &ath/de&endent tra%e)tories0 )a&ita.ist de4e.o&/ ment0 state )entra.isation0 and .i-era.isation -e)ome the a)tors o! histor+2 In the .o(i) o! heroism0 the o-%e)ti4e tra%e)tor+ o! histor+ is sha&ed -+ the rationa.it+ o! indi4idua. or )o..e)ti4e &re!eren)es0 1hi)h ma+ -e )onstrained -+ the situation -ut ne4erthe.ess remain onto.o(i)a..+ sta-.e2 Ana.+ses -ased on the assum&tion o! a&&ro&riateness )onstrain the in)hoate histori)a. )onte5t -+ Oad%ustin(; it to a su&&osed.+ non/ )ontin(ent mode. o! s+stemati) arran(ement2 :u-%e)ti4e dis&ositions -e)ome either adeDuate or inadeDuate to meet the )riteria o! &ositi4e.+ &ostu.ated institutiona. arran(ements in ordered0 .a1/-ased0 Onorma.; routine &o.iti)s2 O-sessed 1ith (oa./seekin( and &ro-.em/so.4in(0 modern so)ia. s)i/ en)e resear)h tends to !or(et that &eo&.e &ursue mis(uided (oa.s0 are i(norant o! their (oa.s0 or sim&.+ are de)ei4ed -+ their (oa.s2 "A As I sha.. ar(ue0 mode.s !or &o.iti)a. e4o.ution are not on.+ deri4ed !rom o-%e)ti4e rationa.it+ -ut a.so are )reated in )haoti) histori)it+2 I! re4o.utions and 1ars are the t+&es o! e4ents that throu(hout their duration deta)h themse.4es !rom the )onditions o! their out-reak0 the task o! )riti)a. understandin( is not to arrest su)h mo4ements -+ )ausa. .a1s0 mode.s0 or de4e.o&menta. (oa.s0 -ut to e.u)idate ho1 the situationa. &remises shi!t0 de4e.o&0 and trans!orm !rom the ru&ture to the redress o! )risis2
"A
3homas C2 :)he..in(0 ">CA70"A/">2
icromotives and
acro3ehavior 6Me1 YorkP W2W2 Morton0
?>
Hi4en the se.!/de)e&tion o! re4o.utionaries and momentous o-sta).es !or Odemo)ratisers;0 theorisin( un)ertaint+ reDuires .inkin( assum&tions on the rationa.it+ o! a)tors and ne)essit+ in a &otentia..+ -ound.ess situation2"> Modern usa(e has esta-.ished a)tion as a .o(i)a..+ )oherent mo4ement to1ards the out)ome or (oa. and thus di4erted &o.iti)a. ana.+sis !rom the -ound.essness o! a)tion2<= As Hannah Arendt &ointed out0 Hreek and Latin )ontained t1o di!!erent and +et interre.ated 1ords 1ith 1hi)h to desi(nate the 4er- Oto a)t;2 O3o a)t;0 in its most (enera. sense0 means to take an initiati4e0 to -e(in 6as the Hreek 1ord archein0 Oto -e(in;0 Oto .ead;0 and e4entua..+ Oto ru.e;0 indi)ates70 and to &ass throu(h0 to a)hie4e0 to !inish 6prattein72 3he )orres&ondin( 1ords in Latin are the 4er-s agere 6to set into motion7 and gerere 61hose ori(ina. meanin( is Oto -ear;72 Prattein and gerere -e)ame the a))e&ted 1ords !or a)tion in (enera.0 1hereas the 1ords desi(natin( the -e(innin( o! a)tion -e)ame s&e)ia.ised in mean/ in(0 at .east in &o.iti)a. .an(ua(e2 Archein )ame to mean )hie!.+ Oto ru.e; and Oto .ead; 1hen it 1as used0 and agere )ame to mean Oto .ead; rather than Oto set into motion;2 Re4o.utionar+ Oa))e.erations; are set into motion -+ the remo4a. o! o-sta).es that are hi(her durin( Onorma.;0 stru)tured times than durin( Oa-norma.; &eriods o! underdetermined )han(e2 Whi.e intentions o! a)tors do not &re/e5ist a)tion -ut are )on%un)tura..+ sha&ed in the &ro)ess o! a)tion as settin( in motion0 re4o.utions &rodu)e )onseDuen)es Duite o&&osite to the intentions o! the re4o.utionaries2 Re4o.utionar+ a)tors o!ten0 i! not a.1a+s0 !ai. to attune their Ointentions; to the O)onseDuen)es; o! their a)tion2 *oes this im&.+ that their dis&ositions had no in!.uen)e on !uture de4e.o&mentsQ A stru)tura.ist &ers&e)ti4e ho.ds that the 1ea.th o! unintended and un!oreseen out)omes !.a1s an+ stud+ o! the intentions o! ).asses or (rou&s o! a)tors in re4o.utionar+ &ro)esses2 <" Out)ome/.o(i) .inks the intentions to the )onseDuen)es under the assum&tion that inten/ tions and )onseDuen)es &ertain to the same .o(i)2 3he !ai.ure to !oresee the )onseDuen)es 1ou.d 4indi)ate disre(ardin( re4o.utionar+ intentions2 As the )onseDuen)es &.a+ a(ainst the interests o! the a)tors in4o.4ed0 it 1ou.d -e !uti.e to de)i&her the .o(i) o! the &ro)esses o! a so)ia. re4o.ution -+ !o..o1in( the a)tions o! an+ one ).ass or or(anisation2 In histori)a. e5&erien)e0 ho1e4er0 there is (ood reason to assume that )riti)a. %un)tures are !ormati4e o! )ons)iousness as !ar as the situation
Far. 8o&&er0 The Poverty o$ 2istoricism 6London and Me1 YorkP Rout.ed(e0 ">@C70 "?A2 Hannah Arendt0 The 2uman Condition 6Chi)a(o and LondonP 9ni4ersit+ o! Chi)a(o 8ress0 ">@A70 "A>2 :ko)&o.0 States and Social #evolutions0 "4/"A2
"> <= <"
4=
is the on.+ re.ia-.e -asis o! %ud(ements and e5&e)tations2 3he term Ounintended )onseDuen)es; %ud(es the !ai.ure o! intentions -+ the )er/ taint+ o! the out)ome and thus )on!.ates t1o di!!erent rea.ities2 Eormin( e5&e)tations a))ordin( to une5&e)ted turns is not irrationa.0 -ut is another !orm o! rationa.it+ that 1orks a))ordin( to a .o(i) that is not )on)ei4ed !rom a )o(niti4e distan)e to the situation2 '4en i! a)tors in )riti)a. situations ha4e more )on!iden)e than is %usti!ied in un)ertain )onditions0 kno1.ed(e on 1hi)h to -ase &redi)tions o! the !uture is e5treme.+ inadeDuate2 As John Ma+nard Fe+nes remarked a-out the e5&e)tations o! an in4estment;s +ie.d0 the -asis o! kno1.ed(e !or estimat/ in( the +ie.d ten or e4en !i4e +ears hen)e o! a rai.1a+0 a )o&&er mine0 an At.anti) .iner0 or a -ui.din( in London amounts to .itt.e and sometimes to nothin(2<< 3hus0 in4estments re.+ u&on a )on4ention a))ordin( to 1hi)h the e5istin( market 4a.uation0 ho1e4er arri4ed at0 is uniDue.+ )orre)t in re.ation to our e5istin( kno1.ed(e o! the !a)ts2 3he !ormation o! .on(/ term e5&e)tations re.ies u&on s)ant+ kno1.ed(e0 1hi)h deri4es its )on/ !iden)e not !rom the !ore)ast o! the .ike.ihood o! the resu.t -ut -+ dis&ro&ortionate.+ re.+in( u&on e5istin( kno1.ed(e2 3his 1i.. in!.uen)e the +ie.d o! the in4estment and it 1i.. )han(e on.+ in &ro&ortion to )han(es in this kno1.ed(e2 Ho1e4er0 it )annot -e uniDue.+ )orre)t0 sin)e our e5istin( kno1.ed(e does not &ro4ide a su!!i)ient -asis as a )a.)u.ated mathemati)a. e5&e)tation2 Whi.e an im&ortant task o! so)ia. and &o.iti)a. inDuir+ )onsists in e5&.ainin( the e!!e)ts o! e4ents 1ith re(ard to intentions0 it is not the on.+ .e(itimate one2 Intentions ma+ 1e.. not -e !o)used on .o(i)a..+ &redetermined or normati4e.+ &res)ri-ed out)omes and sti.. matter2 *is&ositions o! a)tors ma+ a)tua..+ -e redire)ted durin( )riti)a. situations and -e)ome the )auses o! e!!e)ts that 1ou.d ha4e -een unthinka-.e -e!ore the+ a)tua..+ o))urred2 An+ )riti)a. e4ent in).udes a 4ariet+ o! so)ia. a)tions0 ad ho) de)ision/makin(0 and a)ts o! si(ni!i)ation0 entai.in( man+ )ontested meanin(s and e5istentia. %ud(ements2 Re)ent resear)h in &o.iti)a. so)io.o(+ and so)ia. theor+ has )on)e&tua.ised re4o.utions and &o.iti)a. )rises as O)on%un)tura. stru)tures; or O!.uid )on%un)tures;2 <? 3he re)ent.+ (ro1in( -ran)hes o! )ontentious &o.iti)s and )risis theor+ &ro/ 4ided so&histi)ated in/de&th studies o! )riti)a. e4ents0 (reat e4ents0
<< <?
John Ma+nard Fe+nes0 The 1eneral Theory o$ "mployment& Interest and oney 6LondonP Ma)mi..an0 ">B"70 "4A/@<2 *o-r+0 Sociologie des crises politi7uesR Wi..iam :e1e.. %nr0 OHistori)a. '4ents as 3rans!ormations o! :tru)turesP In4entin( Re4o.ution at the ,asti..e;0 Theory and Society0 <@ 6">>B70 A4"/A"2
4"
e4ents/in/histor+0 and )u.tura. as&e)ts o! &o1er stru((.es2 <4 3hese studies )are!u..+ disse)t the &ro)esses o! &o.iti)a. mo-i.isation0 the )onstitution and maintenan)e o! so)ia. mo4ements0 the )o(niti4e status o! the (uidin( ideas0 the )om&osition o! a)tors and strate(ies0 and the )ir)umstan)es o! the demo-i.isation o! su)h mo4ements2 3he -ound.essness o! a)tion is -oth )onstrained -+ and &rodu)ti4e o! the dis&ositions o! re4o.utionar+ a)tors2 '5&erien)es in re4o.utionar+ situations matter as !ar as the dis&ositions o! a)tors are .o(i)a..+ di!!erent !rom ideo.o(i)a. &remises su)h as the Ohistori)a. ine4ita-i.it+; o! re4o.u/ tion or the ).assi!i)ator+ .o(i) o! O).ass;2 <@ At the s+stemati) .e4e.0 the dis.o)ations o! stru)tures not on.+ )onstrain indi4idua. dis&ositions0 -ut !undamenta..+ re4erse them as intentions )an -e)ome )ontaminated 1ith !ear0 hatred0 or 4io.en)e2 :u)h e5traordinar+ and so)ia..+ dramati) sit/ uations 1ith their a))e.erated rh+thms0 intensi!ied emotions0 and -odi.+ &arti)i&ation )reate an onto.o(i)a. o&enness in human -ein(s that )an &ro!ound.+ resha&e )o(niti4e !rames2 *isru&ti4e seDuen)es o! 4io.en)e or )i4i. unrest (enerate res&onses in )ommuni)ati4e &ro)esses0 thus sha&in( so)ia. kno1.ed(e and mora. 4a.ues -ut a.so e5&e)tations2 3he )entra. &oint is that the su-%e)ti4it+ o! e5&erien)es o! so)ia. e!!er4es)en)e or )o..e)ti4e 4io.en)e -rea)hes the o-%e)ti4e .o(i) o! ).asses0 re(imes0 or s+stems2 Moreo4er0 indi4idua. a)tors and )o..e)ti4e (rou&s that re&eat/ ed.+ under(o traumati) e5&erien)es ma+ -e )au(ht in dou-.e -inds0 i2e2 a se.!/&er)e&tion o! -ein( a &otentia. 4i)tim and the desire to o4er)ome this2 Eina..+0 a.thou(h un)ertaint+ in re4o.utionar+ situations 1i.. dra1 to an end0 the situationa. &remises not on.+ are a )ir)umstantia. haIard0 -ut ha4e a mode..in( &o1er !or &o.iti)s2 Indi4idua.s do not a)t a))ordin( to the .o(i) o! se.!/interest de!ined -+ an outside o-ser4er -ut are tied to a means/to/ends )onte5t de&endin( on the su-%e)ti4e.+ assessed meanin( and desira-i.it+ o! an anti)i&ated !uture2 I! the -rokenness o! &o.iti)a. rea.it+ remains a &ermanent as&e)t o! &o.iti)s0 as Ma)hia4e..i su((ested0 then the em&t+ s&a)e o! &o1er and its attendant -reakdo1n o! authorit+0 .oss o! meanin(0 and so)ia. drama )ha..en(e assum&tions a-out the onto.o(i)a. sta-i.it+ o! rationa.it+ and indi4idua. &re!eren)es2 Whi.e 4io/ .en)e 1orks a))ordin( to the re)i&ro)it+ o! (i4in( and takin( and thus nurtures )+).es o! 4en(ean)e0 this re)i&ro)it+ )an -e o4er)ome -+ a(ree/ in( to (i4e 1ithout e5&e)tin( an+thin( in e5)han(e2
*ou( M)Adam et a.20 Dynamics o$ Contention 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <=="70 <</4R HrIe(orI 'kiert0 The State Against Society! Political Crises and Their A$termath in "ast Central "urope 68rin)etonP 8rin)eton 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>B72 <@ Ar&ad :Iako.)Iai0 O'5&erientia. :o)io.o(+;0 Theoria 6A&ri. <==470 @>/AC2
<4
4<
The $luidity o$ critical events Re4o.utionar+ &o.iti)s is )hara)terised -+ a)tion as settin( in motion2 A )redi-.e )ha..en(e to &o.iti)a. authorit+ in4o.4es the .e4e..in( o! status ro.es and di!!eren)es0 the intensi!i)ation o! emotions0 and radi)a. so)ia. &o.arisation2 Contentious &o.iti)s in the em&t+ s&a)e o! &o1er is the )on)rete e4ent o! a &er&etua. dia.e)ti)a. re.ationshi& o4er time -et1een order and its disso.ution2 <B Hoin( -e+ond the stru)tura.ist tradition0 so)ia. intera)tions in dramati) e4ents are a)ti4e sites o! )u.tura. )reati4it+0 1here s&atia. arran(ements and the master+ o! time re(imes &.a+ a )ru)ia. ro.e2 :imi.ar.+0 inter&ersona. )ommuni)ation and the ne(otiation o! iden/ tities !i(ure )entra..+ in the d+nami)s o! )ontention2 'ssentia..+0 these a&&roa)hes )on)ur in e5aminin( !.uid )on%un)tures 1ith a 4ie1 to ho1 so)ia..+ thi)k )onte5ts o! )ontention !rame the &er)e&tions o! a)tors0 )odes o! )ommuni)ation0 .an(ua(e0 and identities2 In this 4ie10 &o.iti)a. order not on.+ is instituted on the (rounds o! normati4e/.e(a./)onstitutiona. a)ts -ut a.so is a&&ro&riated throu(h an e5&erientia. -asis in emotiona..+ intensi4e and s+m-o.i)a..+ si(ni!i)ant e4ents that -rin( a-out interna. trans!ormations o! man2 As Mi)he. *o-r+ has su((ested0 su)h )riti)a. e4ents are )hara)terised -+ an intensi!i)ation o! so)ia. emotions0 -+ sim&.i!i)ations o! the so)ia. s&a)e0 -+ the undi!!erentiation o! so)ia. re.ationshi&s0 and -+ a tenden)+ to1ards one/dimensiona.it+ o! &ersona. identit+2 Mo-i.isations simu.ta/ neous.+ a!!e)t se4era. se)tors or so)ia. !ie.ds and 1eaken the in!.uen)e o! se)tiona. .o(i)s on the )a.)u.ations o! a)tors2 <C 3his disso.ution o! se4era. di!!erentiated so)ia. s&heres )orres&onds to a sudden -reakdo1n o! se)/ tiona. -oundaries2 Criti)a. e4ents ma+ a!!e)t other !ie.ds su)h as .iterature or art -+ a.i(nin( the tem&ora.ities in these !ie.ds 1ith rh+thms in the )entra. e4ent2 ,e+ond the harmonisation o! rh+thms0 the a))e.eration o! e4ents )an -rin( a-out simu.taneous and une5&e)ted dis)ontinuities to routine -eha4iour &atterns !or a 4er+ short &eriod o! time2 3he )on!ront/ ation as su)h ma+ -e &rodu)ti4e o! an a5is o! a)tion that seiIes ho.d o! a)tors0 1hether the+ .ike it or not2<A It 1ou.d -e ina))urate0 ho1e4er0 to understand )riti)a. e4ents a.on( the .ines o! O4o.)ani); theories o! re4o.ution0 1hi)h assume that miser+ and de&ri4ation sudden.+ .ead to an e5&.osion o! dis)ontent2 <> Criti)a. e4ents

Vi)tor 3urner0 The #itual Process! Structure and Anti-Structure 6Me1 YorkP de Hru+ter0 ">B>70""<2 *o-r+0 Sociologie des crises politi7ues2 *o-r+0 Sociologie des crises politi7ues0 "BB2 Eor a )ritiDue0 see Rod A+a0 #ethinking #evolutions and Collective >iolence 6AmsterdamP Het :&inhuis0 ">>=72
<A
4?
are no ta3ula rasa situation0 1here &o1er is a-sent2 3he !.uidit+ o! )riti)a. %un)tures is not a.1a+s o&&osed to &re4ious.+ e5istin( stru)tures0 1hi)h 1ou.d intimate a s&ontaneous mar)h o! so)ieties to1ards a so)ia. 4oid or to1ards the o4era.. disa&&earan)e o! a.. stru)ture2 Re4o.utions or tran/ sitions are not situations 1here disorder interru&ts &eriods o! order2 Rather0 disorder is )reati4e o! order0 as norms0 ru.es0 and the .a1 are esta-.ished throu(h a)ti4e and o!ten )ost.+ inter4ention o! so)ia. a)tors / o!ten more )ost.+ than the a)ti4ities o! restoration or maintenan)e o! stru)tures2 '4en se4era. da+s o! )ro1d (atherin( .inked 1ith the tem&o/ rar+ disa&&earan)e o! authorit+ stru)tures0 or the annihi.ation o! state stru)tures throu(h 1ar or !orei(n o))u&ation0 1i.. not .ea4e .ar(e &arts o! so)iet+ in a )om&.ete 4oid2 '4en 1hen re&ressi4e o))u&ation re(imes den+ an+ ri(ht or &ossi-i.it+ o! so)ieta. se.!/or(anisation0 Ounder(round states; / su)h as 8o.and durin( the :e)ond Wor.d War or Foso4o in the .ate ">A=s and ear.+ ">>=s / )an -ui.d u& !un)tionin( and e!!e)ti4e stru)tures o! )i4i) edu)ation as 1e.. as o! mora. and &o.iti)a. authorit+2 3he )ru)ia. &oint is to re)o(nise that stru)ture and order are &re(nant 1ith disorder2 3his is -e)ause disorder is not -rou(ht !rom outside -ut -e)ause order.+ stru)tures -ear inside themse.4es the &otentia.it+ o! dis/ so.ution o! order2 3he .imitations o! the .a1 are ne4er entire.+ re.ia-.e sa!e(uards a(ainst )rimina. a)ts0 %ust as the -oundaries o! the territor+ are ne4er entire.+ re.ia-.e sa!e(uards a(ainst !orei(n in4asion2 3his -ound/ .essness o! a)tion is on.+ the other side o! the tremendous.+ &rodu)ti4e )a&a)it+ o! &o1er2?= Re(ard.ess o! the out)omes0 in re4o.utionar+ situa/ tions .e(itimate authorit+ is u& !or (ra-s0 is hi(h.+ and )redi-.+ )ontested or su-%e)t to dou-.e or mu.ti&.e so4erei(nties2 ?" 3he dua./&o1er s)enar/ ios o! the Ee-ruar+ Re4o.ution in ">"C or the !a)tua. dua. &o1er in Herman+ in the &ost/Eirst Wor.d War turmoi. dis&.a+ed the &otentia. o! the authorit+ 4a)uum2 Ri(ht a!ter the :e)ond Wor.d War0 dua./&o1er stru)tures )ontinued to e5ist in the :o4iet 9nion0 as im&ortant resistan)e mo4ements o&erated in the ,a.ti) )ountries and in 1estern 9kraine2 3he Hun(arian re4o.ution in O)to-er ">@B and the :o.idarnoG)G re4o.ution in 8o.and in summer ">A= 1ere ).ear instan)es o! dua. so4erei(nt+2 3he Lithuanian and Russian de).arations o! so4erei(nt+ in s&rin( ">>= set o!! a 1a4e o! su)h de).arations -+ !ormer :o4iet union re&u-.i)s0 autono/ mous re&u-.i)s0 and &ro4in)es &ro4okin( a O&arade o! so4erei(nties;2 :u)h situations o! dua. &o1er 6 dvoevlastie7 not on.+ -.urred the distin)/ tion -et1een authorities and .o1er/.e4e. institutions -ut a.so &ointed to the under.+in( simi.arities -et1een re4o.ution and nationa.ist se)ession2
?= ?"
Arendt0 The 2uman Condition0 ">=/"2 Char.es 3i..+0 'rom o3ili)ation to #evolution 6'n(.e1ood C.i!!sP 8renti)e/Ha..0 ">CA72
44
3hus0 the )onso.idation o! &o.iti)a. order a!ter re4o.utions is not on.+ a matter o! normati4e.+ ins&ired and )onstitutiona..+ (uaranteed do)trines -ut needs to take into a))ount the !.uidit+ o! the )on%un)ture0 1hi)h -ui.ds u& as a &ro)ess o! disorder0 4io.en)e0 and so)ia. e!!er4es)en)e2 As Wi..iam :e1e.. has ar(ued0 the Eren)h Re4o.ution 1as not on.+ the -irth&.a)e o! demo)rati) &o.iti)s and )onstitutiona.ism2 3he )on%un)ture -et1een the ne1 )on)e&t o! re4o.ution and the idea o! so4erei(nt+ o! the &eo&.e 1as &rodu)ed in the si(ni!i)ant u&hea4a. o! e4er+da+ .i!e and so)ia. )ommuni)ation asso)iated 1ith )ro1d 4io.en)e2 3he .e(a..+ san)/ tioned stru)tura. trans!ormation o! &o&u.ar so4erei(nt+ o))urred in the ha&haIard )on!i(uration o! )ro1d a)tion2 ?< Memora-.e e4ents su)h as the atta)k on the ,asti..e0 a!ter 1hi)h the Mationa. Assem-.+ !or)ed the kin( to )onsent to &o&u.ar so4erei(nt+0 1ere not &rimari.+ -ased on the intentiona. )ons)iousness o! heroi) indi4idua.s2 Rather the+ shou.d -e understood as a set o! trans!ormations o! meanin( in the )ontin(ent so)ia. )onte5t2 3he Hreat Eear as the most astonishin( mass &ani) in re)orded histor+ 1as de)isi4e !or the .e(is.ati4e a)t o! a-o.ishin( !euda.ism and &ri4i.e(e -+ re&.a)in( them 1ith eDua.it+ -e!ore the .a12 3he mass &ani) o! the Hreat Eear interru&ted the Mationa. Assem-.+ ne(otiations on the )onstitution and the de).aration o! ri(hts -e)ause o! the &ressin( situation o! ho1 to dea. 1ith in)reasin( disorder in the &ro4in)es2 :imi.ar.+0 insur/ re)tionar+ &easant 4io.en)e had a &ositi4e e!!e)t on eman)i&ation and demo)ra)+2?? The modelling power o$ critical events Re(ime theor+ assumes that )ommunist re(imes -e.on(ed to di!!erent ).asses !rom demo)rati) re(imes2 Common sense has it that ,o.she4iks hated the -our(eoisie and0 )onseDuent.+0 im&osed ).ass stru((.e as the dri4in( !or)e o! the re4o.ution2 Common sense has it a.so that )ounter/ re4o.utionar+ !or)es and the )a&ita.ist West hated the ,o.she4iks and there!ore in!.i)ted interna. and e5terna. )on!.i)ts u&on them2 3he se.!/ &ro).aimed nature o! ,o.she4ik )ommunism as the di)tatorshi& o! the &ro.etariat and the !un)tiona./des)ri&ti4e anta(onism -et1een demo)rati) and tota.itarian re(imes rein!or)ed su)h ).assi!i)ator+ s)hemes2 :tandard institutiona. a))ounts dra1 a di4idin( .ine -et1een )onstitutiona. !orms -e)ause the+ ).assi!+ them a))ordin( to their institutiona. &ra)ti)es0 their modes o! or(anisation o! &o1er0 and their modes o! )ommuni)ation2
?< ??
:e1e..0 OHistori)a. '4ents as 3rans!ormations o! :tru)tures;0 AC"/42 John Marko!!0 OVio.en)e0 'man)i&ation0 and *emo)ra)+;0 in Har+ Fates0 ed20 The 'rench #evolution 6London and Me1 YorkP Rout.ed(e0 ">>A70 <?B/CA2
4@
As Hre(or+ ,ateson has su((ested0 an+ rea. )ommuni)ation -et1een &eo&.e in the su-stan)e o! .i4ed e5&erien)es in the so)ia. 1or.d is at a di!!erent .e4e. !rom ho1 it is &er)ei4ed and inter&reted -+ )on)e&ts0 t+&o.o(ies0 or ideas2?4 In the heat o! a mi.itar+ -att.e or o! re4o.utionar+ )ro1d a)tion0 .eaders and &arti)i&ants o!ten )annot distin(uish 1inners !rom .osers0 .et a.one !ormu.ate a ne1 mora. &ur&ose or (oa. o! de4e.o&/ ment2 Me1 )on)e&ts0 ideas0 and Omode.s; o! &o.iti)a. order arise on.+ as a )onseDuen)e o! su)h materia. a)tion0 -+ means o! de.i-eration0 .in(uisti) di!!erentiation0 and makin( sense o! 1hat o))urred 1ith re(ard to e5istin( )u.tura. &atterns2 3his dimension o! !orma.isation0 )ommuni)ation0 and dis)ourse in4okes no thin(s0 !or)es0 or im&a)ts -ut on.+ di!!eren)es0 ima(es0 ideas0 and theories2?@ ,ased on 1ork in anthro&o.o(+0 )ommuni)ations ana.+sis0 and &s+/ )hothera&+0 ,ateson;s dou-.e/-ind theor+ aims to understand 1h+ there is a dis)ontinuit+ -et1een a ).ass and its mem-ers2 *ra1in( on the theor+ o! .o(i)a. t+&es0 the ).ass )annot -e a mem-er o! itse.! nor )an one o! the mem-ers -e the ).ass0 sin)e the term used !or the ).ass is o! a di!!erent .e4e. o! a-stra)tion / a di!!erent .o(i)a. t+&e / !rom terms used !or mem-ers2?B In histori)a. e5&erien)e and )ommuni)ati4e &ra)ti)e0 the )ontinuit+ -et1een a ).ass and its mem-ers is )ontinua..+ and ine4ita-.+ -rea)hed as &eo&.e0 (o4ernments0 and indi4idua.s under(o interna. trans/ !ormations2 *ou-.e -inds )an -e des)ri-ed as &atterns o! )ommuni)ation that emanate !rom re&eated e5&erien)es o! -ein( a 4i)tim2 3he+ re!er to situations o! de&enden)e o! at .east t1o su-%e)ts in 1hi)h one ma+ &otentia..+ -e)ome a 4i)tim0 and 4i)timisation )an -e)ome ha-itua. e5&e)tation2 3he intense re.ationshi& o! a-so.ute de&enden)e on a su&er/ ior -ein( or stru)ture reDuires the 4i)tim to a))urate.+ dis)riminate 1hat sort o! messa(e is -ein( )ommuni)ated in order to res&ond a&&ro&riate.+2 In a se)ond &ossi-i.it+0 4i)timisation is not a ne)essar+ out)ome o! this re.ationshi& -ut )an -e a4oided -+ shi!tin( to -e)ome a di!!erent sort o! &erson2 Here0 the indi4idua. is )au(ht in a situation in 1hi)h the other &erson in the re.ationshi& is e5&ressin( t1o orders o! messa(e and one o! these )ontradi)ts the other2 Eina..+0 the indi4idua. )annot )omment on the messa(eR he )annot make a meta/)ommuni)ati4e statement2 In this third &ossi-i.it+0 the su-%e)t neither -e)omes a 4i)tim nor is he a-.e to shi!t to -e)ome some-od+ e.se2 In this )ase0 identit+ is !ormed
?4
?@ ?B
Hre(or+ ,ateson0 Steps to an "cology o$ the ind! Collected "ssays in Anthropology& Psychiatry& "volution& and "pistemology 6Chi)a(o and LondonP 9ni4ersit+ o! Chi)a(o 8ress0 <===70 4CA2 ,ateson0 Steps to an "cology o$ the ind0 <C"/<2 ,ateson0 Steps to an "cology o$ the ind0 <=</"=2
4B
throu(h a dou-.e )onstraint that )annot -e entire.+ reso.4ed2 One o! these kee&s -ein( dire)ted to1ards the ro.e o! the 4i)tim0 1hi.e the se)ond aims to a!!irm a &ersona. identit+ inde&endent !rom and o!ten o&&osin( the !irst2 Whi.e dou-.e/-ind theor+ 1as de4e.o&ed !or understandin( the -eha4/ iour o! indi4idua.s0 the s&e)i!i) histor+ o! state/!ormation in Russia and eastern 'uro&e stron(.+ su((ests its a&&.i)a-i.it+ !or the so)ia. 1or.d2 Russia;s se.!/&er)e&tion as a O-a)k1ard; or Ounderde4e.o&ed; )ountr+ ori(inated in the -orro1in(s o! ad4an)ed te)hno.o(+ in the si5teenth and se4enteenth )enturies0 as an emer(ent state -eat its 1a+ out o! su-ordination to nei(h-ourin( &o1ers2 3his sense o! -a)k1ardness rein/ !or)ed in4idious )om&arisons and a dri4e to )orre)t so)ia. inadeDua)+ -+ imitatin( Othe West; and o4er)omin( it2 ?C At the root o! the )ontest -et1een Russia and the West are not t1o entire.+ di!!erent )i4i.isations0 -ut Russia;s &s+)ho.o(i)a. desire !or su&rema)+ o4er the 'uro&ean mode.2 3he s&.it )an -e !ound in the di!!erent 1a+ in 1hi)h &atterns o! a-so.utism and &o1er .e(itimisation de4e.o&ed in 1estern 'uro&e and in Russia &rior to the se)ond ha.! o! the nineteenth )entur+2 ?A 3he Russian nation 1as !or(ed -+ an e5tension o! the im&eria. Russian !rame1ork into e4er+ as&e)t o! &o.iti)a. and so)ia. .i!e2 ?> Whi.e Western a-so.utism de).ared the .e(itima)+ o! &o1er0 'astern a-so.utism de).ared the m+sti) Otruth; o! &o1er0 !or)in( its su-%e)ts to a))e&t this !rame1ork2 In order to )om&ete 1ith the e)onomi)a..+ e5&andin( West0 Russian a-so.utism had to (i4e u& its se&arate O1or.d e)onom+; and o&en u& a 1indo1 to 'uro&e0 a &ro)ess main.+ initiated -+ 8eter I2 3he Russian state ne4er assumed an e5isten)e inde&endent !rom the &erson o! the monar)h as it did in Eran)e or ,ritain2 Ho1e4er0 the &ro)ess o! 'uro&eanisation asso)iated the em&eror;s di4ine ri(ht o! .e(itima)+ 1ith the se)u.ar state0 thus .inkin( the traditiona. Russian &attern o! de4e.o&ment to O'uro&ean Dua.ities; su)h as e)onomi) and te)hno.o(i)a. &ro(ress0 and the e5&ansion and stren(thenin( o! the state24= As mimeti) theor+ su((ests0 )+).es o! 4en(ean)e and 4io.en)e &rodu)e dou-.e -inds -et1een &eo&.e 1ho are un)ons)ious.+ )ontaminated -+ the re)i&ro)it+ o! desires2 When )onta(ion 1ith emotions sus&ends indi4id/ ua. %ud(ement0 a)tion )eases to -e indi4idua..+ moti4ated or stru)tura..+
?C ?A ?> 4=
*a4id Jora4sk+0 OCommunism in Histori)a. 8ers&e)ti4e;& American 2istorical #eview0 >>0 ? 6">>470A@42 Jeno :Iu)s0 O3hree Histori)a. Re(ions o! 'uro&e;0 in John Feane0 ed20 Civil Society and the State 6LondonP Verso0 ">AA70 ?"@/<<2 Ri)hard 8i&es0 #ussia :nder the /ld #egime0 <nd edn 6LondonP 8en(uin ,ooks0 ">>@72 Ri)hard Wortman0 Scenarios o$ PowerP yth and Ceremony in #ussian onarchy0 4o.2 II 68rin)etonP 8rin)eton 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <===70 C2
4C
)onstrained -ut is (uided -+ Ointer/di4idua.it+;24" Vio.en)e arises as the o-%e)t o! )ontention .oses im&ortan)e0 1hi.e the ri4a.s are )au(ht u& in a dou-.e -ind0 1here the ).oser the imitator (ets to the mode.0 the more the mode. -e)omes an o-sta).e2 ,o.she4ik &ro&a(anda radi)a.ised &easants in an atmos&here o! (ro1in( so)ia. &o.arisation2 3his Otren)h ,o.she4ism; identi!ied the enemies o! the ,o.she4iks as O).ass enemies; and 1as )ru)ia. to the (ro1in( &o&u.arit+ o! ,o.she4ism amon( &easant/so.diers2 3he stream.inin( o! identit+ in the Russian Ci4i. War radi)a..+ sim&.i!ied &re/ )risis so)ia. hierar)hies0 s1e&t aside estate0 ).ass0 and ethnos0 and .e!t a stark )on!rontation -et1een Whites and Reds0 thus makin( neutra.it+ im&ossi-.e24< Later0 durin( :ta.in;s Hreat 3error0 mass denun)iations )ou.d s&read .ike a )onta(ious disease0 &assin( on Othe in!e)tion o! ine4i/ ta-.e arrest -+ a handshake0 -+ a -reath0 -+ a )han)e meetin( on the street;24? 3he emer(en)e o! re4o.utionar+ )ommunism under )onditions o! e5terna. and )i4i. 1ar &rom&ted man+ ana.+sts to a&&.+ the &s+)ho&a/ tho.o(i)a. )ate(or+ o! s)hiIo&hrenia to Russians in order to e5&ress the )onditions o! e4er+da+ .i!e under rea. so)ia.ism2 44 3he Ose.!/sa)ri!i)e; o! &ra)ti)a..+ a.. those a))used in :ta.in;s sho1 tria.s thre1 man+ )ommu/ nist &art+ a)ti4ists0 es&e)ia..+ a-road0 into a dou-.e -ind in 1hi)h the+ 1ou.d0 -+ a !o)us on the 4i)tims o! !as)ism0 4indi)ate the !a)t that the+ themse.4es imitated the de!endants in the tria.s -+ tr+in( to %usti!+ their adheren)e to the &art+24@ Con4erse.+0 in the disinte(ratin( Yu(os.a4ia o! the .ate ">A=s0 nationa.it+ as the sin(.e attri-ute o! )o..e)ti4e identi!i)a/ tion sudden.+ e.iminated Yu(os.a4 identit+ and -e)ame )onta(ious and ram&ant24B A simi.ar di)hotom+ -ased on out)ome/.o(i) (uides thinkin( a-out 1ars0 1hi)h are main.+ a&&roa)hed as interru&tions o! &ea)e!u. order2 3he under.+in( assum&tion a-out 1ar;s in!.uen)e on &o.iti)s sees the destru)ti4eness o! 1ar in o&&osition to .o!t+ as&irations to se)ure .i!e0 &ro&ert+0 and se)urit+2 In other 1ords0 the dark sides o! 1ar are on.+ destru)ti4e andha4e not on.+ .itt.e in!.uen)e on &ea)e0 -ut arediametri)a..+
4" 4< 4?
44 4@ 4B
RenV Hirard0 Things 2idden Since the 'oundation o$ the 0orld 6,a.timoreP Johns Ho&kins 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">AC70 ?@2 Heo!!re+ Hoskin(0 #ussia! People and "mpire *<<A-*+*5 6LondonP Eontana 8ress0 ">>C70 4@?2 A.e5ander :o.Ihenits+n0 The 1ulag ArchipelagoP An "xperiment in %iterary Investigation0 4o.s2 I and II0 trans2 !rom the Russian -+ 3homas 82 Whitne+ 6,ou.derP West4ie1 8ress0 ">>A70C@2 CIesLa1 MiLosI0 The Captive ind 6Me1 YorkP A.!red A2 Fno&!0 ">@?72 ManeSs :&er-er0 Die Ceit der Tyrannis und andere "ssays0 ed2 Janka :&er-er 6Muni)hP *3V0 ">AC70 "42 :.a4enka *raku.i)G0 The 8alkan "xpress! 'ragments $rom the /ther Side o$ the 0ar 6Me1 York and LondonP W2W2 Morton0 ">>?70 @=/"2
4A
o&&osed to it24C Erom su)h a &ers&e)ti4e0 &o.iti)a. histor+ a&&ears to -e a )ontinuum 1here indi4idua.s in)essant.+ mo4e to1ards a -etter .i!e inter/ ru&ted on.+ -+ ne)essar+ ru&tures o! mass ki..in( in 1ars2 Yet 1ar is the )ontinuit+ o! &o.iti)s -+ other means2 4A War is a )hame.eon 1ith an e4er/ )han(in( nature2 It )om-ines the su-stan)e o! -ound.ess 4io.en)e 1ith the &.a+ o! &ro-a-i.ities a-out interests and strate(ies2 :imi.ar.+0 1ar )an -e a &o.iti)a.too.inthe hands o!rationa..+ minded &o.iti)ians2 Whi.e 1ars arein essen)e un&redi)ta-.e0 the Otota. 1ars; o! the t1entieth )entur+ 1ere e4en more so2 3he 4er+ un!o.din( o! 1ars turns u&side do1n the situations that .a+ at their ori(ins and makes ne1 rationa.es o! &o.iti)a. )ondu)t a&&ear that 1ou.d ha4e -een unthinka-.e e4en in the .ast moments o! 1ar a)tion2 3he .imit.ess &otentia. o! 1or.d 1ars th1arted rationa. )a.)u.ations a-out arms )ontro. -e!ore the :e)ond Wor.d War and a-out &o.iti)a. a..ian)es a!ter its end2 It is the -att.e itse.! and not the ori(in o! the )on!.i)t or a &ea)e treat+ that is the most im&ortant issue and de4e.o&s the most !ar/rea)hin( )onseDuen)es24> Ca.)u.ations a-out 1ar as a strate(+ or a &o.i)+ are at a di!!erent .o(i)a. .e4e. !rom the su-stan)e o! 1ar2 A messa(e a-out 1ar or a &o.i)+ o! 1ar!are is not &art o! the e5&erientia. -asis o! 1ar2 3he ne(otiations !or a &ea)e treat+ are not 1ithin the same ethi)a. s+stem as the de)e&tions and tri)ks o! -att.e2 Men ha4e !e.t !or )enturies that trea)her+ in a tru)e is 1orse than tri)ker+ in -att.e2 Va.ues su)h as the nation or the home.and Dui)k.+ 4anish as the s&iritua. .i!e ener(+ o! the &o&u.ation in dramati) situations !o)uses on the a)Duisition o! -asi) !ood or the Oe(oisti); aim o! sa4in( one;s o1n .i!e2 *es&ite the risks and dan(ers o! a strenuous stru((.e !or nationa. sur4i4a. in a 1ar0 4ita. ener(+0 resour)es0 and mass 4o.ition )an -e dire)ted at un.eashin( a re4o.ution a(ainst the 4er+ &i..ars o! .e(itima)+ and &o1er o! its state2 3he out-reak o! the Ee-ruar+ Re4o.ution o! ">"C0 !or instan)e0 1as met -+ sheer in)redu.it+ -+ Westerners sho)ked at &eo&.e (i4in( &riorit+ to a domesti) &o.iti)a. re4o.ution at the e5&ense o! !i(htin( the Herman enem+2@= '4en !ai.ures -+ e.ites to &ro4ide se)urit+ o! -orders and the sur4i4a. o! a nation ma+ ins&ire a mora. &ur&ose in the &o&u.ation2 *es&ite the !ai.ure o! state/-ui.din( or state de!en)e0 the short/term inde&endent statehood or restored statehood in east 'uro&ean )ountries su)h as 8o.and0 CIe)hos.o4akia0 and the ,a.ti) )ountries durin( the
4C 4A 4> @=
Jan 8ato)Wka0 2eretical "ssays in the Philosophy o$ 2istory0 ed2 James *odd 6Chi)a(o and La :a..eP O&en Court0 ">>B70 "">/?A2 Car. 4on C.ause1itI0 /n 0ar0 ed2 and trans2 Mi)hae. Ho1ard and 8eter 8aret 6LondonP *2 Cam&-e..0 ">>?70 -ook "0 )ha&2 "0 no2 <A2 Ra+mond Aron0 %es guerres en chaDne0 "<th edn 68arisP Ha..imard0 ">@"70 <<2 Heor(e E2 Fennan0 #ussia and the 0est :nder %enin and Stalin 6,oston and 3orontoP Litt.e0 ,ro1n and Com&an+0 ">B"70 B2
4>
inter1ar &eriod and the nationa. stru((.e !or sur4i4a. in the :e)ond Wor.d War a)Duired an enormous mora. 4a.ue0 1hi)h nurtured e5&e)tations o! nationa. .i-eration2@" Rather than -ein( )aused -+ a s&e)i!i) ).ass0 the re4o.utions in Hun(ar+ in ">@B or in 8o.and in ">A= disso.4ed so)ia. hierar)hies -+ &rodu)in( a s&iritua. )ommunit+ that -e)ame re&resenta/ ti4e o! the nation2 Mem-ers o! the 8o.ish :o.idarnoG)G mo4ement !ramed their demands !or !ree and inde&endent trade unions in terms o! romanti) nationa. tradition0 an ethi)a. )i4i. so)iet+0 and uni4ersa. demo)ra)+2 3his 1as met -+ &ro!ound dis-e.ie! in )ir).es o! the Western .e!t0 as the re4o/ .ution 1as not )arried out -+ a 1orkin( ).ass in the ).assi)a. so)ia.ist )on)e&tion -ut in the name o! the 8o.ish nation and under the ae(is o! re.i(ious s+m-o.s2 In )riti)a. e4ents0 &eo&.e ado&t a rationa.it+ or )ons)iousness that emer(es in the situation0 and is not re&resentati4e o! a rationa.it+ or .o(i) e5terna. to that situation2 Anthro&o.o(i)a. resear)h distin(uished Oe4ents/that/mode.; !rom Oe4ents that &resent the .i4ed/in 1or.d; or Oe4ents that re/&resent the .i4ed/in 1or.d;2 @< Ritua.ised e4ents su)h as the (reat )e.e-rations o! statehood in the :o4iet 9nion or eastern 'uro&e 1ere e4ents o! &resentation that he.d u& a mirror to so)ia. order2 :u)h ritua.ised e4ents do not !o..o1 a .o(i) o! situationa. un)ertaint+ -ut rather se.e)ti4e.+ su-stantiate or a!!irm 4ersions o! s+m-o.i) meanin(s o! mode./ .in( e4ents that are .ar(e.+ kno1n2 '4ents/that/mode.0 on the )ontrar+0 are )u.tura..+ )reati4e as the+ o&en u& d+nami) &otentia.it+ -ut a.so de!ine .imits o! em&o1erment 1ithin so)ia. orders2 Contin(en)+ and un)ertaint+ (uide their .o(i)0 as the+ are em-edded into the &resumed sta-i.it+ o! the &henomenon that is to under(o this radi)a. transmutation2 Re4o.utions are su)h e4ents/that/mode.0 1here a)tion has a )ertain te.eo.o(i)a. .ean/ in( as it un!o.ds in a means/to/end )onte5t in 1hi)h the+ are em-edded and !rom 1hi)h their s+m-o.i) &otentia. un!o.ds2 8eo&.e en(a(ed in the te.eo.o(i)a. means/to/end )onte5t o! dramati) situations assi(n meanin( and &ur&ose to their a)tions di!!erent.+ !rom ho1 theorists o! modernisa/ tion0 de4e.o&ment0 and state )entra.isation 1ou.d ha4e it2 '4en thou(h &eriods o! intense 4io.en)e are !o..o1ed -+ &ea)e0 identit+/ !ormation in a((re(ate entities su)h as states0 nations0 and re(imes is )hara)terised -+ tensions and )on!.i)ts on t1o !ronts2 @? Mor-ert '.ias;s )on)e&t o! dua./!ront strata o4er)omes a stati) )on)e&tion o! ).ass -+
@" @< @?
Jose&h Roths)hi.d0 #eturn to Diversity! A Political 2istory o$ "ast Central "urope Since 0orld 0ar II0 <nd edn 6Me1 York and O5!ordP O5!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>?72 *on Hande.man0 odels and irrors! Towards an Anthropology o$ Pu3lic "vents 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>=70 <</@C2 Mor-ert '.ias0 Die hE$ische 1esellscha$t! :ntersuchungen )ur So)iologie des FEnigtums und der hE$ischen Artistokratie0 Ath edn 6Erank!urt am MainP :uhrkam&0 ">>C70 ?AC/>=2
@=
!o)usin( on the tension -et1een a stratum a-o4e and a stratum -e.o12 Russian e.ites0 !or instan)e0 -ased their .eadershi& as&irations on the mo4ements -et1een t1o !ronts2 3he !irst mo4ement 1as ins&ired -+ the desire to share &ro!essed simi.arit+ 1ith the &resti(e o! distant 'uro&e to ensure the .e(itima)+ o! &o1er2 Russian ru.ers )ons)ientious.+ )ared a-out the s+m-o.i) sta(in( o! sa)ra.it+ and em-odiment o! heroi) histor+0 as deri4ed !rom distant histori)a. or (eo(ra&hi)a. sour)es2 @4 A se)ond mo4ement )on)erned the dua. !ronts in domesti) &o.iti)s2 In man+ res&e)ts0 the edu)ated ).asses and the Russian inte..i(entsia remained distant !rom the )ommon &eo&.e0 -orn to remain in -et1een a hi(her )i4i.isation and the .o1er stratum o! the &eo&.e !or 1hose .i-eration the+ !ou(ht2 The $ormation o$ consciousness Ho1 )an )riti)a. situations e!!e)t interna. trans!ormations at the .e4e. o! )ons)iousnessQ M+ intuition is that -e+ond materia. !a)tors an+ &ossi-.e ana.+ti)a. )riteria need to &a+ at .east eDua. attention to ho1 e5&erien)es a!!e)t s&irit0 mind0 -e.ie!0 and emotions2 '5&erien)es themse.4es0 in the 1a+ the+ are O.i4ed throu(h; -+ human -ein(s0 ha4e a stru)ture o! their o1n0 and there!ore do not reDuire the e5terna. )ate(ories o! the tran/ s)endenta. mind !or inte..i(i-i.it+2 :o)ia. anthro&o.o(+ has su((ested that the dramati) set/u& o! .imina. e5&erien)es )an -e stru)tured2 In Vi)tor 3urner;s ).assi!i)ation0 a so)ia. drama )onsists o! !our &hases2 @@ It takes o!! 1ith the -rea)h o! re(u.ar so)ia. re.ations or the radi)a. )ha..en(e o! the ru.es norma..+ -indin( mem-ers o! a )ommunit+0 either in a &remedi/ tated manner or )aused -+ an un&.anned e4ent2 A se)ond &hase )onsists o! the )risis in 1hi)h the sudden a))e.eration o! e4ents takes on a .i!e o! its o1n2 At this )riti)a. %un)ture0 re.e4ant s&heres o! so)iet+ are )hara)terised -+ ha&haIard )oa.ition/-ui.din( around -urnin( issues0 1hi)h &o.arise the )ommunit+ into ri4a. and )on!.i)tin( (rou&s2 3he third &hase is the redress0 1hi)h re!ers to attem&ts at arrestin( the &ro)ess o! disinte(ration and at restorin( so)ia. order -+ a .e(itima)+/)reatin( &o.iti)a. )onsensus2 Eina..+0 a!ter the Ode&.o+ment o! .e(a. or ritua. me)hanisms o! redress;0 there is either a return to &hase t1o throu(h another )risis0 or a return to norma. order0 in a &hase o! reinte(ration2 3he )ru)ia. &oint is that in the !.uidit+ o! the )on%un)ture rea.it+ )eases to -e &er)ei4ed as a rationa..+ testa-.e Oo-%e)ti4e !or)e;2 Rather0 it )an
@4 @@
Wortman0 Scenarios o$ Power0 B2 Vi)tor 3urner0 /n the "dge o$ the 8ush 63u)sonP 9ni4ersit+ o! AriIona 8ress0 ">A@70 <"@/<"2
@"
-e)ome horiIonta..+ !e.t as immediate &arti)i&ation in the dramati) a)tion o! so)ia. e!!er4es)en)e o! a )o..e)ti4e -od+2 In re4o.utionar+ dramas0 the t1o main as&e)ts o! e5&erien)e )oin)ide in the Oo-%e)ti4e; )hara)ter o! a ma%or and sudden e4ent0 and the Osu-%e)ti4e; &ers&e)ti4e o! ho1 this e4ent 1as .i4ed throu(h -+ the indi4idua.s under(oin( the )han(es2 In these )ases0 indi4idua.s (o throu(h their Oinitiation rites; durin( ma%or so)io/ &o.iti)a. trans!ormations0 makin( the im&a)t o! the so)ia. &arti)u.ar.+ stron(2 3hus0 so)ia. dramas make t1o distin)t stru)tures o! )ons)iousness a&&ear2@B Common.+0 )ons)iousness is asso)iated 1ith some de(ree o! intentiona.it+ o! human -ein(s 1ho !o)us on e5terna. o-%e)ts or thin(s outside themse.4es2 In times o! &ea)e or re.ati4e.+ sta-.e so)ia. re.ations0 the intentiona. )ons)iousness o! &o.iti)a. a)tors is (enera..+ )hara)terised -+ 1e../arti)u.ated (oa.s and &ur&oses im&.+in( the &redi)ta-i.it+ o! &o.i)+ strate(ies0 and the &ursuit o! se)tiona. or ).ass interests2 It is at the )on/ %un)ture o! )risis situations 1here the densit+ o! so)ia. re.ations (enerates another0 se)ond Odimension; o! )ons)iousness2 In this se)ond t+&e0 )ons)iousness -e.on(s not to man in his -odi.+ e5isten)e0 -ut to the )om&rehendin( rea.it+ in 1hi)h man &arti)i&ates 1ith other &artners in the )ommunit+ o! -ein(2 In su)h &arti)i&ator+ e4ents0 human )ons)iousness0 as it 1ere0 !.o1s -et1een man;s -odi.+ e5isten)e and intentiona. rea.it+ dire)ted at o-%e)ts2 3his se)ond0 )on/ )rete.+ .o)ated and e5&erien)ed )ons)iousness is a.so rea.0 a.thou(h it a&&ears to -e emotiona. and un)ons)ious throu(h &arti)i&ation in a so)ia. )ommunit+2@C War0 !or instan)e0 has a.1a+s -een unmat)hed in ins&irin( so.idarit+ and )ommunit+0 )om-ined 1ith de4otion and an un)onditiona. sense o! sa)ri!i)e !or the nation2 @A 3he a&&ea. o! 1ar thus o4er&o1ers &a)i!ist dis)ourse as its a&&ea. to sa)ri!i)e one;s .i!e to the )ause o! the nation -e)omes an o4er1he.min( mora. &ur&ose2 3his Os&iritua. !or)e; o! 1ar makes it di!!i)u.t to !ind a Omora. eDui4a.ent o! 1ar;2@> 3he Herman in4asion o! the :o4iet 9nion in ">4" &ro4oked the re4i4a. o! nationa. emotions0 )on%urin( u& Russian traditions o! heroi) resistan)e and nationa. )ommunit+ in the &ast2B= 3hus0 1ar itse.! has an e5&.anator+ 4a.ue as an e4ent o! meanin(/!ormation 1here the so.idarit+ o! the shaken !orms a unit+0 stri)t.+ di4ided in the e!!ort o! anta(onisti)
@B @C @A @> B=
'ri) Voe(e.in0 /rder and 2istory0 4o.2 V0 In Search o$ /rder 6,aton Rou(e and LondonP Louisiana :tate 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">A@70 "@/"B2 Voe(e.in0 In Search o$ /rder0 "@2 Ma5 We-er0 1esammelte Au$sat)e )ur #eligionsso)iologie 63u-in(enP Mohr0 ">AA70 @4A2 Wi..iam James0 The 0ritings o$ 0illiam Games! A Comprehensive "dition0 ed2 and intro2 John J2 M)*ermott 6Chi)a(o and LondonP 9ni4ersit+ o! Chi)a(o 8ress0 ">CA70 BBB2 Mina 3umarkin0 The %iving and the Dead! The #ise and 'all o$ the Cult o$ 0orld 0ar II in #ussia 6Me1 YorkP ,asi) ,ooks0 ">>470 B?2
@<
!or)es at the !ront -ut united in the mo-i.isation o! a mora. &ur&ose !or the )ommunit+2B" Moreo4er0 shi!ts o! )ons)iousness need not -e .imited to O(reat e4ents; o! hi(her &u-.i)it+2 Minor o))urren)es ma+ -e )ru)ia. !or the !ormation o! )ons)iousness o! !uture .eaders or ma+ re4erse or a.ter stron( trends0 as sma.. )auses ma+ &rodu)e -i( e!!e)ts2 Lenin;s sin(.e most im&ortant e5&erien)e o! initiation in the re4o.utionar+ !i(ht a(ainst tsarism 1as re&orted.+ the e5e)ution o! his -rother A.e5ander in "AAC0 in the 1ake o! a )ons&ira)+ a(ainst 3sar A.e5ander III2 B< 3his e4ent 1as si(ni!i)ant -oth so)io&o.iti)a..+ and indi4idua..+0 settin( Lenin on the &ath o! a de4oted inte..e)tua. and &o.iti)a. !i(hter !or re4o.ution2 3he 8o.ish dis/ sident Adam Mi)hnik de).ared that he o1ed e4er+thin( to the )ommu/ nists 1ho arrested him ">B@ at the a(e o! nineteen and 1ho thus de)ided his !urther tra%e)tor+ as an eminent dissident2 B? :imi.ar.+0 stru)tures )an -e o&en to dou-t or s)e&ti)ism !ar -e!ore an+ e4ent )ha..en(es them o&en.+2 Im&ortant e4ents o! de!ian)e a(ainst )ommunist ru.e 1ere in (estation .on( -e!ore the !ina. disru&tion2 3he 8ra(ue s&rin( did not arise as a s&ontaneous ha&&enin(R it 1as the resu.t o! a (radua. a1akenin(0 a sort o! )ree&in( o&enin( o! the hidden s&here o! so)iet+2 B4 8rior to ">BA there 1as no ne)essit+ !or inde&endent dissident initiati4es -e)ause &o1er stru)tures themse.4es had not +et attained the stati)0 im&enetra-.e0 and sta-.e !orms that the+ had in the 1ake o! ">BA2 A.thou(h this se)ond s&here o! )ons)iousness is as rea. as the !irst one0 the e5&erientia. rea.it+ inside a )riti)a. situation is .o(i)a..+ di!!erent !rom the )ertainties and )onstraints under )onstituted &o1er s+stems2 A semi/ na. )ontri-ution to the rationa.it+ o! )o..e)ti4e a)tion ar(ued that di!!er/ en)es in the &osition o! a (rou& in the ).ass stru)ture .ead not on.+ to di!!eren)es in &o1er -ut a.so to di!!eren)es in the asso)iationa. &ra)ti)es and the t+&es o! )o..e)ti4e a)tion2 B@ 3he di!!eren)e o! ).ass0 ho1e4er0 is a.so a matter o! e5&erien)e0 .an(ua(e0 and dis)ourse2 Histori)a..+0 the )onstitution o! ).ass -ut a.so o! states and re(imes is more .ike.+ to -e a resu.t o! a)tion rather than a (i4en -ased on 4ested interests2 A.thou(h the
B" B< B? B4
B@
8ato)Wka0 2eretical "ssays2 :ee Leonard :)ha&iro0 #ussian Studies0 ed2 '..en *ahrendor! 6Me1 YorkP Vikin(0 ">AC70 ">=2 Adam Mi)hnik0 Dia3eH nas)ego c)asu 6Warsa1P MieIa.eYna O!i)+na W+da1ni)t1a0 ">>@70?>A2 Va).a4 Ha4e.0 O3he 8o1er o! the 8o1er.ess;0 in John Feane0 ed20 The Power o$ the Powerless! Citi)ens Against the State in "astern "urope 6LondonP Hut)hinson and Co20 ">A@704?2 C.aus O!!e and He.mut Wiesentha.0 O31o Lo(i)s o! Co..e)ti4e A)tionP 3heoreti)a. Motes on :o)ia. C.ass and Or(aniIationa. Eorm;0 Political Power and Social Theory 0 " 6">A=70 BC/""@2
@?
1riters o! the Ameri)an Constitution 1ere intense.+ )ons)ious o! their ro.e as !ounders and stressed the im&ortan)e o! their a)ts !or O(enerations +et un-orn; or O&osterit+;0 their dis&ositions 1ere not eDui4a.ent to .i-era. demo)ra)+ as a t+&e o! (o4ernment2 BB Rather than (roundin( )onstitu/ tiona.ism in an a-so.ute &rin)i&.e0 the+ )om-ined the imitation o! the Roman e5am&.e 1ith re&u-.i)anism in the Ma)hia4e..ian tradition2 3heir )ons)iousness 1as not in tune 1ith a determinate mode. o! &o.iti)a. or(anisation -ut -e)ame trans!ormed throu(h the 4er+ a)t o! !oundin( a ne1 s+stem o! &o.iti)a. authorit+0 1hi)h &ostu.ated a O-e(innin( o! time; throu(h a return to the &ast2BC As a.. &o.iti)a. a)tors in )riti)a. e4ents0 the Eren)h re4o.utionaries did not ha4e a )hoi)e -et1een an ima(inar+ and a &otentia..+ 4ia-.e &o.iti)a. &ro%e)t -ut -et1een a.ternati4e ima(inati4e )onstru)tions o! the so)ia. and &o.iti)a. 1or.d2BA Initia..+0 the aim o! the Eren)h re4o.utionaries 1as not the re4ersa. o! the ancien r4gime -ut its re)onstitution2 B> 3he &eriod "CA>/>= 1as not a radi)a. &re)ursor to the 3error0 -ut 1as dominated -+ moderates 1ho 1ere keen to a4oid )ounter/re4o.ution and 1ho &ursued the esta-.ishment o! )onstitutiona. (o4ernment2 In the )onte5t o! the Eren)h Re4o.ution0 not on.+ did the re&resentati4es o! the third estate not ha4e so)ia..+ homo(eneous -a)k(rounds -ut the+ a.so .a)ked a re4/ o.utionar+ dis&osition0 e4en as an ideo.o(i)a. stand&oint2 C= Whereas the ear.+ re4o.utionaries &ro).aimed a ru&ture 1ith the ancien r4gime0 the radi)a. Ja)o-in &hase &a4ed the 1a+ to -ureau)rati) )entra.isation2 Meither the end o! tsarism in Ee-ruar+ ">"C nor the ,o.she4ik Re4o.ution and its maintenan)e in )i4i. 1ar and 1ar )ommunism 1as ine4ita-.e2C" Leninism 1as not a )oherent ideo.o(+ that 1as ine4ita-.+ to .ead to the di)tatorshi& o! the &ro.etariat2 At the moment o! rea.isin( the coup d4tat in 8etro(rad on <4 O)to-er ">"C0 Lenin turned u&side do1n the theor+ o! re&resentati4e (o4ernment o! the so4iets2 Rather than -ein( re&resentati4e o! a ma%or so)ia. (rou&0 the ,o.she4iks !o..o1ed a Ii(Ia( &ath 1ith ha&haIard )oa.itions and attuned their strate(ies0 o!ten due to )han)e e4ents2 3he (ro1in( ).ass anta(onism in the Russian arm+ and in
BB
BC BA B> C=
C"
Ce)i.ia M2 Fen+on0 OConstitutiona.ism in Re4o.utionar+ Ameri)a;0 in J2 Ro.and 8enno)k and John W2 Cha&man0 eds20 Constitutionalism 6Me1 YorkP Me1 York 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">C>70A4/"<"2 Hannah Arendt0 /n #evolution 6LondonP Ea-er and Ea-er0 ">B<70 <=4/@2 Wi..iam :e1e.. %nr0 OA Rhetori) o! ,our(eois Re4o.ution;0 in Fates0 The 'rench #evolution0 "4?/@B2 A.e5is de 3o)Due4i..e0 %ancien r4gime et la r4volution 68arisP E.ammarion0 ">AA72 3imoth+ 3a)kett0 8ecoming a #evolutionary! The Deputies o$ the 'rench ;ational Assem3ly and the "mergence o$ a #evolutionary Culture I*56+-*5+,J 68rin)etonP 8rin)eton 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>B72 Ri)hard 8i&es0 Three 0hys o$ the #ussian #evolution 6LondonP 8im.i)o0 ">>A70 ""/">2
@4
the ma%or )ities in the a!termath o! the Ee-ruar+ Re4o.ution 1as reminis/ )ent o! the t1o Oso)ieties; in Russia0 the &eo&.e 6 narod7 and en.i(htened )i4i. so)iet+ 6o3shchestvennost72 Ho1e4er0 it 1as -+ no means &re!i(ured -e!ore ">"C -ut 1as rather a resu.t o! the !ai.ed &o.iti)a. &ro%e)t o! the dua./&o1er set/u&2 3he )onstru)tion o! the term 3ur)hua 6-our(eois7 as the ).ass enem+ 1as &rimari.+ de!ined -+ its !.uidit+0 4a(ueness0 and makeshi!t )hara)ter2 In the )ro1d 4io.en)e o! ">"C0 the aroused masses 4ented their an(er not a(ainst an a-stra)t O-our(eoisie; or a so)ia. ).ass -ut a(ainst rea. &eo&.e the+ met in !a)e/to/!a)e re.ationshi&s on the streets0 una-.e to ).ear.+ identi!+ a &otentia. enem+ in ).ass terms2 C< 3he re4o.utions in Hun(ar+ in ">@B0 in CIe)hos.o4akia in ">BA0 and in 8o.and in ">A=/" 1ere o-%e)ti4e )rises in )ommunist &o.iti)a. so)ieties -ut modi!ied attitudes o! &o1er in)um-ents and o! indi4idua.s as the+ su-%e)ti4e.+ tried to make sense o! su)h ma%or so)io&o.iti)a. trans!orm/ ations2 3he :o4iet inter4ention on <" Au(ust ">BA in CIe)hos.o4akia &rodu)ed t1o rea.ities2 C? A.thou(h it !ai.ed to a)hie4e its &o.iti)a. o-%e)/ ti4es0 the mi.itar+ o))u&ation -+ :o4iet !or)es 1as )onso.idated 1ithin a !e1 da+s and -e)ame a rea.it+ in CIe)hos.o4ak .i!e2 :imu.taneous.+0 and Duite une5&e)ted.+0 the o4er1he.min( ma%orit+ o! the )ountr+;s &o&u.a/ tion )ha..en(ed the :o4iet o))u&ation !or)e -+ means o! s&ontaneous )o..e)ti4e so.idarit+ and non/4io.ent resistan)e0 s+m-o.isin( the unit+ o! the CIe)hos.o4ak &eo&.e2 3he :o4iet Arm+;s utter sur&rise a-out the &o&u.ation;s rea)tion mani!ested the &ro!ound misinter&retation o! the situation -+ the :o4iet authorities2 3he e5&erien)e o! resistan)e to )ommunism re!.e)ts the insi(hts o! so)ia. theorists that the .o(i) o! 1ar!are and re)i&ro)a. 4en(ean)e is not an anthro&o.o(i)a. )onstant2 As anthro&o.o(ists su)h as Marsha.. :ah.ins ha4e ar(ued0 the e5)han(e o! (oods in &rimiti4e !orms o! e)onom+ 1as not -ased on the &ursuit o! &ri4ate se.!/interest -ut 1as dri4en -+ the need to esta-.ish a so)ia. -ond2 '5)han(in( (oods0 there!ore0 1as tantamount to a kind o! so)ia. )ontra)t 1hi)h &re4ented 4io.en)e !rom -reakin( out2 C4 3he ri)h and )ontro4ersia. .iterature in the 1ake o! Mar)e. Mauss;s semina. essa+ on O3he Hi!t; has -een intri(ued 1ith the !or)e -+ 1hi)h a (i!t indu)es some-od+ to re)i&ro)ate it2 '5&.ainin( the .o(i) o! the )ounter/(i!t0 C.aude Le!ort ar(ued that (i4in( -a)k a (i!t im&.ies that
C< C?
C4
Or.ando Ei(es and ,oris Fo.onitskii0 Interpreting the #ussian #evolution! The %anguage and Sym3ols o$ *+*5 6Me1 Ha4en and LondonP Ya.e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>>70 "CC/A2 Ered H2 'id.in0 The %ogic o$ K;ormali)ation! The Soviet Intervention in C)echoslovakia o$ A* August *+-6 and the C)echoslovak #esponse 6Me1 YorkP Co.um-ia 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">A=70"@B2 Marsha.. :ah.ins0 Stone Age "conomics 6Chi)a(oP A.dine0 ">C<70 "C</42
@@
the other is .ike me 1ho ou(ht to a)t .ike me2 C@ 3his (esture is su&&osed to )on!irm the truth o! m+ o1n (esture0 1hi)h is m+ su-%e)ti4it+2 As Lu) ,o.tanski ar(ued !or the s&e)i!i) a)t o! agape0 )onditions o! &ea)e are &ossi-.e0 1hi)h renoun)e )ommon notions o! se.!/interested re)i&ro)it+0 %usti)e0 or e5&e)tations o! re)ei4in( -a)k as a resu.t o! (i4in(2 CB 3he !o)us on demo)ratisation as startin( a!ter the end o! )ommunist &o1er has )on)ea.ed the !ormati4e &o1er o! situationa. &remises2 ,oth re4o.utionar+ 4io.en)e and )onditions o! &ea)e!u. communitas ha4e -een !ormati4e !or dis&ositions o! indi4idua.s and )o..e)ti4e (rou&s2 *emo)rati) transitions a!ter )ommunism do not de&end on.+ on &redetermined dis/ &ositions a&&ro&riate !or .i-era. demo)ra)+ -ut shou.d in).ude the uto&ian &ossi-i.ities o! demo)ra)+0 1hi)h su-s)ri-ed to ethi)a. indi4idua.ism0 ima(es o! !u.. !reedom0 or anti/&o.iti)a. attitudes o! O.i4in( in truth;2 In the )onte5t o! !.uid )on%un)tures0 a)tors are )on)erned not %ust 1ith 4io.en)e and 4en(ean)eR their )ons)iousness is a.so !ormed -+ mutua. re)o(nition and the desire !or )ommunit+2 :o.idarit+ 1ith !e..o1 )itiIens and other human -ein(s 1ho su!!er !rom o&&ression or humi.i/ ation ma+ -e)ome a ma%or )on)ern !or &eo&.e durin( s&ontaneous mo-i/ .isation0 e4en &rom&tin( the diso-e+in( o! orders -+ the (o4ernment or the &o.i)e !or)e2 3he di!!erent .o(i) o! -eha4iour reDuires a&&roa)hin( the situation as a mi)ro)osm 1here o-%e)ti4e e4ents and su-%e)ti4e attitudes are mutua..+ de&endent on ea)h other2 Mutua. re)o(nition is the &re/ )ondition !or the )onstitution o! )onditions o! &ea)e2 CC In CIe)hos.o4akia0 indi4idua. e5&erien)es o! ha4in( si(ned Charter CC e4oked sudden and &o1er!u. !ee.in(s o! (enuine )ommunit+ amon( &eo&.e 1ho 1ere a.. -ut stran(ers -e!ore2 A.thou(h the )ha..en(e to the 8o.ish )ommunist &art+/state -+ the trade union mo4ement :o.idarnoG)G in ">A= 1as enormous / due to -oth the num-ers o! !o..o1ers and the mora. &ur&ose !or an inde&endent nation / the a)tion o! :o.idarit+ &re/ ).uded the seiIure o! &o1er2 :imi.ar.+0 neither &art+ re!ormers nor o&&o/ sition !or)es on the e4e o! the round/ta-.e ne(otiations in ear.+ ">A> had a trans!ormati4e interest2 3he )entra. o-%e)ti4e o! the :o.idarnoG)G o&&osi/ tion in 8o.and asso)iated 1ith the round/ta-.e ne(otiations !o..o1ed the se)tiona. .o(i) o! a re.e(a.isation o! the trade union2 Eormer enemies )on4er(ed in an un&re)edented communitas0 1ith :o.idarnoG)G re&resen/ tati4es and &art+ ne(otiators united in mutua. !or(i4eness and heart!e.t &ersona. s+m&ath+2 3hrou(hout the t1o months o! ne(otiations0 the (a&
C.aude Le!ort0 %es $ormes de lhistoire( "ssai danthropologie politi7ue 68arisP Ha..imard0 ">CA72 Lu) ,o.tanski0 %amour et la Lustice comme comp4tences 68arisP MVtai..V0 ">>=72 8au. Ri)oeur0 Parcours de la reconnaissance 68arisP :to)k0 <==470 ?@>/CA2
C@ CB CC
@B
-et1een the o&&osition and the re(ime 1as drasti)a..+ redu)ed and to& &art+ ne(otiators )ame to &er)ei4e the a&&arat)hiks as Othem;0 1hi.e in).udin( themse.4es 1ith their &artners !rom the trade union mo4ement in an Ous; )ate(or+2CA :o)io.o(i)a..+0 re4o.utionar+ mo4ements 1ere de!ined as )ontentious (atherin(s o! )ro1ds0 1here s&e)i!i) rh+thms o! )o..e)ti4e a)tion had an im&a)t on the trans!ormation o! )ons)iousness2 In this 4ie10 Oa %a((ed short/term rh+thm; de&ends hea4i.+ on shi!ts in the re.ati4e strate(i) &ositions0 shared understandin(s0 and resour)es o! )onne)ted a)tors2 Con4erse.+0 Oa smoother .on(/term rh+thm; )hara)terises in)rementa. trans!ormation &ro)esses o! so)ia. re.ations su)h as state/!ormation0 industria.isation0 or demo)ratisation2 C> Eo)used on a num-er o! &eo&.e that (ather in &u-.i).+ a))essi-.e &.a)es and make ).aims that ma+ / i! rea.ised / a!!e)t the interests o! other &ersons not &resent0 this )on)e&t i(nores indi4idua. !orms o! resistan)e as 1e.. as the routine o&eration o! institutiona.ised (rou&s2 It is .ike1ise insensiti4e to the in)rementa. de4e./ o&ment o! )o..e)ti4e identities and o! )onsensus mo-i.isation &re)edin( )ontention0 -e)ause &u-.i) re)ords te.. us .itt.e a-out these )u.tura. and so)io/&s+)ho.o(i)a. &ro)esses2 A= Re)ent.+0 the &o.iti)s o! !riendshi& has -een de4e.o&ed as a resour)e !or the )i4i.isation o! Russian &o.iti)a. .i!e2 A" 3he e5&erientia. -asis o! &o.iti)a. !orms su((ests that the Oo-%e)ti4e.+; 4eri!ia-.e ha-its0 -eha4iours0 and attitudes o! re4o.utionar+ or transitiona. .eaders are -oth a &re)ondition !or and an e!!e)t o! Osu-%e)ti4e.+; e5&erien)ed !.uidit+ o! )on%un)tures2 As Wi..iam James ar(ued0 menta. states0 )a.)u.ations0 or dis&ositions do not !o..o1 u&on ea)h other )on/ se)uti4e.+ -ut must take into a))ount the -odi.+ and emotiona. )han(es !o..o1in( u&on the &er)e&tion o! an e5)itin( !a)t2 A< In this 4ie10 e5&eri/ en)in( the )han(es as the+ o))ur is the emotion2 3hus0 the more rationa. statement is that O1e !ee. sorr+ -e)ause 1e )r+0 an(r+ -e)ause 1e strike0 a!raid -e)ause 1e trem-.e0 and not that 1e )r+0 strike0 or trem-.e0 -e)ause 1e are sorr+0 an(r+0 or !ear!u.0 as the )ase ma+ -e;2 In Ma5 We-er;s terms0 the kno1.ed(e o! )u.tura. e4ents is in)on)ei4a-.e e5)e&t on the -asis o!
CA
C> A=
A" A<
Wiktor Osiat+nGski0 O3he Roundta-.e 3a.ks in 8o.and;0 in Jon '.ster0 ed20 The #oundta3le Talks and the 8reakdown o$ Communism 6Chi)a(o and LondonP 9ni4ersit+ o! Chi)a(o 8ress0 ">>B70 @>2 Char.es 3i..+0 Popular Contention in 1reat 8ritain 6Cam-rid(e0 MAP Har4ard 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>@70 <? and B?/@2 :idne+ 3arro10 O3he 8eo&.e;s 31o Rh+thmsP Char.es 3i..+ and the :tud+ o! Contentious 8o.iti)s2 A Re4ie1 Arti).e;0 Comparative Studies in Society and 2istory0 ?A 6">>B70@>?2 O.e( Fharkhordin0 ain Concepts o$ #ussian Politics 6Lanham0 M*P 9ni4ersit+ 8ress o! Ameri)a0 <==@70 ""@/@42 James0 0ritings o$ 0illiam Games0 44>/@=2
@C
the si(ni!i)an)e that the )on)rete )onste..ations o! rea.it+ ha4e !or us in )ertain indi4idua. )on)rete situations2 A? In the means/to/end )onte5t o! su)h !.uid )on%un)tures0 the intentions o! a)tors are (uided -+ )ontradi)tor+ ima(es o! !uture (oa.s and &ast de&enden)ies2 3he im&ression o! irrationa.it+ in re4o.utionar+ )risis or transitiona. situations arises -e)ause historians tend to measure a)tion -+ di!!erent 4ariants o! out)ome/.o(i)2A4 As the desi(ns and o&tions o! a)tors a.ter in)rementa..+ throu(h time0 their &ur&ose is not attuned to an+ o-%e)t/ i4e.+ )on)ei4ed &o.iti)a. de4e.o&ment in sta(es0 &eriods0 or &aths2 Erom a &ers&e)ti4e o! Osituationa. rea.it+;0 ho1e4er0 the desi(ns o! indi4idua.s and (rou&s0 -ut a.so o! ).asses0 states0 and nations0 are ne4er stati)0 nor are the+ )om&.ete in themse.4es2 It is not enou(h to su((est that re4o.u/ tionar+ a)tion )annot -e studied !or its o1n rationa.it+ -e)ause it &rodu/ )es unintended )onseDuen)es2 What needs to -e done is to attune the dis&osition o! a)tors to the !.uidit+ o! the re4o.utionar+ )on%un)ture2 Histori)a..+0 )riti)a. situations ha4e a rationa.it+ o! their o1n0 sha&in( the )ons)iousness and dis&ositions o! a)tors2 3he !o..o1in( t1o )ha&ters aim to )onte5tua.ise su)h trans!ormations o! )ons)iousness 1ith re(ard to the dramati) situations that under.ie )ommunist &o1er and demo/ )rati) trans!ormations2 Erom su)h an e5&erientia. &ers&e)ti4e0 it 1i.. a&&ear that )ommunism and demo)ra)+ are more re.ated than is usua..+ assumed2
A? A4
Ma5 We-er0 /n the ethodology o$ the Social Sciences0 trans2 and ed2 'd1ard A2 :hi.s and Henr+ A2 Ein)h 6H.en)oe0 ILP Eree 8ress0 ">4>70 A=2 Ma5 We-er0 1esammelte Au$sat)e )ur 0issenscha$tslehre0 ?rd edn0 ed2 Johannes Win)ke.mann 63u-in(enP Mohr0 ">BA70 "<=2
3he &o.iti)a. s+m-o.ism o! )ommunism
3he death o! the s&irit is the &ri)e o! &ro(ress2
'ri) Voe(e.in
3he &o.iti)a. s&iritua.it+ o! ,o.she4ik &o1er A 4ariet+ o! )auses ha4e -een &ut !or1ard to e5&.ain ho1 the :o4iet su&er&o1er )ou.d )o..a&se so sudden.+2 3his )ha&ter )om&.ements 4ie1s that as)ri-e im&ortan)e to !a)tors su)h as im&eria. o4erstret)h0 e)onomi) )om&etition0 or a .e(itima)+ )risis2 I sha.. ar(ue that the s&iri/ tua. !oundations o! ,o.she4ik &o1er a))ount !or the &arado5i)a. nature o! )ommunism2 Re4o.utionar+ )ons)iousness and the moda.ities o! the seiIure o! &o1er -+ the ,o.she4iks !ai.ed to esta-.ish )onstituti4e !ounda/ tions !or )ommunist &o1er2 3he )redentia.s o! )ommunism as a &o.iti)a. re.i(ion 1ere )ru)ia. !or the mo-i.isation and .e(itimisation o! an e)o/ nomi)a..+ disastrous -ut &o.iti)a..+ !as)inatin( and tem&orari.+ Duite su))ess!u. e5&eriment2 Con4erse.+0 these 4er+ s&iritua. !oundations a))ounted !or the stru)tura. 1eakness o! )ommunist &o1er and the !ai./ ure to a)hie4e )onstituti4e &o.iti)s2 M+ aim is not to e5&.ain 1hat O)aused; the )o..a&se o! )ommunism2 Im&ortant studies ha4e e5amined the inher/ ent 1eakness o! :o4iet/t+&e institutions and ha4e0 in a &ath/de&endent manner0 .ooked at &aths o! e5tri)ation !or the ne1 order2 " Rather0 I am )ha..en(in( the notion a))ordin( to 1hi)h )ommunism 1as a )onstituted s+stem o! &o1er2 3he !o)us on transitions to demo)ra)+ throu(h the re.ated &ro)esses o! )onstitution/-ui.din(0 the introdu)tion o! e.e)tion/-ased &art+ )om&eti/ tion0 and the &ursuit o! a )a&ita.ist market e)onom+ de.i-erate.+ o4er/ .ooked the !a)t that &o.iti)a. ana.+sis must )on)ei4e o! &o.iti)a. order -+
"
A(nes Hor4aGth and Ar&ad :Iako.)Iai0 The Dissolution o$ Communist Power! The Case o$ 2ungary 6LondonP Rout.ed(e0 ">><7R Va.erie ,un)e0 Su3versive Institutions! The Design and the Destruction o$ Socialism 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>>7R O.e( Fharkhordin0 The Collective and the Individual in #ussia! A Study o$ Practices 6,erke.e+P 9ni4ersit+ o! Ca.i!ornia 8ress0 ">>>72
@A
@>
distin(uishin( at .east t1o .e4e.s2 < It must address an instrumenta. as&e)t that .ooks at the institutiona.isation o! &o.iti)a. authorit+0 ri(hts0 ).aims0 and )on!.i)t2 It must a.so assume0 ho1e4er0 that in a !un)tionin( s+stem the nature o! man and his 4o.ition hin(e on the irrationa.it+ o! &o.iti)a. )onstitutions and the e5&ressi4e and s+m-o.i) !un)tions o! the &o.it+2 :+m-o.s0 rites0 and m+ths &ermeate so)iet+ not on.+ as ana.o(ies2 3he+ are a.so re)o(nisa-.e re!eren)e &oints in di!!erent domains o! e4er+da+ .i!e0 su)h as in &o.iti)a. dis)ourse0 )am&ai(ns0 and state ideo.o(+2 3he meanin(s o! 4a.ues and norms asso)iated 1ith the intentions and -eha4/ iour o! .eadershi& do not &re/e5ist a)tion as -e.ie!/s+stems2 Rather0 the+ are o!ten esta-.ished in .imina. e5&erien)es 1here other1ise Oso.id; !orms o! &o.iti)a. authorit+ and so)ia. order are disarti)u.ated2 In histori)a. e5&erien)e0 the resu.tin( )rises o! e5istentia. s)o&e demand e5istentia. and0 there!ore0 &re/&o.iti)a. res&onses2 ,e+ond institutions and materia. )onstraints0 O&o.iti)a. rea.it+; a.so )onsists o! meanin(s and s+m-o.i) markers o! )ertaint+ that i..uminate human -ein(s 1ho )ontinuous.+ )reate and -ear them as the mode and )ondition o! their se.!/rea.isation2 ? O8o.iti)a. s&iritua.it+; su((ests that .eadershi& in the !orm o! sha&in( and (uidin( human arran(ements in &o.iti)a. so)iet+ does not de&end on the innate Dua.ities o! the .eader or on .e(a. sti&u.ations0 -ut on the situationa. .ink and the res&onsi4eness -et1een a (reat num-er o! !o./ .o1ers and their s&iritua. adheren)e to this .eader2 Ma5 We-er intro/ du)ed s&iritua. &o1er into &o.iti)a. s)ien)e under the notion o! )harisma as a t+&e o! .e(itimate authorit+24 Eo..o1in( this Os&iritua.ist; )onstru)tion o! the modern )a&ita.ist e)onom+ as a 1a+ o! .i!e0 the )entra. issue o! &o.iti)a. s&iritua.it+ is the mo-i.isation o! human -ein(s0 the raisin( o! their sou.s2 Motions su)h as s&iritua.it+ meet 1ith s)e&ti)ism as the+ .ie -e+ond an+ strai(ht!or1ard ana.+ti)a. )ate(orisation0 o!ten asso)iated 1ith m+sti)ism or re.i(ion2 A.thou(h )urrent &o.iti)a. ana.+sis seems to ha4e a.. -ut !or(otten0 We-er;s &aradi(mati) e5am&.e o! )harismati) &o1er is not a &o.iti)ian -ut a &ro&het2 8o1er )omes !rom the su&er/ natura.0 settin( a t+&o.o(+ o! the &ro&het a(ainst the &riest and the ma(i)ian2@ 3he s&irit o! )a&ita.ism as the sour)e o! the in)rease in &o1er o! man o4er the thin(s o! his 1or.d s&rin(s !rom the distan)e 1hi)h man &uts -et1een himse.! and the 1or.d0 that is0 !rom 1or.d
< ? 4 @
Murra+ 'de.man0 The Sym3olic :ses o$ Politics 69r-anaP 9ni4ersit+ o! I..inois 8ress0 ">B470 "</<=2 'ri) Voe(e.in0 The ;ew Science o$ Politics! An Introduction 6Chi)a(o and LondonP 9ni4ersit+ o! Chi)a(o 8ress0 ">AC70 <C/4"2 Ma5 We-er0 "conomy and Society! An /utline o$ Interpretive Sociology0 ed2 Huenther Roth and C.aus Witti)h 6,erke.e+P 9ni4ersit+ o! Ca.i!ornia 8ress0 ">CA70 <4"/@42 We-er0 "conomy and Society0 4?>/4=2
B=
a.ienation2 In We-er;s 4ie10 the Oe)onomi) ethi); o! 8rotestant )a&ita.ists deri4ed &ra)ti)a. im&u.ses !or a)tion !rom Ointerna. states;0 &s+)ho.o(i)a. im&u.ses or indu)ements that 1ere rooted in the &ra(mati) )onte5ts o! re.i(ions2B 8o.iti)a. s&iritua.it+ as a sour)e o! &o1er is not rooted in the theo.o(i)a. -e.ie! in trans)enden)e -ut re.ies on the -ond that is )reated and -e)omes e!!e)ti4e -et1een so)ia. a)tors and 1hat the+ -e.ie4e to -e a re.e4ant moti4e !or)e !or a)tion2 As the )harisma o! a .eader stems not !rom ru.es or norms -ut !rom the -e.ie! his !o..o1ers &ro%e)t on to him0 )harismati) .eadershi& )omes ).ose to the &er!orman)e o! a )on4in)in( dramati) a)tor2C 3his dramatisation o! &o1er around a mora. &ur&ose or s&iritua. )ause re!.e)ts the insi(hts o! se4era. strands in &o.iti)a. and so)ia. thou(ht2 Whi.e MontesDuieu;s Os&irit o! the .a1s; (rounded o-%e)ti!ied .e(is.ation in the e5istentia. -asis and menta. dis&ositions o! &eo&.e0 3o)Due4i..e ar(ued that0 des&ite a )onstitutiona..+ and .e(a..+ (uaranteed demo)rati) state0 there 1ou.d -e no (uarantee !or the )ontinuit+ o! !reedom and eDua.it+ 1ithout a s&iritua. a.ertness and the a-i.it+ to raise one;s sou.2 A Hoin( -e+ond the )urrent s+m-o.i) se&aration0 one )ou.d make a )ase !or the ).ose a!!init+ o! s&iritua.it+ 1ith re.i(ion0 a re.ationshi& that has -een distorted due to a s&.it o! meanin( in the 1ake o! the Re!ormation and the 'n.i(htenment2 :in)e the 'n.i(htenment at the .atest0 re.i(ious s+m-o.s 1ere not seen as -ein( (rounded in em&iri)a. rea.it+ -ut as ha4in( a !un)tion2 As a resu.t o! these )han(es in inter&retation0 the modern mind )annot -ut treat )om&ounds o! re.i(ion and &o.iti)s as e5am&.es o! ).osed -odies or s+stems o! -e.ie!s0 do(mas0 O!undamenta./ ism;0 or Oideo.o(+;2> 3he unusua. )om-ination o! )on)e&ts su)h as &o.iti)s and re.i(ion 1as at odds 1ith )ommon sense as0 in modern times0 &o.iti)s and re.i(ion emer(ed as t1o entire.+ distin)t rea.ities0 the !ormer em-od/ ied institutiona..+ -+ the state0 the .atter -+ the )hur)h2 One ma+ attri-ute the )on)e&tua. se&aration o! state and re.i(ion to He(e.0 1ho ar(ued that Othe &eo&.e; is the state as the s&irit in its immanent rea.it+ and thus as the a-so.ute &o1er on earth2 3he o&inion that state &o1er 1as ori(ina. or
B
C A
>
Ma5 We-er0 O3he :o)ia. 8s+)ho.o(+ o! the Wor.d Re.i(ions;0 in H2H2 Herth and C2W2 Mi..s0 eds20 'rom ax 0e3er! "ssays in Sociology 6LondonP Rout.ed(e and Fe(an 8au.0 ">C=70 <BC2 Lauren)e Whitehead0 DemocratisationP Theory and "xperience 6O5!ordP O5!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <==<70 4?2 Char.es de MontesDuieu0 The Spirit o$ the %aws0 ed2 Anne C2 Coh.er et a.2 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">A>7R A.e5is de 3o)Due4i..e0 Democracy in America! The Complete and :na3ridged0 < 4o.s20 trans2 Henr+ Ree4e 6Me1 YorkP ,antam C.assi)0 <===70BC<2 :te!an Ross-a)h0 1nostic 0ars! The Cold 0ar in the Context o$ a 2istory o$ 0estern Spirituality 6'din-ur(hP 'din-ur(h 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>>70 <2
B"
a-so.ute 1as not -ased on rationa. kno1.ed(eR it 1as more the do(ma o! a -e.ie4er2"= 3his ).ear/)ut distin)tion emanates !rom the s+m-o.i) uses o! .an(ua(e attuned to the out)ome o! Western state/!ormation0 not the ori(ina. s&irit2 It did not maintain the rea.it+ o! the intimate en(a(ement -+ 1hi)h these entities rein!or)ed ea)h other u& to the .ate Midd.e A(es and ear.+ modernit+0 -ut has s+m-o.ised and 4indi)ated the 4er+ )on/ trasts o! the stru((.e2 "" 3he de).ine o! re.i(ion as a !un)tion o! the (ro1in( se&aration o! )hur)h and state and &atterns o! .e(a./rationa. domination shou.d not )on)ea. that -oth .o(i)a..+ and histori)a..+ modern &o.iti)s rests u&on a theo.o(i)a./&o.iti)a. !ormation and its rede&.o+ment in so)ia. re.ations2 "< 3he indeterminate nature o! so)ia. re.ations and o! &o.iti)a. &o1er in nas)ent demo)rati) so)iet+ 1as -ased on a re%e)tion o! trans)enden)e -ut0 simu.taneous.+0 &ro&osed an ima(e o! so)iet+ as homo(eneous in &rin)i&.e0 as mana(ea-.e -+ kno1.ed(e and &o1er0 and as an ima(e o! the &eo&.e0 1hi)h 1ou.d e!!a)e so)ia. di4isions2 3he disinte(ration o! the -od+ o! so)ia. institutions0 the .oss o! a de!inin( )entre o! &o1er and identit+0 1as met -+ an attem&t to sa)ra.ise human and se)u.ar institu/ tions su)h as 8ro&ert+0 the Eami.+0 the :tate0 Authorit+0 the Mation0 or :o4erei(nt+2"? 8o.iti)a. s&iritua.it+ does not se&arate re.i(ion !rom the state -ut su(/ (ests that the emer(en)e o! the &o.iti)a. and the a&&earan)e o! the modern state did not e5&un(e trans)enden)e and (od.+ ends2 "4 At the outset o! the modern state0 the disso)iation 1as not o! re.i(ious !rom state &o1er -ut o! the s&iritua. !rom the tem&ora. &o1ers2 ,e!ore the territori/ a.isation o! the state / 1hi)h a..o1ed !or the identi!i)ation o! the OOther; as not -e.on(in( to or as threatenin( this territor+ / the )hur)h de.imited the s&a)e -et1een !riend and enem+ s&iritua..+2 3he ori(in o! the Western st+.e o! &o1er )onsisted o! an a-so.ute &ro%e)t that esta-.ished s&iritua. &o1er as a )om&ound o! !our t+&es o! &o1erP the )ontro. o! or(anisation o! kno1.ed(e0 the &rodu)tion o! norms0 the &o.iti)s o! de4otion0 and the identi!i)ation o! the enemies o! so)iet+2 3he demo)rati) a(e did not !undamenta..+ dis)ontinue the en(a(ement -et1een re.i(ion and &o.iti)s2 3he Eren)h Re4o.ution )an -e .ikened to a re.i(ious re4o.ution in so !ar as
"= "" "< "? "4
'ri) Voe(e.in0 Political #eligions0 3oronto :tudies in 3heo.o(+0 4o.2 UUIII 6Le1iston0 MYP 'd1in Me..en 8ress0 ">AB72 Voe(e.in0 The ;ew Science o$ Politics2 C.aude Le!ort0 "ssais sur le politi7ue 68arisP :eui.0 ">AB72 C.aude Le!ort0 The Political 'orms o$ odern Society! 8ureaucracy& Democracy& Totalitarianism 6Cam-rid(eP 8o.it+0 ">AB70 <>?/?=B2 A.essandro 8iIIorno0 O8o.iti)s 9n-ound;0 in Char.es :2 Maier0 ed20 Changing 8oundaries o$ the Political 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">AC70 4?/>2
B<
it a!!e)ted the )itiIen in an a-stra)t 1a+0 mu)h as re.i(ion a!!e)ts man in an a-stra)t 1a+ 1ith re(ard to trans)enden)e2 "@ Human -ein(s 1ere not on.+ )onstituent &arts o! the Eren)h nation -ut 1ere )onsidered as re&resentati4e !or other nations and )u.tures in this immanent 1or.d2 3his re.i(ious ins&iration &ostu.ated uni4ersa.0 trans/nationa.0 and &ermanent 4a.ues as the -asis o! the )ommon (ood in a re&u-.i)an !orm o! (o4ernment2 3he tota.itarian 4ersion o! demo)ra)+ .inked an e5treme idea o! &o&u.ar so4erei(nt+ to a s&e)i!i) re.i(ious t+&e o! auto)ra)+0 -ased in an a../em-ra)in( and &er4asi4e in!.uen)e o! &o.iti)s on human e5is/ ten)e2 Its &ersisten)e des&ite its )ontradi)tion to em&iri)a. !a)ts 1as main.+ due to the re.i(ious a&&ea. it had on the uti.itarian &hi.oso&hers that in4ented it2"B *es&ite the re%e)tion o! meta&h+si)s and the anti/ re.i(ious attitude o! its &rota(onists0 the uti.itarian )reed 1as a &er!e)t su-stitute2 3he ).assi)a. do)trine o! demo)ra)+ -e)ame the &o.iti)a. )om&.ement !or those 1ho 1ere sti.. re.i(ious -e.ie4ers2 On.+ the re.i(ious inter&retation e5&.ains the -e.ie4er;s attitude to1ards )riti)ism2 ,oth demo)rats and so)ia.ists )onsider !undamenta. dissent not on.+ as a dan(erous threat in terms o! a )ontest !or the esta-.ished &o1er s+stem -ut a.so as a sinR dissent there!ore e.i)its not mere.+ .o(i)a. )ounter/ ar(uments -ut a.so mora. indi(nation2 Communism as &o.iti)a. re.i(ion 3he notion o! s&iritua.it+ ma+ sound ina&&ro&riate i! one thinks o! the destru)ti4eness and )oer)i4e nature o! )ommunism in &ost/re4o.utionar+ and :ta.inist Russia2 3he im&a)t o! terror and 4io.en)e on so)iet+ shou.d not0 ho1e4er0 )on)ea. the )ru)ia. in!.uen)e o! re4o.utionar+ messianism2 :o4iet )ommunism 1as a &ro%e)t o! a-so.ute &o.iti)s that en(ineered the human mind and human )u.ture -+ in)or&oratin( the &o.iti)a. s+m-o.ism o! traditiona. Russian &atterns !or the se.!/.e(itimisation o! the ne1 re(ime2"C Creatin( a m+tho.o(+ o! &o1er -ased on the do(ma o! Mar5ism/Leninism0 the uto&ian &romise o! a &ros&e)ti4e &aradise on earth0 the )u.t o! the .eader0 and :o4iet &atriotism0 ,o.she4ism 1as an e5er)ise in &o.iti)a. s&iritua.it+2 3he re4o.utionar+ ,o.she4ik re(ime mer(ed radi)a. )urrents o! Russian nihi.ism 1ith messianism and the a-so.utism o! modern rationa. desi(n o!an a../en)om&assin( re4o.utionar+
"@ "B "C
A.e5is de 3o)Due4i..e0 %ancien r4gime et la r4volution 68arisP E.ammarion70 "=@/>2 Jose&h A2 :)hum&eter0 Capitalism& Socialism& and Democracy0 @th edn 6LondonP Heor(e A..en X 9n1in0 ">CB70 <B@/B2 :te&hen Fotkin0 agnetic ountainP Stalinism as a Civili)ation 6,erke.e+P 9ni4ersit+ o! Ca.i!ornia 8ress0 ">>@70 "42
B?
&ro%e)t2 *etermined to seiIe &o.iti)a. o&&ortunities and to ada&t the O&ro(ramme; to Russian rea.it+0 Lenin introdu)ed the )ate(or+ o! the O&ro!essiona. re4o.utionar+; 1hose (uidan)e 1ou.d make Mar5;s s)ienti!i) theor+ o! histor+ &o.iti)a..+ 4ia-.e2 3his re/emer(en)e o! re.i(ious &rin)i&.es in modern &o.iti)s had its ori(ins in Christianit+ itse.!0 deri4in( !rom )om&onents that 1ere su&/ &ressed as se)tarian and hereti)a. -+ the uni4ersa. )hur)h2 "A As 'ri) Voe(e.in has sho1n0 the de!inite s+m-o.ism asso)iated 1ith a redi4inisa/ tion o! &o.iti)s )an -e tra)ed -a)k to the &erson and 1ork o! the t1e.!th/ )entur+ Cister)ian a--ot Joa)him o! E.ora0 1ho )reated the a((re(ate o! s+m-o.s that (o4ern the se.!/inter&retation o! modern &o.iti)a. so)iet+ u& to this da+2 3he !irst s+m-o. is the )on)e&tion o! histor+ as a seDuen)e o! three a(es0 o! 1hi)h the third a(e is the !ina. 3hird Rea.m2 3he se)ond s+m-o. is that o! the .eader2 3he third s+m-o.0 1ith a )ertain a!!init+ to the se)ond0 is that o! the &ro&het o! the ne1 a(e2 3he !ourth s+m-o. is that o! the -rotherhood o! autonomous &ersons2 3he third a(e o! Joa)him0 -+ 4irtue o! the arri4a. o! the s&irit on earth0 1i.. trans!orm men into mem/ -ers o! the ne1 rea.m 1ithout sa)ramenta. mediation o! (ra)e2 3his Hnosti) s&iritua.it+ has !ound its se)u.arised eDui4a.ent in &eriodisations o! histor+ as ).aimed -+ He(e. or Comte2 It a.so under&inned Mar5;s histori)a. materia.ism and his uto&ian idea o! a rea.m o! !reedom a!ter the 1itherin( a1a+ o! the state2 3hus0 modern &o.iti)s has -een thorou(h.+ a!!e)ted -+ the stru)ture o! s+m-o.s that )ame into -ein( in the 1ake o! a&&.+in( Christian es)hato.o(+ to an inter&retation o! an essentia. mean/ in( o! histor+ in the 1or.d.+ s&here0 a do)trine that a)Duired the hi(hest &o.iti)a. im&a)t 1ith ,o.she4ism and MaIism2 Henerated at the )rossroads -et1een the )risis o! 'uro&ean mod/ ernit+ and the )risis o! the tsarist s+stem in &re/re4o.utionar+ Russia0 ,o.she4ism 1as an inte..e)tua. )urrent that )ha..en(ed tsarism !rom an e5o(enous ideo.o(i)a. tradition0 1hi)h 1as Mar5ism2 A.thou(h Mar5ism 1as a res&onse to the )risis o! 'uro&ean modernit+0 .ar(e &arts o! the Russian inte..i(entsia -e)ame )a&ti4ated -+ this Os)ienti!i); so.ution to the &ro-.em o! o&&ression in Russia0 1hi)h domesti) &o&u.ism0 nihi.ism0 or anar)hism )ou.d not so.4e2 3he -oundar+ that di4ided the Russian inte./ .i(entsia !rom other ).asses 1as itse.! determined not -+ materia. -ut -+ s&iritua. !a)ts0 !or re4o.utionar+ thinkers !rom di!!erent so)ia. ori(ins su)h as ,akunin0 Fro&otkin0 and 3o.sto+ 1ere united -+ the s&e.. o! 'uro&ean )i4i.isation2"> Attra)ted -+ the OWest; and as&irin( to -e eDua.0 the+ 1ere
"A ">
Voe(e.in0 The ;ew Science o$ Politics0 ""</"42 EranI ,orkenau0 0orld CommunismP A 2istory o$ the Communist International 6Ann Ar-orP 9ni4ersit+ o! Mi)hi(an 8ress0 ">C"70 <A/>2
B4
at the same time resent!u. and endo1ed 1ith a sense o! in!eriorit+2 3he inte..i(entsia as a Otrans!ormer ).ass; .i4ed in a no/man;s .and -et1een t1o e5tremesP on the one hand0 its o1n -a)k1ard so)iet+0 1hi)h it as&ired to eman)i&ate -ut !rom 1hi)h it had in)reasin(.+ a.ienated itse.!0 .a)kin( re)o(nition !or its e!!ortsR on the other0 the Omode. so)iet+;0 !rom 1hi)h it deri4ed its e5&e)tations -ut 1hi)h 1ou.d ne4er a))e&t it as an eDua. &artner2<= Inte..e)tua. e.ites and their ho.d on the mono&o.+ o! .e(itimate edu)a/ tion &.a+ed a de)isi4e ro.e in the de4e.o&ment o! modern so)ia. order2 'mer(in( in the &arti)u.ar )ir)umstan)es o! nineteenth/)entur+ Russia0 the term Ointe..i(entsia; 1as im&orted !rom the West and a&&.ied to a s&e)i!i) (rou& o! mem-ers o! the inte..e)tua. ur-an e.ites o! the )ountr+ 1ith a s&e)ia. interest in Oedu)atin( so)iet+; and mana(in( &ro)esses o! modernisation2<" 9n.ike their Western )ounter&arts0 mem-ers o! the inte..i(entsia o! -a)k1ard )ountries on.+ re.u)tant.+ s&e)ia.ised in their )areers0 as the+ dedi)ated mu)h o! their ener(+ to a)hie4in( a 1ho.esa.e trans!ormation o! their )ountries2<< Wh+ did )ommunist &ra)ti)e make enormous e!!orts to re1rite nationa. histories in the .i(ht o! the Mar5ist/Leninist &hi.oso&h+ o! his/ tor+Q Wh+ did the ,o.she4iks aim to )reate ne1 s+m-o.i) uni4erses -+ destro+in( traditiona. s+m-o.s0 de!ormin( .an(ua(e0 and mani&u.atin( re.i(ion and )u.tureQ 8o.iti)a. messianism esta-.ished a &reordained0 &er!e)t s)heme o! human )o..e)ti4e or(anisation -ased on the idea o! trans!ormin( human nature -+ so)ia. en(ineerin( and &romises o! 1or.d/ immanent redem&tion2<? 3he )ha..en(e &osed -+ Mar5ism to Western modernit+ 1as (enerated &rimari.+ !rom a s&iritua. mo4ement that rested u&on a romanti) se)u.arisation o! &ro&er.+ re.i(ious e5&erien)es2 Modern re4o.utionar+ ideo.o(ies 1ere ins&ired -+ the s+m-o.s and intentions o! medie4a. heresies su)h as Hnosti)ism0 1hi)h -ased &o.iti)a. )ons)ious/ ness on messiani) e5&e)tations2 <4 3he re4o.utionar+ messianism o! ,o.she4ik )ommunism !ound !ruit!u. soi. in messiani) ideas in Russia0 1here the s+m-o. o! the 3hird Rome 1as turned into a nationa.
<= <" << <? <4
N+(munt ,auman0 OLo4e in Ad4ersit+P On the :tate and the Inte..e)tua.s0 and the :tate o! Inte..e)tua.s;0 Thesis "leven0 ?" 6">><70 A"/"=42 Ri)hard 8i&es0 #ussia :nder the /ld #egime0 <nd edn 6LondonP 8en(uin ,ooks0 ">>@70 <@"/?2 *a4id Jora4sk+0 OCommunism in Histori)a. 8ers&e)ti4e;& American 2istorical #eview0 >>0 ? 6">>470A@42 Wa.demar Hurian0 O3ota.itarianism as 8o.iti)a. Re.i(ion;0 in C2J2 Eriedri)h0 ed20 Totalitarianism 6Cam-rid(e0 MAP Har4ard 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">@470 "">/<>2 Morman Cohn0 The Pursuit o$ the illennium! #evolutionary illenarians and ystical Anarchists o$ the iddle Ages0 ?rd edn 6London and Me1 YorkP O5!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">C=72
B@
&ro(ramme o! sa.4ation2 3his mer(er o! &ro(rammes o! sa.4ation .ar(e.+ a))ounts !or 1h+ an atheisti) ideo.o(+ -e)ame su))ess!u. in a dee&.+ re.i(ious0 orthodo5 )ountr+2<@ Lenin;s .i!e.on( !as)ination 1ith the re4o/ .utionar+ messianism o! the "AB=s demo)rats su)h as Chern+she4sk+0 8isare4 and 3ka)he4 is re!.e)ted in his adheren)e to the Re4o.utionar+ Cate)hism o! "AC"0 1hi)h em&hasised the true re4o.utionar+;s tota. se.!/ denia.0 renun)iation o! 1or.d.+ atta)hment and mora.it+0 and &ro&ert+2 C that the .i!e o! the re4o.utionar+ demanded the hi(hest de(ree o! enduran)e and se.!/ denia.0 dedi)atin( a.. his &o1ers to monotonous0 stri)t.+ re(u.ated 1ork0 o!ten 1ithout resu.ts2 His &o.iti)a. messianism insti..ed into man+ an e5traordinar+ re4o.utionar+ ardour0 an into5i)atin( &romise o! a ne1 !reedom that o-s)ured &assions su)h as hatred and the ,o.she4ik s&irit o! )i4i. 1ar2<C Re4o.utionar+ messianism en)ountered a Russian state that -e!ore the Eirst Wor.d War had a))e.erated e)onomi) modernisation in order to )at)h u& te)hno.o(i)a..+ and e)onomi)a..+ 1ith the more ad4an)ed 'uro&e2 3he massi4e mi(rations !rom the )ountr+side to the )ities sin)e the ear.+ t1entieth )entur+ 1ere a))om&anied -+ ha.!/hearted &o.iti)a. re!orms and )onditions o! so)ia. unrest2 3he &easant )ommunit+;s de4o/ tion to the tsar de).ined )onsidera-.+ on.+ a!ter the ">=@ re4o.ution and a.. -ut )o..a&sed durin( the Eirst Wor.d War2 At the )on%un)ture o! this de4astatin( 1ar0 ,o.she4ism )a&tured the minds o! man+ &easant/ so.diers throu(h e5tensi4e &ro&a(anda in the tren)hes2 A.thou(h the so)ia. )onditions and the &o.iti)a. arti)u.ation o! MaIism in Herman+ and o! ,o.she4ik )ommunism in the Russian )ase di!!ered )onsidera-.+0 the+ dis&.a+ed )ru)ia. simi.arities2 O4era..0 neither o! the t1o tota.itarian ideo.o(ies 1ere a.ien im&orts !rom outside sudden.+ mena)in( the West2 As &rodu)ts o! a dee& s&iritua. )risis0 the+ )om-ined t+ranni)a. im&u.ses 1ith the so)ia. )onditions o! mo- ru.e2 3hrou(hout the nineteenth )entur+0 so)ia.0 e)onomi)0 and te)hno.o(i)a. re4o.ution/ ar+ &ro)esses &rodu)ed masses u&rooted !rom !ami.iar 1a+s o! .i!e in the )ountr+side and -ere!t o! an+ (enera..+ a))e&ted )ore -od+ o! 4a.ues2 3he a)Duisitions o! modern te)hno.o(+ had &enetrated .i!e so mu)h that the+
<@
B"7R 8eter *un)an0 #ussian essianism! Third #ome& #evolution& Communism and A$ter 6LondonP Rout.ed(e0 <===72 Leonard :)ha&iro0 #ussian Studies0 ed2 '..en *ahrendor! 6Me1 YorkP Vikin(0 ">AC70 ">@/B2 Mer.e Eainsod0 2ow #ussia Is #uled0 <nd en.ar(ed edn 6Cam-rid(e0 MAP Har4ard 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">B?70 >@2
BB
1ere taken !or (ranted not as human )onstru)tions -ut as i! the+ 1ere (i4en -+ nature2<A 3he &s+)ho.o(i)a. )ondition o! a 4ast num-er o! Russians 1as )hara)/ terised -+ 1hat Hannah Arendt has seen as a )ru)ia. sour)e o! tota.itarianismP the !a)t that .one.iness0 on)e a -order.ine e5&erien)e usua..+ su!!ered in )ertain mar(ina. so)ia. )onditions su)h as o.d a(e0 has -e)ome an e4er+da+ e5&erien)e o! our )entur+2 3he mer)i.ess &ro)ess into 1hi)h tota.itarianism dri4es and or(anises the masses .ooks .ike a sui)ida. es)a&e !rom this rea.it+2 <> ,ere!t o! re.i(ious a1e and o! !aith in an u.timate authorit+0 &eo&.e )ou.d -e attra)ted -+ an+ e!!ort that seemed to &romise the sa.4ation the+ .on(ed !or2 3he re)k.essness o! re4o.utionar+ .eaders and the )orru&tion o! their mora. &rin)i&.es 1ere )on)ea.ed -ehind a radi)a..+ di)hotomi) 1or.d/4ie12 Communism di4ided rea.it+ a))ordin( to ar)het+&i)a. ima(es o! (ood and e4i.0 adhered to .o(i)s o! :a.4ationism0 and demanded the un)onditiona. de4otion o! its !o..o1ers2?= Whereas Mationa. :o)ia.ism 1as a Ore4o.t a(ainst the West; !rom 1ithin0 ,o.she4ism in Russia 1as nurtured -+ the Western heres+ o! Mar5ism outside the West2 ?" Whereas .imited (o4ernment in the West rested u&on the idea o! &ar.iament and .a1 in order to )he)k ar-itrar+ &o1er0 )ommunism as a &o.iti)a. re.i(ion re%e)ted the idea o! a (o4ern/ ment -+ .a1s -+ endo1in( &o.iti)a. ru.e 1ith a Osa)red; dut+ o! )reatin( .a1 and histor+2 *es&ite its anti/re.i(ious ideo.o(+ and its ruth.ess )ra)k/ do1n on the Orthodo5 Chur)h0 :o4iet )ommunism re.ied on a re.i(ious &rin)i&.e that re(arded man as an a-stra)t )ate(or+ that 1as to under(o &h+si)a. and s&iritua. re)onstru)tion2 3he ,o.she4iks -.ended a te.eo.o(/ i)a. 4ision o! &ro(ress 1ith the e5&e)tation o! &aradise on earth and the )om&.ete trans!ormation o! human nature2 Ins&ired -+ Mar5;s s)ienti!i) theor+ o! histor+0 the desire !or !reedom !rom state o&&ression and the .on(in( !or sa.4ation )ame a.on( 1ith a uni4ersa. and a-stra)t desi(n !or humanit+0 the )reation o! a ne1 man and a ne1 so)iet+2 Eor Mar50 the &ro.etariat 1as not on.+ destined to re&.a)e the dominant ).ass o! o&&res/ sion -ut a.so &ossessed )entra. heroi) attri-utes o! a )o..e)ti4e redeemer ).ass2 3he -att.e a(ainst institutiona.ised Orthodo5 re.i(ion 1as )entra. !or the ,o.she4iks in their attem&t to )onDuer so)iet+ -+ en(ineerin( the human sou.2?< 3he di)tatorshi& o! the &ro.etariat as the ne1 s+m-o. o!
<A <> ?= ?" ?<
JosV Orte(a + Hasset0 %a re3eliMn de las masas 6MadridP Casta.ia0 ">>A70 "C?2 Hannah Arendt0 The /rigins o$ Totalitarianism 6LondonP Heor(e A..en0 ">@"70 4CA2 Ra+mond Aron0 The Dawn o$ :niversal 2istory 6Me1 YorkP 8erseus0 <==<70 "B4/<4<2 EranI ,orkenau0 The Totalitarian "nemy 6LondonP Ea-er and Ea-er0 ">4=72 Or.ando Ei(es0 A Peoples Tragedy! The #ussian #evolution *6+*-*+A@ 6LondonP Jonathan Ca&e0 ">>B70 C?</@"2
BC
)ommunist &o.iti)a. authorit+ im&osed an a-so.utist &ro%e)t -ased on the do(matism o! a se)u.ar es)hato.o(+ that 1ou.d mark the end o! &o.iti)s2 ?? In 3rotsk+;s 4ie10 the !uture task o! )ommunism 1as to &rodu)e a ne1 im&ro4ed 4ersion o! man2 Man 1as himse.! the ra1 materia. 1hose nature must -e trans!ormed2 In terms o! identit+ &o.iti)s0 ,o.she4ik )ommunism (a4e rise to a theo)ra)+ o! the 4an(uard &art+0 )om-ined 1ith the do(mati) de!en)e o! )ommunist orthodo5+ and a )i4i. re.i(ion o! Mar5ism/Leninism0 1hi)h aimed at .ar(e/s)a.e so)ia. en(ineerin( to1ards a redi4inisation o! so)iet+2?4 A.thou(h the ,o.she4iks .ed a mer)i.ess -att.e a(ainst re.i(ion and the ).er(+0 the+ used &ra)ti)es that 1ere not on.+ .ar(e.+ ins&ired -+ traditiona. &ra)ti)es o! orthodo5 re.i(ion -ut sometimes e4en identi)a. to them2 ,o.she4ik te)hniDues o! &o1er 1ere &ermeated -+ Orthodo5 Christian &ra)ti)es0 te)hniDues o! se.!/!ashionin( su)h as se.!/sa)ri!i)e0 and the trans!ormation o! a telos o! Christian sainthood into hero 1orshi& and hero identi!i)ation2?@ :u&&orted -+ ne1 methods o! mass &ro&a/ (anda0 the ,o.she4iks; aim 1as to &ro4e the ine5ora-.e mar)h o! histor+ &ro%e)ted -+ Mar5ism/Leninism throu(h the )u.ti4ation o! s+m-o.i) ima(er+ o! the )o..e)ti4e hero o! 1or.d histor+0 the &ro.etariat2 ?B 9sin( s+m-o.ism simi.ar to that in re.i(ious &aintin(0 &oster artists re&resented 1orkers and &easants in )on%un)tion 1ith the )o.our red as o&&osed to -.a)k as the )o.our o! e4i.2 3he identi!i)ation o! the enem+ 3he institutiona.isation o! &o.iti)a. authorit+ in &ost/re4o.utionar+ Russia 1ent si(ni!i)ant.+ -e+ond the re)astin( o! e)onomi) re.ations reDuired -+ Mar5ist/Leninist ideo.o(+2 3he ,o.she4ik Re4o.ution &ri/ mari.+ destro+ed the o.d )i4i.isation and im&ro4ised a ne1 one2 ?C Whi.e man+ &ortra+ed the O(o.den t1enties; o! the Me1 ')onomi) 8o.i)+ as so)ia.ism 1ith a human !a)e0 dis&.a+in( )u.tura. di4ersit+ and &ri4ate enter&rise0 it )ontained the !oundations o! :ta.inist ru.e0 1hi)h in).uded s+stemati) terror0 dismissa. o! o.der 4a.ues0 .on(in( !or unanimit+0 and se.!/a-asement2?A
?? ?4 ?@ ?B ?C ?A
A2J2 8o.an0 %enin and the "nd o$ Politics 6LondonP Methuen0 ">A472 Fotkin0 agnetic ountain0 <AB/?=@2 Fharkhordin0 The Collective and the Individual in #ussia0 <B?2 Vi)toria ,onne..0 Iconography o$ Power! Soviet Political Posters :nder %enin and Stalin 6,erke.e+P 9ni4ersit+ o! Ca.i!ornia 8ress0 ">>>70 <"/4"2 V.adimir ,ro4kin0 #ussia A$ter %enin! Politics& Culture& and Society& *+A*-*+A+ 6London and Me1 YorkP Rout.ed(e0 ">>A70 "/">2 MadeIhda Mande.stam0 2ope Against 2ope! A emoir 6Me1 YorkP Atheneum0 ">C=70 "BA2
BA
As a resu.t0 ,o.she4ism en(a(ed in a stru((.e !or re&resentation that 1as -e+ond the materia..+ 4isi-.e0 o-%e)ti4e.+ 4eri!ia-.e e5terna. side o! &o.iti)a. rea.it+2 In a &o.iti)a..+ )onstituted order0 re&resentation is usua..+ e5er)ised throu(h &ra)ti)e and e5&erien)e0 as the &eo&.e a)ti4e.+ &arti/ )i&ate in &rodu)in( demo)rati) (o4ernment2 ?> Yet the &ra)ti)e o! re&re/ sentation in its dimensions o! !un)tiona. as&e)ts o! (o4ernment )ontro.0 arti)u.ation o! 4oters; demands0 and a))ounta-i.it+ in a )onstituted s+s/ tem o! (o4ernment must -e se&arated !rom the )onditions o! its !orma./ isation2 One )an distin(uish !orma. re&resentation as the re&resentati4e;s authorisation to a)t0 des)ri&ti4e re&resentation as the idea o! the re&re/ sentati4e;s )orres&onden)e or .ikeness and resem-.an)e to his or her )onstituents0 and s+m-o.i) re&resentation as su((estin( the ro.e o! irra/ tiona. -e.ie! and the im&ortan)e o! &.easin( )onstituents2 4= Histor+0 ho1e4er0 )an &rodu)e human arran(ements in state and so)iet+ 1here the e.ementar+ ru.es and norms o! institutiona. rea.it+ are at odds 1ith e5istentia. s+m-o.i) uni4erses2 3he (ro1in( e)onomi) and inte..e)tua. im&ortan)e o! the 3hird 'state in .ate ei(hteenth/)entur+ Eran)e &re)eded the idea o! the Mation0 1hi)h (ained enormous s+m-o.i) si(ni!i)an)e -+ &ortra+in( itse.! as a 4i)tim o! the a-so.utist !euda. state and its dis)riminatin( )or&orate stru)ture2 4" A!ter the esta-.ishment o! &ar.iamentar+ demo)ra)+ in Weimar Herman+0 man+ )ontem&oraries 1ere )on4in)ed that the demo)ratisation o! menta.ities0 -e.ie!s0 and 4a.ues 1ou.d !o..o12 Ins&ired -+ ahistori)a. rationa.ism0 this 4ie1 side/ .ined )u.ture and nationa. )hara)teristi)s2 3he -rotherhood/and/unit+ !ormu.a in &ost/">4@ Yu(os.a4ia )ou.d not )on)ea. that the .e(a./ )onstitutiona. do)trine o! the 3itoist state 1as in)reasin(.+ at odds 1ith &er)e&tions in the re&u-.i)s0 1hi)h had assi(ned the task o! e5istentia. re&resentation to the ethni) )ommunit+0 not to the !edera. state2 A.thou(h the )onstitution o! ">C4 )on!erred Duasi/autonom+ to the re&u-.i)s o! Vo%4odina and Foso4o0 de)entra.isation 1as ne4er rea..+ a))e&ted -+ the :er-s2 ,e!ore ">"C0 Russian &o.iti)a. order ne4er )ame to )onstitute a .e(a. entit+ su&erior to and inde&endent !rom the 1i.. o! monar)hs2 9nti. the se)ond ha.! o! the nineteenth )entur+0 the state 6 gosudarstvo7 as an inde/ &endent and autonomous.+ re(u.ated ma)hine o! &o1er did not e5ist in
?> 4= 4"
:)hum&eter0 Capitalism& Socialism& and Democracy0 2 Hanna 8itkin0 The Concept o$ #epresentation 6,erke.e+P 9ni4ersit+ o! Ca.i!ornia 8ress0 ">BC72 Wi..iam H2 :e1e.. %nr0 A #hetoric o$ 8ourgeois #evolution! The A334 Sieyes and K0hat Is the Third "stateN 6*urham and LondonP *uke 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>470 4"/B@2
B>
the &er)e&tion o! the -u.k o! Russian so)iet+2 4< As the &rimar+ a..e(ian)e o! the 4ast ma%orit+ o! the &o&u.ation0 the &easants0 1as the .o)a. )om/ munit+ 6mir70 the notion o! )ommon (ood em-odied -+ the !ather.and 6otechestvo7 throu(h the state remained hi(h.+ a-stra)t2 3he tsars had to re.+ on auto)rati) means to hammer this idea o! the )ommon (ood into the heads o! their su-%e)ts2 Whi.e kee&in( them in so)ia. miser+ and under &o.iti)a. tute.a(e0 tsarism maintained the m+th o! so)ia. monar)h+ throu(h the tsar;s s&e)ia. )on)ern !or the &easantr+2 4? In re(ardin( :o4iet )ommunism as a )ounter/mode. to the .i-era. Western demo)rati) state0 1e ne(.e)t the s+m-o.ism esta-.ished -+ the ,o.she4iks in &ost/re4o.utionar+ Russia and .ater in eastern 'uro&e2 Westerners )on!used )onstitutiona.ism in )ommunist )ountries 1ith Western )onstitutions0 as the+ did not rea.ise that the re4o.ution did not esta-.ish a )onstituti4e a)t in terms o! )reatin( a &o.iti)a. )ommunit+2 44 Communism 1as de4oid o! .ar(er &o&u.ar su&&ort and !ai.ed to de4e.o& !u.. re&resentation in the !orma. 6)onstitutiona.7 sense2 3he !orma.isation o! )ommunist &o.iti)a. authorit+ did not o))ur throu(h a )onstituti4e a)t o! a nationa. )onstitutiona. assem-.+2 3he ,o.she4iks remained &erma/ nent.+ )ontested in the des)ri&ti4e sense and had to re.+ .ar(e.+ u&on radi)a. shi!ts in s+m-o.i) re&resentation2 Re&resentation in the )onstitu/ tiona. sense in a &o.iti)a. so)iet+ is no insuran)e a(ainst the disinte(ration o! e5istentia. re&resentation2 When a re&resentati4e is not in a )ondition to !u.!i. his e5istentia. task0 no )onstitutiona. .e(a.it+ o! his &osition 1i.. sa4e himR i! a )reati4e minorit+ turns into a dominant minorit+0 it is in dan(er o! -ein( re&.a)ed -+ a ne1 )reati4e minorit+2 Whi.e :o4iet )om/ munism !ai.ed to &ro4ide !orma. and des)ri&ti4e re&resentation0 ho1e4er0 it &rodu)ed a &rin)i&.e o! re&resentation o! its o1n2 Lenin and the ,o.she4ik &art+ es&oused the s+m-o.ism o! the di)tator/ shi& o! the &ro.etariat0 1hi)h assi(ned the .eadin( ro.e to the &art+ as a re&resentati4e o! humanit+ itse.!2 3his di)tatorshi& de!ined itse.! as anti/ .i-era.0 anti/re.i(ious0 &ro(ressi4e0 and determined to u&root traditiona. 4a.ues and ideas o! so)ia. and &o.iti)a. or(anisation !or the sake o! )onso.i/ datin( the re4o.ution2 Hi4en the dee& so)ia. &o.arisation in re4o.utionar+
4< 4? 44
O.e( Fharkhordin0 ain Concepts o$ #ussian Politics 6Lanham0 M*P 9ni4ersit+ 8ress o! Ameri)a0 <==@70 "/4=2 Ri)hard Wortman0 Scenarios o$ Power! yth and Ceremony in #ussian onarchy0 < 4o.s2 68rin)etonP 8rin)eton 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <===70 4o.2 II0 @<@2 A))ordin( to historian Morman *a4ies0 the Ameri)an editor o! the "ncyclopedia 8ritannica insisted des&ite .en(th+ a.ter)ations that the entr+ on 8o.and shou.d -e(in 1ith a des)ri&tion o! the 8o.ish )onstitutionR see Morman *a4ies0 O8o.ish Mationa. M+tho.o(ies;0 in Heo!!re+ Hoskin( and Heor(e :)ho&!.in0 eds20 yths and ;ationhood 6LondonP Hurst0 ">>C70 "@B2
C=
Russia0 ho1e4er0 the )reation o! the ,o.she4ik re(ime reDuired identi!i)a/ tion 1ith a )o..e)ti4e histori)a. -od+2 Eo..o1in( the Mar5ist/Leninist 4ision o! a di)tatorshi& o! the &ro.etariat0 )ommunism ).aimed to re&resent a ).ass that0 on)e in &o1er0 1ou.d a-o.ish an+ e5istin( di4ision in so)iet+ and e4entua..+ make the state o-so.ete2 4@ 3he ,o.she4iks; &ro%e)tion o! the uni!+in( One ).aimed the indi4isi-i.it+ o! the &eo&.e in their so)ia. rea.it+ !rom the &art+ as the re4e.ation o! histori)a. truth2 In 3rotsk+;s 1ords0 Onone o! us 1ishesto -e or )an -e ri(ht a(ainst the &art+2 In the .ast instan)e the &art+ is a.1a+s ri(ht --- One )an -e ri(ht on.+ 1ith the &art+ and throu(h the &art+0 -e)ause Histor+ has not )reated an+ other 1a+ !or the rea.isation o! one;s ri(htness2; 4B 3he re&resentationa. do)trine o! the 8eo&.e/as/One in).uded the &art+0 1hi)h did not ha4e a s&e)i!i) rea.it+ 1ithin so)iet+ -ut ).aimed to -e identi)a. 1ith the &ro.etariat2 3he )ru)ia. &oint is that the di)tatorshi& o! the &ro.etariat as the s+m-o. o! the ne1 &o1er mer(ed a Mar5ist notion 1ith the situationa. &remises o! a radi)a..+ &o.arised )ontentious re4o.utionar+ &o.iti)s2 A))ordin( to Mar5 and 'n(e.s0 the re4o.utionar+ ).ass o4er)omes o&&ression !rom the o.d ).ass -ut de4e.o&s no ).ass interest o! its o1n0 thus -ein( eDui4a.ent 1ith the O&eo&.e;2 Lenin;s denia. o! di4isions -et1een state and so)iet+ and si(ns o! interna. so)ia. di4ision 1ent a.on(0 ho1e4er0 1ith the a!!irmation o! a !undamenta. di4ision -et1een the 8eo&.e/as/One and the OOther;2 3his Other 1as &ro%e)ted as re&resentin( )ounter/re4o.utionar+ !or)es su)h as the tsarist order0 the ku.aks0 or the -our(eoisie0 -ut in)reasin(.+ a.so the intra/&art+ o&&osition2 3he ima(e o! the 8eo&.e/as/One needed the ima/ (inar+ Other in t1o )ru)ia. res&e)tsP on the one hand0 the de!inition o! the enem+ 1as )onstituti4e o! the identit+ o! the 8eo&.e/as/One -ut0 on the other0 simu.taneous.+ threatened its unit+ &ermanent.+2 Mot un.ike the &erse)ution o! re.i(ious dissenters in re.i(ious 1ars o! the Midd.e A(es0 the )ommunists; aim 1as to !i(ht not on.+ a)tua. -ut a.so &otentia. o&&osition2 4C Communist &arties set themse.4es o!! !rom enemies0 -e the+ the -our(eois or so)ia./!as)ist ).ass enemies in the West0 !i!th )o.umns0 or inde&endent mo4ements su)h as human ri(hts a)ti4ists or dissidents2 3he :ta.in e&o)h needed -inar+ o&&osites in order to de.imit '4i. as a ).ear.+ de!ina-.e o&&osite to Hood0 i2e2 to the -ui.din( o! :ta.inism24A 8eriods o! a&&arent re.a5ation &re)eded &hases o! inten/ si!ied )am&ai(ns a(ainst enemies2 Whereas in Ee-ruar+ ">?4 :ta.in
4@ 4B 4C 4A
Le!ort0 The Political 'orms o$ odern Society0 <C?/>A2 Tuoted in Mi)hae. Wa..er0 The "nd o$ the Communist Power onopoly 6Man)hester and Me1 YorkP Man)hester 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>?70 @A2 Mi.o4an *%i.as0 The ;ew Class! An Analysis o$ the Communist System 6Me1 York and Washin(tonP 8rae(er0 ">B470 <B2 ,onne..0 Iconography o$ Power0 <"/<2
C"
announ)ed that there 1ere no enemies .e!t to !i(ht0 on.+ t1o +ears .ater the Hreat 3error un.eashed a kind o! mass &s+)hosis that denoun)ed hundreds o! thousands2 In ">?C0 :ta.in de).ared that the ).oser so)ia.ism )ame to )ommunism0 the stron(er and more dan(erous its enemies 1ou.d -e)ome24> 3his identi!i)ation o! the enem+ 1as not :ta.in;s in4ention0 as ).aimed -+ Fhrush)he4 in ">@B0 -ut had -een an inte(ra. &art o! the ,o.she4iks; strate(+ .on( -e!ore O)to-er ">"C2 ,orn in a 1or.d 1ar and &.un(ed into a )i4i. 1ar short.+ a!ter1ards0 the ,o.she4ik Re4o.ution turned the sti(ma/ tisation o! the enem+ into a re&resentati4e &rin)i&.e that -e)ame a )ru)ia. -ond0 a s+m-o.i) Ostru)ture;2 As the ,o.she4iks )ou.d neither !u.!i. e5&e)t/ ations o! a stead+ e5&ansion o! the re4o.ution a-road nor -ui.d u& a !un)tionin( e)onom+0 their (oa. 1as to interna.ise a !ee.in( o! -ein( threatened -+ net1orks o! )ons&ira)+ and enemies o! the re4o.ution0 thus indu)in( the &o&u.ation to re)i&ro)a. sus&i)ion and the dut+ o! denun)i/ ation2 O3he enem+0 in a &otentia. !orm0 1i.. a.1a+s -e thereR the on.+ !riend 1i.. -e the man 1ho a))e&ts the do)trine "== &er )ent2 I! he a))e&ts on.+ >> &er )ent0 he 1i.. ne)essari.+ ha4e to -e )onsidered a !oe0 !or !rom that remainin( " &er )ent a ne1 )hur)h )an arise2; @= O'nemies o! the &eo&.e; 1ere a kind o! so)ia. &ro&h+.a5is ensurin( a (rou&;s identit+ -+ e5&e..in( its 1aste matter2 3he a))usations a(ainst )ounter/re4o.utionaries durin( :ta.in;s Hreat 3error not on.+ !or)ed the a))used to make rationa..+ indu)ed se.!/)on4i)tions o! harm!u. a)ti4ities and treason a(ainst the &art+ and the re4o.ution0 -ut a.so &ersuaded man+ !orei(n o-ser4ers o! their authenti)it+2 3he !aith in the &art+ 1ent so !ar as to rationa.ise the se.!/)on!ession o! )rimes ne4er )ommitted in the name o! a hi(her .o(i) o! the &art+2 3he se.!/attri-ution o! (ui.t not on.+ !u.!i..ed the &o.iti)a. !un)tion o! admit/ tin( the treason a(ainst the &art+ as an o-%e)ti4e !a)t2 It a.so re4ea.ed ho1 te)hniDues o! )ommunist &o1er had di4ided the &ersona.ities o! the de!endants2 3he a))used in the sho1 tria.s -et1een ">?B and ">?A rationa..+ a)kno1.ed(ed that the+ had &er&etrated harm!u. a)ti4ities and treason a(ainst the &art+ and the re4o.ution2 @" Cau(ht u& in a dou-.e -ind0 the+ 4indi)ated the un%ust )ondemnation 1ith a rationa. adheren)e to the ri(ht !aith2 3he .i!e o! a )ommunist and his atta)hment to the mo4ement !ormed a rea.it+ o! its o1n to 1hi)h he 1as entire.+ dedi)atedR i! he 1ere to -e e5&e..ed !or treason0 sa-ota(e0 or hosti.e a)ts / !or 1hi)h he did not re&ent / it 1ou.d -e eDui4a.ent to makin( him .ose a.. his .i!e;s
4> @= @"
Fotkin0 agnetic ountain0 <?A2 CIesLa1 MiLosI0 The Captive ind 6Me1 YorkP A.!red A2 Fno&!0 ">@?70 <"42 Arthur Foest.er0 Darkness at ;oon 6LondonP Vinta(e ,ooks0 ">4=72
C<
meanin(2 ,ukharin;s de)ision to testi!+ a!ter three months o! si.en)e 1as -ased on a reassessment o! his &ast2 OI! I ask m+se.! toda+0 OOEor 1hat am I d+in(Q0;; I am )on!ronted -+ a-so.ute nothin(ness2 3here is nothin( !or 1hi)h one )ou.d die0 i! one died 1ithout ha4in( re&ented and unre)on/ )i.ed 1ith the 8art+ and the Mo4ement2 3here!ore0 on the thresho.d o! m+ .ast hour0 I -end m+ knees to the )ountr+0 to the masses0 and to the 1ho.e &eo&.e2;@< A!ter the :e)ond Wor.d War0 the !as)ist enem+ )ame to -e o! )entra. im&ortan)e !or the se.!/.e(itimisation o! )ommunist re(imes2 3he )on/ stru)tion o! enemies -+ )ommunist ideo.o(+ &ursued the dou-.e task o! stressin( the demo)rati) )redentia.s o! the state and o! su&&ortin( its domesti) )onso.idation2 3he 1at)h1ord o! the da+ in &eo&.e;s demo)/ ra)ies 1as state 4i(i.an)e a(ainst &ossi-.e re4ersa.s o&erated -+ remnants o! &re/">4@ state stru)tures2 :u)h a re&resentation o! the histori)a. )on/ tinuit+ o! !as)ism a..o1ed &ost/1ar )ommunist ru.ers to &resent them/ se.4es as the ad4ersaries o! !as)ism on the (rounds o! their o1n anti/!as)ist &ast and their )ommitment to demo)ra)+2 Eas)ism 1as ne4er rea..+ de!ined -ut essentia..+ s+m-o.ised the Oenem+;2 In some )ountries0 su)h as Yu(os.a4ia or A.-ania0 outside enemies meant )ountries in the so)ia.ist )am&0 su)h as the :o4iet 9nion or Yu(os.a4ia0 res&e)ti4e.+2 3ito and the )ommunist &art+ .eadershi&0 !or instan)e0 )on)ea.ed the enmities under/ .+in( the )i4i. 1ar -et1een ">4" and ">4@ -+ em&hasisin( the inter/ nationa.ist -rotherhood o! the Yu(os.a4 nations2 M+tho.o(i)a. )onstru)tions o! rea.it+ :o4iet )ommunism 1as an un&re)edented (rand e5&eriment that sou(ht to im&.ement &ro(ress -+ institutiona..+ and s&iritua..+ se&aratin( e5&e)t/ ations !rom e5&erien)e2 3his attem&t at &o.iti)a..+ im&.ementin( Mar5ist re4o.utionar+ theor+ re%e)ted Western modernit+ -+ tr+in( to !u.!i. it2 3his uto&ian &ro%e)t o! )at)hin( u& 1ith the West -+ industria.isation 4irtua..+ !rom s)rat)h shi!ted !rom &ra(mati) reason to a &o.iti)a. &ra)ti)e that (enerated ).osure and e5).usi4it+2 @? Ho1e4er0 ,o.she4ik/t+&e &arties trans)ended the ear.ier0 uto&ian ideas a-out the histori)a. ne)essit+ o! &ro(ress in t1o res&e)ts2 3he+ .inked the )enturies/o.d inte..e)tua. &ro/ %e)t o! en)asin( the 1or.d in a sin(.e0 &er!e)t uto&ian dis)ourse 1ith the idea o! &ro(ress0 messianism and a 1or.d.+ es)hato.o(+2 Eurthermore0 this dis)ourse -e)ame )onne)ted to )ertain Omeans; ne)essar+ !or its
@< @?
Foest.er0 Darkness at ;oon0 ">>2 Ri)hard :tites0 #evolutionary Dreams! :topian >ision and "xperimental %i$e in the #ussian #evolution 6Me1 York and O5!ordP O5!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">A>70 "BC/<<<2
C?
rea.isationP the !ormation o! a re(u.ar a&&aratus o! tea)hers and so.diers0 or0 rather0 tea)her/so.diers2 @4 3he a-so.utist &ro%e)t o! -reakin( radi)a..+ 1ith the &ast and &ro/ noun)in( the ine4ita-i.it+ o! the transition to )ommunism introdu)ed dou-.e standards o! rea.it+ into dai.+ .i!e2 3he institutiona.isation o! time/ re(imes testi!ied to a .i!e in a s&.it e5isten)e 1here da+/to/da+ e)onomi) de4e.o&ment mer(ed 1ith uto&ian e5&e)tations o! the !uture2 ,o.she4ik time/re(imes radi)a..+ -roke 1ith &er)e&tions o! Onorma.; time2 @@ 3he destru)tion o! dai.+ routines in a re4o.utionar+ situation !o..o1ed -+ a )i4i. 1ar made it di!!i)u.t to make sense o! time either in terms o! a-stra)t rationa. measurements or throu(h the e5&erien)e o! )on)rete )+).es o! re&etition2 Charismati) re4o.utionar+ .eaders in times o! )risis (ather !o..o1ers around them -e)ause the+ !or)e!u..+ su((est that the+ )an su))ess!u..+ (uide a so)ia. 1or.d 1here ordinar+ time no .on(er a&&ears to !un)tion2 On)e mundane time )eases to e5&.ain or master e4ents0 an+ su))ess!u. e5er)ise o! .eadershi& is .ike.+ to a&&ear as nothin( short o! Omira)u.ous;2 ,oth the Leninist &o.it+ and the :ta.inist e)onom+ re.ied u&on a s+nthesis o! )harisma and rationa./.e(a. &ro)edura.ism2 In this 4ein0 ana.+ti) di)hotomies -et1een Outo&ia; and Ode4e.o&ment; in :o4iet histor+ seem in4a.id2 3he &o.iti)a. institutions esta-.ished a!ter the ,o.she4ik Re4o.ution and the e)onomi) institutions set u& durin( the Eirst Ei4e/Year 8.an 1ere -ui.t u&on the &rin)i&.e that Outo&ia; )ou.d -e rea.ised -+ -ui.din( time trans)enden)e into time/-ound de4e.o&ment itse.!2 Re4o.utionar+ messianism &romised a radiant !uture -+ &ro%e)tin( a !uture &o.iti)a. and so)ia. order that 1as su&&osed to o4er)ome )on/ ditions o! &o.iti)a. o&&ression and e)onomi) -a)k1ardness2 :ta.in;s s&ee)h at the Eirst A../9nion Con!eren)e o! Mana(ers o! :o)ia.ist Industr+ in ">?" !or)e!u..+ e5&ressed ho1 the horiIon o! e5&e)tation o! &ro(ress throu(h industria.isation 1as &itted a(ainst the Russian e5&/ erien)e2 In his 4ie10 .on(standin( -a)k1ardness / mi.itar+0 )u.tura.0 &o.iti)a.0 industria.0 and a(ri)u.tura. / 1as res&onsi-.e !or Russia;s humi.iation2 Cat)hin( u& in the !astest tem&o &ossi-.e 1as :ta.in;s &ro&osa. !or o4er)omin( Russia;s 1eakness2@B 3he institutiona.isation o! uto&ia 1as a))om&anied -+ the )ommunist &art+;s !er4ent Iea. to )reate .a1 and histor+ -+ the Oannihi.ation o! the &ast; and the &rodu)tion o! histor+ -+ the mani&u.ation o! memor+2
@4 @@ @B
Hor4aGth and :Iako.)Iai0 The Dissolution o$ Communist Power0 CB/C2 :te&hen '2 Hanson0 Time and #evolution! arxism and the Design o$ Soviet Institutions 6Cha&e. Hi.. and LondonP 9ni4ersit+ o! Morth Caro.ina 8ress0 ">>C72 Ri)hard :ak1a0 ed20 The #ise and 'all o$ the Soviet :nion *+*5-*++* 6London and Me1 YorkP Rout.ed(e0 ">>>70 "AC/A2
C4
Re!eren)e to rea. e4ents in the &resent or in the &ast 1as &rohi-ited0 as it )ou.d endan(er the do)trine o! an irre4ersi-.e &o.iti)a. order2 3he :o4iet ritua. s+stem Duite e5&.i)it.+ sa1 itse.! as inau(uratin( a time o! ne1 -e(innin(s0 )on4ertin( a.. &re4ious histor+ into O&re/histor+;2 @C 3he his/ tor+ o! the )onstru)tion o! so)ia.ism -e)ame s+non+mous 1ith nationa. histor+2 3o di!!erent de(rees0 it in).uded e.ements o! nationa. traditions or heroi) resistan)e a(ainst in4aders in order to a))ommodate )ommunist ru.e 1ith the traditions and memories o! the nation2 :ettin( the (oa.s !or the !uture reDuired trans!ormin( meanin(s o! the &ast2 *es&ite the &ro/ mise o! a transition to )ommunism0 the rites and ritua.s de4ised !or the :o4iet &eo&.e oriented them to the &ast / to the Hreat O)to-er Re4o.ution0 the Hreat Eather.and War0 and0 a-o4e a.. e.se0 e4ents in the .i!e o! Lenin2 Whi.e tsarism;s ideo.o(i)a. )om&.e5 in).uded the triad o! Orthodo5+0 a-so.utism0 and nationa.it+0 :o4iet m+tho.o(+ )onsisted o! Mar5ism/Leninism0 the )u.t o! the .eader0 and :o4iet &atriotism2 @A *is!i(urin( the &ast and &ro%e)tin( a uto&ian !uture0 the &resent -e)ame )om&ressed -et1een t1o dream 1or.ds2 Ana.+ti)a. &s+)ho.o(+ de4e.o&ed the )on)e&t o! ar)het+&es -+ 1hi)h it re!erred to &rimordia. ima(es that are inherent to humanit+2 Ar)het+&es are not eDui4a.ent to meanin(s o! de!inite m+thi)a. ima(es or moti!s2 3he+ are 1ithout kno1n ori(in -ut the+ re&rodu)e themse.4es in an+ time or in an+ &art o! the 1or.d2 Rather than inheritin( 4aria-.e re&resentations0 Othe ar)het+&e is a tenden)+ to !orm su)h re&resentations o! a moti!0 re&resentations that )an 4ar+ a (reat dea. in detai. 1ithout .osin( their -asi) &attern;2 @> Ar)het+&es resem-.e instin)ti4e trends0 ha4in( their o1n initiati4e and their o1n s&e)i!i) ener(+2 :ome ana.+sts .o)ated the &urest e5&ression o! tota.itari/ anism -e+ond its s+stemi) ).aim o! tota. )ontro. o! so)iet+ in the !i)tiona. and s+m-o.i) ima(es0 in its &o1er as a dream0 as a ni(htmare2 B= I! the histor+ o! humanit+ has (enerated m+tho.o(+0 theo.o(+0 &hi.os/ o&h+0 and s)ien)e as !our sta(es o! .e(itimatisation0 &eriods o! )risis and un)ertaint+ reintrodu)e the &o1er o! a&&arent.+ o-so.ete !orms2 B" 8eo&.e
@C @A @> B=
B"
James 3hro1er0 arxism-%eninism as the Civil #eligion o$ Soviet Society! 1ods Commissar 6Le1istonP 'd1in Me..en 8ress0 ">><70 ""A2 Mi)hae. 9r-an et a.20 The #e3irth o$ Politics in #ussia 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>C70 "A2 Car. H2 Jun( et a.20 an and 2is Sym3ols 6LondonP Arkana0 ">>=70 BC2 Tuoted in Hio4anni :artori0 The Theory o$ Democracy #evisited 6Chatham0 MJP Chatham House 8u-.ishers0 ">AC70 <"< n2 @>2 With re!eren)e to Jo+)e;s remark that histor+ is a ni(htmare !rom 1hi)h one tries to a1ake0 one )an de!ine tota.itarianism -+ addin( that !or some it 1as a ni(htmare !rom 1hi)h the+ did not tr+ to a1akeR see 8ierre Hassner0 %a violence et la paix 68arisP 'ditions 's&rit0 ">>@70 <<<2 8eter ,er(er and 3homas Lu)kmann0 The Social Construction o$ #eality 6London and Me1 YorkP 8en(uin ,ooks0 ">>"70 "<A2
C@
-e.ie4e m+ths not -e)ause the histori)a. e4iden)e is )om&e..in( -ut -e)ause the+ are o-%e)ti!i)ations o! man;s so)ia. e5&erien)e2 Whi.e m+th re!ers to the )on)e&tua. side o! a histori)a. narrati4e 1ith a stron( a&&ea. to )o..e)ti4e emotions0 it a.so (ras&s the &er)e&tua. side o! makin( sense o! e5&erien)es2 M+tho.o(+0 .ike interest/-ased and uti.it+/seekin( demo/ )rati) &o.iti)s0 tries to )a&ture rea.it+2 It su((ests a hi(h de(ree o! )on/ tinuit+ -et1een so)ia. and )osmi) order0 and -et1een a.. their res&e)ti4e .e(itimatisationsR a.. rea.it+ a&&ears as i! made o! one ).oth2 M+tho.o(ies ha4e a -asis in e5&erien)e -ut are !.e5i-.e in terms o! -ein( e5&.oited !or ideo.o(i)a. &ro(rammes or &o.iti)a. &ra)ti)e2 3he+ are the mo4ement o! the matter0 somethin( so.id and !.e5i-.e0 matter/.ike and +et not stati)0 -ut trans!orma-.e2B< M+ths ha4e a )ommuni)ati4e !un)tion 1ith the aim o! esta-.ishin( mutua. su&&ort 1ith others0 as the+ e5terna.ise inner im&u.ses and tensions2 3he im&ortant &oint is not the e5terna.isation o! a )on)rete m+th -ut the &o.iti)a. a&&.i)a-i.it+ and mo-i.isin( !or)e -+ 1hi)h the masses )an -e aroused2 3he+ are not -ased on the !a)tua. a))ura)+ o! their )ontent -ut on their use!u.ness !or )reatin( .o+a.t+0 unanimit+0 and -e.on(in(2 ,rin(in( to mind the moti4e !or)e and emoti4e &otentia. o! the dramati) su))ession o! asso)iated ima(es0 m+th de&i)ts the so)ia. stru((.e in the starkest &ossi-.e terms0 a))entuatin( o&&ositions -et1een the t1o sides2 B? M+th desi(nates a distin)t.+ tem&ora. Oas&e)t;R it -e(ins 1hen a (enesis0 a -e)omin(0 a .i!e in time0 is attri-uted to !or)es0 !i(ures0 and ima(es2 B4 M+th aims to &rodu)e a)tion -+ makin( histor+ O!a.si!i)ation/&roo!; and -+ &ro%e)tin( an ima(e o! the !uture in order to make it instrumenta. !or the &resent2 B@ 3hus0 &o.iti)a. m+ths are no mere !i(ments o! the ima(ination -ut arti!i)ia. thin(s !a-ri)ated -+ 4er+ ski.!u. and )unnin( artisans2 8arado5i)a..+0 the (reat te)hni)a. a(e o! the t1en/ tieth )entur+ de4e.o&ed a ne1 te)hniDue o! manu!a)turin( m+ths in mu)h the same sense and a))ordin( to the same methods as an+ other modern 1ea&on / as ma)hine (uns or air&.anes2 BB Whereas the 1or.d -e(an to 1orr+ a-out Herman+;s rearmament in ">??0 the rea. rearma/ ment had -e(un 1ith the rise o! the &o.iti)a. m+ths to 1hi)h the .ater
B< B? B4 B@ BB
Far. FerVn+i0 0ege und 0eggenossen0 ed2 Ma(da FerVn+i 6Muni)hP Lan(en Mu..er0 ">A@70""/A42 Christo&her H2 E.ood0 Political yth! A Theoretical Introduction 6Me1 York and LondonP Har.and 8u-.ishin(0 ">>B70 4A2 'rnst Cassirer0 The Philosophy o$ Sym3olic 'orms0 4o.2 II0 ythical Thought 6Me1 Ha4en and LondonP Ya.e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">@@70 "=42 Heor(es :ore.0 #e$lections on >iolence 6Me1 York and LondonP Co..ier ,ooks0 ">BC70 "<4/@2 'rnst Cassirer0 The yth o$ the State 6Me1 Ha4enP Ya.e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">4B70 <A<2
CB
mi.itar+ rearmament 1as on.+ an a))essor+ and a ne)essar+ )onseDuen)e o! the menta. rearmament2 3he do(mati) )anonisation o! a )u.t o! Lenin turned the re4o.utionar+ .eader into an o-%e)t o! re.i(ious 1orshi&2 :imi.ar.+0 the -ui.din( o! a so)ia.ist so)iet+ 1as an)hored in a 1ho.esa.e m+tho.o(+ o! a :ta.in )u.t that .inked u& 1ith the )u.t o! Lenin and the m+tho.o(+ o! the O)to-er Re4o.ution0 -ut a)tua..+ 1anted to do a1a+ 1ith the e5&erien)e o! the re4o.utionar+ herita(e -+ stream.inin( one 4ision o! the re4o.ution2 BC :u)h m+tho.o(i)a. )onstru)tions o! rea.it+ 1ere not a.ien to esta-.ished &ra)ti)es in Russian &o.iti)s2 3he identi!i)ation o! the tsar 1ith the Russian state dre1 on theatri)a. and ritua.ised )eremonies o! the im&eria. Russian )ourt0 1hi)h sho1ed the sour)es o! &o1er0 -ut simu.taneous.+ he.d their su-%e)ts s&e..-ound2 BA 3he animatin( m+th o! Russian mon/ ar)h+ !rom the !i!teenth to the .ate nineteenth )entur+ asso)iated the ru.er and the e.ite 1ith !orei(n ima(es o! &o.iti)a. &o1er2 3his internationa.ist m+th o! Russian tsarism dre1 on m+thi)a. sour)es in its se.!/re&resentation o! -ein( &ro!ound.+ 'uro&ean2 Ritua.ised )eremonies in the Russian monar)h+ throu(hout the ei(hteenth and nineteenth )enturies rein!or)ed the .e(itimisation o! &o1er not on.+ -+ re.i(ious san)tion and tradition -ut a.so -+ an on(oin( dramatisation o! the ru.er;s !orei(nness2 At the same time0 the o-%e)ti4e o! tsarist &o1er 1as to -e)ome a -u.1ark a(ainst the modern 'uro&eanised Russian inte..i(entsia 1hose aim 1as to 1eaken Russian monar)h+2 M+tho.o(i)a. )onstru)tions o! :o4iet histor+ a.so rea!!irmed the dem/ o)rati) )redentia.s o! the :o4iet 9nion2 8ortra+in( the :o4iet 9nion as the hi(hest !orm o! demo)ra)+0 :ta.in ar(ued that in the )ountr+ there 1ere on.+ t1o ).asses0 1orkers and &easants0 1hose interests / !ar !rom -ein( mutua..+ hosti.e / 1ere0 on the )ontrar+0 identi)a.2 Consistent 1ith Lenin;s )ritiDue o! &ar.iamentar+ demo)ra)+0 he des&ised demo)ra)+ in )a&ita.ist )ountries as Odemo)ra)+ !or the stron(0 demo)ra)+ !or the &ro&ertied minorit+2 In the 9::R0 on the )ontrar+0 demo)ra)+ is demo)/ ra)+ !or the 1orkin( &eo&.e0 i2e20 demo)ra)+ !or a..2;B> Eai.ure o! )onstituti4e &o.iti)s Wh+ did )ommunism disa&&ear so sudden.+ and )om&.ete.+Q Amon( numerous e5&.anations !or the )o..a&se o! )ommunism0 man+ &ointed to the inner )ontradi)tions nurtured -+ d+nami)s su)h as )om&etition
BC BA
Heo!!re+ Hoskin(0 The 'irst Socialist Society! A 2istory o$ the Soviet :nion $rom 0ithin 6Cam-rid(e0 MAP Har4ard 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>=70 <"C/<=2 Wortman0 Scenarios o$ Power0 4o.2 II0 @/C2
B>
Eainsod0 2ow #ussia Is #uled0 "?>2
CC
1ith the West0 e)onomi) de).ine0 or im&eria. o4erstret)h2 C= 3he most )om&rehensi4e !a)tor 1as a &ro!ound .e(itima)+ )risis a!!e)tin( man+ areas o! &u-.i) -e.ie! in authorit+2 3his )risis o! .e(itima)+ is o!ten attri-/ uted to de!i)ien)ies in the institutiona.ised !rame1ork that -e)ame su-/ 4ersi4e0 )ausin( )orru&tion0 e)onomi) de).ine0 and ine!!i)ien)+2 C" Erom a &ers&e)ti4e o! &o.iti)a. s+m-o.ism0 the (ra4e so)ia. )onseDuen/ )es o! the O)to-er Re4o.ution !ai.ed to make )ommunism &o.iti)a..+ )onstituti4e2 A.thou(h )ommunism esta-.ished re&ressi4e &o.iti)a. s+s/ tems -ased on se)ret &o.i)e and mi.itar+ &o1er0 its !oundations 1ere o! m+thi)a. )hara)ter0 as it .a)ked an identi!ia-.e s+stemi) stru)ture2 Communist &o.iti)a. so)ieties )ra!ted their .e(itima)+ on the -asis o! ideo.o(i)a. indo)trination and )oer)ion0 1hi)h undermined meanin(!u. re.ations o! so)ia. trust0 a))ounta-i.it+0 and .o+a.t+2 Im&osed !rom a-o4e0 trust in the so)ia. !a-ri) -red a &ermanent &resum&tion o! dis.o+a.t+0 diso-edien)e0 and (ui.t2C< I! a 1e../institutiona.ised so)ia. order is one in 1hi)h the )ontin(ent )onstitutiona. ru.es a))ordin( to 1hi)h &o.iti)a. and distri-utiona. )on!.i)ts are )arried out are re.ati4e.+ immune !rom -e)omin( themse.4es the o-%e)t o! su)h )on!.i)t0 then under )ommunism order 1as not institutiona.ised2 Erom their seiIure o! &o1er0 the ,o.she4iks 1ere in a dou-.e -ind -et1een )om&etin( demands2 Eaith!u. to Mar5;s and Lenin;s &res)ri&tions0 the state as an or(anisation o! the &o.iti)a. interests o! the dominant )a&ita.ist ).ass 1ou.d -e thro1n o!! as a resu.t o! the a-o.ition o! &ri4ate &ro&ert+2 3he ne)essit+ o! )onso.idatin( the re4o.ution0 ho1e4er0 reDuired the use and stren(thenin( o! &i..ars o! state &o1er su)h as the arm+0 the &o.i)e0 and the -ureau)ra)+2 *es&ite the tem&orar+ e!!e)t o! the Me1 ')onomi) 8o.i)+ or the s&e)ta)u.ar a)hie4e/ ments o! :o4iet mi.itar+ and s&a)e te)hno.o(+0 )ommunism did not de4e.o& a re(u.ar &attern o! e)onomi) (ro1th or a modernisin( idea o! &o.iti)a. de4e.o&ment2 :imi.ar.+0 the internationa. e5&ansion in the !orm o! the Comintern 1itnessed man+ u&s and do1ns -ut no stead+ &ro(ress0 not a sin(.e .astin( su))ess2C? 3he ,o.she4iks !ai.ed to de4e.o& re&resentation in the )onstitutiona. sense and remained &ermanent.+ )ontested in the e5istentia. sense2 3he makeshi!t )hara)ter o! ,o.she4ik .eadershi& 1as tan(i-.e in re&eated attem&ts to .ook !or su&&ort 1ith di!!erent so)ia. (rou&s throu(h in!.i)tin( ha4o) u&on others2 3he histori)a. un!o.din( o! ,o.she4ism as a !orm o!
C= C" C< C?
Les.ie Ho.mes0 Post-Communism 6*urhamP *uke 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>C70 <?/B<2 ,un)e0 Su3versive Institutions2 8iotr :Itom&ka0 Trust! A Sociological Theory 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <===70"4A/>2 ,orkenau0 0orld Communism0 4"?2
CA
&o.iti)a. domination .a)ked an a5is in time and a ).ima5 o! de4e.o&ment2 :o4iet )ommunism es)he1ed the res&onsi4eness o! the masses0 so)ia. stru)tures0 and the a))ounta-i.it+ o! &o1er in)um-ents2 Instead0 it -ui.t u&on )om-ati4eness0 ar)het+&i)a. s)hemes su)h as the st+.ised m+tho.o(+ o! the &art+ .eader0 and hatred !or an+thin( non/)ommunist2 3he O)ons/ titution; o! :o4iet )ommunism )onsisted o! a seDuen)e o! disru&ti4e and 4io.ent a)ts that .ed to the interna.isation o! 4io.en)e2 As Rousseau sho1ed0 the tru.+ e!!e)ti4e -asis o! a &o.iti)a. order is in esta-.ishin( a )i4i. re.i(ion2C4 3he histori)a..+ )on)rete !i(ure o! the .e(is.ator 1ith his !a)i.it+ to (ather the )ommunit+ around sim&.e do(mas o! a )i4i) re.i(ion is the de)isi4e !oundin( !i(ure o! the state2 Ho1e4er0 the (o4ernment is su&&osed to )ontro. the o&inions o! its )itiIens on.+ to the e5tent that the+ are o! &u-.i) uti.it+2 3he so4erei(n steers the &ro!ession o! the )itiIens; )reed not so mu)h as a re.i(ious do(ma -ut as a sentiment o! so)ia-i.it+2 3hus0 )i4i) re.i(ions are res&onses in the so)ia. 1or.d to s&iritua. ne)essities o! )o..e)ti4e (rou&s0 or nations2 A.thou(h the Ameri)an Constitution .a)ked o4ert re!eren)e to a deit+0 s+m-o.s !rau(ht 1ith re.i(ious im&ort readi.+ -e)ame &art o! nationa. .i!e2 3he re!eren)e to the 9nited :tates as a novus ordo seculorum 6ne1 order o! the a(es7 mir/ rored the s&irit o! mission and destin+0 re&resented in the Eourth o! Ju.+ as a Duasi/re.i(ious ho.ida+2C@ 3he &o.iti)a. s+m-o.ism o! )ommunism re!.e)ted the )ommunists; in)a&a)it+ to a)hie4e an e5istentia..+ sustained s+m-o.i) uni4erse amon( its )itiIens2 3he .atent )i4i. 1ar a(ainst the &o&u.ation .ed to radi)a. shi!ts in s+m-o.i) re&resentation and the esta-.ishment o! )on/ stitutiona. m+ths2CB Communists aimed to u&root &eo&.e -+ s+stemati/ )a..+ atta)kin( the 4er+ !oundations o! inter&ersona. .inks0 )u.tura. re!eren)e/&oints0 and so)ia-i.it+2 3he+ aimed to trans!orm human nature -+ renderin( &eo&.e Oa.one on earth;2 CC 3he .atent )i4i. 1ar -et1een the (o4ernment and the &eo&.e seemed to -e the on.+ 1a+ an under/ (round se)t o! outsiders )ou.d sta+ in &o1er2 A1are o! the si(ni!i)ant dis&ro&ortion -et1een the -ound.ess )hara)ter o! re4o.utionar+ &romises and the &oor means a4ai.a-.e0 a )entra. trait o! the &s+)ho.o(+ o! ,o.she4ik .eaders .ed them to de.i-erate.+ kee& so)iet+ in a &ermanent state o! )on!usion2 3his on(oin( )on!usion is &ro-a-.+ -est )a&tured in
C4 C@ CB CC
Jean/Ja)Dues Rousseau0 The Social Contract and Discourses0 trans2 and intro2 H2*2H2 Co.e 6LondonP *ent0 ">>?70 <>A/?=A2 Char.es Li&&+0 ORe.i(ion;0 in Mar+ Fu&ie) Ca+ton et a.20 eds20 "ncyclopedia o$ American Social 2istory0 ? 4o.s2 6Me1 YorkP Char.es :)ri-ner;s :ons0 ">>?70 4o.2 I0 @"?/<>2 Eainsod0 2ow #ussia Is #uled0 ?B?2 Irena 3a.a-an0 Terreur communiste et r4sistance culturelle( %es arracheurs de mas7ues 68arisP 89E0 ">>>70 "AA/>2
C>
3rotsk+;s theor+ o! the &ermanent re4o.ution0 1hi)h su((ested that the re4o.utionaries intended to kee& so)iet+ un)onso.idated and in )ontinua. mo4ement2CA 8erha&s the most outstandin( menta. trait o! a ,o.she4ik 1as )om-at/ i4eness0 not in terms o! a h+steri)a. a((ressi4e -ut rather as a so)ia.isation in terms o! a mi.itar+ so.dier2 3he radi)a.isation o! the &art+ &romoted the most e5treme e.ements into ke+ &ositions2 ,o.she4ik ru.e 1as not the mono.ithi) ru.e o! a -ureau)rati) state -ut rather re.ied u&on a re.ati4e.+ sma..0 mo-i.e0 stri)t.+ hierar)hi)a.0 and ti(ht.+ )ontro..ed Duasi/mi.itar+ ma)hine2C> It re.ied on an e5treme 4o.ati.it+ in a..e(ian)es0 identities0 and re&resentations0 a !a)t that entai.ed im&ortant )onseDuen)es !or the re.ationshi& -et1een .eadershi& and its !o..o1ers2 Common.+0 )ommun/ ist e.ites 1ere seen in their hierar)hi)a. &osition in a )onstituted s+stem o! (o4ernment and not in their )u.tura. and histori)a. em-eddedness2 As ).assi)a. e.ite theor+ has su((ested0 the )om&osition o! &o.iti)a. e.ites dra1s on )ertain e5)e..ent traits in their )redi-.e &ursuit o! a mora. &rin)i&.e that is !o..o1ed -+ .ar(e se(ments o! so)iet+2 A= Con4erse.+0 the iso.ation o! :o4iet ru.ers -ehind their Frem.in 1a..s meant that !or Omost &eo&.e the+ are on.+ names0 and names 1ith a s.i(ht.+ m+thi)a. Dua.it+ at that;2A" Communism 1as not a m+th -e)ause o! an inherent m+thi)a. )ontent in its ideo.o(+ or an endemi) irrationa.it+2 Rather0 it 1as o4ert.+ rationa. in its auto)rati) hi(h modernism0 its s+stemati) re&ression0 and the indo)trination o! indi4idua. minds2 Me4erthe.ess0 it re.ied on a-surd/ it+ in t1o 1a+s2 It 1as a-surd as it attem&ted to so.4e &ro-.ems su)h as the !edera. or(anisation o! nationa.ities0 &o4ert+0 or e)onomi) -a)k1ard/ ness -+ o.d methods o! the a-so.utist state2 It 1as a.. the more a-surd -e)ause it ).aimed that this o.d and o-so.ete te)hniDue o! ru.e re&re/ sented the !uture2A< 3o a )onsidera-.e e5tent0 )ommunist &o1er &rodu)ed an e.ite/.ess so)iet+0 as there 1as no -road so)ieta. )onsensus throu(h 1hi)h .eaders )ou.d &ursue a (enera..+ a))e&ted &o.iti)a. &ro%e)t in a )a.m and )reati4e !ashion2A? Communist ru.ers in :o4iet Russia and e.se1here in eastern 'uro&e had to modi!+ their o1n ru.es a))ordin( to the )ir)umstan)es2
CA C> A= A" A< A?
Leon 3rotsk+0 Permanent #evolution and #esults and Prospects0 ?rd edn 6Me1 YorkP 8ath!inder0 ">B>70 "?</?2 Ne4edei ,ar-u0 Democracy and Dictatorship! Their Psychology and Patterns o$ %i$e 6LondonP Rout.ed(e X Fe(an 8au.0 ">@B7 "A4/>42 Haetano Mos)a0 The #uling Class0 ed2 and re42 Arthur Li4in(ston 6Me1 YorkP M)Hra1/ Hi..0 ">?>70 C"2 Heor(e E2 Fennan0 Sketches $rom a %i$e 6Me1 YorkP 8antheon ,ooks0 ">A>70 "@42 Hor4aGth and :Iako.)Iai0 The Dissolution o$ Communist Power0 <"=2 Ar&ad :Iako.)Iai0 OIn a 8ermanent :tate o! 3ransitionP 3heoriIin( the 'ast 'uro&ean Condition;0 htt&P//.imen2mi<2hr/.imen"/<=="/ar&adZsIako.)Iai2htm.2
A=
Erom the 4er+ outset0 the ,o.she4iks )han(ed !undamenta. assum&tions a-out the s&read o! their re4o.ution a-road0 a-out the -ureau)ratisation o! the &art+0 and a-out the e)onomi) strate(+ to !o..o12 3he )ommunist &art+ 1as not the -a)k-one o! the )ountr+ -ut rather a sour)e o! near.+ )ontinuous turmoi.2 Makin( te)hniDues o! disru&tion and .atent )i4i. 1ar a )entra. strate(+ o! )ommunist &o1er 1as )onsistent 1ith the &art+;s re4o.utionar+ ori(ins0 and 1ith the need to endo1 the &art+ 1ith a ro.e &ara..e. to state institutions2 A4 Lo)a. &art+ .i!e 1as )hara)terised not -+ order.+ &ro)esses o! administration -ut -+ an a../&er4adin( atmos&here o! ur(en)+0 tension0 and emer(en)+ measures in order to )o&e 1ith tremen/ dous &ressure to rea.ise seemin(.+ im&ossi-.e o-%e)ti4es2 A.thou(h )ommunism 1as a most &o1er!u. s+stem in the e5terna. 1or.d0 it seems Duite mis.eadin( to ).assi!+ )ommunism as !eaturin( an Oe5traordinari.+ &o1er!u. &art+/state and a 1eak and de&endent so)/ iet+;2A@ 3he )ommunist state 1as not sim&.+ a -ureau)rati) &art+/state -ut 1as )hara)terised -+ a .atent )i4i. 1ar -et1een the (o4ernment and the &eo&.e2 3he moda.ities o! its &o.iti)a. arti)u.ation shed some .i(ht on the &arado5i)a. e!!e)t o! a &o.iti)a. s+stem that ru.ed ha.! o! the (.o-e and a mi.itar+ (iant that sudden.+ )o..a&sed 1ithout .ea4in( mu)h to &osterit+ in terms o! ideas0 institutions0 .eaders0 or s+m-o.s2 Hi4en the Duasi/ re.i(ious !er4our to identi!+ enemies and di.ute &o.iti)s in m+tho.o(i)a. )onstru)tions o! rea.it+0 the )onstant u&rootin( o! so)ia. re.ations 1as a &er!e)t.+ rationa. te)hniDue o! &o1er2 Communism ado&ted this u&rootin( o! so)ia. re.ations2 3he sa)ri!i)ia. .o(i) o! Mar5ist/Leninist ideo.o(+ and the a-so.ute &o.iti)s o! )ommun/ ism not on.+ e5uded !a.seness and arti!i)ia.it+0 -ut a.so made the .o)a./ isation o! &o1er a.. -ut im&ossi-.e2 9nder )ommunism0 &o1er seemed to -e e4er+1here -ut )ou.d a.so -e tota..+ a-sent2 AB A.thou(h )ommunism is o!ten asso)iated 1ith a )harismati) t+&e o! .eadershi&0 em&iri)a. e4iden)e a-out )ommunist .eaders reDuires a )om&.etion o! the We-erian )ate(o/ risation2 Whi.e the ideo.o(i)a. ).aim o! ,o.she4ik .eadershi& 1as the &romise o! a &aradise on earth0 its e5&erientia. -asis 1as )i4i. 1ar0 4io.ent re&ression0 and se.!/4i)timisation2 3his t1i.i(ht e5isten)e -et1een the &ro).aimed kno1.ed(e o! the histori)a. mission and the !ear o! en)ir).e/ ment -+ enemies ke&t ,o.she4iks in a dou-.e -ind2 Whi.e the+ &ro).aimed the unit+ o! the &eo&.e e5&ressed in the identi!i)ation 1ith the &art+0 their te)hniDues o! &o1er th1arted so)ia-i.it+0 &re4ented the a))ounta-i.it+ o! &u-.i) o!!i)ia.s0 and undermined e5istentia. re&resentation2 Communist .eadershi& dis&.a+ed strikin( ana.o(ies 1ith the ar)het+&i)a. !i(ure o! the
A4 AB
Fotkin0 agnetic ountain0 <>"/<2 ,un)e0 Su3versive Institutions0 "?=2 C.aude Le!ort0 %a complication( #etour sur le communisme 68arisP Ea+ard0 ">>>70 ""/"<2
A@
A"
tri)kster2 In Ma5im Hork+;s memora-.e 1ords o! ">"C0 Lenin as the se.!/ &ro).aimed .eader o! the &ro.etariat 1as Onot an omni&otent ma(i)ian -ut a )o.d/-.ooded tri)kster 1ho s&ares neither the honour nor the .i!e o! the &ro.etariat;2AC As a stud+ o! the s&ee)hes o! the Hun(arian )ommunist &art+ .eader MaGt+a GsRaGkosi ar(ued0 the )onditions o! disru&tion0 hatred0 and &ermanent .imina.it+ &rodu)ed )ommunist so)ieties in 1hi)h the .eaders and the mem-ers o! so)iet+ .i4ed dou-.e .i4es2 AA Communist .eadershi& em-odied a )ontinuous shi!t -et1een rea.ities0 thus )onne)tin( the initia. )harismati) a&&ea. o! mo-i.isin( so)iet+ 1ith an inherent im&oten)e and se.!/4i)timisation2 3hus0 )ommunist &o1er seemed to -e )hara)terised -+ diametri)a..+ o&&osed mo4ements2 On the one hand0 it a&&eared tota..+ &o.iti)a. in terms o! &ermeatin( e4er+ as&e)t o! &u-.i) or &ri4ate .i!e2 On the other hand0 it seemed tota..+ a&o.iti)a. as it &ostu.ated the out)ome o! histor+ and .i!e2A> In Eou)au.t;s ada&tation o! ,entham;s desi(n o! the 8ano&ti)on as the )entra. meta&hor o! modern &o1er0 the mo4e !rom the 4isi-i.it+ and &er!ormati4e dramatur(+ o! monar)hi)a. &o1er to the in4isi-i.it+ o! the mana(er;s &o1er is )ru)ia.2 3he &o1er o! the modern state re.ies u&on the !.e5i-i.it+ o! state -ureau)rats in )ontro. o! s&a)e and time0 as o&&osed to the )itiIens 1ho are -ound to s&a)e and )ontro..ed 1ithout kno1in( the identit+ o! those )ontro..in( them2 Whereas mu)h o! so)ia. s)ien)e resear)h on :o4iet tota.itarianism )on)urred in !o)usin( its attention on the 4erti)a. to&/do1n re.ationshi& o! domination0 more re)ent e4iden)e su((ests that :o4iet &o1er re.ied !undamenta..+ on horiIonta. net1orks o! mutua. sur4ei..an)e and on te)hniDues o! dissimu.ation2 >= In the a-sen)e o! .e(a./rationa. domination0 the (rou& is entrusted 1ith the task o! )on/ tro..in( itse.!2 Rather than an institutiona. tri)k ado&ted as a .ast resort0 mutua. sur4ei..an)e 1as the )ornerstone o! the esta-.ishment o! :o4iet &o1er0 and its )o..a&se 1as s+non+mous 1ith the )o..a&se o! :o4iet &o1er2 9n-ound -+ .e(a. re(u.ations0 )ommunist .eaders 1ere not -ureau/ )rats -ut ru.ed a &o.iti)a. so)iet+0 !ounded on 4io.en)e0 -+ a mi.itaristi) t+&e o! ru.e2 Communist ru.e 1as not eDui4a.ent to an e5)ess o! state &o1erR it 1as0 rather0 de!ined -+ the su-%u(ation o! -oth state and so)iet+ to(ether under a uto&ian0 non/&o.iti)a. ).aim to e5er)ise ru.e2 3he .o1 de(ree o! institutiona.isation0 the .a)k o! )oherent )o..e)ti4e identities0 the atomisation o! indi4idua.s0 and the o!ten )haoti) interna. )onditions o!
AC AA A> >=
Ma5im Hork+0 :ntimely ThoughtsP "ssays on #evolution& Culture and the 8olsheviks *+*5-*+*6 6Me1 Ha4en and LondonP Ya.e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>@70 AB2 A(nes Hor4aGth0 O3ri)kin( into the 8osition o! the Out)astP A Case :tud+ in the 'mer(en)e and '!!e)ts o! Communist 8o1er;0 Political Psychology0 ">0 < 6">>A70 ??"/4C2 Le!ort0 The Political 'orms o$ odern Society 0 <C?/>"2 Fharkhordin0 The Collective and the Individual in #ussia 0 ""=2
A<
&art+ ru.e su((est that )ommunist states 1ere Oo4er-ureau)rati); on.+ in so !ar as the+ issued .a1s and re(u.ations -ased on ideo.o(i)a. do)trine rather than the )onsideration o! so)ia. rea.it+2 Ho1e4er0 these .e(a. and a-stra)t Oso)ia.ist; !ormu.as that ru.ed dai.+ so)ia. .i!e 1ere )hara)terised -+ a hi(h de(ree o! 1aste!u.ness o! human and e)onomi) resour)es2 Erom a &ers&e)ti4e o! &o.iti)a. s+m-o.ism0 )ommunism 1as not sim&.+ a tota.itarian re(ime -ut a ne1 t+&e o! so)iet+0 a so)ia. or(anism in (estation0 1here the assau.t a(ainst the -asi)s o! human )oe5isten)e and the modernisin( thrust made u& a )i4i.isation o! its o1n2 Communism 1as not on.+ a re(ime re.+in( on tota. su-%u(ation o! so)iet+ -+ the &art+2 Within the s+stem0 indi4idua.s and (rou&s de4e.o&ed s&a)es o! autonom+0 strate(ies o! resistan)e0 and a se.!/)ons)iousness that )ha..en(ed0 -+ the &o1er o! its o1n s+m-o.s0 the !ra(i.e s+m-o.i) !rame o! )ommunism2 3he &ost/:ta.inist &eriod0 1hen mass re&ression and terror su-sided0 re4ea.ed the in)a&a)it+ to esta-.ish a )onstituti4e s+stem o! s+m-o.i) 1or.d main/ tenan)e2 *e/:ta.inisation .aid )om&.ete.+ -are the truth that a .atent )i4i. 1ar a(ainst the &o&u.ation )omes at the &ri)e o! a terri!+in( inse)urit+ that haunts &o1er/ho.ders 1ith the !ear o! their o1n annihi.ation2 3his !ear made the ru.in( ).ass a1are that it 1as no .on(er a-.e to ).aim e4en to itse.! that the end %usti!ies the means2>" 3he s+m-o.i) stru)ture o! the 8eo&.e/ as/One a(ainst enemies 1as (radua..+ )ha..en(ed -+ ).aims to e5istentia. re&resentation sustained -+ an a.ternati4e &o.iti)a. s+m-o.ism2 Whi.e the ).ea4a(e .ine -et1een the 8eo&.e/as/One and enemies 1as )ru)ia. !or the maintenan)e o! )ommunist &o1er0 de/:ta.inisation and ensuin( )ha./ .en(es to )ommunist &o1er re)ast the -inar+ o&&ositions0 (eneratin( a di4idin( .ine -et1een (ro1in( dissiden)e and )ommunist authorities2 ,+ destro+in( an+ s&here o! o&en )on!.i)t and &o.iti)a. a.ternati4e0 )ommun/ ist s+stems )aused the )entre o! (ra4it+ o! an+ &otentia. &o.iti)a. threat to shi!t to1ards the e5istentia. and the &re/&o.iti)a.2 >< 8o.iti)a. im&u.ses )ou.d hard.+ )ome !rom &ro!essiona. &o.iti)ians that had ado&ted the &o.iti)a. ha-its and te)hniDues o! )ommunist &o1er0 -ut rather need to )ome !rom outsiders2 Mot sur&risin(.+0 Onon/&o.iti)ians;0 dissidents0 and anti/)ommunist resisters 1ere 4er+ mu)h a1are o! the stakes o! (enuine &o.iti)a. rea.it+2 3he .ater distin)tion -et1een Ous; and Othem;0 so )ommon in )ommunist so)ieties0 dre1 4er+ mu)h on the di)hotom+ -et1een the 8eo&.e/as/One 6the )ommunit+ o! dissident so)iet+ or o&&osition7 a(ainst the enem+ 6the )ommunist &art+/state72
>" ><
*%i.as0 The ;ew Class0 "4C/B?2 Va).a4 Ha4e.0 O3he 8o1er o! the 8o1er.ess;0 in John Feane0 ed20 The Power o$ the Powerless! Citi)ens Against the State in "astern "urope 6LondonP Hut)hinson and Co20 ">A@7044/@"2
'5&erien)in( demo)rati) trans!ormations
A demo)ra)+ is more than a !orm o! (o4ernmentR it is &rimari.+ a mode o! asso)iated .i4in(0 o! )on%oint )ommuni)ated e5&erien)e2
John *e1e+
It is rare.+ )ontested that the &o.iti)a. &ro)ess o! :o4iet/t+&e (o4ernments 1as not demo)rati)0 as it 1as )hara)terised -+ a &o1er mono&o.+0 a .a)k o! a))ounta-i.it+0 !ake )onstitutiona.ism0 and the a-sen)e o! meanin(!u. e.e)tions2 3he normati4e im&erati4e o! esta-.ishin( &o.iti)a. demo)ra)+0 ho1e4er0 has made ana.+sts disre(ard the so)ia. !oundations o! demo)rat/ isation2 3he !orma. distin)tion -et1een a &re4ious Onon/demo)rati); &eriod under )ommunism and an ensuin( Odemo)rati); &eriod a!ter its demise i..ustrates the &o.iti)a. )on!.i)t o! the Co.d War -ut e5&.ains .itt.e a-out the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+2 It 1ou.d -e shortsi(hted to assume that demo)ra)+ O!ai.ed; 1ith the 4i)tor+ o! the O)to-er Re4o.ution in ">"C and O1on; 1ith the )o..a&se o! )ommunism in ">A> and ">>"2 Histori)a..+0 an+ &o.iti)a..+ use!u. )on)e&tion o! demo)rati) trans!orma/ tion reDuires )onne)tin( the meanin(s0 re&resentations0 and e5&e)tations o! &eo&.e and e.ites under )ommunism2 '5&erien)e is thus not sim&.+ the dead hand o! the &ast -ut a .i4in( and )reati4e &ro)ess o! so)ia. reorderin(2 3his )ha&ter e5amines the e&istemo.o(i)a. -asis o! the mirrored o&&o/ sition -et1een )ommunism and demo)ra)+2 3he determinism o! )onso.i/ datin( .i-era. demo)ra)+ has &ur(ed the su-%e)ti4it+ o! a)tors and the !ormati4e in!.uen)e o! &o.iti)a. s+m-o.ism on the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+2 Con!ined to a &ositi4ist !o)us on the !un)tiona.0 &ro)edura.0 and .e(a./normati4e as&e)ts o! &o.iti)a. s+stems0 mu)h so)ia. inDuir+ has &re/em&ted the &o.iti)a. stru((.e o4er their !oundations2 " Whi.e the so)io/ (eneti) &arti)u.arities o! the )ommunist e5&erien)e ha4e -e)ome rei!ied as O.e(a)ies;0 &o.iti)a. de4e.o&ments .eadin( a1a+ !rom )ommunism 1ere seen as Oout)omes;2 3he renaissan)e o! the &aradi(m o! tota.itarianism in
"
C.aus O!!e0 OCa&ita.ism -+ *emo)rati) *esi(nQ *emo)rati) 3heor+ Ea)in( the 3ri&.e 3ransition in 'ast Centra. 'uro&e;0 Social #esearch0 @A0 4 6">>"70 AB@/><2
A?
A4
re)ent +ears0 !or instan)e0 has attri-uted man+ o! the de!e)ts o! re)ent trans!ormations to the s+stemi) .e(a)+ o! )ommunism2 A(ainst this 4ie10 ho1e4er0 one )an ar(ue that the )ommunist e5&erien)e has (enerated !orms o! )ons)iousness that 1ou.d sustain meanin(s o! demo)ra)+ in the a-sen)e o! &o.iti)a. demo)ra)+2 *emo)ra)+ -e!ore ">A> 1as more a so)ia..+ mediated0 4a(ue0 a.most uto&ian 4ision )herished in sma.. )om/ munities and 1ith .itt.e institutiona. rea.it+2 ,ein( ardent.+ desired -ut out o! rea)h as a (o4ernmenta. &ra)ti)e0 demo)ra)+ in )ommunist eastern 'uro&e 1as an em&ire o! the mind0 tin(ed 1ith es)hato.o(i)a. e5&e)t/ ations0 and &re(nant 1ith haI+ ima(es o! tota. !reedom2 3he roots o! demo)rati) determinism A )onsidera-.e amount o! 1ork on demo)ratisation in Russia and eastern 'uro&e has -een tin(ed 1ith assum&tions a-out a s&e)i!i) onto.o(+ o! tradition and assum&tions o! )i4i.isationa. -a)k1ardness2 3his ).aim 1as )om&.emented -+ the 4ie1 that Russia and eastern 'uro&e .a)ked an endo(enous demo)rati) tradition0 !or t1o main reasons2 On the one hand0 the histori)a. seDuen)e a))ordin( to 1hi)h the modern e)onom+ took sha&e -e!ore the modern state seems to -e re4ersed2 3he state 1as not the &rodu)t -ut the instrument o! )han(e0 (ainin( as)endan)+ o4er a.. as&e)ts o! so)ia. .i!e o! the nation2 Rather than the (radua. de4e.o&ment o! a )a&ita.ist e)onom+ or a O-our(eois so)iet+;0 one )ou.d 1itness a (radua. in)rease in etatism0 1hi)h &rodu)ed a so)iet+ o! &ariah entre&reneurs0 and o! &o.iti)a. ).asses )om&etin( !or the s&oi.s o! the state2 < 3he traditiona. &attern o! de4e.o&ment in Russia / state/indu)ed re!orm / 1as sustained -+ the 1eakness o! )i4i. so)iet+0 a&atheti) masses0 and stron(.+ authoritarian &atterns o! .eadershi&2 3his )u.tura. -a)k1ardness 1as a.so re!.e)ted in ho1 eastern 'uro&e as a )on)e&t in &o.iti)a. histor+ 1as in4ented -+ 'n.i(htenment thou(ht0 1hi)h endo1ed risin( nation/states in the West 1ith a m+thi)a. OOther;2 ? ConseDuent.+0 Western historio(ra&h+ has tended to e5).ude eastern 'uro&e !rom the )on)e&t o! 'uro&e on the (rounds o! natura.0 un-rid(ea-.e di!!er/ en)es0 im&.+in( that the West is su&erior and a.one deser4es the name o! 'uro&e24
< ? 4
Andre1 Janos0 The Politics o$ 8ackwardness in 2ungary *6A<-*+@< 68rin)etonP 8rin)eton 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">A<70 ?"42 Larr+ Wo.!!0 Inventing "astern "urope! The ap o$ Civili)ation on the ind o$ the "nlightenment 6:tan!ordP :tan!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>472 Morman *a4ies0 "urope! A 2istory 6O5!ordP O5!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>B70 "B/<@2
A@
On the other hand0 )u.ture 1as an enormous !a)tor in east 'uro&ean &o.iti)s -ut as re(ards its &o.iti)isation rather than in terms o! its !.o1er/ in(2 :in)e man+ o! these )ountries did not Oe5ist; in the 1est 'uro&ean sense o! re.ati4e.+ un-roken histori)a. )ontinuit+0 inte..e)tua. e.ites en(in/ eered )u.tura. roots -ased on .in(uisti) se&aratism0 ethni) distin)ti4e/ ness0 and histori)a. master narrati4es o! a -e(innin( o! the nation2 As a )onseDuen)e0 ideas o! )u.ture in these )ountries ha4e -een stron(.+ in!.uen)ed -+ the tem&tation o! determinism2 @ 's&e)ia..+ in mu.ti/ethni) )onte5ts0 the+ ha4e -een asso)iated 1ith )u.tura. ra)ism0 ere)tin( -oun/ daries o! e5).usion or .e(itimisin( 4io.en)e2 :imi.ar.+0 )u.tura. &re)on/ )e&tions su)h as Russian authoritarianism0 a ,a.kan menta.it+0 or the !ata.isti) Orthodo5 sou. are )onsidered as m+sterious residua. 4aria-.es0 1hi)h -ar the &ath to de4e.o&ment2 3he t1o ma%or strands o! theorisation on )ommunist &o1er re!.e)ted su)h )u.tura. determinism2 Whi.e modernisation theor+ sa1 )ommunism as the de4e.o&menta. )arrier !or o4er)omin( tradition and -a)k1ardness in Russia0 the theor+ o! tota.itarianism )onsidered )ommunism as a )onseDuen)e o! s&e)i!i) nationa. )hara)teristi)s and an authoritarian &o.iti)a. )u.ture2 It denoun)ed the 4io.ent and dehumanisin( )hara)ter o! :o4iet/t+&e re(imes2 'ssentia..+0 -oth a&&roa)hes )on)urred in assum/ in( that )ommunism 1as &ro!ound.+ anti/demo)rati)2 Modernisation theor+ a!!irmed the uni4ersa. rea)h and de4e.o&menta. &otentia.it+ o! demo)ra)+ as a s+stem o! (o4ernment rooted in the Western mode. o! the nation/state0 1here it had -een )ra!ted and !rom 1hi)h it had to -e di!!used2 As one o! three )om&onents o! Western/t+&e modernit+ 6-esides )a&ita.ism and industria.isation70 demo)ra)+ e5erted a s&e.. on the )ommunist 4ersion o! modernit+2 A))ordin(.+0 modernisation theor+ a)).aimed the )o..a&se o! )ommunism as a de)isi4e0 i! not the !ina.0 ste& !or1ard in &o.iti)a. de4e.o&ment2 Whereas the )o..a&se o! the :o4iet 9nion had -een hai.ed as a O4indi)ation o! modernisation theor+; in the ear.+ ">>=s0 it has -e)ome a standard 4ie1 to attri-ute the ensuin( disen)hantment 1ith the de4e.o&ment o! Russia;s demo)ra)+ to the )ontinuit+ o! its authoritarian )u.ture2B 3his)u.tura. -ias .inkedu&1ith)on)e&tua. determinism2 Inthe &o.iti)a. anta(onism o! the Co.d War0 the )on)e&t Otota.itarian; 1as esta-.ished as the &o.ar o&&osite o! Odemo)rati);0 as a &e%orati4e term that simu.taneous.+
@ B
C2M2 Hann0 PostsocialismP Ideals& Ideologies& and Practices in "urasia 6LondonP Rout.ed(e0 <==<70A2 :te&hen Hanson0 O*e!inin( *emo)rati) Conso.idation;0 in Ri)hard *2 Anderson et a.20 Postcommunism and the Theory o$ Democracy 68rin)etonP 8rin)eton 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <=="70"?<2
AB
desi(nated and disa&&ro4ed o! one/&art+ states and mass terror2 C 3his di)hotomisation 1as &art.+ a resu.t o! the shi!t in meanin(s 1ith re(ard to t1o inter&reti4e strands in the thou(ht on tota.itarianism2 A Ideo.o(i)a..+0 the ear.ier )on)e&tion o! tota.itarianism !o..o1ed a &henomeno.o(i)a. and &hi.oso&hi)a.a&&roa)hhi(h.i(htin(tota.itarian ru.e asthe&eako! the)risis o! the modern nation/state2 3his a&&roa)h re.ied on a )on)ern !or the 1a+ in 1hi)h the &erson stands in a meanin(!u. re.ation to the 1or.d0 as it a&&ears to him or her in e4er+da+ e5&erien)e2 's&e)ia..+ a!ter :ta.in;s death0 ho1e4er0 the .i-era. a&&roa)h )ame to see tota.itarianism as its o1n antithesis2 3ota.itarianism )ame to -e )onsidered as a set o! ideo.o(/ i)a..+ &res)ri-ed or(anisationa. methods de4e.o&ed and em&.o+ed !or the &ur&ose o! the 4io.ation o! !reedom o! )ons)ien)e0 the &o.iti)isation o! a.. areas o! so)ia. .i!e0 and the destru)tion o! meanin(!u. ties in so)iet+2 > Methodo.o(i)a..+0 the .i-era. 4ie1 de4e.o&ed a 1ho.e ran(e o! )om&ar/ isons o! !un)tiona./em&iri)a. )riteria0 1hi)h esta-.ished tota.itarianism as the mirror ima(e o! a Western/t+&e .i-era. re(ime2 *es&ite its use!u.ness in a t+&o.o(+ o! &o.iti)a. re(imes0 ho1e4er0 tota.itarianism 1as a sim&.is/ ti) notion as !ar as the so)iohistori)a. !oundations o! &o.iti)a. rea.it+ are )on)erned2 One o! the -est )riti)a. dis)ussions o! the 4ariet+ o! meanin(s o! tota.itarianism in the Western 1or.d )on).uded that tota.itarianism is not a &o.iti)a. s)ien)e )on)e&t2 "= '4en i! it is &ro-.emati) to s&eak o! Oerrors; in the e4o.ution o! )on)e&ts0 there is (ood reason to see some 4a.idit+ in su)h a ).aim 1ith re(ard to the theor+ o! tota.itarianism2 3his Oerror; arises 1hen somethin( that )annot -e (ras&ed e5)e&t throu(h its tota.isin( )hara)ter and that shou.d -e understood as a &hi.oso&hi)a. &ro-.em is ).assi!ied usin( )riteria o! em&iri)a. so)ia. s)ien)e2 'm&iri)a. resear)h in Ameri)an :o4ieto.o(+ 1as not a-.e to )om&rehend )ommunism;s assau.t on the -asis o! human di(nit+ and human )oe5/ isten)e0 somethin( that on.+ .iterar+ 1orks su)h as those o! Or1e..0 :o.Ihenits+n0 Hrossmann0 MiLosI0 Ha4e.0 and others )ou.d e5&ress2 Ins&ired -+ the antithesis 1ith .i-era.ism and o-.i4ious o! so)ia. !ounda/ tions and )om&.e5ities o! )on)rete .i!e0 the )on)e&t o! tota.itarianism a.so redu)ed :ta.inism and e4en the &ost/:ta.in &eriod to a mere undertakin(
C A > "=
*a4id Jora4sk+0 OCommunism in Histori)a. 8ers&e)ti4e;0 American 2istorical #eview0 >>0 ? 6">>470A4>/@=2 Mi)hae. Ha.-erstam0 Totalitarianism and the odern Conception o$ Politics 6Me1 Ha4en and LondonP Ya.e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>>70 @/B2 Car. Eriedri)h and N-i(nie1 ,rIeIinski0 Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy 6Cam-rid(e0 MAP Har4ard 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">@B70 "C2 8ierre Hassner0 >iolence and Peace 6,uda&estP Centra. 'uro&ean 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>B70 <<"/BA2
AC
o! .ies and )onstraints0 1here a Otota.itarianism !rom -e.o1; made resistan)e -+ homo sovieticus meanin(.ess2 3he Oerror; is someho1 re&rodu)ed in em&iri)a. theories o! demo)ra)+2 3he im&.i)it standard -+ 1hi)h demo)rati) trans!ormations are meas/ ured is ar(ua-.+ .inked to the em&iri)a. theor+ o! demo)ra)+ as it 1as esta-.ished durin( and a!ter the :e)ond Wor.d War2 "" 3his 4ision &ro&a/ (ated .i-era. re&resentati4e demo)ra)+ on the -asis o! !un)tiona. and des)ri&ti4e )hara)teristi)s o! (o4ernmenta. &ra)ti)e0 -ased on e.e)tions throu(h uni4ersa. su!!ra(e and the re(u.ar )om&etition o! e.ites !or &o1er in a )onso.idated .e(a. !rame1ork2 A ma%or ar(ument a-out the em&iri)ism o! this a&&roa)h )onsisted in the ).aim that it 1as rea.isti)0 as it re!.e)ted the status Duo o! ad4an)ed .i-era. demo)ra)ies2 Ho1e4er0 Jose&h A2 :)hum&eter;s semina. -ook Capitalism& Socialism& and Democracy 1as &u-.ished in ">4? in the midd.e o! a 1or.d 1ar0 1hi)h )onstituted an e5istentia. threat to &o.iti)a. demo)ra)+ as a )onstitutiona. !orm o! (o4ern/ ment2 It has -een )on4in)in(.+ su((ested that / (i4en the em&iri)a. )on/ ditions o! demo)ra)+ in mu)h o! the Western 1or.d0 in).udin( the 1ar mo-i.isation in An(.o/:a5on )ountries / the -ook 1as not so mu)h an em&iri)a. des)ri&tion o! ho1 thin(s rea..+ are2 "< Rather it )ame do1n to a normati4e &res)ri&tion a-out the on.+ &ossi-.e 1a+ to a4oid the e4i.s o! tota.itarianism0 and thus shou.d -e seen as an attem&t to -rin( theor+ into a))ord 1ith rea.it+2 *urin( the Co.d War0 the em&iri)a. mode. has -e)ome0 in a monisti) !ashion0 the on.+ 1a+ to )on)ei4e o! demo)ra)+ as a )onstitutiona. !orm o! (o4ernment2 3he )u.tura. determinism o! a s&e)i!i) onto.o(+ o! tradition and the )on)e&tua. determinism -+ 1hi)h the !un)tiona. and &ro)edura. as&e)ts o! )ommunist ru.e are !undamenta..+ o&&osed to .i-era. demo)ra)+ (o a.on( 1ith histori)a. determinism2 Consistent 1ith its narro1 em&iri)a. !o)us on .i-era. &o.iti)a. demo)ra)+0 the dominant dis)ourse has dis)on/ ne)ted the Onon/demo)rati); or O&re/demo)rati); &eriod !rom the demo/ )rati) &eriod0 1hen demo)ra)+ -e)omes the Oon.+ (ame in to1n; and the tem&tation o! essentia. &.a+ers to -o+)ott the (ame is rendered ino&er/ ati4e2"? A.thou(h the ).assi)a. !ormu.ation o! the idea o! transitions to demo)ra)+ 1as 4er+ mu)h interested in the (eneti) as&e)ts o! the )on)e&t0
""
"< "?
Jose&h A2 :)hum&eter0 Capitalism& Socialism& and Democracy0 @th edn 6LondonP Heor(e A..en X 9n1in0 ">CB7R Ro-ert *ah.0 A Pre$ace to Democratic Theory 6Chi)a(oP 9ni4ersit+ o! Chi)a(o 8ress0 ">@B72 Je!!re+ C2 Isaa)0 Democracy in Dark Times 6Itha)a and LondonP Corne.. 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>A70?"/<2 Juan LinI and A.!red :te&an0 Pro3lems o$ Democratic Transition and Consolidation! Southern "urope& South America and Post-Communist "urope 6,a.timore and LondonP Johns Ho&kins 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>B70 @2
AA
the !o)us 1as soon shi!ted to1ards assessin( )riteria !or the (.o-a. )on4er(en)e o! demo)ra)+2"4 Identi!+in( the -e(innin( o! demo)ratisation 1ith the )o..a&se o! )ommunism assumes that 1hat did ha&&en is 1hat had to ha&&en2 Com&arati4e studies in demo)ratisation su((ested treatin( &ost/ )ommunism in ana.o(ous !ashion0 at .east initia..+0 to the O1a4e o! demo)ratisation; that -e(an in ">C4 in 8ortu(a.2 "@ :tudies o! O)onso.idation; su((ested the o4erdetermination o! demo)/ ra)+ throu(h dura-.e )om&.ian)e 1ith the ru.es and &ro)edures o! .i-era. demo)ra)+ as a s+stem o! (o4ernment2 *emo)rati) )onso.idation has ad4o)ated ).osure and has tended to redu)e histori)a. e5&erien)e to an a&&endi5 o! an idea (enerated in )om&.ete.+ di!!erent )onte5ts2 :ettin( demo)ratisation as a so)ia. end and a (oa. o! de4e.o&ment0 the &remises o! .i-era. demo)rati) theor+ ha4e e5).uded the meanin(!u.ness o! endo(/ enous histori)a. e5&erien)es 1hen the+ ).aim that in eastern 'uro&e Othe ma%or o-sta).e to demo)ratisation 1as :o4iet )ontro.P on)e it 1as remo4ed0 the mo4ement to demo)ra)+ s&read ra&id.+;2"B Moreo4er0 the monism o! .i-era. demo)ra)+ as a de4e.o&menta. (oa. re&rodu)es the deterministi) histori)ist a))ount o! the )on)e&t o! tran/ sition in Mar5;s &hi.oso&h+ o! histor+2 Methodo.o(i)a..+0 su)h an a&&roa)h su((ests that a s+stemi) and institutiona. arran(ement -e)omes non/)ontin(ent as a )onso.idated demo)ra)+ is )hara)terised -+ dee&.+ interna.ised attitudes in so)ia.0 institutiona.0 and e4en &s+)ho.o(i)a. .i!e2 Com&arati4e.+0 this 1ou.d im&.+ that the demo)ratisation o! the 9nited :tates0 ,ritain0 Eran)e0 or Herman+ )ou.d not -e &ro&er.+ studied -e!ore these )ountries a)tua..+ met the reDuirements o! mature .i-era. demo)/ ra)+ -+ introdu)in( !u..+ eDua. 4otin( ri(hts su)h as !ema.e 4otin( or -+ a-o.ishin( &rero(ati4e ri(hts2 3heoreti)a..+0 mu)h o! the .iterature on transitions to demo)ra)+ has trans&osed the assum&tion on the ine4ita/ -i.it+ o! )ommunism -+ O.i-era.isin(; the Mar5ist &aradi(m and &ro%e)/ tin( a te.eo.o(i)a. out)ome/e5&e)tation !or demo)ra)+2 "C Whi.e some
"4
"@
"B
"C
Eor a (eneti) &ers&e)ti4e0 see *ank1art Rusto10 O3ransitions to *emo)ra)+P 3o1ard a *+nami) Mode.;0 Comparative Politics0 <0 ? 6">C=70 ??C/B?R !or a 4ie1 on demo)ra)+ aimin( at (.o-a. )on4er(en)e0 see Adam 8rIe1orski0 Democracy and the arket! Political and "conomic #e$orms in "astern "urope and %atin America 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>"72 8hi.i&&e :)hmitter and 3err+ L+nn Far.0 O3he Con)e&tua. 3ra4e. o! 3ransito.o(ists and Conso.ido.o(istsP Ho1 Ear to the 'ast :hou.d 3he+ Attem&t to HoQ;0 Slavic #eview0 @?0 " 6">>470"C?/A@2 :amue. 82 Huntin(ton0 O*emo)ra)+;s 3hird Wa4e;0 in Larr+ *iamond and Mar) 8.attner0 eds20 The 1lo3al #esurgence o$ Democracy0 <nd edn 6,a.timoreP Johns Ho&kins 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>B70 C2 :ee Mi)o.as Hui.hot0 O3he 3ransition to the Human Wor.d o! *emo)ra)+P Motes !or a Histor+ o! the Con)e&t o! 3ransition0 !rom 'ar.+ Mar5ism to ">A>;0 "uropean Gournal o$ Social Theory0 @0 < 6<==<70 <">/4?2
A>
authors &ro).aimed the 4i)tor+ o! .i-era. demo)ra)+ as the on.+ &o.iti)a. ideo.o(+0 others ar(ued !or the re.e4an)e o! a renaissan)e o! Mar5ism &re)ise.+ -e)ause the 4i)torious .i-era. demo)ra)+ !ai.ed in its )entra. &romises2"A 3he drama o! demo)rati) trans!ormations *oes the a-sen)e o! a demo)rati) tradition under )ommunist ru.e 4indi/ )ate the ).aim a-out the a-sen)e o! a demo)rati) )ons)iousness or e4en &re).ude a )ountr+;s demo)rati) de4e.o&mentQ Ho1 1ou.d demo)ra)ies in the West ha4e )ome into -ein( 1ithout im&ortant and in!.uentia. (rou&s in so)iet+ that had de4e.o&ed a s&e)i!i) )ons)iousness -e!ore the esta-.ish/ ment o! institutiona. demo)ra)+Q 3he &o.iti)a. e4o.ution o! )ommunism 1arrants the )hoi)e o! a dramati) &ers&e)ti4e on demo)ratisation that .inks the so)ia. )onte5t to the theatri)a.0 &er!ormati4e0 and e5&ressi4e !eatures o! a)tors2"> 3he theatri)a. ana.o(+ not on.+ a..o1s !or a de!en)e a(ainst the im&osition o! O&re!a-ri)ated; )ate(ories0 -ut a.so is )onsistent 1ith the dramati) histor+ o! demo)ra)+0 1hi)h unti. the .ate nineteenth )entur+ 1as 4irtua..+ a term o! a-use2<= *es&ite its ori(ins in an)ient Hree)e0 it 1as a &arti)u.ar series o! dramati) so)ia. and &o.iti)a. u&hea4a.s at the end o! the ei(hteenth )entur+ that made demo)ra)+ rea&&ear as a 4ia-.e )on)e&t o! &o.iti)a. or(anisation2 Re4o.utions in "CA> and ">"C so)ia.ised mean/ in(s o! re&u-.i) or demo)ra)+2 I! modern demo)ra)+ as a )onstitutiona. !orm o! (o4ernment has its roots in the Ameri)an or the Eren)h Re4o.ution0 the se.!/&er)e&tion o! ke+ a)tors 1as not that o! demo)rats0 .et a.one O.i-era. demo)rats; in the .ate/t1entieth/)entur+ sense2 A.thou(h 'n.i(htenment thou(ht d+na/ mised ).assi)a. notions o! demo)ra)+ and re&u-.i) -+ )oinin( the term Ore&u-.i)anism;0 the Ameri)an !oundin( !athers mistrusted Odemo)ra)+;2 In the !irst a(e o! demo)rati) re4o.ution0 there 1ere no Odemo)rats;0 1hi.e the a(e o! aristo)ra)+0 as .on( as it 1as un)ha..en(ed0 heard nothin( o! Oaristo)rats;2<" 3he Eren)h Re4o.ution &o&u.arised demo)ra)+ -+
"A
"> <= <"
Eran)is Euku+ama0 The "nd o$ 2istory and the %ast an 6Me1 YorkP A4on0 ">>?7R A.e5 Ca..ini)os0 The #evenge o$ 2istory! arxism and "ast "urope 6Cam-rid(eP 8o.it+ 8ress0 ">>"7R JerI+ :Ia)ki0 %i3eralism A$ter Communism 6,uda&estP Centra. 'uro&ean 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>B72 Lauren)e Whitehead0 Democratisation! Theory and "xperience 6O5!ordP O5!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <==<70 ?B/B42 John *unn0 OCon).usion;0 in *unn0 ed20 Democracy! The :n$inished Gourney 6O5!ordP O5!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">><70 <?>/BB2 R2 8a.mer0 The Age o$ the Democratic #evolution 0 4o.2 I 68rin)etonP 8rin)eton 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">@>70 "?/<"2
>=
1ea4in( the e(a.itarian Christian notion o! the eDua. 4a.ue o! human -ein(s into the 'n.i(htenment tradition o! the eman)i&ation o! man2 3he massi4e dis.o)ation o! &o.iti)a. and so)ia. stru)tures at the re4o.u/ tionar+ )on%un)ture mo-i.ised so)ia. !or)es and o&ened u& &o.iti)s as the rea.m o! un)ertaint+2 3he )om&.e5 and 4o.ati.e histor+ o! the re4o.ution turned into the stru((.e -et1een aristo)rati)a..+ ins&ired and e.ite/-ased order o! e(oism and the order o! eDua.it+2 3he .on( shado1 o! 3hermidor initiated the radi)a. e(a.itarian turn o! the Eren)h Re4o.ution as the !i(ures o! Hra))hus ,a-eu! and Ei.i&&o Mi)he.e ,uonarroti &ro4ided demo)ra)+ 1ith a meanin( o! a !ier)e.+ di4isi4e &o.iti)a. )ate(or+ as o&&osed to the 4i)tor+ o! the order o! e(oism in the 9nited :tates2 << A .astin( e!!e)t o! the Eren)h Re4o.ution 1as that demo)ra)+ .ost its !i5ation on the )onstitutiona. rea.m and -e)ame a so)ia..+ re.e4ant -ut a.so ideo.o(i)a..+ mani&u.ati4e term2 In the 1ake o! the Eren)h Re4o.ution0 demo)ra)+ -e)ame a &ossi-.e !orm o! domination0 a )entra. histori)a. mo4ement that 1as to dra1 more and more attention !rom the )ro1d2 <? A.thou(h the institutiona. ori(ins o! Ameri)an demo)ra)+ are to -e !ound in the Ameri)an Re4o.ution0 its e4o.ution 1as not &redetermined2 A 4i)tor+ -+ the :outhern states in the Ameri)an Ci4i. War mi(ht ha4e .ed to the esta-.ishment o! the :outhern &.antation s+stem0 entai.in( a s)enario in 1hi)h the 9nited :tates )ou.d ha4e -een in the &osition o! some modernisin( )ountries toda+0 1ith a lati$undia e)onom+0 a dominant anti/demo)rati) aristo)ra)+0 and a 1eak and de&endent )ommer)ia. and industria. ).ass0 una-.e and un1i..in( to &ush !or1ard to1ards &o.it/ i)a. demo)ra)+2<4 3he 'man)i&ation 8ro).amation0 issued -+ A-raham Lin)o.n in "AB?0 did not !ree a sin(.e s.a4e2 It1as in the )ontin(ent stru((.e o! !or)e durin( the .ast t1o +ears o! the )i4i. 1ar that the Re&u-.i)an 8art+ ado&ted the 'man)i&ation 8ro).amation as a &o.i)+ to -e &ursued 1ithout kno1in( its merits and meanin(2<@ Histori)a..+0 demo)ra)+ does not re.+ u&on one essentia. sour)e or !oun/ dation2 It )onsists o! a seDuen)e o! dramati) )onte5ts that entai. a host o! inter&reti4e traditions0 1hi)h remain0 in one 1a+ or another0 in!.uentia. on (enerations o! &o.iti)a. a)tors to )ome2 Assum&tions o! e.ite/initiated dem/ o)ratisation need to -e Dua.i!ied 1ith a 4ie1 to the )u.tura.0 histori)a.0 and
<< <? <4 <@
John *unn0 Setting the People 'ree! The Story o$ Democracy 6LondonP At.anti) ,ooks0 <==@70"">/4C2 Eran[ois Euret0 O3he Eren)h Re4o.ution Re4isited;0 in Har+ Fates0 ed20 The 'rench #evolution 6London and Me1 YorkP Rout.ed(e0 ">>A70 C"/>=2 ,arrin(ton Moore0 Social /rigins o$ Dictatorship and Democracy! %ord and Peasant in the aking o$ the odern 0orld 6,ostonP ,ea)on 8ress0 ">BB70 ""</"@2 Mi)hae. Voren-er(0 'inal 'reedom! The Civil 0ar& the A3olition o$ Slavery& and the Thirteenth Amendment 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>C72
>"
so)ia. tissue o! 1hi)h )i4i. so)iet+ is made2 <B In terms o! a )ountr+;s or a re(ion;s histor+0 su)h a )onte5t/de&endent 4ie1 needs to )onsider )ommu/ nist &o.iti)a. so)ieties as so)ia. or(anisms in (estation2 3he in4o.4ement o! the masses in the initiation o! re(ime )han(e is not on.+ a !un)tion o! the dis&osition o! the ru.in( e.ites2 3heir )a&a)it+ !or a)tion and in!.uen)e is de&endent u&on the histori)a..+ de!ined .o)ation that the+ o))u&ied in so)iet+2<C Con)e&ts su)h as &eo&.e;s demo)ra)+0 re4o.utionar+ demo)ra)+0 or tota.itarian demo)ra)+ en%o+ on.+ !aint su&&ort amon( &o.iti)a. s)ientists0 -e)ause the+ are not )onsidered to -e 4ia-.e o&tions !or )onstitutiona. (o4ernment2 Histori)a..+0 ho1e4er0 the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+ and that o! a-so.utism 1ere ti(ht.+ re.ated0 su((estin( that demo)ra)+ as a )ons/ titutiona. !orm is mu)h more o! an authoritati4e t+&e o! (o4ernment than is usua..+ a)kno1.ed(ed2 In antiDuit+0 the esta-.ishment o! the Athenian &o.is or o! the Roman re&u-.i) !o..o1ed u&on monar)hi)a. ru.e2 Athens;s 4i)tor+ a(ainst the 8ersian em&ire0 its rise to the status o! a sea &o1er0 and the need !or &rote)tion o! its Asian )o.onies o-.i(ed the demo)rati) &o.is to -ui.d an em&ire o4er .ar(e &arts o! Hree)e2 <A :imi.ar.+0 the rise and the de).ine o! the Roman re&u-.i) &ortra+ the intrinsi) e.ements o! im&eria./ ist demo)ra)+2 *emo)ra)+ in modernit+ ori(inated !rom re4o.utions 6the 'n(.ish0 the Eren)h0 and the Russian7 that marked the )u.mination o! the de4e.o&ment o! the three ma%or ideo.o(i)a. mo4ements o! the modern a(eP 8rotestantism0 the 'n.i(htenment0 and so)ia.ism2 3he -e(innin( o! Odemo)rati) &o.iti)s; in the Eren)h Re4o.ution o&ened u& the &otentia. o! tota.itarian demo)ra)+2 <> In Ja)o- 3a.mon;s 4ie10 t1o )urrents o! demo)ra)+0 one .i-era. and the other tota.itarian0 ha4e e5isted side -+ side e4er sin)e the ei(hteenth )entur+2 ,e!ore ">"C0 tota.itarian demo)ra)+ 1as an ideo.o(i)a. )urrent0 not a )oherent &attern2 It emer(ed in the Eren)h Re4o.ution and asserted itse.! throu(h re4o.u/ tionar+ out-ursts su)h as in the 8aris Commune in "AC"2 In the O)to-er Re4o.ution o! ">"C0 tota.itarian demo)ra)+ -e)ame a &o.iti)a. !or)e ins&ired -+ ideo.o(i)a. )urrents and !urther radi)a.ised throu(h histor/ i)a. a)tion2 3ota.itarian demo)ra)+0 1ith its tenden)ies to t+rann+0 h+&o)/ ris+0 and se.!/de)e&tion0 1as the resu.t o! attem&tin( to re)on)i.e the

Hraeme Hi..0 The Dynamics o$ Democratisation 6,asin(stokeP Ma)mi..an0 <===70 "></<"<2 Mi)he. *o-r+0 ed20 Democratic and Capitalist Transitions in "astern "urope 6*ordre)htP F.u1er0 <===7R *irk ,er(/:)h.osser and Jerem+ Mit)he..0 eds20 Conditions o$ Democracy in "urope& *+*+-*+.+ 6,asin(stokeP Ma)mi..an0 <===72 Christian Meier0 Athen( "in ;eu3eginn der 0eltgeschichte 6,er.inP :ied.er Ver.a(0 ">>B70 @></?2 Ja)o- 3a.mon0 The /rigins o$ Totalitarian Democracy 6LondonP :e)ker X War-ur(0 ">@<72
><
in)om&ati-.e nature o! an a../em-ra)in( )reed o! sa.4ation 1ith the &o.iti)a. rea.isation o! .i-ert+2 Whi.e the emer(en)e o! the term Otota.itarian; is asso)iated 1ith the ).assi)a. notions o! t+rann+0 tota.itarianism in the t1entieth )entur+ has its sour)es a.so in the demo)rati) )onditions o! in)i&ient mass so)iet+ 1ith its re.ati4it+ o! norms and 4a.ues2 In a 4er+ s&e)i!i) 1a+0 the emer(en)e o! tota.itarian ru.e in Russia and .ater in MaIi Herman+ )on!irmed ear.ier insi(hts a-out the )onta(ion o! re(ime t+&es0 as the t+ranni)a. auto)ra)+ o! ,o.she4ik )ommunism and MaIism seemed to -e the on.+ 4ia-.e end to mo- ru.e2?= 3he &o.iti)a..+ re.e4ant a&&earan)e o! demo)rati) mass so)i/ et+ in the ear.+ t1entieth )entur+ 1as )ru)ia. !or )onne)tin( mo- ru.e as a so)ia. !or)e 1ith the .a1.essness o! t+ranni)a. &o1er2 Histori)a..+0 this is sho1n -+ the !a)t that Otota.itarian; as a notion arose in Ita.+ in the ear.+ "><=s to desi(nate the Eas)ists; -rea)h o! e.e)tion &ro)edures 1hen the+ re!used to a))e&t the ma%orit+/minorit+ &rin)i&.e0 instead !a4ourin( a Otota.; so.ution2?" A(ainst the histori)a..+ deterministi) assum&tion a-out the o&&osition o! t1o t+&es o! demo)ra)+0 one .i-era. and the other tota.itarian0 &o.iti)a. s+stems dra1 on a )om&.e5 mer(er o! authoritarian and demo)rati) e.ements2 In the dramati) )onte5t o! the em&t+ s&a)e o! &o1er0 the ).ose )onne)tion -et1een .i-era.ism and demo)ra)+ is not e4ident2 3he )on)e&tua. determinism o! the Co.d War &eriod o-!us)ated the insi(ht that demo)rati) )u.ture inherent.+ -ears 1ithin itse.! the (erms o! a di)tatoria. t+&e o! domination mena)in( the se.!/e5&ression and human/ it+ o! man2 Li-era.ism 1as -orn in the stru((.e a(ainst the t+rann+ o! a-so.ute kin(s and is &rimari.+ )on)erned 1ith the .imitation o! &o1er o! the state o4er the indi4idua.2 Con4erse.+0 a !u..+ !.ed(ed demo)ra)+ 1ou.d -e a re(ime 1here the ma%orit+0 throu(h their re&resentati4es0 )ou.d )arr+ throu(h their 1i.. a(ainst an+ minorit+2 As the -asi) &rin)i&.e o! modern demo)ra)+0 the idea o! ma%orit+ ru.e &ermeates &u-.i) o&inion0 the .e(is/ .ature0 the e5e)uti4e0 and the %udi)iar+2 As a )onseDuen)e0 a &erson 1ron(ed ma+ ha4e trou-.e !indin( adeDuate se)urities a(ainst this Ot+rann+ o! the ma%orit+;2?< In e5treme situations0 Odemo)rats; ma+ -e !or)ed to o&t !or authoritarian or tota.itarian so.utions in order to sa!e(uard demo)ra)+2 *emo)ra)ies are not to.erant0 and there is hard.+ an+ more determined entit+ than a demo)ra)+ at 1ar2 'm-att.ed demo)ra)+ &uts
?= ?" ?<
EranI ,orkenau0 The Totalitarian "nemy 6LondonP Ea-er and Ea-er0 ">4=70 "@=/<2 :ee A--ot H.eason0 Totalitarianism! The Inner 2istory o$ the Cold 0ar 6O5!ordP O5!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>@70 "42 A.e5is de 3o)Due4i..e0 Democracy in America! The Complete and :na3ridged0 < 4o.s20 trans2 Henr+ Ree4e 6Me1 YorkP ,antam0 <===70 <>>/?=<2
>?
a.. its .i!e ener(+ in !i(htin( the enem+0 1ho -e)omes the em-odiment o! e4i.0 1hi)h has to -e )rushed -+ the !or)es o! demo)ra)+ as the )entre o! a.. 4irtue2?? I! Car. :)hmitt ).aimed that0 Oin &arti)u.ar0 a di)tatorshi& )annot )ome into -ein( -+ other than demo)rati) means;0 ?4 this 1as not to -.ur an+ distin)tion -et1een demo)rati) and non/demo)rati) as !orms o! &o.iti)a. or(anisation -ut to re)o(nise the inherent am-i4a.en)e o! )onstituent &o1er2 In this 4ein0 the !oundation o! &ost/!as)ist demo)ra/ )ies in Herman+0 Ita.+0 or Ja&an 1as a)hie4ed -+ a tem&orar+ )onstitu/ tiona. di)tatorshi&2 Communist .eaders ).aimed to em-od+ true demo)ra)+ not -e)ause o! their su-stantia. )ontri-ution to &o.iti)a. demo)ra)+ -ut -e)ause this ).aim 1as &art o! the e5istentia. stru((.e !or .e(itimisin( &o1er domesti)a..+ and !or a)hie4in( internationa. re)o(nition2 Communism re.ied u&on the )ru)ia. institution o! a-so.utist &o1er that 1as the ear.+/ modern &o.i)e0 not on.+ de4e.o&in( a -ureau)ra)+ -ut a.so essentia..+ )reatin( a ne1 ).ass o! o1ners and e5&.oiters2 ?@ In terms o! &o.iti)a. )ommuni)ation0 ho1e4er0 )ommunism de4e.o&ed a demo)rati) termi/ no.o(+ -ased on te)hniDues that stressed the )entra.isin( e.ement0 1hi)h is e5&ressed in notions su)h as &eo&.e;s demo)ra)+ or demo)rati) )entra./ ism2 Ori(ina..+ introdu)ed !or the &ur&ose o! )ur-in( the &o1er o! the Centra. Committee o! the Communist 8art+ o! the :o4iet 9nion0 it -e)ame a hierar)hi)a..+ to&/to/-ottom &rin)i&.e o! stri)t inner &art+ dis)i&.ine a!ter ">?42?B 3he emer(en)e o! the O&eo&.e; *emo)ra)+ in the modern 1or.d has .ar(e.+ sho1n a tenden)+ to a)hie4e e4er/hi(her .e4e.s o! eDua.it+ in s&heres o! e5isten)e that had -een !ar more e5).usi4e -e!orehand2 3hus0 so)ia. eDua.it+ in the moment o! the &o.iti)a. is not on.+ enshrined &o.iti)a..+ in the )onstitutiona. ).aim o! &o&u.ar so4erei(nt+ o! the &eo&.e as &ut !or1ard -+ the ).assi)a. do)trine o! demo)ra)+2 Histori)a..+0 it a.so -e)omes so)ia..+ &rodu)ti4e as an e5&ression o! insurre)tionar+ )ro1ds0 )ontentious &o.iti)s0 and )o..e)ti4e 4io.en)e2?C 8o&u.ar so4erei(nt+ has not on.+ -een a matter o! normati4e.+
?? ?4 ?@ ?B ?C
Heor(e E2 Fennan0 #ussia and the 0est :nder %enin and Stalin 6,oston and 3orontoP Litt.e0 ,ro1n and Com&an+0 ">B"70 @2 Car. :)hmitt0 >er$assungslehre 6Muni)hP *un)ker X Hum-.odt0 "><A70 <?C2 Mi.o4an *%i.as0 The ;ew Class 6Me1 YorkP 8rae(er0 ">B470 ?C/B>2 :te&hen Fotkin0 agnetic ountainP Stalinism as a Civili)ation 6,erke.e+P 9ni4ersit+ o! Ca.i!ornia 8ress0 ">>@70 @4B n2 @=2 John Marko!!0 OVio.en)e0 'man)i&ation0 and *emo)ra)+;0 in Fates0 The 'rench #evolution0 <?B/CA2
>4
ins&ired and )onstitutiona..+ (uaranteed do)trines2 ,e!ore )onstituti4e a)ts are esta-.ished0 demo)rati) a)tion reDuires a se.!/)ons)iousness o! indi4idua.s as a)tin( on -eha.! o! the &eo&.e as a &o.iti)a. su-%e)t2 3he modern )on)e&tion o! re&resentation in).udes the s+m-o. O&eo&.e; in t1o meanin(s0 -oth as .e(itimisin( the (o4ernment and as -ein( re&re/ sented2?A A-raham Lin)o.n;s ).assi)a. !ormu.ation o! demo)ra)+ as Othe (o4ernment o! the &eo&.e0 -+ the &eo&.e0 and !or the &eo&.e; indi)ates that the notion o! the &eo&.e a-sor-s three dimensions 1hose simu.taneit+0 ho1e4er0 shou.d not -e taken !or (ranted2 It desi(nates the arti)u.ated &o.iti)a. so)iet+0 its re&resentati4es0 and the mem-ershi& that is -ound -+ the a)ts o! the re&resentati4e2 3his set o! di!!erent dimensions has not -een a time.ess )onstant -ut has de4e.o&ed as a resu.t o! se4era. )rises2 Lin)o.n;s Hett+s-ur( address o! "AB? (i4es the ).assi)a. s+nthesis o! demo)ra)+ as an a)t o! honourin( the dead in the )i4i. 1ar 1ho (a4e the .ast !u.. measure o! de4otion to the )ommunit+2 Lin)o.n reso.4ed that &resent and !uture (enerations shou.d -e !irm.+ )on4in)ed that these dead had not died in 4ain -ut had -eDueathed the nation a ne1 -irth o! !reedom2 ,+ )ontrast0 in medie4a. .an(ua(e it 1as )ommon sense to distin(uish the O&eo&.e; into t1o di!!erent )ate(ories0 the Orea.m; and the Osu-%e)ts;2 One )ause !or e5a.tin( the )entra. notion o! eDua.it+ in &ro)esses o! demo)ratisation is intimated in the stron( e(a.itarian e.ement o! Christianit+2 3he essentia. s&iritua. moti! !or demo)ratisation in the West 1as !ormu.ated -+ the 'n(.ish re!ormers o! the !ourteenth to the ei(hteenth )entur+0 1hen the+ took the .i!e o! the Christian )ommunit+ and o! the )ommunit+/)onstitution as a mode. !or the e5isten)e o! )itiIens in a nationa. so)iet+ a.so in se)u.ar matters2 ?> Lin)o.n;s de!inition o! demo)ra)+ must -e set into the -roader histori)a. )onte5t o! the emer/ (en)e o! the s&iritua. sour)e o! this a&&ea.2 3his is to -e !ound in the &ro.o(ue to John W+).i!!e;s "?A4 trans.ation o! the ,i-.eP O3his ,i-.e is !or the (o4ernment o! the &eo&.e0 -+ the &eo&.e0 and !or the &eo&.e2; Constitutiona. demo)ra)+0 es&e)ia..+ in the An(.o/:a5on )ountries0 has -een a !orm o! )i4i. theo.o(+0 inherent to the &ro&heti) and messiani) monotheism o! the Judaeo/Christian tradition0 )on)erned 1ith the unit+ o! uni4ersa. histor+0 and )hara)terised -+ an es)hato.o(i)a. tension that takes the )onstitutiona. !orm as an arti).e o! !aith and &ro%e)ts a O!ina.it+; to it24= I! one )entra. herita(e o! Christianit+ and s&e)i!i)a..+ 8rotestantism
?A ?> 4=
'ri) Voe(e.in0 The ;ew Science o$ Politics! An Introduction 6London and Chi)a(oP 9ni4ersit+ o! Chi)a(o 8ress0 ">AC70 ?A/4"2 'ri) Voe(e.in0 The Collected 0orks0 4o.2 UI0 Pu3lished "ssays *+<.-*+-< 6Co.um-ia and LondonP 9ni4ersit+ o! Missouri 8ress0 <===70 O*emo)ra)+ in the Me1 'uro&e;0 B"2 Voe(e.in0 Pu3lished "ssays *+<.-*+-<0 "A?2
>@
1as the (eneration o! a )i4i. so)iet+ ru.ed -+ .a10 it 1as rein!or)ed -+ s&iritua. san)tion on an indi4idua. -asis and a se.!/restraint that !orms the essen)e o! .i-era. demo)ra)+24" 3he a.most &ro4identia. tenden)+ to1ards demo)rati) eDua.it+ has not -een a .a1 o! so)ia. de4e.o&ment2 3rans!ormations o! )ons)iousness in indi4idua.s are o!ten res&onses to une5&e)ted and dramati) e5&erien)es2 Modern &o.iti)a. thou(ht and demo)rati) theor+ ha4e inter&reted su)h trans!ormations as -ased on the &o1er o! 1i..0 )hoi)e0 and a)tion2 In the &o.iti)a. moment0 indi4idua. .eadershi& is su&&osed to -e onto.o(i)a..+ sta-.e and not )onstrained -+ )u.tura. and histori)a. tradition2 3his demo)rati) indi4idua.ism has -een )entra. to demo)rati) theor+ and its !o)us on indi4idua. autonom+2 4< Whereas Me1 Ri(ht thinkers ha4e in (enera. tied the (oa.s o! .i-ert+ and eDua.it+ to indi4idua.ist &o.iti)a.0 e)onomi)0 and ethi)a. do)trines0 Me1 Le!t thinkers ha4e de!ended the desira-i.it+ o! )ertain so)ia. or )o..e)ti4e means and (oa.s2 Yet0 O.e(a.; and O&arti)i&ator+; theorists ha4e a set o! &ro&ositions in )ommon2 3he+ are )onne)ted throu(h )on)e&ts o! Oautonom+; or Oinde&enden)e; that .ink these as&irations to(ether and he.& e5&.ain 1h+ the+ ha4e -een shared so 1ide.+2 Autonom+ )onnotes the )a&a)it+ o! human -ein(s to reason se.!/ )ons)ious.+0 to -e se.!/determinin( in di!!erent situations u&on de.i-er/ ation0 %ud(ement0 and )hoi)e to a)t2 Re4o.utions and &eriods o! dee& un)ertaint+ are at odds 1ith su)h essentia.ist assum&tions re(ardin( human autonom+2 Human &o1er in terms o! the &otentia. )a&a)it+ to !orm &o.iti)a. arran(ements is -ound/ .ess2 In the -ound.essness o! a)tion0 ho1e4er0 the a)tor is ne4er mere.+ a Odoer; -ut a.1a+s and at the same time a Osu!!erer;2 4? In re4o.utionar+ )onditions0 eDua.it+ )an -e .ikened to 1hat Mar)e. Mauss termed Otota. eDua.it+;244 An anthro&o.o(i)a..+ in!ormed 4ie1 su((ests that demo)rat/ isation is not on.+ -ased on the autonomous )hoi)e o! an a&&ro&riate mode. e5o(enous to the situation -ut needs to inte(rate the situationa. &remises o! e5&erien)es o! tota. eDua.it+2 As a tota. so)ia. &henomenon0 it )om&rises &o.iti)a.0 e)onomi)0 %uridi)a.0 mora.0 aestheti)0 and &s+)ho.o(/ i)a. rea.ities2 Re4o.utions are .imina. e5&erien)es 1here the eDua.it+ o! )onditions -.urs hierar)hies o! &o.iti)a. a(en)+0 esta-.ishes mu.ti&.e so4/ erei(nties and stru)tures o! dua. &o1er0 disso.4es identities and so)ia.
4"
4< 4? 44
*a4id A&ter0 O8o.iti)a. Re.i(ion in the Me1 Mations;0 in C.i!!ord HeertI0 ed20 /ld Societies and ;ew States! The Ouest $or odernity in Asia and A$rica 6Me1 YorkP Eree 8ress0 ">B?70 CB2 *a4id He.d0 odels o$ Democracy 6:tan!ordP :tan!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">AC70 <BA/C=2 Hannah Arendt0 The 2uman Condition 6Chi)a(o and LondonP 9ni4ersit+ o! Chi)a(o 8ress0 ">@A70 ">=/"2 Mar)e. Mauss0 Sociologie et anthropologie0 >th edn 68arisP 89E0 <=="70 554/5552
>B
ro.es0 and enhan)es the re)i&ro)it+ o! desires2 8o&u.ar so4erei(nt+ has not on.+ -een a matter o! normati4e.+ ins&ired and )onstitutiona..+ (uar/ anteed do)trinesR it has a.so -een &o.iti)a..+ arti)u.ated throu(h so)ia..+ dramati) e4ents2 In the -ound.ess &otentia. o! the em&t+ s&a)e o! &o1er0 the &rin)i&.e o! ineDua.it+ is the dri4in( !or)e at the -ottom0 as re4o.u/ tionaries either &ursue the )onso.idation or the destru)tion o! so)ia. ineDua.it+24@ '4en in the (reatest anar)h+0 se.!/&er)e&tions o! -odi.+ e5isten)e0 o! the !.o1 o! histori)a. time0 and o! some notion o! one;s o1n &ast0 as 1e.. as the a1areness o! one;s e5isten)e in s&a)e0 1i.. &ro4ide !or )ertainties2 3hus0 eDua.it+ o! )onditions re!ers not on.+ to a .e(a. &res)ri&tion .aid do1n in demo)rati) )onstitutions that 1ou.d (uarantee eDua. treatment and eDua. res&e)t !or e4er+ man2 When &o.iti)s are un-ounded0 the eDua.it+ o! )onditions takes on a meanin( -e+ond eDua./ it+ o! estimation0 1hi)h 1ou.d im&.+ .e(a..+ en!or)ea-.e eDua. treatment and eDua. res&e)t !or e4er+-od+2 3here!ore0 eDua.it+ not on.+ is the o-%e)t o! a -e.ie! or the &rin)i&.e o! so)ia. hierar)hies and &o.iti)a. ri(hts -ut a.so &ro4ides human re.ationshi&s 1ith meanin( as !ar as it -e)omes irre4er/ si-.e on the .e4e. o! thou(ht0 e4en thou(h in rea.it+ man+ ineDua.ities &ersist2 3he demo)ratisation o! so)ia. )onditions in the )ontentious &o.iti)s o! a re4o.ution a)Duires an autonom+ o! its o1n0 arti)u.atin( ne1 meanin(s o! &o.iti)a. )on)e&ts0 1hi)h su-seDuent.+ -e)ome &o.iti)a..+ )onstituti4e2 Whi.e the re&resentationa. &rin)i&.e o! Othe kin( in &ar.iament; &reser4ed the di!!eren)es o! rank0 in itse.! it s+m-o.ised the re.ationshi& o! head and mem-er in a sin(.e -od+/&o.iti)2 'ar.ier0 su)h as in the a!termath o! the Ma(na Carta0 the O&eo&.e; ori(ina..+ meant on.+ a rank in so)iet+ 1ithout an+ &ossi-i.it+ o! arti)u.atin( / or as&iration to arti)u.ate / re&resentation2 3he atta)k at the ,asti..e in Ju.+ "CA> endo1ed the )on)e&t O&eo&.e; 1ith a ne1 meanin(2 An a)t o! 4io.en)e )ondu)ted -+ the &eo&.e as a so)ia. entit+ 1as inter&reted -+ the re&resentati4e -od+ o! the Mationa. Assem-.+ as an authoritati4e e5&ression o! &o&u.ar so4erei(nt+ and .e(iti/ ma)+0 thus )on4ertin( an a)t o! &o&u.ar mass 4io.en)e into the )onstitu/ ti4e a)t o! the &eo&.e as a &o.iti)a. su-%e)t2 4B A!ter the Ee-ruar+ Re4o.ution o! ">"C0 the &o.iti)a. &ro%e)t o! turnin( an auto)ra)+ into a )onstitutiona. re(ime 1as th1arted -+ the so)ia. &o.arisation amon( the Russian &eo&.e 6 narod7 in a so)iet+ out o! %oint2 In the )on!usion o! dua. &o1er0 the so.ution !or !i..in( the em&t+ s&a)e o! &o1er &ro4ided -+ )ommunism 1as not on.+ to de).are -ut a.so to
4@ 4B
3o)Due4i..e0 Democracy in America0 C>B2 Wi..iam H2 :e1e.. %nr0 OHistori)a. '4ents as 3rans!ormations o! :tru)turesP In4entin( Re4o.ution at the ,asti..e;0 Theory and Society0 <@ 6">>B70 A4"/A"2
>C
mono&o.ise the inter&retation o! 4a.ues0 .a10 histor+0 and kno1.ed(e2 4C 3he ,o.she4iks a&&ro&riated the s+m-o.ism o! re4o.utionar+ eDua.it+ in the di)tatorshi& o! the &ro.etariat2 In the do)trine o! the &ermanent re4o.ution0 the )ommunist &art+ ).aimed to e5er)ise so4erei(nt+ throu(h the non/&o.iti)a. idea. o! em-od+in( the so)ia. s&irit0 the )ons)iousness0 and the sour)e o! .a1s2 Lenin used the s.o(an OA.. 8o1er to the :o4iets; in order to hi(h.i(ht the s&e)i!i)a..+ so)ia. meanin( o! the O&eo&.e; in o&&osition to the Western .i-era. )on)e&t o! &o.iti)a. re&resentation2 :u&&orted -+ .on(standin( re4o.utionar+ desires and ear.ier u&risin(s su)h as in the Re4o.ution o! ">=@0 the Russian Re4o.ution o! ">"C 1ith its t1o &eaks in Ee-ruar+ and O)to-er dee&ened so)ia. &o.arisation and trans!ormed meanin(s o! demo)ra)+2 Con)e&ts o! .i-era. ri(hts0 indi4id/ ua. res&onsi-i.it+0 and .imited (o4ernment 1ere not 1ho..+ a.ien to traditions o! O(ood (o4ernan)e; -e!ore the re4o.ution2 4A Yet the initia..+ .i-era. &ro%e)t !or a )onstitutiona. demo)ra)+ 1as )ro1ded out -+ so)ia./ ised meanin(s o! demo)ra)+ in the dramati) and 4io.ent )onte5t o! a dee&.+ di4ided so)iet+2 3hrou(h the dee& so)ia. &o.arisation -et1een Ee-ruar+ and O)to-er ">"C0 the initia. .i-era./)onstitutiona. notion o! demo)ra)+ a)Duired a Duasi/di)tatoria. meanin( 1here-+ the so)ia..+ disad4anta(ed aimed to e5&e. the O-our(eois e.ements; in the state as enemies24> A.thou(h some )onsider that Lenin re%e)ted demo)ra)+ as the ru.e o! the ma%orit+0 in Lenin;s 4ie1 the :o4iet re(ime 1as ma%orit+ ru.e2 He did not Duestion the ma%oritarian &rin)i&.e o! demo)ra)+ -ut ada&ted the situationa. &remises o! so)ia. &o.arisation to the )on)e&tua. meanin( o! so)ia.ist demo)ra)+2 In his 4ie10 the Western )on)e&tion as one 1here the .i-era. &rin)i&.e 6-ased on indi4idua. autonom+ and di(nit+7 o! ma%orit+ ru.e is &art o! the institutiona. a&&aratus o! the state 6&ar.iament0 &.ura./ ism0 et)27 ne(.e)ted the so)io.o(i)a. e.ement o! the &eo&.e as &otentia..+ &arti)i&atin( in the 1ork o! (o4ernment2 Eaith!u. to the Mar5ian idea that the re4o.utionar+ ).ass o! the &ro.etariat has no ).ass interest0 under the di)tatorshi& o! the &ro.etariat the &eo&.e 1ou.d no .on(er -e se&arated -+ so)ieta. di4isions0 and the di4ision -et1een so)iet+ and state 1ou.d a.so -e remo4ed2 Eor Lenin0 ma%orit+ 1as there!ore not asso)iated 1ith the stru((.e !or re&resentation and 4otes in a &ar.iamentar+ s+stemR rather0 it rested on the identit+ o! the 4an(uard &art+ and the &ro.etarian &eo&.e
4C 4A 4>
C.aude Le!ort0 The Political 'orms o$ odern Society! 8ureaucracy& Democracy& Totalitarianism 6Cam-rid(eP 8o.it+0 ">AB70 ?="/?2 Ri)hard :ak1a0 O:u-%e)ti4it+0 8o.iti)s and Order in Russian 8o.iti)a. '4o.ution;0 Slavic #eview0 @40 4 6">>@70 >4?/B42 Or.ando Ei(es and ,oris Fo.onitskii0 Interpreting the #ussian #evolution! The %anguage and Sym3ols o$ *+*5 6Me1 Ha4en and LondonP Ya.e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>>70 "<</42
>A
u&on 1hi)h the ne1 state 1as -ased2 3hus0 the ne1 &o1er as the di)tator/ shi& o! the o4er1he.min( ma%orit+ )ou.d and did maintain itse.! on.+ -+ 1innin( the )on!iden)e o! the (reat masses0 on.+ -+ dra1in(0 in the !reest0 -roadest0 and most ener(eti) manner0 a.. the masses into the 1ork o! (o4ernment2@= Whi.e the ,o.she4ik Re4o.ution is )ommon.+ seen as Oanti/demo)rati);0 the situationa. &remises 1arrant its stron(.+ Odemo)rati); a&&ea. as ru.e o! the &eo&.e0 -+ the &eo&.e0 and !or the &eo&.e / that is0 e.ements o! demo)/ ra)+ that re&rodu)e Lin)o.n;s ).assi)a. s+nthesis o! demo)ra)+2 It has -een ar(ued that this &hrase deri4es its demo)rati) )redentia.s not !rom an+ essen)e o! demo)ra)+ -ut on.+ !rom Lin)o.n himse.!2 It de!ies e5a)t ana.+sis and does not su!!i)e to de!ine demo)ra)+ -e)ause :ta.in mi(ht ha4e used it !irst and he mi(ht ha4e !ound &.ausi-.e ar(uments to %usti!+ it2@" 3he .i-era. )ritiDue o! the ine5a)titude o! Lin)o.n;s !ormu.a and its &ossi-.e a-use -+ :ta.in0 ho1e4er0 misses the &oint -e)ause it )on)ei4es o! demo)ra)+ asa set o! &o.iti)a.institutions that sa!e(uard.i-era. 4a.ues as an end in themse.4es2 3he need !or )onte5tua.isation is a.so im&ortant !or the demo)rati) )redentia.s o! dissiden)e in eastern 'uro&e2 Erom a .i-era. &ers&e)ti4e0 the intentions o! dissiden)e in eastern 'uro&e as a &ursuit o! Otruth; 1ere seen as .ar(e.+ inadeDuate !or the institutiona.isation o! a ne1 &o.iti)a. order or !or )ondu)tin( &u-.i) &o.i)+2 @< I! the ethi)s o! anti/&o.iti)s are dis)arded as a 4ia-.e a.ternati4e to demo)rati) a)tion0 ho1e4er0 t1o .o(i)a..+ o&&osed standards o! autonom+ are a&&.ied2 'ssentia..+0 demo/ )rati) theor+ 1ou.d not see the mani!estation o! autonom+ in the )onte5t o! a )ommunist di)tatorshi& as eDui4a.ent to the autonom+ o! )i4i. so)iet+ ne)essar+ !or a )onso.idated demo)ra)+2 3he autonom+ demanded -+ theories in!ormed -+ demo)rati) indi4idua.ism di!!ers )onte5tua..+ and )u.tura..+ !rom the 4er+ so)ia. )onditions under 1hi)h resistan)e a(ainst )ommunist ru.e 1as arti)u.ated histori)a..+2 In su)h usa(e0 autonom+ remains Ooutside; )on)rete e5&erien)e and is &osited as an essen)e that ne)essari.+ &re/e5ists the )onso.idation o! a re(ime/t+&e2 :u)h a dou-.e standard su((ests that demo)rati) &re!eren)es0 sustained -+ indi4idua. )hoi)e and se.!/interest0 remain sta-.e des&ite the -ound.essness o! a)tion and the disso.ution o! .e(a. -oundaries in the em&t+ s&a)e o! &o1er2
@= @" @<
V2I2 Lenin0 Selected 0orks0 "< 4o.s2 6LondonP La1ren)e X Wishart0 ">?>70 4o.2 VII0 <@<2 Hio4anni :artori0 The Theory o$ Democracy #evisited 6Chatham0 MJP Chatham House 8u-.ishers0 ">AC70 ?@2 C.aus O!!e0 >arieties o$ Transition! The "ast "uropean and "ast 1erman "xperience 6Cam-rid(e0 MAP MI3 8ress0 ">>C70 "AC2
>>
Yet0 &resu&&osin( a )onstituted s+stem o! &o1er as the O!ina.; &o.iti)a. out)ome o! 1hat demo)ra)+ essentia..+ is ma+ not -e )on(ruous 1ith the &rodu)tion o! meanin(s o! demo)ra)+ in the e5&erientia. -asis o! histor+2 In the disso.ution o! auto)rati) &o1er0 e4er+thin( de&ends on ho1 the ne1 t+&e o! &o1er is s+m-o.ised in a))ordan)e 1ith the so)ia. !a-ri)2 In a t1entieth/)entur+ 4ersion o! Rousseau;s &arado5 o! so4erei(nt+0 C2,2 Ma)&herson ar(ued that there 1ou.d -e no !urther (ro1th in demo)rati) &arti)i&ation 1ithout &rior )han(es in so)ia. ineDua.it+ and in )ons)iousness2 3hus0 )han(es in so)ia. ineDua.it+ and )ons)iousness )ou.d not -e a)hie4ed 1ithout a &rior in)rease in demo)rati) &arti)i&a/ tion2@? 3he histori)a. e4o.ution o! )ommunism has seen re4o.utionar+ out-reaks0 1hen demo)rati) &arti)i&ation o))urred not as a)ts o! 4otin( under )onstitutiona. (uarantees -ut as a&&ro&riatin( the em&t+ s&a)e o! &o1er -+ &u-.i) o&inion and emotiona. so.idarit+ amon( )itiIens2 Can autonom+ -e re!used to the Hun(arian re4o.utionaries o! ">@B0 the initiators o! the 8ra(ue s&rin(0 or to the 8o.ish :o.idarnoG)G mo4e/ mentQ *oes the a-sen)e o! 4o.ition to en!or)e institutiona. re!orm and to &ress !or rea.isti) )han(e 4indi)ate the !ai.ure o! the demo)ratisin( e!!ort o! dissiden)eQ I! autonomous se)tors in so)iet+ 1ere a sine 7ua non !or the esta-.ishment o! demo)rati) institutions su)h as )onstitutiona.ism0 &o.it/ i)a. &.ura.ism0 or the ru.e o! .a10 e5istin( Western states )ou.d ne4er ha4e esta-.ished themse.4es as demo)ra)ies2 A.thou(h anti/&o.iti)s in eastern 'uro&e 1as dismissed -+ man+ due to its mani!est denia. o! re!ormin( the &o.iti)a. s+stem o! )ommunist (o4ernment0 it re4ea.ed the em&tiness o! the s&a)e o! &o1er as it )redi-.+ esta-.ished an Oanti/&o.iti)a.; s&iritua. mo4ement -ased on the &ro%e)t o! -ui.din( a Ohidden; s&here0 1here )itiIens 1ou.d -e .i-erated !rom the )onstraints im&osed -+ the institu/ tiona.ised .o(i) o! o!!i)ia. &o.iti)s2 3he s+m-o.ism o! these re4o.utionar+ ru&tures and &o&u.ar memor+ asso)iated 1ith them 1as )ru)ia. !or the de4e.o&ment o! a &arti)i&ator+ s&irit o! -e.on(in( to a nation2 Mora. )odes o! ethi)a. indi4idua.ism and mora. &er!e)tionism did not emanate !rom the &ursuit o! indi4idua. se.!/interest in a s+stem o! institutions -ut !rom a &ositi4e a!!irmation o! !reedom and di(nit+ a(ainst the so)ia..+ o&&ressi4e non/&o.iti)a. .o(i) o! &ost/tota.itarian ru.e2 Its share o! demo)/ ra)+ )an -e !ound in the determination o! man+ indi4idua.s to distan)e themse.4es s&iritua..+ !rom the )onta(ious o4era.. in!.uen)e o! )ommunist -ureau)ra)+andthetota.itarian.ie2 @4 3he+a.soemanated!romthe)on)rete
@? @4
C2,2 Ma)&herson0 The %i$e and Times o$ %i3eral Democracy 6Me1 YorkP O5!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">CC70 "==2 H+or(+ FonraGd0 Antipolitcs! An "ssay0 trans2 !rom the Hun(arian -+ Ri)hard '2 A..en 6:an *ie(o/Me1 York/LondonP Har)ourt ,ra)e Jo4ano4i)h0 ">A470 <?"2
"==
e4ents o! .i4in( throu(h )ommunit+ e5&erien)es2 As 3adeusI MaIo1ie)ki !ormu.ated it !or the 8o.ish )aseP O3o de!end \him]se.! !rom tota.itarian/ ism0 man need not return to indi4idua.ism - - - On.+ res&onsi-i.it+ !or the so)iet+0 !or !ormin( its or(anisations and institutions0 so that the so)ia. )ommunit+ 1i.. stren(then the de4e.o&ment and the res&e)t !or human &ersona.it+ - - - )an restore eDui.i-rium and sanit+ to the so)iet+ and &ro&er )onditions !or the indi4idua. de4e.o&ment o! the human -ein(2;@@ 9nder )ommunism0 &o.iti)a. im&u.ses )an hard.+ )ome !rom O&ro!essiona. &o.iti)ians; 1ho ha4e ado&ted the &o.iti)a. ha-its and te)h/ niDues o! )ommunist &o1erR the+ need to )ome !rom outsiders2 A.thou(h it re!rained !rom a)ti4e &o.iti)a. re!orm0 anti/)ommunist dissiden)e 1as a1are o! the stakes o! (enuine &o.iti)a. rea.it+2 Whi.e )itiIens in !ormer )ommunist )ountries ha4e mu)h to .earn a-out the 1orkin(s o! .i-era. demo)ra)+ as an institutiona.ised s+stem0 Westerners ha4e mu)h to .earn !rom them a-out the &ra)ti)e o! demo)rati) )itiIenshi&2@B Meanin(s o! demo)ra)+ Whi.e deterministi) a))ounts see demo)ra)+ as an out)ome in terms o! &o.iti)a. arran(ements and their e!!i)ient )ontro. o! -eha4iour throu(h &o1er0 an inDuir+ into demo)ratisation reDuires in).udin( the s+m-o.isation o! dramati) e5&erien)es !or the !ormation o! meanin(s o! demo)ra)+2 Visions o! eDua.it+ and )u.tura. re&resentations o! demo)ra)+ are a&&ro&riated throu(h so)ia. memor+ and &o&u.ar )ons)iousness0 1hi)h in turn sustain meanin(s o! and &ros&e)ts !or !reedom and eman/ )i&ation2 As &rodu)ts and o-%e)ts o! &o.iti)a. stru((.es and so)ia. )rises0 meanin(s o! demo)ra)+ enter )u.tura. memor+0 the+ rein!or)e or )ha./ .en(e traditions0 and the+ are )u.tura..+ resha&ed2@C Histori)a..+ dated meanin(s o! demo)ra)+0 there!ore0 are not on.+ e&i/ sodes 1ithout rea. im&a)t on the !uture de4e.o&ment o! the )on)e&t2 As a )ru)ia. )on)e&t in &o.iti)a. theor+0 the notion o! demo)ra)+ in the West 1as )hara)terised -+ im&ortant shi!ts in meanin(0 1hi)h )an rou(h.+ -e ).assi!ied in three (rou&s2@A 3raditiona. )on)e&ts su)h as Aristote.ian
@@
@B @C @A
Cited in Adam 8rIe1orski0 O')onomi) Re!orms0 8u-.i) O&inion0 and 8o.iti)a. InstitutionsP 8o.and in the 'astern 'uro&ean 8ers&e)ti4e;0 in ,resser 8ereira et a.20 eds20 "conomic #e$orms in ;ew Democracies 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>?70"AC2 Isaa)0 Democracy in Dark Times0 "CA2 John Marko!!0 0aves o$ Democracy! Social ovements and Political Change 63housand Oaks0 CAP 8ine Eor(e 8ress0 ">>B72 Reinhart Fose..e)k0 'utures Past! /n the Semantics o$ 2istorical Time 6Cam-rid(e0 MAP MI3 8ress0 ">A@70 A<2
"="
)onstitutiona. thou(ht retain an em&iri)a. 4a.idit+ e4en under modern )onditions2 Other )on)e&ts su)h as the terms Ohistor+; 6 1eschichte7 or O).ass; ha4e ke&t the same 1ord as a she..0 -ut the meanin(s ha4e )han(ed radi)a..+ and )an -e re)o4ered on.+ histori)a..+2 Eina..+0 there are re)ur/ rent.+ emer(in( neo.o(isms su)h as O)ommunism; or O!as)ism; that rea)t to s&e)i!i) so)ia. or &o.iti)a. )ir)umstan)es2 *es&ite end.ess transitions and su&erim&ositions in the )ourse o! time0 demo)ra)+ )an -e )onsidered to -e a traditiona. as 1e.. as a )onstant.+ )han(in( or a re)ent )on)e&t2 Man+ de!initions0 &ro)edures0 and re(u.arities o! the an)ient demo)ra)+ o! the &o.is as a &otentia. )onstitutiona. !orm are sti.. &resent in modern demo)ra)ies2 Eo..o1in( its modernisation in the ei(hteenth )entur+0 the )on)e&t -e)ame eDui4a.ent to a ne1 or(anisationa. !orm t+&i)a. o! the .ar(e modern state and its so)ia. )onseDuen)es2 Introdu)in( the ru.e o! .a1 and the &rin)i&.e o! eDua.it+ modi!ied o.d meanin(s2 In the 1ake o! so)ia. trans!ormations in the nineteenth )entur+0 demo)ra)+ -e)ame in)reasin(.+ asso)iated 1ith a state o! e5&e)tation 1hi)h0 1ithin a histor/ i)o/&hi.oso&hi)a. &ers&e)ti4e / -e it .e(is.ati4e or re4o.utionar+ / ).aimed to satis!+ ne1.+ )onstituted needs so that its meanin( mi(ht -e 4a.idated2 In the t1entieth )entur+0 Odemo)ra)+; -e)ame a (enera. )on)e&t re&.a)/ in( Ore&u-.i); 6politeia7 that )onsi(ned to i..e(a.it+ a.. other )onstitutiona. t+&es as !orms o! ru.e2 *ue to this (.o-a. uni4ersa.it+0 demo)rati) theor+ essentia..+ &rodu)ed a 1ho.e m+riad o! Dua.i!+in( attri-utes as &erha&s the on.+ manner -+ 1hi)h demo)ra)+ as a s+stem o! (o4ernment )ou.d retain an+ !un)tiona. e!!i)ien)+2 Erom an e5&erientia. &ers&e)ti4e0 ho1e4er0 autonom+ (oes -e+ond the methodo.o(i)a. indi4idua.ism o! autonomous su-%e)ts in a demo)rati/ )a..+ )onstituted s+stem2 3he .i4ed e5&erien)es in e5)e&tiona. re4o.u/ tionar+ situations a)Duire autonom+ o! their o1n2 Ee1 &eo&.e 1ou.d den+ that the Russian Re4o.ution o! Ee-ruar+ ">"C in the )onte5tua. meanin( o! the time started o!! as a (enuine.+ demo)rati) re4o.ution 1hen the o4erthro1 o! the tsar introdu)ed OeDua.it+; as a so)ia. dri4in( !or)e2 Mot un.ike Russia;s 4i)tor+ o4er Ma&o.eon;s armies more than a )entur+ ear.ier0 the :e)ond Wor.d War in Russia not on.+ in!.i)ted un&re)edented su!!erin(0 des&air0 and destru)tion on so)iet+0 -ut a.so stimu.ated !ree thou(ht and autonom+ that a))om&anied the a)ti4ities o! masses o! &eo&.e to(ether riskin( or sa)ri!i)in( their .i4es in de!en)e o! their )ountr+ and its state2@> A!ter :ta.in;s death0 de/:ta.inisation -rou(ht a-out a trans!ormation in the )ommuni)ati4e )onte5t0 1hi)h / a.thou(h 4a(ue0 .imited0 and )ontradi)tor+ / 1as mediated -+ the !o)us on so)ia.ist
@>
Mi)hae. 9r-an et a.20 The #e3irth o$ Politics in #ussia 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>C70 ?=2
"=<
.e(a.it+ and in a not insi(ni!i)ant 1a+ re4i4ed the )ate(or+ o! Odemo)ra)+; in :o4iet so)iet+2 9nder the )onditions o! the non/&o.iti)a. ).aim to ru.e -+ a mono&o.isti) &art+0 1here )i4i. .i-erties0 the ru.e o! .a10 and an e!!e)ti4e &o.iti)a. &.ura.ism 1ere sus&ended0 the Osma..; re4o.utions in Hun(ar+ in ">@B0 CIe)hos.o4akia in ">BA0 or 8o.and in ">A= 1ere o&en mani!estations o! autonom+ and )onstitution o! su-%e)ti4it+2 :u)h &o&u/ .ar resistan)e )reated an em&t+ s&a)e o! &o1er0 1hi)h not on.+ )ha..en(ed &o.iti)a. stru)tures o! domination -ut a.so -eDueathed a )ommuni)ati4e memor+ o! ethi)a. indi4idua. )hoi)e and the 4a.ue o! se.!/sa)ri!i)e u&on so)iet+2 At +et another sta(e0 the :o4iet dissident mo4ement took u& the inte..e)tua. thrust o! demo)ra)+ in its .etter to the :o4iet .eaders o! "> Mar)h ">C=0 1hi)h &re!i(ured 1hat 1as to -e)ome the .an(ua(e o! Hor-a)he4;s perestroika and glasnost2B= 3he demo)rati) renaissan)e in the :o4iet 9nion at the end o! the ">A=s 1as &rimari.+ interested in stren(thenin( the a))ounta-i.it+ o! &art+ o!!i)ia.s -+ re4i4in( the so4iets in the re&u-.i)s as re&resentati4e or(ans2 Hi4in( -a)k (enuine a))ount/ a-i.it+ to Othe &eo&.e; 1as )onsistent 1ith Hor-a)he4;s ear.+ statements a))ordin( to 1hi)h perestroika &rioritised )u.tura. )han(e 1ith a !o)us on attitudes0 &s+)ho.o(+0 and )ons)iousness2 It thus in).uded the edu)ated masses as a sour)e o! 1isdom and in!ormation2 It reDuired not on.+ the !orma. a))ounta-i.it+ o! o!!i)ia.s -ut a.so the O&.ura.ism o! o&inions; and s+stemi) )riti)ism0 1hi)h rea.ised an eDua.isation o! status -et1een o!!i/ )ia.s and the masses2B" *emo)ra)+ as an ur(ent ho&e has -een )ontin(ent u&on the )u.tura. )onte5t in so)iet+ and the &ersona. )redentia.s o! &o.iti)a. .eaders2 Eor instan)e0 the 8o.ish :o.idarnoG)G mo4ement ado&ted the tradition o! the demo)ra)+ o! the (entr+ / the on.+ !orm o! demo)ra)+ to ha4e taken stron( root in 8o.and / that 1as endo1ed -+ an idea. o! unanimit+ and a )orres&ondin( ima(e o! a unitar+ and sin(.e nationa. 1i..2 Moreo4er0 it re&resented the .e(a)+ o! nationa. romanti)ism that 4a.ued 8o.ish mes/ sianism and the .o+a.t+ to the nationa. idea more than the res&onsi-i.it+ !or )urrent nationa. a!!airs2 3hus0 the )on)ern !or an idea.ised &ast -e)ame a stru)turin( &rin)i&.e !or :o.idarnoG)G that 1as -ased more on m+th than on rea.it+2 B< In 8o.and;s se.!/.imitin( re4o.ution in ">A= and ">A"0 the )om-ined e!!ort o! inte..e)tua.s0 1orkers0 and the Catho.i)
B= B"
B<
9r-an et a.20 The #e3irth o$ Politics in #ussia0 &2 B<2 Heor(e W2 ,res.auer0 1or3achev and Peltsin as %eaders 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <==<70 BC2 AndrIe% Wa.i)ki0 The Three Traditions in Polish Patriotism and Their Contemporary #elevance 6,.oomin(tonP 8o.ish :tudies Center0 ">AA70 "=/"?2
"=?
Chur)h mer(ed romanti)ism and re.i(ious s&iritua.it+ 1ith the a)tion o! the 1orkin( ).ass that &ro&a(ated a demo)rati) uto&ianism in the )on)e&t o! :o.idarnoG)G2 *emo)ra)+ in )ommunist 'uro&e has -een sha&in( u& a)ross mu.ti&.e )han(es o! meanin(s0 as a )onte5t/.aden and histori)a..+ (enerated )on/ )e&t2 Ci4i. resistan)e 1as an attem&t to trans!orm so)iet+ -+ &ro)esses o! su-%e)ti4isation2 8o.iti)a. o&&ortunities -e)ome a4ai.a-.e on.+ 1hen su-/ %e)ti4it+ is )u.tura..+ em&o1ered throu(h s+m-o.s and memories that sustain &o.iti)a. ima(ination2 :u-%e)ti4it+ is not s+non+mous 1ith the se.!/interest o! ru.in( e.ites assumed -+ demo)rati) indi4idua.ism2 Rather0 it re!ers to the re)o(nition o! the &eo&.e as the sour)e o! &o.iti)a. authorit+ and the need to re&resent this )ommon destin+ -+ s+m-o.i) a)ts and the -esto1a. o! &o.iti)a. meanin(2 Mot on.+ o-%e)ti4e )auses -ut a.so )on%un)tura. !a)tors a!!e)ted the timin( o! the -reakthrou(h in eastern 'uro&e2B? 3hese in).ude the !ormation o! autonomous &o.iti)a. (rou&s0 the ro.e o! indi4idua. &o.iti)a. .eaders and their )hoi)es0 the di!!usion o! demo)rati) ideas0 and the in!.uen)e o! e5terna. !or)es0 su)h as the .i-er/ a.isation &ro)ess in the :o4iet 9nion and the attra)tion o! the Western &o.iti)a. and e)onomi) mode.2 3hus0 e4en !ai.ures to &rodu)e Odemo)rati) out)omes; in terms o! re(ime )han(e ma+ -e in!.uentia. in &ro4idin( mode.s0 -e.ie!s0 and the s&irit !or o4er)omin( auto)rati) ru.e2 More -road.+0 nationa. memories or e4en m+ths o! a demo)rati) &ast ma+ !a)i.itate &o&u.ar a))e&tan)e o! demo)rati) &o.iti)a. stru)tures2 B4 *es&ite its o&en.+ anti/.i-era. s+stemi) !eatures su)h as a ne(ation o! the ru.e o! .a10 )i4i. .i-erties0 and )onstitu/ tiona. ri(hts0 the &o.iti)a. e4o.ution o! )ommunism )ontained shi!ts in su-%e)ti4it+ and the de4e.o&ment o! ne1 meanin(s o! demo)ra)+2B@ 3he tension -et1een the emotiona. ur(en)+ and the intrinsi) haIiness o! demo)ra)+ 1as )hara)teristi) o! &arts o! )entra. and east 'uro&ean and Russian &o.iti)a. )u.ture2 3he di4ersit+ o! meanin(s o! demo)ra)+ in the &o.iti)a. dis)ourse o! 4arious &ost/)ommunist )ountries intimates the )onne)tion 1ith histori)a. e5&erien)e and re&resentations o! demo)ra)+ -e!ore the )o..a&se o! )ommunism2 A ).oser e5amination o! meanin(s o! demo)ra)+ in &ost/)ommunist )ountries su)h as in Russia0 !or instan)e0 su((ests at .east !our roads to demo)ratisationP the .i-era.0 the re&u-.i)an0
B? B4 B@
Heo!!re+ 8ridham and 3atu Vanhanen0 eds20 Democrati)ation in "astern "urope! Domestic and International Perspectives 6London and Me1 YorkP Rout.ed(e0 ">>470 <@@/B<2 Atti.a A(h0 "merging Democracies in "ast Central "urope and the 8alkans 6Che.tenham and Mortham&tonP 'd1ard '.(ar0 ">>A70 <=2 :ak1a0 O:u-%e)ti4it+;2
"=4
the &arti)i&ator+0 and the statist2 BB *es&ite the he(emoni) dis)ourse o! a nas)ent Western identit+ and .i-era. demo)ra)+0 &ost/)ommunist so)i/ eties are )hara)terised -+ a )on!usin( arra+ o! mu.ti&.i)it+ o! s+m-o.s and meanin(s2 Whi.e the demo)rati) re4o.ution o! ">A> and ">>" -rou(ht a-out the 4i)tor+ o! .i-era. demo)ra)+ and human ri(hts0 it is a.so asso/ )iated 1ith an un&re)edented 1a4e o! 1ar0 ethni) ).eansin(0 e5).usion0 and dis)rimination2BC 3he rise o! ,o.she4ik &o1er in Russia0 o! &eo&.e;s demo)ra)ies in eastern 'uro&e0 and the sma.. re4o.utions in ">@B0 ">BA0 and ">A= )onstituted not on.+ out)omes in the domesti) e4o.ution o! )ommunism0 -ut a.so !undamenta..+ trans!ormed meanin(s o! demo)ra)+ in the West2 Ori(ina..+ a )onstitutiona. !orm o! (o4ernment 1ith the )on)omitant s+stem o! institutions0 demo)ra)+ -e)ame a normati4e a((re(ate0 stand/ in( !or an a.ternati4e )i4i.isationa. truth and sour)e o! authorit+2 In its 1ake0 demo)ra)+ in the West did not remain )on!ined to a )onstitutiona. !orm0 -ut -e)ame tin(ed 1ith a stron(.+ &ositi4e mora. .eanin(2 *emo)ra)+ -e)ame eDui4a.ent to a (ood so)iet+ in o&eration0 the anti/ thesis o! the e4i. and dehumanisin( em&ire o! )ommunist di)tatorshi&2 BA Eurthermore0 Western demo)ra)ies dre1 mu)h o! their o1n .e(itima)+ as the O(ood so)iet+; !rom a &er4asi4e !ear o! )onta(ion 1ith )ommunism and its ensuin( sti(matisation as the Oem&ire o! e4i.;2 8arado5i)a..+0 this !ear o! )onta(ion rested u&on the !a)t that the s+stemi) anta(onism -et1een demo)ra)+ and :o4iet tota.itarianism .a)ked the em&iri)a. rea./ it+ o! o&en mi.itar+ )on!.i)t or an inherited hosti.e tradition2 Eo..o1in( the :e)ond Wor.d War0 Herman+ as the mi.itar+ enem+ 1as re&.a)ed -+ the tota.itarian &aradi(m0 1hi)h eDuated the :o4iet 9nion 1ith the tota. e5terna.isation o! e4i.0 thus &romotin( demo)ra)+0 in a -inar+ !ashion0 as the mora..+ (ood o&&osite2 *emo)ratisation has -een a &ro)ess o! mo4ement to1ards an out)ome that is neither !u..+ sta-.e nor entire.+ &redetermined2 It mi(ht -e o-%e)ted that 1orkin( 1ith su)h a haI+ and -+ de!inition un)ertain 4aria-.e 1ou.d !.a1 an+ ana.+ti)a. 4a.ue o! su)h a &ro)edure2 As the -road .iteratures on the 'uro&ean 9nion or on the (.o-a. market e)on/ om+ su((est0 these resear)h to&i)s are )on!ronted 1ith un&redi)ta-.e out)omes0 uns&e)i!ied seDuen)es o! de4e.o&ment0 and un)ertain time !rames2 :ti..0 e4en i! the 'uro&ean 9nion !a..s a&art or the trends to1ards
BB BC BA
John *r+Iek and Les.ie Ho.mes0 Post-Communist Democrati)ation! Political Discourses Across Thirteen Countries 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <==<70 <BA/C?2 Mi)hae. Mann0 The Dark Side o$ Democracy! "xplaining "thnic Cleansing 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <==472 :e+mour Martin Li&set0 Political an! The Social 8ases o$ Politics 6LondonP Heinemann0 ">B=704=?2
"=@
a (.o-a. marketisation are re4ersed0 this kind o! 4a.ue/oriented so)ia. inDuir+ 1i.. -e im&ortant !or our understandin( o! su)h &ro)esses2 B> 3he di4ersit+ o! meanin(s o! demo)ra)+ in the &ost/)ommunist 1or.d re!.e)ts rather than )ontradi)ts demo)ratisation &atterns in the Western 1or.d2 *es&ite the .a)k o! institutiona.isation and minima. &ro)edura. (uarantees under )ommunist re(imes0 these 4isions o! demo)ra)+ must not -e )onsidered as a menda)ious 4ersion o! rea.it+2 It is sa!e to assume that demo)ra)+ in the Western hemis&here has (ained a))e&tan)e not des&ite -ut 3ecause o$ its uto&ian -ent2 Whereas the Hreeks )oined the term Odemo)ra)+; to des)ri-e their a.read+ e5istin( !orm o! (o4ernment0 modernit+ has re4i4ed a term that &res)ri-es an im&ossi-.e !orm0 makin( Odemo)ra)+; !irst and !oremost a normati4e 1ordP it does not descri3e a thin(0 it prescri3es an idea.2C= 3he .inka(e -et1een ori(ina. Athenian demo)ra)+ and modern demo)ra)+ is an)hored &re)ise.+ in the idea.isation o! the !ormer0 dri4en -+ a di!!use and ur(ent ho&e that human .i!e in the settin(s in 1hi)h it takes &.a)e ma+ )ome to -e more a matter o! )ommitted &ersona. )hoi)e and .ess a matter o! en!or)ed )om&.ian)e 1ith im&ersona. and e5terna. 6and un1e.)ome7 demands2 C" A )riti) mi(ht 1e.. ar(ue at this &oint that )onsiderin( demo)rati) trans!ormation as a drama is re.ati4ist and risks de&ri4in( demo)ra)+ o! its s&e)i!i) )hara)ter as a )onstitutiona. !orm o! (o4ernment2 Ho1e4er0 the !o)us on (.o-a. )ontin(en)+ and the &otentia. de)a+ o! an+ manmade order is an+thin( -ut ori(ina.2 Rather0 it re!.e)ts the tenuous su))ess o! demo)ra)+ -e!ore the se)ond ha.! o! the t1entieth )entur+2 C< 3he dri4in( !or)es o! a so)iet+ ma+ undermine the 4er+ s+stem on)e so)ia. )onditions ha4e )han(ed2 :tartin( !rom Aristot.e0 &o.iti)a. thou(ht a)kno1.ed(ed that demo)rati) (o4ernment is not autonomous !rom so)ia. )onditions su)h as 1ar or mo- ru.e0 and there!ore is one &art in a seDuen)e o! other !orms o! &o.iti)a. domination2 C? In Ma)hia4e..i;s 4ie10 the disunion and stri!e amon( &atri)ians and &.e-eians 1ere the )ause o! .i-ert+0 sta-i.it+0 and &o1er in the Roman re&u-.i)2 C4 A.thou(h man;s task is to &ro4ide !or the -est and most dura-.e )onstitution o! a -od+/&o.iti)0 as Rousseau ar(ued0 a dura-.e re(ime must not -e )on!used 1ith an eterna. one2 3he
B> C= C" C< C? C4
Whitehead0 Democratisation0 ??2 Hio4anni :artori0 O*emo)ra)+;0 International "ncyclopedia o$ the Social Sciences0 ed2 *a4id L2 :i..s0 4o.2 IV 6Me1 YorkP Ma)mi..an and Eree 8ress0 ">BA70 ""@/"B2 *unn0 OCon).usion;0 <@B2 Ro-ert A2 *ah.0 /n Democracy 6Me1 Ha4en and LondonP Ya.e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>A70 "2 Aristot.e0 Politics0 ed2 :te&hen '4erson 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">AA70 ,ook V0 "?"4a0 ?4/"?"4a"2 Mi))o.oS Ma)hia4e..i0 Discourses on %ivy0 ed2 and trans2 Har4e+ Mans!ie.d and Mathan 3ar)o4 6Chi)a(oP 9ni4ersit+ o! Chi)a(o 8ress0 ">>A70 ,ook I0 )ha&s2 4/@2
"=B
-od+/&o.iti)0 as mu)h as the human -od+0 starts d+in( !rom the moment o! its -irth and )arries 1ithin it the )auses o! its destru)tion2 C@ Rather than identi!+in( demo)ra)+ 1ith a s&e)i!i) do)trina. sour)e0 it is reasona-.e to ).aim that it has -een a -+/&rodu)t o! the entire de4e.o&ment o! Western )i4i.isation2CB An+ ).aim a-out the ine4ita-i.it+ o! esta-.ishin( .i-era. demo)rati) re(imes in the )ontem&orar+ meanin( in0 sa+0 Eran)e or the 9nited :tates 1ou.d not -e inte..e)tua..+ a))e&ta-.e2 :imi.ar.+0 an+ ).aim a-out &o.iti)a. so)ieties that are immune to e5tremism or that are &arti)u.ar.+ sensiti4e to tota.itarian mena)es 1ou.d -e utter.+ ahistori)a.2 CC What a&&ears as the !undamenta. anta(onism -et1een t1o s+stems0 t1o 1or.ds o! 4a.ues0 or Ot1o sou.s; is .ike.+ to -e !.a1ed in histori)a. rea.it+2 It is im&ossi-.e0 !or instan)e0 to distin(uish -et1een a O(ood; and an Oe4i.; Herman+0 -e)ause one 1as inherent.+ .inked 1ith the other2 A))ordin( to 3homas Mann0 Othe e4i. 1as simu.taneous.+ the (ood0 the (ood errant and in de)a+;2CA 3o ar(ue that Russia is 'uro&e;s dou-.e and there!ore ine.u)ta-.+ set on a &ath o! &o.iti)a. and e)onomi) )on4er(en)e 1ith the West is to o4er.ook ho1 the )on%un)ture o! man+ Russias0 o!ten in dee& ri4a.r+ 1ith the West0 1as in!.uentia. in the &re/re4o.utionar+ and &ost/ re4o.utionar+ &o.iti)a. e4o.ution2 C> It is im&ossi-.e to s)ienti!i)a..+ de)ide -et1een di!!erent s+stems o! 4a.ues su)h as0 !or instan)e0 -et1een Eren)h or Herman )u.ture2 3his )omes do1n to an eterna. Duarre. -et1een di!!erent Hods2 'n(a(ed in an irreso.4a-.e re)i&ro)a. stru((.e0 the &er/ manent )ontention o! re&resentationa. truths has -een rationa.ised in )om&arison to the m+thi)a. !i(hts in o.d Hree)e0 -ut this !i(ht kee&s on -ein( ru.ed -+ destin+0 not -+ s)ien)e2A= In Russia0 !or instan)e0 the road to )ommunism and to a tota.itarian s+stem 1as not &redetermined0 as Russian so)iet+ did not meet the Oo-%e)/ ti4e; reDuirements o! a re4o.utionar+ situation a))ordin( to Mar5ist reDuirements0 )hara)terised -+ a ).ass stru((.e -et1een a stron( industria. &ro.etariat and a 1e../de4e.o&ed -our(eoisie2 3he determinist ).aim a-out its Oundemo)rati); nature has ne(.e)ted the so)ia. !oundations o! meanin(s
C@ CB CC CA C> A=
Jean/Ja)Dues Rousseau0 The Social Contract and Discourses0 trans2 and intro2 H2*2H2 Co.e 6LondonP *ent0 ">>?70 <B=/"2 :artori0 O*emo)ra)+;0 ""<2 Mi)he. *o-r+0 OEran)eP An Am-i(uous :ur4i4a.;0 in ,er(/:)h.osser and Mit)he..0 Conditions o$ Democracy in "urope0 "@C/A?2 Tuoted in A.eida Assmann and 9te Ere4ert0 1eschichtsvergessenheit& 1eschichtsversessenheit( >om :mgang mit deutschen >ergangenheiten nach *+@< 6:tutt(artP *VA0 ">>>70 "<"2 Martin Ma.ia0 #ussia :nder 0estern "yes 6Cam-rid(e0 MAP Har4ard 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>>72 Ma5 We-er0 0issenscha$t als 8eru$0 ed2 Wo.!(an( J2 Mommsen and Wo.!(an( :)h.u)hter 63u-in(enP Mohr0 ">><70 >>/"==2
"=C
o! demo)ra)+2 Rather than -ein( a uto&ian and im&ra)ti)a. 4ie1 o! re4ers/ in( a s+stem o! &o.iti)a. domination0 &ra)ti)es o! resistan)e to o&&ression took sha&e in the hidden s&here throu(h indi4idua. a)ts o! 1ritten or s&oken de!ian)e -e!ore the+ mer(ed 1ith the &u-.i) s&here2 A" It has -een a distin)ti4e &art o! the )ommunist e5&erien)e that demo)ra)+ has -een a )i4i.isin( !or)e that re.ied u&on emotiona. -onds 1ith the West -ut a.so 1as (rounded in e5&erien)es o! !reedom in the so.idarit+ o! the shaken0 .i4in( in di(nit+0 or .i4in( in truth2A<
A" A<
James :)ott0 Domination and the Arts o$ #esistance! 2idden Transcripts 6Me1 Ha4en and LondonP Ya.e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>=72 Hara.d W+dra0 O*emo)ra)+ in 'astern 'uro&e as a Ci4i.iIin( 8ro)ess;0 in *ennis :mith and :ue Wri(ht0 eds20 0hose "uropeN The Turn Towards Democracy 6O5!ordP ,.a)k1e..0 ">>>70<AA/?"=2
Part II
Criti)a. e4ents and their s+m-o.isations
3he rise o! ,o.she4ik &o1er
In a rea. re4o.ution the -est )hara)ters do not )ome to the !ront --- 3he+ are its 4i)timsP the 4i)tims o! dis(ust0 o! disen)hantment / o!ten o! remorse2 Ho&es (rotesDue.+ -etra+ed0 idea.s )ari)atured / that is the de!inition o! the re4o.utionar+ su))ess2 Jose&h Conrad
Russia un-ound 3he O)to-er Re4o.ution is usua..+ )onsidered to -e the -e(innin( o! an anti/demo)rati) and non/)onstitutiona. tota.itarian t+&e o! re(ime2 One )an &oint to the most o-4ious )onseDuen)es su)h as the mono&o.isation o! a.. means o! &o1er in the hands o! a re4o.utionar+ &art+0 the seiIure o! )ontro. o! a.. e)onomi)0 state administrati4e0 %uridi)a.0 and )u.tura. institutions0 and the institutiona.isation o! re4o.utionar+ terror throu(h the Cheka0 the se)ret &o.i)e esta-.ished -+ the ,o.she4ik re(ime in *e)em-er ">"C2 Whi.e this has -een an a))e&ted 4ie1 in &o.iti)a. histor+ and )om&arati4e &o.iti)s0 its %ud(ement is -ased on out)ome/.o(i)0 1hi)h has dominated the t1o ma%or inter&retations o! the O)to-er Re4o.ution2 On the one hand0 the !o)us 1as on the )hain o! un&redi)ta-.e and rather situationa. !a)tors that made this uniDue )onste..ation o! &o1er seiIure throu(h the ,o.she4iks &ossi-.e2 " Criti)a. o! the so)ia. !oundations o! the ,o.she4ik Re4o.ution0 su)h a 4ie1 ).aimed that the :o4iet tota.itarian state 1as not a so)iet+ -ut an ideo)rati) re(ime that )ou.d not ha4e emer(ed 1ithout Lenin;s &ersona. 1i.. &o1er2 Con4erse.+0 there has -eenthe )entra. assum&tion a-out a )ausa.it+ a))ordin( to 1hi)h the re4o.ution 1as the ine4ita-.e resu.t o! the ).ass stru((.e -et1een the under&ri4i.e(ed ).asses 61orkers and &easants7 and the -our(eoisie2 ,+ means o! a turn to1ards so)ia. histor+0 the so/)a..ed re4isionist s)hoo. re&.a)ed the mani!est.+
"
Ri)hard 8i&es0 The #ussian #evolution 6Me1 York and 3orontoP Vinta(e/Random House0 ">>"72
"""
""<
!.a1ed tota.itarian thesis 1ith Leon 3rotsk+;s &ers&e)ti4e o! :ta.in;s ru.e as a )ounter/re4o.ution2< 3his )ha&ter ar(ues that the O)to-er Re4o.ution not on.+ institution/ a.ised a ne1 t+&e o! &o.iti)a. re(ime0 -ut a.so (a4e rise to an entire.+ ne1 !orm o! &o.iti)a. so)iet+2 3he e5&erientia. -asis o! the re4o.utionar+ ru&ture and its s+m-o.isation as a &ermanent re4o.ution )ast dou-t on di)hotomi) a))ounts o! the O)to-er Re4o.ution2 3he Russian Re4o.ution? as the most im&ortant e4ent in modern Russian histor+ reDuires ado&tin( an e5&erientia. and )u.tura. dimension2 4 Eo..o1in( u&on the tortuous de4e.o&ment sin)e the eman)i&ation o! the ser!s and the )on!.i)t/ridden e4o.ution o! so)ia.0 &s+)ho.o(i)a.0 and &o.iti)a. iden/ tities0 Othe Russia that under1ent the re4o.ution o! ">"C 1as a so)iet+ out o! %oint0 and the se4ere )on4u.sions that -eset it under the stresses o! the )i4i. 1ar 1ere0 at .east in &art0 -ut a demonstration o! this !a)t;2 @ 3he Ee-ruar+ Re4o.ution 1as not on.+ a &re.ude to O)to-er0 )hara)terised -+ a !ai.ed &o.iti)a. e5&eriment in O)onstitutiona.; (o4ernment2 It a.so &rodu)ed a massi4e )han(e in the s+m-o.i) uni4erse o! Russian so)iet+ as it re&.a)ed the tsarist monar)h+ 1ith a se)u.ar and anti/re.i(ious mo4e/ ment2B A-so.ute monar)h+ 1as !o..o1ed -+ an i../!ated attem&t to esta-/ .ish a )onstitutiona. (o4ernment -ased on a &ar.iamentar+ assem-.+ and a so4iet 6)oun)i.7 s+stem2 9n.ike modern re4o.utions in Ameri)a or in Eran)e0 the Russian Re4o.ution / a.thou(h neither the dire)t nor the ine4ita-.e )onseDuen)e o! the 1ar / 1ou.d ha4e -een utter.+ unthinka-.e 1ithout the )onditions o! the Eirst Wor.d War2 3he Ee-ruar+ Re4o.ution !urther radi)a.ised the erosion o! &o.iti)a. authorit+ stru)tures that had -e(un 1ith the Re4o.ution o! ">=@ at the .atest and had a))e.erated durin( the 1ar2 ,urdened !rom the -e(innin( -+ its dua.it+0 the dua. &o1er )onsisted o! the 8ro4isiona. Ho4ernment 6re.+in( u&on the Constitutiona. *emo)rati) 8art+ 6kno1n as the Cadets70 .eadin( mem-ers o! the 8ro(ressi4e -.o)0
< ?
4 @ B
:te&hen Fotkin0 agnetic ountain! Stalinism as a Civili)ation 6,erke.e+P 9ni4ersit+ o! Ca.i!ornia 8ress0 ">>@70 B2 3he :o4iet usa(e es)he1ed the term Russian Re4o.ution and re!erred to the OO)to-er Re4o.ution; or OO)to-er;2 3he !a4oured &ost/:o4iet term seems to -e the O,o.she4ik Re4o.ution; or the O,o.she4ik &uts)h;R see :hei.a EitI&atri)k0 The #ussian #evolution 0 <nd edn 6O5!ordP O5!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <=="70 "C? n2 "2 Fotkin0 agnetic ountain0 "42 Leo&o.d Haimson0 O3he 8ro-.em o! :o)ia. Identities in 'ar.+ 31entieth/Centur+ Russia;0 Slavic #eview0 4C0 " 6">AA70 "2 A.e5ander :o.Ihenits+n;s attem&t to stud+ the Ee-ruar+ Re4o.ution as the )entra. e4ent o! modern Russian histor+ (radua..+ made him a1are that he needed to e5&.ain ho1 tsarism and so)iet+ had de4e.o&ed -+ that timeR see *a4id Remni)k0 #esurrection! The Struggle $or a ;ew #ussia 6Me1 YorkP Random House0 ">>C70 "4>2
""?
and the radi)a. :o)ia.ist Re4o.utionar+ A.e5ander Ferensk+7 and the 8etro(rad :o4iet that 1as esta-.ished on <A Ee-ruar+ ">"C2 3his dua./ &o1er arran(ement is .ess im&ortant !or its !ai.ure to esta-.ish dura-.e !orms o! authorit+ than !or the 4er+ un)ertaint+ o! authorit+ in a )on/ !i(uration o! mu.ti&.e so4erei(nties2 3he )oheren)e o! the 8ro4isiona. Ho4ernment did not emanate !rom a &o.iti)a. &hi.oso&h+ 1ith a ).ear/)ut o-%e)ti4e0 -ut !rom aninte..e)tua. tradition that1as ins&ired -+ a One(ati4e; im&u.se0 the .i-eration !rom the o.d re(ime2 Heirs o! the Russian inte..i/ (entsia0 the mem-ers o! the 8ro4isiona. Ho4ernment 1ere a.ienated !rom a.. institutions o! the o.d re(ime and 1ere &assionate a-out a .i-ert+ that the+ em-ra)ed 1ith a.most re.i(ious !aith2 3he+ hated the o.d order0 -ut the+ a.so !eared the re4o.ution2 3hus0 the Eirst 8ro4isiona. Ho4ernment 1as )hara)terised -+ a situation in 1hi)h Othe -.ind --- .ed the ha.t a.on( to the !ina. drama o! O)to-er;2 C In the dua./&o1er re(ime a!ter Ee-ruar+ ">"C0 the unreso.4ed Duestion a-out 1hat to do 1ith the 1ar e5hausted the short/.i4ed 8ro4isiona. Ho4ernment and )onsidera-.+ )ontri-uted to the initia..+ im&ro-a-.e seiIure o! &o1er -+ a )ons&iratoria. minorit+2 3he une5&e)ted turns o! the Eirst Wor.d War (a4e a !urther t1ist to &o.iti)a. de4e.o&ments -et1een Ee-ruar+ and O)to-er2 Ar(ua-.+0 no other issue 1as as disru&ti4e in the re.ations -et1een the so4iets and the 8ro4isiona. Ho4ernment as the Duestion o! 1hether to )ontinue the 1ar e!!ort2 Mot on.+ did the Eirst Wor.d War )onstitute an im&ortant &re/ )ondition !or the out-reak o! the Ee-ruar+ Re4o.ution and !or maintain/ in( the re4o.utionar+ e!!orts o! the ,o.she4iks throu(hout the summer and autumn o! ">"C0 -ut the hi(h de(ree o! mo-i.isation0 indis)riminate )ro1d a)tion0 and the )om-ati4e s&irit o! an on(oin( 1ar a.so &ro4ided the -a)k(round )onditions !or the rise o! the ,o.she4iks2 A!ter ,rest/ Lito4sk0 it 1as not &ea)e that .oomed .ar(eR o&en 1ar!are a(ainst the &o&u.ation -e)ame the sin(.e most im&ortant a)ti4it+ &ursued -+ the ,o.she4iks0 e).i&sin( e4en the de!eat o! the White armies2 8.a+in( on the anta(onisms -et1een resent!u. and dis.o)ated Russians0 the &o.iti)a. arti)u.ation o! )ommunist &o1er o))urred in a 1artime s&irit o! 4io.en)e and re&ression and o! Osie(e &s+)hosis;2A 3he 1ar e!!ort tri((ered the auto)ra)+;s une5&e)ted and tota. )o..a&se2 A.thou(h the 1eakness o! the tsar;s &o.iti)a. authorit+ had -een e4ident &rior to the out-reak o! the Ee-ruar+ Re4o.ution0 the 1ar a-ru&t.+
A Mar)e.
Leonard :)ha&iro0 #ussian Studies0 ed2 '..en *ahrendor! 6Me1 YorkP Vikin(0 ">AC70 ""@2 Mauss0 OA :o)io.o(i)a. Assessment o! ,o.she4ism; in Mike Hane0 ed20 The #adical Sociology o$ Durkheim and auss 6London and Me1 YorkP Rout.ed(e0 ">><70 "A?R 8eter Ho.Duist0 aking 0ar& 'orging #evolution! #ussias Continuum o$ Crisis& *+*@-*+A* 6Cam-rid(e0 MAP Har4ard 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <==<70 <=42
""4
dis)ontinued the &ositi4e e!!e)ts o! state/.ed industria.isation0 e)onomi) e5&ansion0 and demo(ra&hi) in)rease2> 3his ad4erse de4e.o&ment 1as rein!or)ed -+ the s&.it o! )ommand stru)tures -et1een Hrand *uke Miko.ai Miko.ae4i)h as the su&reme )ommander o! the arm+ in 1estern Russia and the tsar in 8etro(rad2 "= 3his arran(ement !or dire)tin( 1ar!are esta-.ished a de $acto dua. &o1er0 1ithout mu)h )o/ordination -et1een the t1o2 A!ter 3sar Mi)ho.as II took u& su&reme )ommand in Au(ust ">"@ to !a)e the Herman o!!ensi4e0 an atmos&here o! &ani)0 )haos0 and mora. de!eat -e)ame ram&ant in the arm+2 A&&ro5imate.+ one mi..ion so.diers surrendered durin( the retreat0 &re!errin( the &ros&e)t o! -e)om/ in( &risoners o! 1ar to !i(htin( a seemin(.+ .ost )ause a(ainst a su&erior arm+2 Rather than raisin( their s&irits0 the tsar;s de)ision to take u& su&reme )ommand had a )atastro&hi) e!!e)t on the mora.e o! the troo&s2 At the same time0 his a-sen)e !rom the )a&ita. 1eakened his authorit+ in the hinter.and0 (i4in( 1a+ to the de4e.o&ment o! a O-ureau)rati) anar)h+;2 3he situation in ">"C0 there!ore0 1as )onsidera-.+ di!!erent !rom ">=@0 1hen the 1orkers; -e.ie! and ho&e in the tsar 1as Duite )ru)ia. !or the un!o.din( o! e4ents2 3he tsar had .ost an+ mora. &ur&ose0 1hi)h 1ou.d ha4e .e(itimated his remainin( in o!!i)e2 Tuite disinterested in ho1 matters e4o.4ed in Ee-ruar+ ">"C in 8etro(rad0 he 1as not )onsidered -+ the &o&u.a)e to -e the inter.o)utor2 :u)h re)i&ro)a. distrust 1as rein!or)ed -+ the endemi) 1eakness o! tsarism2 3his 1anin( authorit+ 1as not sim&.+ due to the &ersona.it+ o! 3sar Mi)ho.as II0 -ut o1ed mu)h to the -ureau)ratisation o! tsarist auto)ra)+ .on( &rior to the Eirst Wor.d War2"" As the Russian state had not emer(ed !rom -e.o1 -ut had -een im&osed !rom a-o4e0 it 1as )hara)terised -+ the a-sen)e o! a so.id net/ 1ork o! intermediate e.ites -et1een the to& o! the state and the &o&u.a)e2 At the out-reak o! the Eirst Wor.d War0 not on.+ had tsarism .ost !aith in its o1n .eadershi& )a&a)it+R the masses had a.so .ost !aith and a1e in the tsar;s &erson as em-od+in( the monar)h+2 Eor a.. its endemi) 1eakness0 ho1e4er0 tsarism 1as not doomed to !a..2"< 3sarism had sur4i4ed se4era. ons.au(hts su)h as the Re4o.ution o!
3he demo(ra&hi) .ea& !rom "== mi..ion inha-itants in "A>= 6in).udin( 8o.and and Ein.and0 -ut e5).udin( :i-eria0 Centra. Asia0 and the Cau)asus7 to a&&ro5imate.+ "@= mi..ion at the out-reak o! the 1ar 1as e4en (reater &ro&ortiona..+ than the &o&u.ation (ro1th in Herman+R see John Ma+nard Fe+nes0 The Collected 0ritings o$ G( ( Feynes0 4o.2 II0 The "conomic Conse7uences o$ the Peace 6,asin(stokeP Ma)mi..an0 ">C"70 A2 "= Or.ando Ei(es0 A Peoples Tragedy! The #ussian #evolution *6+*-*+A@ 6LondonP Jonathan Ca&e0 ">>B70 <4>/B>2 "" Ma5 We-er0 Cur #ussischen #evolution von *+,<0 <? 4o.s20 4o.2 U0 Schri$ten und #eden *+,<-*+*A0 ed2 Wo.!(an( J2 Mommsen and *ittmar *ah.mann 63u-in(enP J2C2,2 Mohr0 ">A>704="/"?2 "< Ri)hard 8i&es0 Three 0hys o$ the #ussian #evolution 6LondonP 8im.i)o0 ">>A70 ""/">2
>
""@
">=@0 and it )ou.d a.so -e reassured -+ the re.ati4e )a.m o! the Russian 4i..a(e0 1hi)h made u& a&&ro5imate.+ A@ &er )ent o! the em&ire;s &o&/ u.ation2 3here 1as no )o(ent trans!ormati4e interest0 as the &eo&.e and !orei(n o-ser4ers seemed to -e.ie4e that tsarism 1ou.d sur4i4e !or a .on( time to )ome2 3his is re!.e)ted in the 1a+ the tsar;s une5&e)ted a-di)ation 1as met 1ith utter )on!usion and -e1i.derment o! a.. &arties2 *es&ite the de)isi4e in!.uen)e o! the Eirst Wor.d War0 it 1ou.d mis/ re&resent the &er)e&tions o! most )ontem&oraries i! the 1ar 1ere taken to -e the sin(.e most im&ortant !a)tor .eadin( to re4o.ution2 Mourished -+ .on(/standin( re4o.utionar+ desires0 man+ indi4idua. Russians a))orded the Eirst Wor.d War nothin( .ike the same si(ni!i)an)e as the re4o.ution2 3he )ru)ia. &oint is not the )hrono.o(i)a. seDuen)e in 1hi)h the 1ar is !o..o1ed -+ the interna. )risis o! a re4o.ution0 -ut the simu.taneous -rea)h o! the esta-.ished re.ations o! &o1er0 so)ia. e5isten)e0 and )on/ tinuin( 1ar/.ike )onditions2 As the )ata.+st o! so)ia. &o.arisation and an on(oin( )risis o! authorit+0 the 1ar )han(ed 4a.ues and a..e(ian)es dras/ ti)a..+2 Ee1 arm+ o!!i)ers re!used to take the oath to the 8ro4isiona. Ho4ernment in Mar)h ">"C2 Con4erse.+0 man+ &easant so.diers did not &er)ei4e the dua./&o1er re(ime as a ne1 &o1er stru)ture0 -ut remained )on!used a-out the re&resentations o! authorities0 enemies0 and !riends2 O3hese &easant so.diers; notion o! so4iet &o1er / e4en thou(h most o! them no1 &ro-a-.+ 4ie1ed this &o1er as their 4er+ o1n0 rather than as a su&erordinate authorit+0 ho1e4er -ene4o.ent0 ho4erin( o4er them / did not en)om&ass an+ )on)e&tion o! the re.ationshi&s -et1een themse.4es0 their 4i..a(e )ommunities0 or e4en the &easant estate as a 1ho.e0 and other so)ia. (rou&s / .et a.one an+ (enera.ised 4ie1 o! the Russian -od+ &o.iti) as a 1ho.e2;"? 3he 4o.ati.it+ o! the .a-e.s / the terms 3ur)hua 6-our(eois7 and pomeshchik 6.and.ord7 1ere inter)han(ea-.+ a&&.ied to re&resenta/ ti4es o! the o.d re(ime and the )rum-.in( &o1er stru)ture / re!.e)ted ho1 the 1ar radi)a.ised &easant/so.diers a(ainst o!!i)ers and introdu)ed the shar&.+ radi)a.ised so)ia. &o.arisation into an other1ise a&atheti) &easantr+2 3his Otren)h -o.she4ism; 1as e)hoed in the ,o.she4iks; !or/ mu.a O8ea)e0 Land0 and ,read;2 3he di)tatorshi& o! the &ro.etariat 3he su))ess o! ,o.she4ism 1ou.d ha4e -een un.ike.+ 1ithout the re4o.u/ tionar+ )on%un)ture2 At the outset o! the Ee-ruar+ Re4o.ution0 the ,o.she4ik &art+ 1as a mar(ina.ised and se)tarian mo4ement 1ith .itt.e
"?
Haimson0 O3he 8ro-.em o! :o)ia. Identities;0 "?2
""B
in!.uen)e0 and 1ithout a &o.i)+ or &.an !or the !uture2 "4 A.thou(h its mem-ershi& in)reased )onstant.+ !rom an estimated <40=== in Ee-ruar+ ">"C to a tota. o! some ?@=0=== in O)to-er ">"C0 on.+ s.i(ht.+ more than @ &er )ent o! Russia;s industria. 1orkers -e.on(ed to it at the -e(innin( o! this &eriod0 and this in a )ountr+ in 1hi)h industria. 1orkers made u& on.+ " or "2@ &er )ent o! the &o&u.ation2 "@ A.read+ in the A&ri. theses0 1ritten a&&ro5imate.+ t1o months &rior to State and #evolution0 Lenin )a..ed !or the 1ithdra1a. o! a.. su&&ort !or the Oim&eria.ist; 8ro4isiona. Ho4ernment2 He admitted that his &art+ 1as in a minorit+0 and in the )urrent moment in a 1eak minorit+0 in most o! the so4iets o! 1orkers; de&uties0 )om&ared to the -.o) o! a.. the o&&ortunist &ett+-our(eois e.ements2 3he re4o.utionar+ )on%un)ture &rodu)ed mora. )on!usion and so)ia. &o.arisation0 1hi)h mat)hed the &s+)ho.o(i)a. out.ook o! the .eaders o! the ,o.she4ik &art+2 3he ,o.she4isation o! Russia 1as0 to an im&ortant e5tent0 histori)a..+ rooted in the materia.0 s&iritua.0 and )u.tura. herita(e o! the Russian re4o.utionar+ tradition2 On the one hand0 the en!or)ed Westernisation o! nineteenth/)entur+ Russia and the )on!.i)t -et1een nati4e and Western 1a+s o! .i!e &rodu)ed an im&ortant .a+er o! Oout)asts;2 3hese out)asts )om&rised a so)ia. )ate(or+ amon( 1hi)h di!!erent (rou&s o! the inte..i(entsia0 su)h as the Westerners0 the :.a4o&hi.es0 or !anati) re4o.utionaries0 -e)ame most im&ortant in tr+in( to ne(ate Western 4a.ues2 3he tormented -io(ra&hies o! man+ o! the ,o.she4ik re4o.utionaries 1ere &redi)ti4e o! their -eha4iour in the a!termath o! the O)to-er Re4o.ution2 3he &eo&.e 1ho )ame to &o1er in Russia in O)to-er ">"C had (ro1n u& under the re(ime o! O'5traordinar+; and O3em&orar+ La1s;R this 1as the on.+ Russian )onstitution that the+ had e4er kno1n2 "B On the other hand0 ,o.she4isation radi)a.ised the &art+ -+ &romotin( the most e5treme e.ements into ke+ &ositions2 In the turmoi. o! the !irst months a!ter the coup d4tat o! O)to-er0 the re.ationshi&s -et1een so)ia. (rou&s0 &o.iti)a. )ontenders0 and mi.itar+ o&&onents 1ere de)isi4e.+ resha&ed2 3here!ore0 the moda.ities o! the mono&o.isation o! &o1er and the e4o.ution o! ,o.she4ism 1ere not on.+ a matter o! the institutiona.isation o! an ideo.o(+2 3he+ a.so had an im&a)t on the !ormation o! &o.iti)a. )ons)iousness throu(h &o1er/ !u. s+m-o.s and attitudes0 ne1 !orms o! s&ee)h and .an(ua(e0 and ne1
"4 "@ "B
Leonard :)ha&iro0 The /rigin o$ the Communist Autocracy 6LondonP H2 ,e.. and :ons0 ">@@70<@2 EitI&atri)k0 The #ussian #evolution0 @<2 Ri)hard 8i&es0 #ussia :nder the 8olshevik #egime *+*+-*+A@ 6LondonP Har4i..0 ">>470 ?"C2
""C
1a+s o! -eha4in( in &u-.i) and &ri4ate2 3he re4o.ution 1as an on(oin( e5&erien)e throu(h 1hi)h it 1as &ossi-.e to ima(ine and stri4e to -rin( a-out )ommunism as a One1 )i4i.isation;2 "C In this 4ein0 the )i4i. 1ar and 1ar )ommunism 1ere the de)isi4e e.ements in the sta-i.isation o! ,o.she4ik &o1er2 3he anta(onists in the )i4i. 1ar 1ere not ideo.o(i)a. )am&s -ut )on/ )rete so)ia. (rou&s0 &o.iti)a. a)tors0 and mi.itar+ )ontin(ents2 With the mo-i.isation o! more than t1e.4e mi..ion &easants as so.diers in the Eirst Wor.d War0 the !ormer.+ ).osed uni4erse o! the &easant )ommunit+ o&ened u& to the a))e.erated .o(i) o! 1ar!are2 In !or(in( their Oa..ian)e; 1ith the &easantr+0 the ,o.she4iks instrumenta.ised the dee& so)ia. )on/ !.i)ts -et1een the )ountr+side and the to1n !or their immediate (oa. o! sta-i.isin( &o1er2 In des&erate need o! human resour)es !or the &ur&ose o! -ureau)rati) )ontro.0 the mem-ershi& stru)ture o! ,o.she4ik &art+ 1as soon su-stantia..+ trans!ormed2"A 3he &romotion o! man+ &easants into midd.e/ran(e &ositions o! the &art+ as 1e.. as interna. &art+ &ur(es turned the &easants into the most numerous (rou& in the rank and !i.e2 3he &ro(ramme o! state nationa.isation o! the means o! &rodu)tion had s1o..en the state -ureau)ra)+ u& to si5 mi..ion em&.o+ees &re)ise.+ at a &oint 1hen the &ro.etariat undertook a mass e5odus !rom the )ities due to !amine and disease2 3hese &ro!ound trans!ormations not on.+ threatened the )hara)ter o! a O&ro.etarian; re4o.ution -ut a.so re4ersed the trend to massi4e mi(ration !rom the )ountr+side into the to1ns2 "> In the 1ake o! ">"C0 traditiona. )on!.i)ts su)h as the dee&.+ rooted tensions -et1een the to1n and the )ountr+side de4e.o&ed into a so)ia. 1ar0 )on!rontin( the Ot1o so)ieties; o! the Russian nation2 Eor &easants in re4o.t0 there 1as no distin)tion -et1een a so.dier0 a -andit0 or a state s&+2 <= More than a +ear a!ter the )i4i. 1ar and the mi.itar+ )on!rontation -et1een the Red and the White armies0 a se)ond O)i4i. 1ar; de4e.o&ed at se4era. !o)a. &oints o! .o)a. and re(iona. resistan)e a(ainst ,o.she4ik &o1er0 rea)hin( its ).ima5 in the re-e..ion o! the marines in Fronstadt in ear.+ "><"2 Lenin;s theor+ and &ra)ti)e o! the di)tatorshi& o! the &ro.etariat need to -e understood in )onne)tion 1ith the &art+;s Oout)ast; &osition and its .o1 .e4e. o! re&resentati4eness2 La)kin( a &re/e5istin( nation1ide )onsensus0 the ,o.she4ik s&irit had -een !or(ed throu(h e5&erien)es o! &erse)ution and 4i)timhood under tsarism2 9n.ike the Ja)o-ins in
"C "A
"> <=
Fotkin0 agnetic ountain0 "42 A))ordin( to the )ensus o! "><<0 on.+ <2C &er )ent o! the ?CB0=== mem-ers had %oined -e!ore ">"C0 -ut the+ 1ere in )har(e o! ke+ &ositionsR see 8i&es0 #ussia :nder the 8olshevik #egime *+*+-*+A@0 4A<2 Isaa) *euts)her0 The :n$inished #evolution 6O5!ordP O5!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">B>72 Mar) Eerro0 %a r4volution de *+*5 68arisP A.-in Mi)he.0 ">BC70 BA<2
""A
Eran)e0 the+ 1ere not the &rodu)t o! re4o.utionar+ e4ents -ut one o! se4era. se)tarian re4o.utionar+ &arties0 or(anised mi.itari.+0 read+ to !i(ht !or &o1er0 and aimin( to trans!orm man and so)iet+2 In sear)h o! a -roader institution to make their ).aim !or re&resentation 4ia-.e0 the+ tar(eted the so4iets as the re&resentati4e -odies o! the !a)tories and / durin( the 1ar / o! the re(iments2 A.thou(h the ,o.she4iks (ained the ma%orit+ in the Mos)o1 and 8etro(rad :o4iets durin( the .ate summer o! ">"C0 the &re.iminaries to the se)ret coup d4tat on <4 O)to-er ">"C indi)ate that the+ did not ha4e the masses -ehind them2 <" 3he seiIure o! &o1er in O)to-er ">"C did not ha4e man+ immediate re&er)ussions on a nationa. s)a.e0 and the &o&u.ation o!!ered re.ati4e.+ .itt.e resistan)e &re)ise.+ -e)ause it -e.ie4ed that the ,o.she4ik re(ime )ou.d not .ast2 << An assessment o! re.ations as )om&.e5 as those -et1een &ro!essiona. re4o.utionaries and the masses reDuires (reat )are2 Eor m+ &ur&oses0 on.+ some (enera. .ines shou.d -e sket)hed out2 As a ski.!u. mani&u.ator o! )ro1d &s+)ho.o(+0 Lenin kne1 that it 1as not enou(h to as)ertain the 1i.. o! the ma%orit+2 *es&ite his )ontem&t !or the masses0 he needed to )onne)t his -id !or &o1er to the &s+)ho.o(+ o! the )ro1ds !or the sake o! &ro&a(anda and mass mo-i.isation2 Rumours and ha&haIard a.erts a-out an imminent atta)k -+ the re4o.utionar+ troo&s )ou.d arouse s&ontaneous so.idarit+ -et1een so.diers and the )ro1ds0 es&e)ia..+ a!ter the .atter in4aded the -arra)ks2 Lenin;s o1n attem&t to seiIe &o1er -+ insti(atin( the masses re!.e)ts his a1areness that the on.+ rea. )han)e o! su))ess .a+ in takin( ad4anta(e o! hei(htened emotions and so)ia. !.u52 3hree times0 in A&ri.0 June0 and Ju.+ ">"C0 he tried to take ad4anta(e o! the 8ro4isiona. Ho4ernment;s 1eakness -+ means o! street riots2 <? A!ter the !ai.ed coup d4tat in Ju.+ ">"C0 Lenin -e)ame an out)ast a(ain and had to &ass three and a ha.! )riti)a. months in )onstant hidin(2 A1are o! the &art+;s 1eakness0 Lenin insisted that it !o)us on O&atient.+0 s+stemati)a..+0 and un+ie.din(.+ e5&.ainin( to the masses the errors o! the ta)ti)s &ra)ti)ed -+ the so4iets;2 <4 3o(ether 1ith the un)ertain di4ision o! &o1ers and the .a)k o! re.ia-.e authorit+ stru)tures0 this mo-i.isation o! )ro1ds insti(ated the masses 1ith the aim o! to&&.in( the 8ro4isiona. Ho4ernment2 3he makeshi!t )hara)ter o! ,o.she4ik .eadershi& 1as tan/ (i-.e in its re&eated attem&ts to e.i)it su&&ort !rom di!!erent so)ia. (rou&s
<"
<< <? <4
In 3rotsk+;s a))ount0 a&&ro5imate.+ <@0=== to ?=0=== &eo&.e took &art in the e4ents o! O)to-er in 8etro(rad 6in a )it+ o! < mi..ion and a )ountr+ o! some "@= mi..ion7R see 8i&es0 Three 0hys0 ?<2 8i&es0 Three 0hys0 B=/"2 Ma5im Hork+0 :ntimely Thoughts! "ssays on #evolution& Culture and the 8olsheviks *+*5-*+*6 6Me1 Ha4en and LondonP Ya.e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>@72 Eerro0 %a r4volution de *+*52
"">
-+ in!.i)tin( ha4o) u&on others2 A t+&i)a. a))ount o! the da+s o! the Ee-ruar+ Re4o.ution in 8etro(rad demonstrates ho1 )ro1ds mani!ested their dis)ontent 1ithout a ).ear/)ut strate(+0 de4oid o! mass 4o.ition or )on)rete &ro(rammes in &o.iti)a. (rou&s2 <@ 3he ,o.she4iks )reated a Oser4i)e !or s&iritua. aid; that 1as destined to kee& )ontro. o! )ro1ds that assem-.ed sudden.+ in the streets and )ou.d -e)ome a dan(er !or &u-.i) order2 3heir ke+ idea 1as to a)t u&on the mass !rom the inside2 Whene4er there 1as o&en a((ression in the streets0 their a(ents min(.ed 1ith the masses in order to a(itate !rom inside0 to destro+ the )ro1d;s )oheren)e0 and to -e)ome its )entre2 3he s)enes o! )ro1d &ani) and mass h+steria that 1ere s&arked o!! -+ the ,o.she4iks on 4 Ju.+ ">"C )on4e+ed a &i)ture o! ho&e.essness and nationa. disaster2 "C0 initiated -+ the Ferensk+ (o4ernment0 entai.ed the O)ons&ira)+; o! Henera. Forni.o4 a(ainst the (o4ernment that had a&&ointed him2 It not on.+ )aused )onsidera-.e )haos in the arm+ -ut a.so dis)redited the Cadets and Ferensk+ &ersona..+2 3o a )onsidera-.e e5tent0 this !ai.ure rein!or)ed Lenin;s determination to re&eat the attem&t o! a coup d4tat2 A.thou(h Lenin (a4e a theoreti)a. %usti!i)ation o! the demo)rati) nature o! the so4iets and their re.ationshi& to the di)tatorshi& o! the &ro.etariat0 he 1as &ro!ound.+ s)e&ti)a. o! them2 It is the iron+ o! histor+ that the one a)hie4ement that Lenin had re(arded as essentia.0 the so4iet re(ime0 ne4er )ame into -ein(2 Erom the !irst da+ o! the ,o.she4ik Re4o.ution0 the so4iets .ost &o1er to the di)tatorshi& o! the &art+2 3he+ .ost an+ &ra)ti)a. im&ortan)e 1hen a.. &arties -ut the ,o.she4iks them/ se.4es 1ere dri4en under(round and the so4iets0 instead o! e5&ressin( an+-od+;s o&inion0 -e)ame mere administrators2 <C In the immediate a!termath o! the seiIure o! the Winter 8a.a)e0 Lenin 1as not at a.. interested in sharin( &o1er 1ith the 8etro(rad :o4iet2 3hrou(h the )reation o! the Mi.itar+ Re4o.utionar+ Committee0 Lenin seiIed e5).usi4e &o1er in the a!termath o! <@ O)to-er ">"C2 Ostensi-.+ )reated to de!end 8etro(rad a(ainst the Hermans0 this ,o.she4ik/dominated -od+ used the )o4er o! so4iet .e(itima)+ to seiIe &o1er in the )a&ita.2 In rea.it+0 the ne1 &o1er stru)ture did not emanate !rom the &re4ious.+ institutiona.ised or(an0 1hi)h 1as the 8etro(rad :o4iet0 -ut !rom a )on%un)tura. entit+ that had -een )reated durin( the insurre)tionar+ &ro)ess itse.!2
<@ @<70 "@@/A2 Hork+0 :ntimely Thoughts0 C</@2 EranI ,orkenau0 0orld Communism! A 2istory o$ the Communist International 6Ann Ar-orP 9ni4ersit+ o! Mi)hi(an 8ress0 ">C"70 @@/B2
"<=
It has -een su((ested that the ,o.she4iks united the o&&ressed ).asses su)h as the &easants and the &ro.etariat in their hatred o! the -our(eoisie2 In the !irst arti).e o! the theses on the &ea)e0 Lenin &ortra+ed the su))ess o! the re4o.ution as a resu.t o! the %oinin( o! the 1orkin( and the &easant masses2<A Moreo4er0 the &easant re4o.ts -et1een the s&rin( and autumn o! ">"C / &ara..e. to the mutin+ o! the Russian arm+ / )onstituted a se)ond (reat so)ia. re4o.utionar+ mo4ement2 <> *id the re4o.utionar+ situation )reate a so)ia..+ inte(rati4e mo4ement o! ).ass a)tionQ '4iden)e su((ests that the &er)e&tion o! a so)ioe)onomi) ).ass o! O-our(eoisie; as the enem+ re&resentin( .i-era.ism did not &re/e5ist the O)to-er Re4o.ution0 -ut that this enem+ 1as a )onstru)tion o! the re4o.u/ tionar+ &ro)ess itse.!2 In the Russian Re4o.ution0 the masses had no &er)e&tion o! a O-our(eoisie; as an a-stra)t so)ia. ).ass0 -ut instead 1ere a)tin( a(ainst rea.0 .i4in( &eo&.e 1hom the+ )a..ed 3ur)hua 6-our(eois70 3ar)hua 6-ar(eo1nersP !rom 3ar)hui70 and 3ir)hua 6sto)k-rokersP !rom 3ir)hye72 3he+ 4ented their an(er not a(ainst some ima(inar+ ).ass )a..ed the O-our(eoisie;0 -ut a(ainst rea. &eo&.e the+ met on the streets0 in trams0 and in trains2?= 3he 4io.en)e durin( ">"C hit a.most e4er+ .a+er o! so)iet+ in).udin( o!!i)ers0 (reat .ando1ners0 ku.aks0 and )i4i. ur-an authorities0 as 1e.. as &o.iti)a. anta(onists -oth at the -ottom and at the to&0 in a Duasi/random !ashion2?" Moreo4er0 the )oa.ition -et1een the ,o.she4iks and the &easantr+ 1as 4o.ati.e and !ra(i.e at -est2 Most o! the &easants re!rained !rom adherin( to an+ &o.iti)a. )urrent su)h as the ,o.she4iks or e4en the :o)ia. Re4o.utionaries2 3he+ a&&eared to -e either disoriented or to -e de!endin( their o1n &ath 1ith the ma%or o-%e)ti4e o! ).aimin( .and and !reedom2?< ,+ and .ar(e0 the &easants; menta.it+ 1as )hara)terised -+ a t1o!o.d tenden)+2 On the one hand0 there 1as a .o)a. &arti)u.arism that re!.e)ted a )ontinuit+ stemmin( !rom the 4er+ -e(innin( o! the Russian state and that eroded on.+ (radua..+ -e!ore -ein( de!inite.+ re4ersed -+ :ta.in;s )o..e)ti4isation and the destru)tion o! the mir0 the traditiona. &easant )ommunit+2 On the other hand0 the re!usa. to de!er to an+ su&er/ ordinate authorit+ )onstituted a de!inite )han(e in the &easantr+;s atti/ tude0 a.thou(h it had -een &re!i(ured -+ the -eha4iour o! their de&uties in the so4iets and in the :e)ond :tate *uma2 3his se.!/su!!i)ien)+ o! the
<A <> ?= ?"
Vi)tor :er(e0 %an I de la r4volution russe( %es d43uts de la dictature du prol4tariat I*+*5-*+*6J 68arisP La *V)ou4erte0 ">>C70 "AB2 3heda :ko)&o.0 Social #evolutions in the odern 0orld 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>470 "@"2 Or.ando Ei(es and ,oris Fo.onitskii0 Interpreting the #ussian #evolution! The %anguage and Sym3ols o$ *+*5 6Me1 Ha4en and LondonP Ya.e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>>70 "CC/A2 Eerro0 %a r4volution de *+*50 ACA2
?<
Haimson0 O3he 8ro-.em o! :o)ia. Identities;0 "B2
"<"
&easantr+ emanated0 to a .ar(e e5tent0 !rom the .on(/term aim o! tsarist &o1er to a)hie4e a s&e)ia. re.ationshi& 1ith the &easantr+ at the e5&ense o! the 'uro&eanised0 modernist0 re4o.utionar+ inte..i(entsia2 ?? Eurthermore0 the ,o.she4iks; traditiona. ideo.o(i)a. attitude e5hi-its its &ro!ound )ontem&t !or the &easantr+2 A!ter the e5tin)tion o! the &o&u.ist Marodnaia Vo.ia0 the Russian re4o.utionar+ mo4ement sou(ht )oa.ition 1ith the masses2 8otentia..+ the most e!!e)ti4e )oa.ition o! the re4o.utionar+ inte..i(entsia 1ith the &easants had !ai.ed re&eated.+0 as the &easantr+ remained a&atheti)a..+ traditiona.ist2 Whi.e the narodniki had o&ted !or the &o&u.ist so.ution0 Mar5ist so)ia. demo)rats 6and .ater on the ,o.she4iks7 attem&ted a )oa.ition 1ith the 1orkin( ).ass2 3he identit+ o! this O1orkin( ).ass; remained Duite murk+0 as it )ame to -e )onstituted in )onsidera-.e out/mi(ration !rom the )ountr+side on.+ in the .ate "A>=s2 9&rooted !rom their traditiona. mi.ieu and shaken -+ e)onomi) )on4u./ sions and the industria. re4o.ution0 mem-ers o! the .a-our mo4ement did not )onstitute a se.!/)ons)ious ).ass 1ith de!ined interests0 -ut remained an o-%e)t o! the re4o.utionar+ ideas o! the inte..i(entsia2 ?4 It )an sa!e.+ -e assumed that the -road masses o! the &easantr+ did not su&&ort the ,o.she4iks at the time o! their seiIure o! &o1er2 I! there 1as somethin( su)h as a O&easant rationa.it+; in the Russian Re4o.ution0 then it )an -e most (enera..+ Dua.i!ied as the desire to -e .e!t a.one2 ?@ :u)h a )on%e)ture is a.so )on!irmed -+ the traditiona. re.ationshi& -et1een to1n and )ountr+side0 1hi)h had -een one o! re)i&ro)a. !ear and enmit+2 ?B As the )on!.i)t -et1een the )ountr+side and the (o4ernmenta. authorities in the )ities &redated the re4o.ution0 it 1as one o! the sour)es rather than the )onseDuen)es o! the re4o.ution2 Moreo4er0 as the -i( u&sur(es su)h as the Antono4 re4o.t 6Antono4sh)hina7 and other &easant re-e..ions sho1ed durin( the .ast moments o! the )i4i. 1ar0 and a!ter its o!!i)ia. endin(0 the &easantr+ !ou(ht the ,o.she4iks Duite !ier)e.+2 As .ate as "><=/" the ,o.she4iks sti.. seemed to -e in o&&osition to the ma%orit+ o! the so)ia. (rou&s in the )ountr+2 '4entua..+0 the &easants -e)ame a most im&ortant tar(et !or ,o.she4ik )+ni)ism0 an indi)ator o! 1hi)h are the .ar(e/s)a.e !amines that 1i&ed out mi..ions o! &easantsP the ,o.she4iks did not do a (reat dea. to &re4ent these0 -ut instead e5&.oited them !or &o.iti)a. &ur&oses2 In the !amine o! ">?? a.one an estimated B2C mi..ion
?? ?4 ?@ ?B
Ri)hard Wortman0 Scenarios o$ Power! yth and Ceremony in #ussian 68rin)etonP 8rin)eton 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>@70 4o.2 I0 4=B2 ,orkenau0 0orld Communism0 ?4/@2 Haimson0 O3he 8ro-.em o! :o)ia. Identities;0 ">2 Eerro0 %a r4volution de *+*50 BC?/A@2
onarchy0 < 4o.s2
"<<
&eo&.e died2?C 3he ,o.she4iks; &ro-.em o! not re&resentin( an+ &arti)u.ar (rou& in Russian so)iet+ e5istentia..+ 1as to -e reso.4ed neither -+ a Onatura.; so)ia. a..ian)e nor -+ Lenin;s 4o.untarism2 Lenin;s renun)iation o! a 1ar o! nationa. .i-eration re!.e)ted the e5treme ideo.o(i)a. !ra(i.it+ o! the re(ime0 the indi!!eren)e o! the &eo&.e0 and the sma.. .ike.ihood o! sur4i4in( su)h an enter&rise2 8ermanent re4o.ution in one )ountr+ 3he trans!ormation !rom tsarist authoritarianism to the di)tatorshi& o! the &ro.etariat 1as a series o! )ata).+smi) e4ents in 1hi)h ,o.she4ik su))ess 1as not a !ore(one )on).usion2 3he Ee-ruar+ Re4o.ution &ro/ du)ed a !ier)e stru((.e !or &o.iti)a. authorit+0 1hi)h remained unreso.4ed due to dua./&o1er stru)tures2 3he coup d4tat o! O)to-er entai.ed the &ro(ressi4e eradi)ation o! a mu.ti&.i)it+ o! inde&endent )entres o! so)ia.0 &o.iti)a.0 and )u.tura. a)ti4it+2 A(ainst this -a)k(round0 the ,o.she4ik idea o! the 1itherin( a1a+ o! the state into a ).ass.ess so)iet+ seemed to -e .itt.e more than dema(o(uer+2 When he &u-.ished his treatise State and #evolution -e.ated.+ in s&rin( ">"A0 Lenin himse.! )riti)ised the &redi)tion o! the 1itherin( a1a+ o! the state as -ein( a 4io.ation o! histori)a. &ers&e)ti4e2 ?A Lenin a)kno1.ed(ed that the materia. )onditions !or so)ia.ism in Russia 1ere .a)kin(0 and su&&orted a radi)a. turn a1a+ !rom &ast e5&erien)e -+ &romisin( the )reation o! a ne1 humanit+0 a ne1 man0 and a -ri(ht !uture2 ?> Constant mo-i.isation o! so)iet+ -e)ame the )entra. !eature o! ,o.she4ik &o1er2 Leninism 1as a &o.iti)a. te)hniDue o! modernisation in the name o! &o.iti)a. de4e.o&ment and 1as -ased on the a-so.ute su&rema)+ o! the re4o.utionar+ &art+0 1hi)h made the ,o.she4iks )a&a-.e not on.+ o! )entra.isin( &o1er -ut a.so o! e5&andin( it2 4= Ea)ed 1ith the immediate )ha..en(e o! )i4i. 1ar and the dauntin( task o! ad%ustin( ideo.o(i)a. demands to so)ia. rea.ities0 mo-i.isation 1as a )entra. means o! main/ tainin( &o1er as :o4iet )ommunism re.ied u&on a .o1 de(ree o! !orma. institutiona.isation2 State and #evolution 1as 1ritten in the summer o! ">"C0 in a &eriod o! dee& disorientation and 1ith a 4ie1 to &ro4idin( a theoreti)a. -asis !or
?C ?A ?> 4=
FrI+sIto! 8omian0 OAnato.i Vi)hne4ski2 La !au)i..e et .e rou-.e;0 %e D43at0 "=C 6">>>70 @>2 :)ha&iro0 The /rigin o$ the Communist Autocracy0 ?@"2 :ee Ri)hard :ak1a0 The #ise and 'all o$ the Soviet :nion *+*5-*++* 6London and Me1 YorkP Rout.ed(e0 ">>>70 "@</?2 :amue. 82 Huntin(ton0 Political /rder in Changing Societies 6Me1 Ha4en and LondonP Ya.e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">BA70 ??4/4?2
"<?
so.4in( the &ra)ti)a. &ro-.em o! re&resentation2 A.thou(h his &ra)ti)a. &o.iti)a. a)tion turned Mar5 on his head0 Lenin;s 1ritin( attem&ted to retain Mar5;s )entra. &oint a-out the destru)tion o! 4ast ineDua.ities o! &o1er2 Lenin adum-rated the Mar5ist ).aim a-out the 1itherin( a1a+ o! o&&ressi4e &o1er and the state0 &romotin( the &ost/re4o.utionar+ so)iet+ as &o.iti)a..+ e(a.itarian2 Yet0 ho1 )ou.d a do1n/to/earth and shre1d &o.iti)ian .ike Lenin -e.ie4e in the !easi-i.it+ o! ru.in( .ar(e i..iterate masses throu(h a dire)t demo)ra)+ and 1orkers; )ontro.Q Indeed0 the treatise is marked -+ the )ons&i)uous in)om&ati-i.it+ o! a di)tatoria. re(ime and its seemin(.+ demo)rati) tenor2 3here seems to ha4e -een a &arado5 in Lenin;s 1ritin(s due to his h+&noti) !aith in u.timate harmon+0 1hi)h 1as the root o! the ).aim that di)tatorshi& 1as on.+ a transitiona. &hase2 Mar5;s theoreti)a. assum&tions a-out a ).ass.ess so)iet+ and Lenin;s ideas a-out a di)tatorshi& o! the &ro.etariat 1ere at odds 1ith the nature o! so)ia. re.ations2 3heir messianism made them -.ind to the !a)t that the sour)es o! o&&ression su!!ered -+ 1orkers arose not !rom men0 nor !rom institutions0 -ut !rom the 4er+ me)hanism o! so)ia. re.ations2 Mar5;s )ontradi)tion )onsisted in assumin( that the !a)tors o! o&&ression0 so ).ose.+ -ound u& 1ith the a)tua. me)hanism o! so)ia. re.ations0 1ou.d sudden.+ disa&&ear in the )ourse o! re4o.ution2 4" Ho1 )ou.d the 1orkers in )onditions o! e5&.oitation o! manua. .a-our0 sa)ri!i)ed to .i!e.ess ma)hiner+ and to the o4era.. o-%e)ti4e o! &rodu)tion0 -e more than mere )o(sQ Ho1 )ou.d the+ -e)ome the Oru.in( ).ass;Q 3his )an on.+ make sense i! one a))e&ts the messiani) 4ision o! a 4an(uard &art+ as the e5&ression o! the true 1i.. o! the &eo&.e and a)tin( as an instrument o! histor+2 In this 4ie10 the Omessiani) 4ision 1as not an a!terthou(ht and an e5)use2 It 1as the &oint o! de&arture2; 4< #evolutionary terror ,o.she4ism as a mi..enarian mo4ement &romised redem&tion in a terres/ tria. and )o..e)ti4e dimension2 3he most outstandin( !eature o! sa.4a/ tion0 ho1e4er0 is the !a)t that it is not attained -+ rationa..+ a&&ro&riate means0 -ut is -esto1ed in a redem&ti4e )atastro&he2 Mas)ent :o4iet so)iet+ 1as re)urrent.+ u&rooted -+ disasters su)h as the )i4i. 1ar0 dem/ o(ra&hi) .osses0 the terror a(ainst &o.iti)a. enemies and the )hur)h0 and !amines2 8o.iti)a. re&ression and terror not on.+ entai.ed a hu(e0 a.-eit
4" 4<
:imone Wei.0 /ppression and %i3erty 6LondonP Rout.ed(e0 <=="70 "?A/4B2 Ja)o- L2 3a.mon0 The /rigins o$ Totalitarian Democracy 6LondonP :e)ker X War-ur(0 ">@<704<42
"<4
undetermined0 num-er o! human deaths0 -ut a.so -rou(ht a-out a dee& re)rudes)en)e in terms o! torture and a-so.ute )ontem&t !or human .i!e24? Hatred and terror -e)ame !undamenta. to )ommunist state/ !ormation0 as )ommunist te)hniDues o! so)ia. )ontro. and &o1er main/ tenan)e entai.ed an interna.isation o! 4io.en)e2 44 An im&ortant o-%e)t o! )ontention in the historio(ra&h+ o! :o4iet )ommunism )on)erns the roots o! the 3error24@ 3here is (ood reason to assume that the Hreat 3error o! the mid/">?=s 1as a )ru)ia. )om&onent o! :ta.in;s Ore4o.ution !rom a-o4e;0 1hi)h disru&ted a :o4iet 9nion that a&&eared to -e su))ess!u. and so)iet+ that 1as )onsidered to -e )a.m and sta-i.ised2 4B 3he .a1/ .essness in :o4iet Russia0 ho1e4er0 did not start 1ith the sho1 tria.s -et1een ">?B and ">?A0 -ut )an -e tra)ed -a)k at .east to the tria.s a(ainst the )hur)h and the :o)ia.ist Re4o.utionaries in the ear.+ "><=s24C Erom ">"C on1ards0 the Russian state 1as &ro(ressi4e.+ su-/ ordinated to an e5&andin( 4io.ent &art+ re(ime that &er!ormed a s+stem/ ati) assau.t on histor+0 .a10 and human di(nit+2 As the &ersona. and ideo.o(i)a. herita(e o! the re4o.utionar+ e5&erien)e remained a serious threat0 :ta.in;s Ore4o.ution !rom a-o4e; 1as not an a))ident -ut a ne)es/ sar+ ste& in order to -.ame some-od+ !or the o-4ious de!e)ts o! so)ia.ism2 3he Red 3error 1as not a re.u)tant res&onse -ut a &ro&h+.a)ti) meas/ ure desi(ned to dro1n an+ thou(ht o! resistan)e to the di)tatorshi&2 3his O&ro&h+.a)ti); destru)tion o! o&&osition !or)es 1as a.so at the heart o! the .ar(e/s)a.e enter&rise o! )o..e)ti4isation -et1een "><A and ">?<2 ,+ means o! a ruth.ess atta)k a(ainst &otentia. &easant .eaders su)h as the ku.aks0 -+ -reakin( .atera. ties -et1een and inside 4i..a(es0 and -+ su)/ )ess!u..+ disru&tin( the &easants; re&ertoire o! )ontention0 the ,o.she4ik &art+ &re4ented an+ kind o! a .ar(e/s)a.e re-e..ion su)h as in "><" to o))ur24A With the notion o! Oku.ak;0 a so)ia. stratum that had disa&&eared durin( the re4o.ution 1as turned into a s+m-o.i) marker o! an enem+2 4> ,e!ore ">"C Oku.aks; re!erred to those re.ati4e.+ !e10 miser.+0 and
4? 44 4@
4B 4C 4A 4>
Mi)o.as Werth0 OA :tate A(ainst Its 8eo&.e;0 in :tV&hane Courtois et a.20 eds20 The 8lack 8ook o$ Communism 6Cam-rid(e0 MAP Har4ard 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>A70 ??/<BA2 Arno Ma+er0 The 'uries! >iolence and Terror in the 'rench and #ussian #evolutions 68rin)etonP 8rin)eton 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <===72 A))ordin( to Ro+ Med4ede4 6 %et 2istory Gudge 6Me1 YorkP Vinta(e ,ooks0 ">C?770 me)hanisms o! terror su)h as torture 1ere introdu)ed -+ :ta.in2 A(ainst su)h a 4ie10 see A.e5ander :o.Ihenits+n0 The 1ulag Archipelago! An "xperiment in %iterary Investigation0 4o.s2 I and II0 trans2 !rom the Russian -+ 3homas 82 Whitne+ 6,ou.derP West4ie1 8ress0 ">>A72 Ro-ert ConDuest0 The 1reat Terror 6LondonP Ma)mi..an0 ">B>70 <CC2 :o.Ihenits+n0 The 1ulag Archipelago0 ??4/BC2 J2C2 :harman0 #epression and #esistance in Communist "urope 6London and Me1 YorkP Rout.ed(eCurIon0 <==?70 4</BC2 :o.Ihenits+n0 The 1ulag Archipelago0 @@2
"<@
dishonest rura. traders 1ho enri)hed themse.4es throu(h usur+ rather than throu(h their o1n .a-our2 A!ter ">"C0 not on.+ had the re4o.ution tota..+ destro+ed the -asis o! their a)ti4ities0 -ut a.so0 -+ a trans!er o! meanin(0 the name Oku.ak; had -e(un to -e a&&.ied to a.. those 1ho in an+ 1a+ hired 1orkers0 e4en i! it 1as on.+ 1hen the+ 1ere tem&orari.+ short o! 1orkin( hands in their o1n !ami.ies2 3he -i( )am&ai(ns o! )o..e)ti4isa/ tion and industria.isation met 1ith -road )onsent in so)iet+ -e)ause :ta.in;s &resti(e had -een !or(ed throu(h a )are!u..+ &re&ared )u.t o! &ersona.it+0 1hi)h a)hie4ed a Osu-%u(ation o! the s&irit; and mo-i.ised su&&ort !or :ta.in;s measures !ar -e+ond the -ureau)rati) )aste2 @= Co..e)ti4isation 1as &re)eded -+ the e.e4ation o! his &ersona.it+ to su&reme (uide on the o))asion o! the t1e.!th anni4ersar+ o! the O)to-er Re4o.ution2@" :ear)hin( !or enemies de4e.o&ed !rom a method o! &uri!i)ation and s)reenin( inside the &art+ to1ards the o4era.. &ur(e in the Hreat 3error2 @< Mar5ists ha4e ar(ued !or the irrationa.it+ o! :ta.in;s &ur(es0 1hi)h &er/ 4erted the re4o.ution -+ e5&osin( an+-od+ in so)iet+ to une5&e)ted arrest or e5e)ution as a traitor2 Yet this &ur(in( 1as the )entra. me)hanism that ensured the ,o.she4isation o! so)iet+ and ke&t the 4an(uard &art+ in &o1er2 3his &s+)ho.o(+ o! re4o.utionar+ terror turned the O&ermanent &ur(e; into a O)om&.e5 and d+nami) instrument o! &o1er;0 an inherent te)hniDue o! (o4ernment s&e)i!i) to :o4iet tota.itarianism2 @? 3he rea.ist as&e)t o! 4io.ent destru)tion in the .o(i) o! )ontinuous 1ar!are &romoted the sa)ri!i)ia. .o(i) o! the identi!i)ation o! the enem+2 In his no4e. %i$e and 'ate0 Vasi.+ Hrossmann des)ri-ed ho1 )ommunist re(imes &re&ared &o&u.ations !or mass murder throu(h !renIied )am&ai(ns Oto stir u& !ee.in(s o! rea. hatred and re&u.sion;2 As a )onseDuen)e0 Othe 4io.en)e o! a tota.itarian state is so (reat as to -e no .on(er a means to an end2 It -e)omes an o-%e)t o! m+sti)a. 1orshi& and adoration2; @4 In su)h a 4ie10 the &ur(es assume an e5&ansi4e tenden)+0 kee&in( &art+ mem-ers and .eaders a.ike in a )ondition o! !ear o! annihi.ation2 Eor a .on( time historians and so)ia. s)ientists ha4e !a4oured a -inar+ 4ie10 1hi)h sa1 the esta-.ishment o! the Cheka either as a &rima)+ o! &o.iti)a. 1i.. or as a )onseDuen)e o! so)ia. &ressure2 Rather than assumin(
@=
@" Heo!!re+ @< @? @4
C.aude Le!ort0 %a complication2 #etour sur le communisme 68arisP Ea+ard0 ">>>70 "@B/A2 Hoskin(0 The 'irst Socialist Society! A 2istory o$ the Soviet :nion $rom 0ithin 6Cam-rid(e0 MAP Har4ard 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>=70 <">/<=2 Fotkin0 agnetic ountain0 <>A/??<2 N-i(nie1 ,rIeIinski0 The Permanent Purge! Politics in Soviet Totalitarianism 6Cam-rid(e0 MAP Har4ard 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">@B70 >/"<2 Tuoted in A--ot H.eason0 TotalitarianismP The Inner 2istory o$ the Cold 0ar 6O5!ordP O5!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>@70 <"<2
"<B
that the Cheka terror 1as dire)ted O!rom a-o4e;0 ho1e4er0 it seems that it 1as e5treme.+ de)entra.ised in its ear.+ &hase2 3he terror had a dou-.e -asis in so)ia. 4io.en)e and in the ,o.she4iks; stru((.e !or )onso.idation o! &o1er2 It seems Duite &.ausi-.e that the ,o.she4iks / a.thou(h the+ a)ti4e.+ &romoted the terror / 1ere )onsidera-.+ in!.uen)ed -+ the a(i/ tated masses2 Ha&haIard )oa.ition/makin( -et1een the ,o.she4iks and im&ortant so)ia. (rou&s su)h as the &easantr+ or the 1orkers re!.e)ted the )ontradi)tions -et1een the Mar5ist/Leninist do)trine and the &ra)ti)a. )onseDuen)es o! a coup d4tat2 A1are o! their status as a se)tarian mo4e/ ment0 the ,o.she4iks used te)hniDues o! in)itin( the masses -ut 1ere0 simu.taneous.+0 a.so in!.uen)ed -+ the )ro1d &s+)ho.o(+ o! in)i&ient mass &o.iti)s2 In man+ 1a+s0 the .eaders o! the &art+ 1ere &ushed -+ the same a(itated )ro1ds0 1hi)h the+ ).umsi.+ and des&erate.+ tried to kee& do1n2@@ Moreo4er0 the atmos&here o! the )i4i. 1ar %usti!ied the terror0 1hi)h 1as a))e&ted -+ the di!!erent !a)tions su)h as Le!t )ommunists0 the *emo)rati) Centra.ists0 and the 1orkers; o&&osition as essentia. !or their sur4i4a.2@B Eo..o1in( the assau.t on the 4i..a(es0 the ,o.she4iks turned a(ainst the )hur)h in order to seiIe its 1ea.th to meet &o.iti)a. and e)onomi) needs o! the re(ime2 @C A))ordin( to Ee.iks *IerIhinsk+0 the Cheka terror on.+ )hanne..ed and stru)tured the hatred a))umu.ated a(ainst its o&&ressors -+ the re4o.utionar+ &ro.etarian ).asses throu(hout )enturies2@A As re)ent 1ork on the Eren)h and the Russian Re4o.utions has ar(ued0 re4o.utionar+ 4io.en)e is inherent.+ .inked to the )ha..en(es o! )ounter/ re4o.ution2@> In Russia0 ho1e4er0 there is e4iden)e that the Red 3error 1as esta-.ished in *e)em-er ">"C not so mu)h as a rea)tion a(ainst )ounter/re4o.utionar+ a)ti4ities0 sin)e at that &oint there 1as no serious or(anised resistan)e2 Rather0 re4o.utionar+ 4io.en)e )an -e seen as the )onseDuen)e o! the a1areness that a minorit+ (rou& )ou.d not do other/ 1ise i! the+ 1ere to sta+ in &o1er2 3error 1as not the essen)e o! or the sine 7ua non !or the esta-.ishment o! )ommunism -ut rather 1as ne)essar+ to make the unrea. and a-surd rea.2 It 1as ne)essar+ to hide a1a+ the essen)e o! ,o.she4ismR rather than aimin( at )reati4e &o1er !or the &ur&ose o! &ea)e!u. re)onstru)tion o! so)iet+0 it used !or)e !or the sake o! -.indin( &eo&.e to its a)tua. intentions o! trans!ormin( human
@@ @B @C @A
3)hakhotine0 %e viol des $oules0 ??<2 :)ha&iro0 The /rigin o$ Communist Autocracy0 ?@"2 ,o.es.a1 :I)Iesniak0 ed20 The #ussian #evolution and #eligion 6Motre *ameP 9ni4ersit+ o! Motre *ame 8ress0 ">@>72 Ei(es0 A Peoples Tragedy0 @?@2
@>
Ma+er0 The 'uries2
"<C
re.ations a))ordin( to a uto&ian and !anati) -e.ie! and to a4ert &ossi-.e dissiden)e !rom it2 3he so)ia. u&hea4a.s in the "><=s and ">?=s .e!t a remarka-.e and dura-.e im&a)t on demo(ra&h+0 industr+0 ur-an .i!e0 and a(ri)u.ture2 :ta.in;s Ore4o.ution !rom a-o4e; trans!ormed a rura. )ountr+0 1here on the e4e o! the Eirst Wor.d War -et1een A= and A@ &er )ent o! the Russian &o&u.ation .i4ed in the )ountr+side0 into a )ountr+ o! ur-an )entres 1here0 in ">>=0 BB &er )ent o! the &o&u.ation .i4ed2 3he :o4iet industria. re4o.ution resu.ted in a O)ar &u..ed -+ a horse;0 1hi.e the ur-an re4o.ution .ed to O)ities 1ithout )itiIens;2 B= 3he ra&id so)ia. en(ineerin( -rou(ht a-out the rura.isation o! the )ities2 A 4ie1 on the longue dur4e o! so)ia. -urdens in &ost/re4o.utionar+ Russia su((ests !or the &eriod -et1een ">"C and "><< a.one a&&ro5imate.+ "<2C mi..ion &remature deaths due to the )i4i. 1ar0 !amines0 and e&idemi)s2 B" In addition0 at .east C2@ mi..ion 6>2A mi..ion a))ordin( to most re)ent estimates7 &eo&.e died as a )ause o! the !amine and o! terror -et1een ">?A2 Eor the &eriod -et1een ">?> and ">@?0 <<2@ to <B2@ mi..ion dead are estimated2 B< 3hese num/ -ers are a.. the more si(ni!i)ant i! one re.ates this demo(ra&hi) )o..a&se to the &o&u.ation (ro1th in the +ears immediate.+ &re)edin( the Eirst Wor.d War0 1hen the e5)ess o! -irths o4er deaths in Russia as a 1ho.e 1as at the &rodi(ious rate o! < mi..ion &er annum2 B? Eurthermore0 these !i(ures te.. on.+ ha.! o! the stor+0 sin)e under norma. )onditions the &o&u.ation 1ou.d ha4e in)reased2B4 In short0 &ost/re4o.utionar+ so)ia. and demo(ra&hi) )onditions mi(ht -e (ras&ed in t1o meta&hors that e5&ress the .imina. )ondition -et1een &ast and &resent0 -et1een the modernisin( &ro%e)t and the &ains to .ea4e the &ast -ehind2 3he 4io.ent so)ia. and e)onomi) restru)turin( o! the .ate "><=s and the ear.+ ">?=s di!!ered !rom the 1a4es o! so)ia. u&hea4a. in the t1entieth )entur+ on.+ in kind0 not in &rin)i&.e2 3he im&ortant mass &rotests o! 1orkers in "A>=0 -et1een ">=4 and ">=C0 in ">"<0 ">"C and ">">0 in "><A0 and in ">?< and ">4" a..o1 the re.ati4isation o! the a-so.ute ru&ture o! ">"C2 Mar)h "><" 1as not eDui4a.ent to the restora/ tion o! )i4i. &ea)e0 and deku.akisation 1as not .imited to "><> and ">?=0 1hereas the !amines o! ">?< and ">?4 1ere0 !or the masses0 mu)h more
B= B" B< B? B4
8omian0 OAnato.i Vi)hne4ski;0 @4/B=2 8i&es0 #ussia :nder the 8olshevik #egime *+*+-*+A@0 @=A/>2 Tuoted in 8omian0 OAnato.i Vi)hne4ski;0 @>/B=2 Fe+nes0 The "conomic Conse7uences o$ the Peace0 A2 8ro%e)tions -+ Russian statisti)ians indi)ate that in "><< the &o&u.ation shou.d ha4e num-ered more than "B= mi..ion rather than "?@ mi..ionR see 8i&es0 #ussia :nder the 8olshevik #egime *+*+-*+A@0 @=A/>2
"<A
terri-.e than the &eak o! the Hreat 3error in ">?C2 B@ Ear !rom -ein( )onso.idated u& to .ate ">?=0 the re(ime;s sur4i4a. throu(h the an5ious &eriod o! the ear.+ ">?=s 1as seen -+ man+ )ommunists as 4i)tor+0 &erha&s e4en a mira).e2BB 3his &ersistent un)ertaint+ &art.+ e5&.ains 1h+ the &eriod/ isation o! the re4o.ution has remained Duite )ontested0 makin( it &ossi-.e to e5tend the re4o.utionar+ &eriod u& to the .ate ">?=s2 BC Yet0 the -i( u&hea4/ a.s o! industria.isation and )o..e)ti4isation are not enou(h e4iden)e to a..o1 us to )onsider :o4iet so)iet+ as a hi(h.+ mo-i.ised so)iet+2 I! )om&ared to the e5u-eran)e o! so)ia. .i!e in Western so)ieties0 its institutions rather su((est the e5isten)e o! a -.o)ked so)iet+ 1ith an+ mo4ement de&endent on )ontro. -+ and &ermission !rom the &art+2 Situational reality and Kunintended conse7uences Rather than dismissin( serious &o.i)+ !ai.ures o! the &ost/">"C &eriod as Ounintended )onseDuen)es;0 the &ro!ound misa&&rehensions o! ,o.she4ik .eadershi& 1ith re(ard to the initia. re4o.utionar+ (oa.s .aid -are the initia. s&iritua.it+ o! a &o.iti)a. re.i(ion2 Re4o.utionar+ messianism and &erma/ nent re4o.ution are )om&.ementar+0 not at odds 1ith ea)h other2 Most im&ortant.+0 the &ermanent re4o.ution in terms o! the e5tension o! :o4iet &o1er a.. o4er the 1or.d0 1hi)h 1as )onsidered as indis&ensa-.e to maintain &o1er in Russia0 did not o))ur2 Eurthermore0 the &art+ or(an/ isation -e)ame hea4i.+ -ureau)ratised0 a &ro)ess that a&&a..ed Lenin2 Eina..+0 the e)onomi) de4e.o&ment in the !irst )ou&.e o! +ears a!ter the re4o.ution 1as disastrous2 In a.. three areas0 Lenin;s mis%ud(ements 1ere not sim&.+ &ersona. errors -ut re!.e)ted ho1 the )on!usion o! the re4o.u/ tionar+ )on%un)ture -e)ame a mode. !or the &art+;s (o4ernmenta. &ra)/ ti)e2BA Lenin;s sudden and un!oreseen )han(es in &o.i)+ -e1i.dered his !o..o1ers2 Mot on.+ did he sudden.+0 in A&ri. ">"C0 a-andon the idea o! t1o orthodo5 &hases o! re4o.ution2 He a.so %ettisoned the &romise o! re4o.utionar+ 1ar in !a4our o! an immediate &ea)e on an+ terms in Mar)h ">"A0 thus introdu)in( the idea o! Oso)ia.ism in one )ountr+; .on( -e!ore :ta.in2 A1are o! the in)reasin( threat o! a )i4i. 1ar0 Lenin o&ted !or this &remature &ea)e 1ith Herman+ at ,rest/Lito4sk at the e5&ense o! the .oss o! sensiti4e territories2B> :imi.ar.+0 ,o.she4ik &o1er
B@ BC BA B> BB
:ee Werth0 OA :tate A(ainst its 8eo&.e;2 EitI&atri)k0 The #ussian #evolution0 "@?2 EitI&atri)k0 The #ussian #evolution0 ?/42 :)ha&iro0 The /rigin o$ Communist Autocracy0 ?4>2 ,e+ond territoria. .osses o! 8o.and0 the ,a.ti) )ountries0 and 9kraine0 Russia .ost a&&ro5imate.+ ?4 &er )ent o! its &o&u.ation0 ?< &er )ent o! its ara-.e .and0 @4 &er )ent o! its industria. &.ants0 and A> o! its )oa. minesR see J2 Whee.er/,ennett0 8rest-%itovsk! The 'orgotten Peace 6Me1 YorkP W2W2 Morton0 ">?A70 2
"<>
did not a)hie4e demo)rati) .e(itima)+ -+ means o! e.e)tions in 1orkers; )oun)i.s and the so4ietsR !ina..+0 the sudden s1it)h !rom 1ar )ommunism to the Me1 ')onomi) 8o.i)+ )ame une5&e)ted.+ to man+2 Con4in)ed o! the re4o.utionar+ &otentia. o! the 1orkin( ).asses in other )ountries0 the ,o.she4iks re(arded the e5&ort o! their re4o.ution as a sine 7ua non !or the )ontinuit+ o! their &o1er2 C= With the tem&orar+ e5)e&tion o! Hun(ar+0 ho1e4er0 the histor+ o! the Communist Internationa. 1as a )om&.ete !ai.ure2C" 3he in)a&a)it+ o! ,o.she4ik .eadershi& to sense true so)ia. re.ationshi&s and their misre)o(nition o! )u.tura. and &s+)ho.o(i)a. !a)tors su)h as nationa. identit+0 !or instan)e0 -e)ame a&&arent in the 8o.ish/Russian 1ar o! "><=/"2 A.thou(h the 8o.es started the 1ar -+ in4adin( :o4iet 9kraine at the end o! A&ri. "><=0 re)ent e4iden)e indi/ )ates that the :o4iets mi(ht ha4e anti)i&ated them2 C< 3he .a)k o! rea.ism 1ithin the ,o.she4ik .eadershi& 1as demonstrated -+ their use o! 8o.and as a .aun)h&ad !or a (enera. assau.t on 1estern 'uro&e2 As -o.d as this &ro&osition seemed to -e0 its !ai.ure on.+ )on!irmed the insu!!i)ient )a&a)it+ o! ,o.she4ik .eadershi& to attra)t !orei(n masses !or the re4o.u/ tionar+ )ause2 In the a!termath o! the de!eat in autumn "><= and the humi.iatin( &ea)e treat+ o! Ri(a in Mar)h "><"0 1hen :o4iet Russia had to surrender territories .+in( 1e.. to the east o! the CurIon Line0 in).udin( Vi.nius and L4i40 Lenin;s &.an !or 1or.d re4o.ution -+ means o! mi.itar+ inter4ention 1as shattered2 Eurthermore0 Lenin underestimated the momentous )onseDuen)es o! his de)ision to maintain the unit+ o! the &art+ e4en at the risk o! -oth the o4er-ureau)ratisation o! the &art+;s .eadin( a&&aratus and its estran(ement !rom the rank and !i.e2 Whereas in State and #evolution Lenin had &redi)ted that under )ommunism there 1ou.d -e no -ureau)ra)+ at a..0 he had to a)kno1.ed(e -+ Januar+ ">"> that the a&&aratus had a.read+ -e)ome too .ar(e !or an+ one &erson to run2 In the on.+ re.ati4e.+ o&en and !air e.e)tions to the Constituent Assem-.+ in Januar+ ">"A0 the ,o.she4ik &art+ (ained a mere <4 &er )ent o! the 4ote0 -ein( outnum-ered -+ the :o)ia.ist Re4o.utionaries2 3heir .a)k o! &o&u.arit+ and the &ra)ti)a. need to )onso.idate their &o1er on a 4ast territor+ and a(ainst !oreseea-.e resistan)e in the )ountr+side !or)ed the sma.. (an( o! &ro!essiona. re4o.utionaries to seek a ra&id in)rease in &art+ mem-ershi&2 A))ordin(.+0 the tota. mem-ershi& o! the ,o.she4ik
C= C" C<
Heor(e E2 Fennan0 #ussia and the 0est :nder %enin and Stalin 6,oston and 3orontoP Litt.e0 ,ro1n and Com&an+0 ">B"70 BB2 :ee ,orkenau0 OWor.d Communism;0 >@/"??2 8i&es0 #ussia :nder the 8olshevik #egime *+*+-*+A@0 "C>/>?2
"?=
&art+ 1ou.d soar to more than B==0=== -+ "><=2 3his stee& rise in a-so.ute num-ers 1as a&t.+ )hara)terised as the ODui)k e4a&oration o! ori(ina. ,o.she4iks;2C? More si(ni!i)ant than the in)rease in num-ers is the )om&arison -et1een those ori(ina. mem-ers 1ho sta+ed on in the ,o.she4ik &art+ a!ter O)to-er ">"C2 Com&ared to the ori(ina. &art+ mem-ershi& o! <40=== in Ee-ruar+ ">"C0 the num-er o! ori(ina. mem/ -ers 1as redu)ed -+ ha.! 6to "<0===7 in "><< and dro&&ed e4en !urther0 to A0===0 in "><C2 Whi.e there 1as a &o.iti)a. as&e)t to inner &art+ &ur(es0 there 1as a.so a so)ia. oneP the+ aimed to Dui)k.+ and dis&ro&ortionate.+ &romote neo/ ,o.she4iks o! rura. ori(in2 In su-stan)e0 ho1e4er0 the -ureau)ratisation o! the &art+ and the state 1as a.so re.ated to a .oss in Dua.it+2 3he mem-ers; edu)ationa. .e4e. 1as e5)eedin(.+ .o1 and not )ommensurate 1ith their res&onsi-i.ities and authorit+2 *isma+ed 1ith this !ata. de4e.o&ment0 at the end o! his .i!e Lenin )a..ed Russia a 1orkers; state 1ith -ureau)rati) distortions0 a)kno1.ed(in( that the -ureau)rati) ma)hine 1as dire)tin( the )ommunist &art+2C4 3he trans!ormation o! &o.iti)a. and e)onomi) stru)tures / su)h as the e5&eriments o! 1ar )ommunism0 the nationa.isation o! the means o! &rodu)tion0 the a-o.ition o! &ri4ate trade0 the e.imination o! mone+0 and the introdu)tion o! !or)ed .a-our / .e!t Russia;s e)onom+ in a sham/ -.es2 Com&ared to ">"?0 .ar(e/s)a.e industria. &rodu)tion in "><= and "><" had !a..en -+ A< &er )ent0 1hereas 1orker &rodu)ti4it+ had de)reased -+ C4 &er )ent and the &rodu)tion o! )erea.s -+ 4= &er )ent2 3he demo/ (ra&hi) .oss !rom ur-an )entres due to !ood shorta(es 1as enormous0 as 8etro(rad .ost C= &er )ent o! its &o&u.ation and Mos)o1 o4er @= &er )ent2 Workers; rea. 1a(es de).ined to one/third o! the .e4e. o! ">"?/"42C@ 3he un!u.!i..ed e5&e)tations 1ere most e4ident in the !ai.ure to restru)ture the e)onom+2 Rather than an e)onomi) &ro/ (ramme0 1ar )ommunism %usti!ied the disastrous )onseDuen)es o! e)o/ nomi) e5&erimentation -+ the a..e(ed e5i(en)ies o! the )i4i. 1ar and !orei(n inter4ention2 War )ommunism0 there!ore0 )an -e )onsidered not %ust as a res&onse to the )i4i. 1ar -ut must a.so -e seen as a &arti/ )u.ar means o! )onstru)tin( )ommunist so)iet+ -+ makin( and )onti/ nuin( )i4i. 1ar2CB
C? C4
C@ CB
Eerro0 %a r4volution de *+*50 ACC/A2 V.adimir I2 Lenin0 O8o.iti)a. Re&ort o! the Centra. Committee o! the Russian Communist 8art+;0 in Collected 0orks0 4@ 4o.s20 4o.2 UUUIII 6Mos)o1P 8ro(ress 8u-.ishers0 ">B@70 <?C/4<2 8i&es0 #ussia :nder the 8olshevik #egime *+*+-*+A@0 C"2 Ei(es0 A Peoples Tragedy0 B"</"@2
"?"
In "><@0 3rotsk+ em&hasised that the de)isi4e as&e)t a-out mo4in( to1ards so)ia.ism 1as s&eed2CC On.+ i! the s&eed o! de4e.o&ment o! state industr+ and trade in )om&arison to &ri4ate )a&ita. 1as hi(h enou(h )ou.d a &ositi4e re.ationshi& in !a4our o! so)ia.ist !or)es -e ensured2 Yet the most im&ortant !a)tor 1as the re.ationshi& -et1een the s&eed o! the de4e.o&/ ment o! :o4iet e)onom+ and that o! the 1or.d e)onom+2 A))ordin( to 3rotsk+0 it 1ou.d -e an e5traordinar+ su))ess i! the :o4iet e)onom+ not on.+ Duantitati4e.+ -ut a.so Dua.itati4e.+ attained the &re/1ar .e4e.2 Most si(ni!i)ant.+0 he ar(ued that this su))ess 1ou.d -e the startin( &oint !rom 1hi)h to .aun)h the e)onomi) )om&etition 1ith 1or.d )a&ita.2 3he disaster o! ,rest/Lito4sk is usua..+ seen as the end o! the O&erma/ nent re4o.ution;0 1hi)h &rom&ted Lenin to !o)us on the )onso.idation o! &o1er0 on so)ia.ism in one )ountr+2 3he &o1er stru((.e -et1een :ta.in and 3rotsk+ 1as s+m-o.ised as the anta(onism -et1een so)ia.ism in one )ountr+ and &ermanent re4o.ution as ideo.o(i)a. !ormu.as !or the de4e.o&/ ment o! )ommunism2 Yet the si(ni!i)ant dis&ro&ortion -et1een -ound/ .ess re4o.utionar+ &romises and the &oor means a4ai.a-.e 1ou.d make )onstant u&rootin( o! so)ia. and e)onomi) .i!e the ru.e in the "><=s and ">?=s2 3he &s+)ho.o(+ o! ,o.she4ik .eaders .ed them to de.i-erate.+ kee& so)iet+ in a &ermanent state o! )on!usion2 3his is &ro-a-.+ -est )a&tured in 3rotsk+;s theor+ o! the &ermanent re4o.ution0 1hi)h re4ea.ed that the re4o.utionaries intended to kee& so)iet+ un)onso.idated and in &ermanent u&hea4a.2CA 3he !irst &i..ar )onsisted in ).aimin( that the 1a+ to1ards demo)ra)+ 1as &re&ared -+ the di)tatorshi& o! the &ro.etariat2 3he se)ond as&e)t o! this theor+ )on)erned the so)ia.ist re4o.ution in its )onseDuen)es !or human re.ations2 It &uts !or1ard the need to resha&e a.. so)ia. re.ations throu(h )ontinuous stru((.e2 3hrou(h &o.iti)a. )on!.i)t0 i2e2 ).ashes -et1een di!!erent (rou&s o! the trans!ormin( so)iet+0 out-reaks o! )i4i. and e5terna. 1ars 1ou.d a.ternate 1ith &eriods o! &ea)e!u. re!orms2 3he essentia. &oint o! the &ermanen)e o! so)ia.ist re4o.ution 1as that )onstant re4ersa.s o! an+ !ie.d o! human e5isten)e 1ou.d &re4ent so)iet+ !rom a)hie4in( eDui.i-rium2 3he third e.ement &ostu.ated the internationa.ist )hara)ter o! the re4o.ution0 ).aimin( that a &ro.etarian re4o.ution in one )ountr+ )ou.d on.+ -e &ro4isiona. and 1ou.d ine4ita-.+ -e threatened 1ith !ai.ure due to (ro1in( interna. )on/ tradi)tions un.ess )arried a-road0 &re!era-.+ to more ad4an)ed )ountries2
CC
CA
Leon 3rotsk+0 Denk)ettel( Politische "r$ahrungen im Ceitalter der permanenten #evolution0 ed2 Isaa) *euts)her0 Heor(e Mo4a)k and He.mut *ahmer 6Erank!urt am MainP :uhrkam&0 ">A"70 "@?2 Leon 3rotsk+0 Permanent #evolution and #esults and Prospects0 ?rd edn 6Me1 YorkP 8ath!inder0 ">B>70 "?</?2
"?<
3he arti)u.ation o! ,o.she4ik &o1er essentia..+ rein!or)ed me)hanisms o! so)ia. o&&ression -+ those institutions that 1ere &er&etuated 1ithout an+ (reater )han(e !rom the tsarist re(imeR the -ureau)ra)+0 the &o.i)e0 and the arm+2 3he rise o! O:o4iet demo)ra)+; and a O&ro.etarian di)tator/ shi&; keen on -ui.din( so)ia.ism turned out to -e neither demo)rati) nor so4iet0 -ut rather a state o! a tota.itarian -ureau)ra)+ intent on kee&in( the )ountr+ in &ermanent re4o.ution2 Ear -e+ond an i..usion or an ideo/ )rati) re(ime -ased on the hatred o! the -our(eoisie0 the &ermanent re4o.ution sha&ed a ne1 O)i4i.isation; 1ith ne1 &ra)ti)es and 4a.ues2 A.thou(h :o4iet )ommunism re.ied u&on )ontem&t !or &ersona. di(nit+ and !reedom and in!.i)ted a .ar(e num-er o! )atastro&hes on the &o&u.a/ tion0 it 1as a.so a hu(e enter&rise in so)ia. en(ineerin( and meanin(/ !ormation2 Totalitarian democracy Hi4en Lenin;s )ontem&t !or &ar.iamentar+ demo)ra)+ and the mono&o/ .isti) ru.e o! the ,o.she4ik &art+0 it has -een 1ide.+ a(reed that the di)tatorshi& o! the &ro.etariat su&&ressed an+ kind o! meanin(!u. demo)/ ra)+ as a )onstitutiona. !orm o! (o4ernment2 C> :u)h a 4ie1&oint under/ em&hasises the a!!init+ -et1een so)ia.ism and demo)ra)+ &rior to the a-o.ition o! tsarism2 It 1ou.d hard.+ ha4e o))urred to an+ o-ser4ers in .ate ">"B to dis&ute the so)ia.ists; ).aim to -e.on( to the Odemo)rati) ).u-;2 A= A.thou(h the so)ia. )onditions o! the Russian Re4o.ution e5).uded the ad4ent o! a .i-era. !orm o! demo)ra)+0 re4o.utionar+ ,o.she4ism ).aimed to -e the hi(hest !orm o! demo)ra)+2 It did this on the (rounds o! &resentin( )ommunism as a ).ass.ess so)iet+ -ased on the ru.e o! an a../ em-ra)in( ma%orit+0 the entire so)iet+2A" 3he re4o.utionar+ )on%un)ture dee&.+ a!!e)ted the 4ia-i.it+ o! demo)/ ra)+ as a &o.iti)a. )on)e&t0 as meanin(s o! the 1ord in Russian &o.iti)a. dis)ourse under1ent a &ro!ound trans!ormation2 Whi.e the term demokratiia in ear.+ ">"C 1as asso)iated 1ith a uni4ersa. &o.iti)a. )on)e&t0 it soon -e)ame an e5).usi4e so)ia. term0 1hi)h re!.e)ted the (ro1in( dom/ ination o! the idiom o! ).ass in ">"C2 3he )ru)ia. &oint is that0 at the re4o.utionar+ )on%un)ture0 the so)ia. understandin( o! the 1ord Odemo)/ ra)+; 1as not %ust dominant -ut di)tatoria.2 O*emo)ra)+; 1as a.most
C> A= A"
Mei. Hardin(0 O3he Mar5ist/Leninist *etour;0 in John *unn0 ed20 Democracy! The :n$inished Gourney 6O5!ordP O5!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">><70 "@@/AC2 Jose&h A2 :)hum&eter0 Capitalism& Socialism& and Democracy0 @th edn 6LondonP Heor(e A..en X 9n1in0 ">CB70 <?@2 :ee Mer.e Eainsod0 2ow #ussia Is #uled0 <nd en.ar(ed edn 6Cam-rid(e0 MAP Har4ard 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">B?70 "?>2
"??
e5).usi4e.+ understood to mean Othe )ommon &eo&.e; / and its o&&osite 1as not Odi)tatorshi&; -ut the O-our(eoisie; or indeed the 1ho.e o! &ri4/ i.e(ed so)iet+2 3his &e)u.iar / one mi(ht e4en sa+ re4o.utionar+ / inter/ &retation o! the 1ord Odemo)ra)+; a&&ears to ha4e stemmed !rom )ommon usa(eP demokratiia 1as &ra)ti)a..+ inter)han(ea-.e 1ith the notions o! narod 6the &eo&.e7 and trudiashchikhsia 6the 1orkers7 in the .an(ua(e o! the street2 A< In the understandin( o! the 1orkers and )om/ mon &eo&.e0 demo)ra)+ and so)ia. re4o.ution 1ere -oth dire)ted at the same (oa.0 1hi)h 1as the &o.iti)a. re%e)tion o! the O-our(eois; state2 3he in)reasin( ri!t -et1een so)ia. ).asses !a4oured so)ia. e5).usi4eness0 thus underminin( attem&ts -+ Russian demo)rati) .eaders to im&ose the idea.s o! "CA> on to the rea.ities o! ">"C2 3here 1as no rea. )u.tura. or so)ia. !oundation !or the .i-era. )on)e&tion o! demo)ra)+ in Russia0 at .east not in the midst o! a 4io.ent re4o.ution0 and the .i-era.s themse.4es 1ere am-i4a.ent a-out the need to address their messa(e to the ur-an masses2 3his 1as rein!or)ed -+ the 1eak -ond o! nationa. )ons)iousness in a )ountr+ 1here the im&eria. and state/)entred e5&ansion o! #ossiia 6asso/ )iated 1ith the territor+0 the mu.ti/nationa. em&ire0 the 'uro&ean (reat &o1er7 )ame at the e5&ense o! #us 6asso)iated 1ith hum-.e0 home.+0 sa)red0 and &o&u.ar72A? #ossiia u&rooted the Russian &eo&.e0 enti)ed them a1a+ !rom #us0 trans!ormed the &easant into a so.dier0 an or(aniser2 In man+ 1a+s0 #ossiia o-stru)ted the !.o1erin( o! #us0 i2e2 the -ui.din( o! an em&ire im&eded the !ormation o! a nation2 When the ,o.she4iks disso.4ed the Constituent Assem-.+ in ">"A0 the+ renoun)ed an+ attem&t to e.a-orate a )onstitution as a 1ritten do)ument2 In s&ite o! the )onstitutions o! ">"A0 "><40 and ">?B0 :o4iet &o1er )ontinued the sham )onstitutiona.ism o! tsarist Russia2 It -ased its &o1er on )onstitutiona. m+ths and the mira(e o! demo)rati) .e(itima)+ -ehind the ru.in( (rou& in the Frem.in2 A4 Ho1e4er0 it 1as not in a mere.+ di)tatoria. !ashion that the ,o.she4iks &assed o4er the resu.ts o! the e.e)tions to the Constituent Assem-.+0 1hi)h sho1ed them to -e in a ).ear minorit+ 1ith re(ard to the :o)ia.ist Re4o.utionaries2 A@ Rather0 Lenin .ooked !or ar(uments to %usti!+ this mo4e in terms o! demo)rati)
A< A? A4 A@
Ei(es and Fo.onitskii0 Interpreting the #ussian #evolution0 "<</42 Heo!!re+ Hoskin(0 #ussia! People and "mpire *<<A-*+*5 6LondonP Eontana 8ress0 ">>A70 5i52 Eainsod0 2ow #ussia Is #uled0 ?4>/A@2 3he resu.ts o! the e.e)tions to the Constituent Assem-.+ 1ereP on ?= Mo4em-er0 o! @<= e.e)ted de&uties0 "B" 1ere ,o.she4iks0 <BC :o)ia.ist Re4o.utionaries0 4" 9krainian :o)ia.ist Re4o.utionaries and Menshe4iks0 "@ Cadets0 ? Menshe4iks0 and ?? de&uties 6most.+ :o)ia.ist Re4o.utionaries7 !rom nationa. minorities2 :ee :er(e0 %an I de la r4volution russe0 "@<2
"?4
standards o! minorit+/ma%orit+ re.ations2 In a do)ument 1ritten in ">"> 1ith a 4ie1 to e5&.ainin( the disso.ution o! the Constituent Assem-.+0 Lenin a)kno1.ed(ed that the :o)ia.ist Re4o.utionaries and Menshe4iks to(ether had taken a&&ro5imate.+ B< &er )ent o! the 4ote0 1hi.e the ,o.she4iks had re)ei4ed on.+ <@ &er )ent2AB '4er+thin(0 ho1e4er0 de&ended on ho1 these num-ers 1ere read2 Whi.e the )ountr+side 4oted !or the :o)ia.ist Re4o.utionaries0 industria. )ities 4oted !or the ,o.she4iks2 A))ordin( to Lenin0 the &ro.etariat thus (ranted the ,o.she4iks the o4er1he.min( share o! their 4ote2 AC 3he ,o.she4iks a.so attra)ted the 4ote o! a&&ro5imate.+ ha.! o! the arm+0 in).udin( an o4er/ 1he.min( ma%orit+ amon( those arm+ mem-ers 1ho !ou(ht in the !ront .ines ).ose to the t1o )a&ita.sR the+ 1ere the most in!ormed and thus the most im&ortant in ,o.she4ik e+es2 AA Eor Lenin0 the in!.uen)e o! the modern &ro.etariat in so)iet+ seemed to -e in!inite.+ (reater than its a)tua. numeri)a. re&resentation 1ith re(ard to the tota. &o&u.ation2 He 1as &ersuaded that the &ro.etariat )ou.d (ain the 4otes o! the &easant masses on.+ a!ter ha4in( seiIed &o1er2 *es&ite the o&en hosti.it+ -et1een the ,o.she4iks and the :o)ia.ist Re4o.utionaries0 the .atter dire)t.+ and indire)t.+ su&&orted the !ormer2 A> :u)h shi!ts in identi!i)ation and a..e(ian)e are a.so re!.e)ted in the &o.i)+ and strate(ies &er!ormed -+ the Menshe4ik &art+ throu(hout ">"A2 >= Eor the Menshe4iks a Constituent Assem-.+ had -een a &rimar+ demand sin)e the Ee-ruar+ Re4o.ution2 It 1as s+non+mous 1ith an antidote to di)tatorshi& and terror a!ter its 4io.ent disso.ution -+ the ,o.she4iks in Januar+ ">"A2 Yet throu(hout ">"A a re4ision o! &art+ &o.i)+ took &.a)e main.+ under the &ressure o! shi!tin( a..e(ian)es and )oa.itions2 Man+ &art+ mem-ers de!e)ted to ,o.she4ism not on.+ !or ideo.o(i)a. and )areerist reasons2 3here 1ere (ro1in( dou-ts a-out the meanin( o! demo)ra)+ and a-out the need !or a Constituent Assem-.+ as an imme/ diate o-%e)ti4e2 3hese dou-ts 1ere .ar(e.+ e4oked -+ the !a)t that the e5isten)e o! a .e!tist ,o.she4ik (o4ernment &ushed the &osition o! the
AB AC AA
A> >=
:er(e0 %an I de la r4volution0 "@?/42 3he resu.ts in the t1o )a&ita.s 68etro(rad and Mos)o17 1ere as !o..o1sP Cadets @"@0=== 4otes0 :o)ia.ist Re4o.utionaries <"A0=== 4otes0 and ,o.she4iks A?C0=== 4otes2 3he 4ote in the arm+ 1as distri-uted as !o..o1sP :o)ia.ist/Re4o.utionaries "0AA@0=== 4otes0 Cadets @"0=== 4otes0 nationa. minorities C@B0=== 4otes0 and ,o.she4iks "0C>"0=== 4otes2 A))ordin( to Lenin0 the 4ote amon( arm+ mem-ers in the !ront .ines ).ose to the )a&ita. sho1ed a distri-ution o! "0===0=== 4otes !or the ,o.she4iks a(ainst on.+ 4<=0=== 4otes !or the :o)ia.ist/Re4o.utionaries 6:er(e0 %an I de la r4volution0 "@?72 8i&es0 Three 0hys0 @>/B=2 *a4id *a..in0 O3he Out-reak o! the Ci4i. War;0 in Leo&o.d Haimson0 ed20 The ensheviksP 'rom the #evolution o$ *+*5 to the Second 0orld 0ar 6Chi)a(o and LondonP 9ni4ersit+ o! Chi)a(o 8ress0 ">C470 "@B/>=2
"?@
Constituent Assem-.+ to the ri(ht2 'ssentia..+0 the Menshe4iks (a4e u& their demand !or a Constituent Assem-.+ and )han(ed their ori(ina. )on)e&t o! re4o.ution0 1hi)h had re.ied on a theor+ o! transition in a .on( e4o.utionar+ &ro)ess2 3he+ su&&orted the ,o.she4iks on Duite a !e1 Duestions0 su)h as the .i-eration o! Russian territor+ !rom !orei(n o))u&ation2 A(ainst the mono.ithi) thesis o! tota.itarianism0 :o4iet so)iet+ under Lenin and :ta.in sho1ed se4era. !orms o! autonom+2 A &ro4isiona. t+&o./ o(+ o! so)ieta. resistan)e ma+ in).ude !our domains2 >" 3he !irst re!ers to tem&orar+0 s&ontaneous0 and usua..+ not dura-.e moments o! )o..e)ti4e a)tion2 A)ti4e resistan)e 6soprotivlenie7 )om&rised0 !or instan)e0 the or(anised resistan)e a(ainst )o..e)ti4isation in the !irst ha.! o! ">?= and es&e)ia..+ the resistan)e a(ainst :o4ietisation in 9kraine and the ,a.ti) states -et1een ">4@ and ">4A2 3he se)ond t+&e o! resistan)e )on)erned 1hat 1as usua..+ )onsidered as insu-ordinate -eha4iour and de4ian)e 6stikhiinost72 3hese &ra)ti)es 1ere not so mu)h e.a-orate strate(ies aimed at a )om&.ete re%e)tion o! the s+stem -ut rather attem&ts to -+&ass )ontro.s im&osed -+ the re(ime in 4arious domains o! &o.iti)a.0 e)onomi)0 and so)ia. .i!e2 3he third t+&e )an -e )hara)terised as !.ed(.in( autonom+ o! o&inion2 It &arti)u.ar.+ a!!e)ted industria. 1orkers 1ho -e)ame &ro/ (ressi4e.+ disen)hanted 1ith the deterioratin( )onditions o! .i!e2 >< 3he !ina. im&ortant as&e)t o! so)ieta. resistan)e )an -e summarised as the im&ermea-i.it+ o! )u.tures2 Re.i(ious &ra)ti)es and demo(ra&hi) d+nam/ i)s 4aried 1ide.+ in di!!erent &arts o! :o4iet so)iet+2 3hrou(hout the ">?=s0 se.!/a!!irmations o! Christian !aith and )e.e-rations o! re.i(ious rites 1ere !reDuent e4en in the +ears o! the Hreat 3error0 and the+ in)reased 1hen &o.iti)a. re&ression su-sided durin( the 1ar +ears2 *es&ite the massi4e im&a)t o! mass terror0 !amines0 and e5termination0 the :o4iet re(ime did not dis)ontinue ha-its o! !ami.+ .i!e and &o&u.ation (ro1th0 !or instan)e0 in Centra. Asia2 Eor man+ historians0 inte..e)tua.s0 and .ar(e &arts o! so)iet+0 the ,o.she4ik Re4o.ution 1as &er)ei4ed as (enuine.+ demo)rati) and kind.ed enthusiasm inside the )ountr+ and a-road2 3he :o)ia.ist Re4o.utionaries and Menshe4iks did not o&&ose it !undamenta..+0 a.thou(h the+ )ou.d ha4e done0 -e)ause in )om&arison to the tsarist re(ime there seemed to -e a &ro(ress in demo)ra)+2 As 8rin)e L4o4 remarked in "><?0 Russia -e.on(ed more than e4er to the &eo&.e0 a.thou(h the ,o.she4iks had
>" ><
Mi)o.as Werth0 OLes !ormes d;autonomie de .a OOso)iVtV so)ia.iste;;;0 in Henr+ Rousso0 ed20 Stalinisme et na)isme 68arisP 'ditions Com&.e5es0 ">>>70 "4@/A42 8art+ mem-ershi& o! 1orkers dro&&ed !rom A &er )ent in ">?? to .ess than ? &er )ent in ">4"R see Werth0 OLes !ormes d;autonomie;0 "CA2
"?B
-etra+ed the &eo&.e and turned them into s.a4es2 3he &o&u.ar masses su&&orted a :o4iet re(ime that inte(rated &eo&.e o! their kind into the a&&aratus0 thus (i4in( the im&ression o! -ein( theirs2 >? 3o the 4ast ma%orit+ o! those 1ho .i4ed throu(h it0 and e4en to most o! its enemies0 :ta.inism0 !ar !rom -ein( a &artia. retreat .et a.one a thro1-a)k to the Russian &ast0 remained !or1ard/.ookin( and &ro(ressi4e2 >4 :ta.inism e5erted a &o1er!u. in!.uen)e o4er the entire 1or.d -e)ause 1hat ha&/ &ened in the )ountr+ durin( the ">?=s seemed to -e an outstandin( a)hie4ement in the !or1ard mar)h o! modern histor+2 3he :o4iet 9nion assumed the ro.e o! anti/!as)ist -u.1ark durin( a time 1hen0 e.se1here0 rea)tion or inde)isi4eness a&&eared to -e the order o! the da+2 Eorei(n 1riters0 inte..e)tua.s0 and &o.iti)ians 1ere under the s&e.. o! Lenin and :ta.in0 o! 1hi)h the 1ides&read a&&ro4a. o! the )on!essions in the sho1 tria.s in the Hreat 3error are a )ons&i)uous &roo!2 >@ 9nti. the &u-.i)ation o! The 1ulag Archipelago0 &u-.i) o&inion in Western so)ieties 1as -.ind to the rea. nature o! :o4iet ,o.she4ism2
>? >@
Ei(es0 A Peoples Tragedy0 A"@/"B2 ConDuest0 The 1reat Terror0 4>>/@=<2
>4
Fotkin0
agnetic
ountain0 B2
3he emer(en)e o! the Co.d War
3he idea that 1ar itse.! mi(ht -e somethin( that )an e5&.ain0 that itse.! has the &o1er o! -esto1in( meanin(0 is an idea !orei(n to a.. &hi.oso/ &hies o! histor+ and so a.so to a.. the e5&.anations o! 1ar 1e kno12
Jan 8ato)Wka
3he :e)ond Wor.d War as a so)ia. re4o.ution 3he &ersistent sta-i.it+ o! &ost/1ar stru)tures a))ounted !or the tenden)+ in )om&arati4e &o.iti)s and in &o.iti)a. thou(ht to a&&roa)h the :e)ond Wor.d War !rom an out)ome/&ers&e)ti4e2 It entai.ed dura-.e (eo&o.iti)a. )han(es0 o! 1hi)h the most sa.ient 1ere the e5&ansion o! :o4iet in!.uen)e into eastern 'uro&e0 the di4ision o! Herman+0 and the ensuin( s&.it into a -i&o.ar 1or.d2 3he :e)ond Wor.d War a.so marked a modernisin( turn in a (reat man+ domains o! domesti) and internationa. &o.iti)s2 One o! the )onseDuen)es o! the 1ar 1as the demo)ratisation o! an im&ortant num/ -er o! )ountries0 es&e)ia..+ the de!eated A5is &o1ers Herman+0 Ita.+0 and Ja&an2 3he )reation o! the 9nited Mations and the &romu.(ation o! the 9ni4ersa. *e).aration o! Human Ri(hts 1ere mi.estones in the a)kno1./ ed(ement o! the &riorit+ o! .a1 o4er 4io.en)e2" Whi.e the :e)ond Wor.d War as an internationa. mi.itar+ )on!.i)t -et1een states 1as ).ear.+ de.imited -+ tem&ora. and s&atia. -oundaries0 the rise o! )ommunism and !as)ism in the de)ades a!ter ">"C a..o1s historians to s&eak o! a O'uro&ean )i4i. 1ar; or O'uro&e;s :e)ond 3hirt+ Years; War; that s&ans !rom ">"4 to ">4@2 < Mot on.+ did the &o.iti)a. re.i(ions o! )ommunism and Mationa. :o)ia.ism a)t a(ainst .i-era. 4a.ues0 the indi4idua.0 and his reason -ut0 in eastern 'uro&e0 the inter1ar &eriod 1as a.so )hara)terised -+ the !ra(i.it+ o! !.ed(.in( inde&endent
" <
Antonio Cassese0 >iolence and %aw in the odern Age 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>A72 'rnst Mo.te0 Der europaische 8urgerkrieg *+*5-*+@<( ;ationalso)ialismus und 8olschewismus 0 Bth edn 6Muni)hP Her-i(0 <===72
"?C
"?A
nation/states2 A.moste4er+ )ountr+in the re(ion had to)ome toterms 1ith a ne1 &o.iti)a. order and the attendant &ro-.ems o! the inte(rit+ o! nationa. -orders0 ethni) homo(eneit+0 and the se)urit+ o! e5terna. ethni) minor/ ities2? 3he )o..a&se o! the Ha-s-ur(0 Ottoman0 and Russian em&ires &rodu)ed a mi5 o! o4er/ and undersiIed states2 4 3he .atter / Orum& states; su)h as Austria and Hun(ar+ / de4e.o&ed an irredentism aimed at ).aim/ in( -a)k .ost territor+ and -rin(in( nationa. minorities under the ru.e o! the state2 O4ersiIed states su)h as the se)ond 8o.ish re&u-.i) or the ne1.+ !ounded CIe)hos.o4ak state had to )o&e 1ith the tensions that resu.ted !rom their nationa.isin( )ons)iousness and the in)om&.ete &o.iti)a. set/ t.ements o! their mu.ti/ethni) )om&osition2 3he dominan)e in state and -ureau)ra)+ o! the titu.ar nationa.ities a(ainst ma%or minorit+ (rou&s in states su)h as 8o.and0 CIe)hos.o4akia0 or Romania th1arted &ra)ti)es o! demo)rati) )itiIenshi& and .e(itima)+2 A 1inner o! the Eirst Wor.d War0 CIe)hos.o4akia needed to de!ine a CIe)hos.o4ak )itiIenshi& &ositi4e.+ -+ de4e.o&in( a CIe)hos.o4ak nationa. )ons)iousness throu(h &ro(rammes o! )i4i) edu)ation -+ e5).udin( the so)ia..+ dominant Herman minorit+2 :u)h as&irations &ro4ed .ar(e.+ uto&ian0 as a !undamenta. )onstitutiona. .e(a. )ate(or+ / the )onstru)tion o! a OCIe)hos.o4ak nationa.it+; / remained a Ou-iDuitous !i)tion;2@ Whi.e CIe)hos.o4akia or the ,a.ti) )ountries had not e5isted as inde&endent states &rior to ">"A0 most o! the ,a.kans had %ust .i4ed throu(h a ma%or 1ar in ">"</"?2 As a )onse/ Duen)e o! re)urrent 1ars -et1een the .ate nineteenth and the .ate t1en/ tieth )entur+0 -et1een C and "< mi..ion &eo&.e 1ere !or)ed to mi(rate 1ithin the ,a.kans2 3he territoria. ).aims -+ :o4iet )ommunism and Herman MaIism a!ter the su-stantia. territoria. .osses in the Eirst Wor.d War threatened east 'uro&ean )ountries 1hose e5&erien)es o! state dis/ inte(ration0 .oss o! territor+0 !or)ed mi(ration0 nationa. humi.iation0 and mass ki..in(s rein!or)ed an a.read+ e5istin( )o..e)ti4e &s+)ho.o(+ o! !ear o! annihi.ation2B Hit.er;s a((ressi4e demands !or .i4in( s&a)e !or the Herman &eo&.e in the 'ast 1ere -ased on re).aimin( .ost territor+ su)h as HdanGsk2 *e&ri4ed o! an inde&endent state !or more than a )entur+0 8o.es resisted Russian o))u&ation0 MaIi o))u&ation -et1een ">?> and ">4@0 and the ensuin( :o4iet domination2 Hun(ar+ had .ost its -att.e !or
? 4
Ro(ers ,ru-aker0 ;ationalism #e$ramed 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>B72 Mark R2 3hom&son0 O,ui.din( Mations and Cra!tin( *emo)ra)ies / Com&etin( Le(itima)ies in Inter1ar 'astern 'uro&e;0 in *irk ,er(/:)h.osser and Jerem+ Mit)he..0 eds20 Authoritarianism and Democracy in "urope0 *+*+-*+.+ 6,asin(stokeP 8a.(ra4e0 <==<70 <=/?A2 @ *erek :a+er0 The Coasts o$ 8ohemia! A C)ech 2istory 68rin)etonP 8rin)eton 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>C70 "C@2 B Ist4aGn,i-o S0 is?redespetits4tatsd"uropedel"st68arisPA.-inMi)he.0">>?72
"?>
inde&enden)e in "A4> and a!ter the Eirst Wor.d War 1as de&ri4ed o! a&&ro5imate.+ t1o/thirdso!itsterritor+inthe treat+ o! 3rianon0 a traumati) e5&erien)e that has 1ei(hed u&on Hun(arian )o..e)ti4e )ons)iousness e4er sin)e and 1as rein!or)ed a!ter ">4@2 C In CIe)hos.o4akia;s histor+0 the e4ents o! ">?A0 durin( the MaIi &rote)torate0 the )ommunist seiIure o! &o1er in ">4A0 and">BA )amedo1n to a series o! traumati) e5&erien)es2 In Yu(os.a4ia0 in the t1entieth )entur+ a.one a series o! )i4i. 1ars 6">"</"?0 ">4"/@0 ">>"/<0 ">></@0 ">>A/>7 .ed to mass e5tin)tion0 !or)ed mi(ra/ tion0 and )ontested territoria. ).aims2 ,u.(aria has -een traumatised -+ the !ai.ure to in)or&orate Ma)edonia2 3he trauma o! the ,a.ti) )ountries a!ter the in4asion -+ :o4iet troo&s in ">4= remains 4er+ 4i4id in their )o..e)ti4e memor+2 Whi.e the re)onstitution o! the 8o.ish re&u-.i) or the !oundation o! the CIe)hos.o4ak state a!ter ">"A he.d out &ros&e)ts o! demo)rati) de4e.o&/ ment0 the Versai..es treat+0 the mu.ti/ethni) set/u& o! ne1 states0 and e)onomi) (rie4an)es meant that the inter1ar &eriod e5isted in a (enuine in/-et1een )ondition2 3he radi)a.isation o! the masses a!ter the Eirst Wor.d War -rou(ht a-out an ideo.o(i)a. 4a)uum0 a Odisastrous in/-et1een e5isten)e0 1ith .i-era.ism and the -our(eois )on)e&t o! )onstitutiona. demo)ra)+ -ein( )au(ht u& -et1een &ro(ressi4ist and )risis thou(ht0 -et1een materia.ist and re.i(ious inter&retations o! the 1or.d0 -et1een a -ureau)rati)/so)ia.ist stren(thenin( o! the state;s &o1er and an a&o.it/ i)a. indi4idua.ism or indeed anar)hism;2 A John Ma+nard Fe+nes;s ana./ +sis o! the e)onomi) )onseDuen)es o! the 3reat+ o! Versai..es on eastern 'uro&e (ras&ed that0 in )ountries su)h as the :o4iet 9nion0 Hun(ar+0 or Austria0 the miseries o! .i!e and the disinte(ration o! so)iet+ si(na..ed ho1 the ma.ad+ o! the -od+ &asses o4er into ma.ad+ o! the mind2 > A.thou(h the outside 1or.d 1ou.d )are .itt.e as these so)ieties &atient.+ endured their situation0 &h+si)a. e!!i)ien)+ and resistan)e to disease 1ou.d s.o1.+ diminish0 unti. human enduran)e rea)hed its .imits and )ounse.s o! des&air and madness stirred the su!!erers !rom .ethar(+0 1hi)h &re)eded the )risis2 :ta.in;s ru.e )aused (reat 1a4es o! )o..e)ti4isation and industria.isation0 1hi)h entai.ed the mass murder o! ku.aks -ut a.so )orres&ondin(.+ (reat 1a4es o! star4ation and !amine2 3he )onso.idation o! :ta.in;s &o1er 1as a))om&anied -+ imminent e5&e)tations o! 1ar as a de!inin( !eature o! the so)ia. &s+)ho.o(+ o! :o4iet )itiIens throu(hout
C A >
8au. Lend4ai0 Die :ngarn( "in Gahrtausend Sieger in ;iederlagen0 <nd edn 6Muni)hP C2 ,erte.smann0 ">>>70 @=42 Far./*ietri)h ,ra)her0 The Age o$ Ideologies0 trans2 !rom the Herman -+ '1a.d Osers 6Me1 YorkP :t Martin;s 8ress0 ">A470 ?>/4=2 John Ma+nard Fe+nes0 The Collected 0ritings o$ G( ( Feynes0 4o.2 II0 The "conomic Conse7uences o$ the Peace 6London and ,asin(stokeP Ma)mi..an0 ">C"70 "@A2
"4=
the .ate "><=s and ">?=s2 In the "><=s0 the )+).e o! 4io.en)e e5&erien/ )ed in the &ost/re4o.utionar+ &hase and in the )i4i. 1ar (enerated in the minds o! &eo&.e a h+&otheti)a. -ut )onstant.+ e4oked 1ar a(ainst the im&eria.ist )am&2"= 3he 1a4e o! arrests in June "><C0 the 1ides&read a&o)a.+&ti) 4isions and rumours o! 1ar in the )ountr+side0 and the Hreat 3error )onstituted three ma%or )+).es o! a )o..e)ti4e O1ar &s+)hosis; in the :o4iet 9nion2 3he :e)ond Wor.d War in eastern 'uro&e radi)a.ised the .imina. )onditions o! )risis2 It 1as a so)ia. re4o.ution0 as the so)ia.isation o! 1ar!are -rea)hed norma. human re.ations and u&rooted )ustomar+ .i!e throu(h !or)ed e5&u.sion0 mass (eno)ide0 )i4i. 1ar0 materia. de4astation0 and the 4io.ation o! territoria. -oundaries2 "" 3he disso.ution o! so)ia. and &o.iti)a. order -rou(ht a-out an un&re)edented de(ree o! e5istentia. un)ertaint+0 1here the .i!e o! )i4i.ians -e)ame a !ront/.ine e5&erien)e0 destro+in( &atterns o! trust and so)ia. )onsensus0 and underminin( -e.ie!s in e.ites and &o.iti)a. authorit+2 In this 4ein0 the 1ar entai.ed im&ortant shi!ts not on.+ in &o.iti)a. a..ian)es -ut a.so in the s+m-o.i) uni4erse o! most so)ieties that sent troo&s or 1ere -att.e!ie.ds2 Internationa. a..ian)es 1ere not the same in ">4C as the+ had -een in ">4@0 and these di!!ered su-stantia..+ !rom those in ">4= or in ">?A2 In the a-sen)e o! a &ea)e treat+0 the :e)ond Wor.d War .ost its ori(ina. meanin( as a stru((.e -et1een Herman+ and the A..ies and -e)ame asso)iated 1ith a sort o! -.ood+ &re.ude to other )on!rontations su)h as )i4i. 1ars in Lithuania or 1estern 9kraine or0 .ater on0 the attem&ts at .i-eration in ">@B0 ">BA0 or ">A=2 "< OHerman+; Dui)k.+ took on a ne1 meanin(0 turnin( it !rom the enem+ into an a..+ a(ainst the :o4iet 9nion2 A.thou(h the so)ia. and &o.iti)a. roots o! MaIism and :o4iet )ommu/ nism di!!ered 1ide.+0 the 1artime )onditions 1ere )ondu)i4e to !usin( the de!inin( )hara)teristi)s o! these re(imes0 makin( it &ossi-.e to see their ).aim to tota. domination as mirror ima(es2 A.thou(h the esta-.ishment o! a &.anned e)onom+ in &ost/1ar eastern 'uro&e o1ed mu)h to :o4iet in!.uen)e0 man+ o! the &ost/1ar e)onomi) stru)tures 1ere &re!i(ured -+ the &o.iti)a. e)onom+ o! the 1ar +ears2 3he e)onomi) e5&.oitation o! east 'uro&ean )ountries &ursued -+ Herman o))u&ation !or)es !ostered the etatisation o! the e)onom+0 .ater taken u& and &er!e)ted -+ :o4iet
"=
Mi)o.as Werth0 ORumeurs dV!aitistes et a&o)a.+&tiDues dans .;9R:: des annVes "><= et ">?=;0 >ingti?me Si?cle0 C" 6Ju.+/:e&tem-er <=="70 <@/?@2 "" Jan 32 Hross0 O3hemes !or a :o)ia. Histor+ o! War '5&erien)e and Co..a-oration;0 in Ist4aGn *ea Gk et a.20 eds20 The Politics o$ #etri3ution in "urope 68rin)etonP 8rin)eton 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <===70 "@/?@2 "< 3on+ Judt0 O3he 8ast Is Another Countr+P M+th and Memor+ in 8ost1ar 'uro&e;0 in *eaGketa.20ThePoliticso$#etri3ution0?=</?2
"4"
)ommunism2"? 3he 1ar e5&erien)e in eastern 'uro&e 1as a &o1er!u. stimu.us !or e)onomi) (ro1th0 and the most d+nami) (ro1th durin( the 1ar o))urred ar(ua-.+ in the &rodu)tion o! ra1 materia.s su)h as the e5tra)tion o! hard and -ro1n )oa. and natura. (as2 Hun(ar+0 !or instan)e0 -ene!ited !rom Herman )a&ita. and e5&erien)ed a -oom in industria.isa/ tion2 3he intended !uture inte(ration o! these territories into the Herman Rei)h made it &.ausi-.e !or the Hermans to &romote a(ri)u.tura. &rodu)/ tion at the e5&ense o! )onsumer (oods or industr+2 3he 1ar e)onom+ im&osed -+ the Hermans .ed to a (ro1in( autark+ o! these e)onomies and their (radua. dis)onne)tion !rom internationa. trade2 3he e5&ro&riation o! Je1ish &ro&ert+0 the a)Duisition o! )a&ita. in MaIi/o))u&ied eastern 'uro&e !ormer.+ he.d -+ )om&anies !rom Western )ountries0 and the or(anisation o! the .a-our !or)e to ser4e the im&eria. am-itions o! the 3hird Rei)h thus &re!i(ured / unintentiona..+ / &atterns o! &ost/1ar )ommunist e)onomies2 3he esta-.ishment o! )ommunist ru.e in eastern 'uro&e A.thou(h the )on)rete moda.ities o! the esta-.ishment o! )ommun/ ist &o1er in eastern 'uro&e a!ter ">4@ 4aried 1ide.+0 1ith the e5)e&/ tion o! Yu(os.a4ia and CIe)hos.o4akia the+ !o..o1ed Duite simi.ar me)hanisms2"4 Internationa..+0 the :o4iet 9nion had not on.+ earned hi(h &resti(e due to the 4i)tor+ a(ainst Hit.er -ut a.so a)hie4ed su-stan/ tia. territoria. (ains2 *omesti)a..+0 the institutiona.isation o! )ommunist ru.e in eastern 'uro&e o))urred in an atmos&here o! s1e..in( mistrust0 re&ression0 and dissemination o! !ear2 :ta.in;s transition !rom the ra4a(es o! 1ar to O&ea)e; 1as )ondu)ted on the -asis o! -ruta.0 hate/!i..ed )am/ &ai(ns that made the .ast ei(ht +ears -e!ore his death the most horri!i) o! his Duarter/)entur+ ru.e2 "@ Ea)ed 1ith the (enera. e5haustion o! the &o&u.a)e in the .ast +ears o! the 1ar0 :ta.in rea)ted 1ith inhuman treat/ ment o! :o4iet e5/&risoners o! 1ar0 the de&ortation o! 1ho.e &o&u.ations0 and the intensi!i)ation o! the (u.a( s+stem2 At the same time0 ho1e4er0 the need !or .e(itimisation o! the :o4iet re(ime in the ne1.+ esta-.ished &eo&.e;s demo)ra)ies -ut a.so in the materia..+ de4astated :o4iet 9nion reDuired ur(ent attention to the &ra)ti)a. -usiness o! e)onomi) and so)ia. re)onstru)tion2 9nder the &ressure o! the :o4iet mi.itar+ &resen)e0 domesti)
Hross0 O3hemes !or a :o)ia. Histor+;0 "B/<=2 Jose&h Roths)hi.d0 #eturn to Diversity! A Political 2istory o$ "ast Central "urope Since 0orld 0ar II0 <nd edn 6Me1 York and O5!ordP O5!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>?70 CB/"<?2 "@ Mina 3umarkin0 The %iving and the Dead! The #ise and 'all o$ the Cult o$ 0orld 0ar II in #ussia 6Me1 YorkP ,asi) ,ooks0 ">>470 "=<2
"? "4
"4<
&o.iti)a. &arties in eastern 'uro&e either a.i(ned themse.4es 1ith the )ommunist &arties or had to su-ordinate themse.4es to the .atter;s he(emon+2 A.on( 1ith the de&.o+ment o! :o4iet troo&s0 the+ e5&erien)ed the mono&o.isation o! the &o.iti)a. s&a)e -+ )ommunist &arties and the nationa.isation o! the e)onom+0 )u.ture0 and edu)ation2 "B 2atred and victimisation In man+ &.a)es0 the a!termath o! MaIi o))u&ation entai.ed so)ia. )on/ 4u.sions o! re4o.utionar+ s)o&e resu.tin( in domesti) unrest or mass e5&u.sions2 3his so)ia. re4o.ution had &erha&s the (reatest im&a)t on the 1estern territories o! the :o4iet 9nion2 "C With a&&ro5imate.+ e4er+ !i!th inha-itant ki..ed under the o))u&ation0 ,e.arus su!!ered the hi(hest re.ati4e death to..2 9kraine had endured the -i((est .osses in human .i4es in a-so.ute terms0 as the num-er o! inha-itants dro&&ed !rom 4" mi..ion in ">4" to ?< mi..ion in Ju.+ ">4B2 In addition0 9kraine had -een in a de $acto state o! emer(en)+ !or a-out t1ent+ +ears0 !rom the end o! the "><=s u& to the end o! the ">4=s2 With entr+ into the 1ar on "C :e&tem-er ">?>0 the :o4iet 9nion o))u&ied 1estern 9kraine0 )rushin( o.d institu/ tions0 nationa.isin( the e)onom+0 )o..e)ti4isin(0 and insta..in( a terror re(ime2 When :o4iet troo&s a(ain o))u&ied 9krainian territor+ -+ oust/ in( the Herman arm+ in ">440 the de4astation o! the 1ar in the ur-an )entres had )aused a mi5ture o! anar)h+ and ruth.ess terror -+ the :o4iet se)ret &o.i)e0 the MFV*0 mass de&ortations0 and hi(h )rime rates2 Re)ruitment !or the Red Arm+ and mass de&ortations o! 1omen to Herman+ -rou(ht a-out an im&ortant )han(e in the stru)ture o! the &o&u.ation in the )ountr+side2 3he ne1 &hase o! .i-eration &romised not on.+ re-ui.din( and re&atriation o! &risoners o! 1ar -ut a.so O!i.tra/ tion;0 i2e2 the )he)kin( o! &resumed )o..a-orators2 8ost/1ar -order )han(es -et1een 8o.and and 9kraine entai.ed mass e5&u.sions and had a stron( im&a)t on the attitudes o! indi4idua.s and )ommunities2 In -oth ">4@ and ">4B a&&ro5imate.+ A==0=== &eo&.e resett.ed !rom )entra. 8o.and to the Western territories2 In addition0 !rom Januar+ to *e)em-er ">4B some 4==0=== &eo&.e arri4ed in 8o.and 6C@=0=== &eo&.e in ">4@7 )omin( !rom !ormer eastern 8o.and0 1hi)h had -een in)or&orated -+ the :o4iet 9nion2"A On the e4e o! the
"B "C "A
AndrIe% 8a)Iko1ski0 /d s$aHs)owanego )wyciQstwa do prawd)iweL klQski( S)kice do portretu P#% 6Frako1P W+da1ni)t1o Litera)kie0 ">>>72 *ieter 8oh.0 O:)h.a)ht!e.d I1eier tota.it^rer *iktaturen / die 9kraine im N1eiten We.tkrie(;0 /Rsterreichische /sthe$te0 4<0 ?/4 6<===70 ?B"2 Fr+st+na Fersten0 The "sta3lishment o$ Communist #ule in Poland *+@.-*+@6 6,erke.e+P 9ni4ersit+ o! Ca.i!ornia 8ress0 ">>"70 ?=B/C2
"4?
">4B e.e)tions0 a&&ro5imate.+ one/Duarter o! 8o.ish so)iet+ )onsisted o! &eo&.e 1ho 1ere startin( a ne1 .i!e in )ir)umstan)es more or .ess di!!erent !rom those to 1hi)h the+ had -een a))ustomed2 3he massi4e resett.e/ ment o! the 9krainian &o&u.ation !rom the ne1 8o.ish territor+ 61hi)h had -een mo4ed 1est1ards7 1as in rea.it+ an e5&u.sion2 8re)eded -+ the )on!.i)ts -et1een a nationa.isin( 8o.ish state and the 9krainian -order.ands -e!ore the 1ar0 the terror -+ the 9krainian Li-eration Arm+ 69krains;ka 8o4stans;ka Armi%a7 a(ainst the &o&u.ation and the in4adin( :o4iets (re1 into a )i4i. 1ar a!ter ">4@2 In the )ourse o! a massi4e resett.ement0 most.+ su&&orted -+ 8o.es0 u& to the midd.e o! ">4B a.most ha.! a mi..ion 9krainians had .e!t 8o.and mo4in( east1ards2 As a )onseDuen)e0 the s&e)i!i) 8o.ish/9krainian -order.and )u.ture 1as destro+ed0 and the -ruta. methods o! mass !or)ed resett.ement desi(ned to so.4e the O9krainian &ro-.em; had a harm!u. in!.uen)e on the )ons)iousness not on.+ o! the dis&.a)ed 9krainians -ut a.so o! the 8o.es2 Whi.e CIe)hos.o4akia )e.e-rated ">4@ as Othe !irst +ear o! &ea)e and !reedom;0 this +ear &ro4ided the uniDue o&&ortunit+ o! !u.!i..in( the )enturies/o.d desire to O).eanse; the CIe)h .ands o! Hermans2 3hou(h it )on)erned !irst o! a.. the Hermans as re&resentati4es o! three )enturies o! a ru.in( ).ass o! !orei(ners0 it 1as a.so dire)ted a(ainst Hun(arians2 "> In the 1ords o! 8rime Minister NdeneWk Eier.in(er0 the ).eansin( 6 o?ista7 o! the .and o! Hermans 1ou.d e5&ress the united 1i.. o! a.. the &eo&.e and reso.4e on)e and !or a.. a &ro-.em that had -urdened them !or a 1ho.e mi..ennium2 3he !or)ed e5&u.sion o! an estimated ? mi..ion Hermans !rom CIe)hos.o4akia 6odsun7 1as eDui4a.ent to a )onsidera-.e demo/ (ra&hi) -.ood.ettin(0 de&ri4in( the CIe)h .ands o! -et1een a third and a Duarter o! its &o&u.ation2<= 3he tumu.tuous 1ar +ears .e!t a &ro!ound .e(a)+ !or the ima(inin( o! the CIe)h nation0 as the e5&u.sion o! Hermans and the attem&ted .iDuid/ ation o! Je1s &ro4ided !or the !irst time an e5&erientia. identit+ o! naSrod 6nation70 vlast 6&o1er70 and lid 6&eo&.e7 and their )oin)iden)e 1ith the &o.iti)a. -oundaries o! the state0 not1ithstandin( the :.o4ak minorit+2 3his tota.it+ -e)ame an im&ortant ideo.o(i)a. )arrier !or the )ommunists;
"> <=
:a+er0 The Coasts o$ 8ohemia0 <4"2 ,ene_;s de)rees &ut the &ro&ert+ o! OHermans0 Hun(arians0 traitors0 and )o..a-orators; under state )ontro.0 de&ri4ed them o! CIe)hos.o4ak )itiIenshi&0 e5&ro&riated their .ands and mo4a-.es0 and disso.4ed a.. Herman institutions o! hi(her edu)ation0 amon( them the Herman uni4ersit+ o! 8ra(ue2 Whi.e in the )ensus o! ">?= <>2@ &er )ent o! the &o&u.ation o! the CIe)h .ands had de).ared their nationa. identit+ as Herman0 in the ">@= )ensus it 1as on.+ "2A &er )ent2 3he se.!/de).ared Hun(arian &o&u.ation o! :.o4akia !e.. !rom "C2B to "=2? &er )ent o4er the same &eriod 6:a+er0 The Coasts o$ 8ohemia 0 <4</?72
"44
&ro%e)t o! erasin( a.. -oundaries -et1een the &ersona. and the &o.iti)a.0 -et1een the so)iet+ and the state2 As the e5&u.sion o! nationa. minorities )orres&onded to the desire to esta-.ish a homo(eneous )ommunit+0 it ne(ated more than ?== +ears o! &ersona. ties0 e)onomi) re.ations0 and )u.tura. di4ersit+2 Whi.e hatred o! MaIi o))u&ation 1as one ma%or moti4e !or)e0 it 1ou.d -e 1ron( to inter&ret the so)ia. )onseDuen)es o! the 1ar as animated e5).usi4e.+ -+ an o&&osition to the !as)ist enem+ or the ethni) &o&u.ations asso)iated 1ith it2 ,esides the enem+ outside0 the a)ts o! 4io.en)e and retri-ution )ommitted !rom ">4@ on1ards in &ost/1ar eastern 'uro&e a.so in).uded di!!erent kinds o! enemies 1ithin2 A.. o4er the territories o))u&ied -+ the Red Arm+0 the MFV* o&erated -ruta..+ a(ainst nation/ a.ist a)ti4ists0 enemies o! the &eo&.e0 and s&ies2 In 9kraine a.one -et1een Ee-ruar+ ">44 and O)to-er ">4@0 the MFV* ki..ed >A0=== &eo&.e2 3he 9krainian Li-eration Arm+ in 'ast Ha.i)ia !ou(ht the Hermans -ut a.so / &art.+ )o..a-oratin( 1ith them / 1as en(a(ed in a stru((.e a(ainst MFV* troo&s2 A.thou(h the &artisan mo4ement in 9kraine 1as not as stron( as the :o4iet m+th o! a &o1er!u. .i-eration arm+ 1ith a stron( &o&u.ar su&&ort 1ou.d ha4e it0 serious estimates s&eak o! -et1een "@=0=== and <<=0=== &artisans2<" Anti/:emitism 1as a !urther sa.ient !eature o! the )on!.i)t -et1een nationa. ma%orities and minorities0 a.thou(h its )on)rete e5&ression 4ar/ ied 1ide.+2 Je1s su!!ered most durin( the :e)ond Wor.d War / i! not a.1a+s in a-so.ute num-ers0 then undou-ted.+ in terms o! e5istentia. annihi.ation2 A&&ro5imate.+ ? mi..ion Je1ish and ? mi..ion non/Je1ish )itiIens o! 8o.and 1ere ki..ed durin( the 1arR this amounted to the .oss o! one/tenth o! non/Je1ish )itiIens0 1hi.e the Je1ish )ommunit+ 1as &ra)ti/ )a..+ e5terminated in its entiret+2 ,et1een ">4@ and ">4C0 a&&ro5imate.+ "0@== Je1s .ost their .i4es and the &ani) a!ter the Fie.)e &o(rom )aused some "@=0=== Je1s to !.ee the )ountr+2 << In other &arts o! eastern 'uro&e durin( the 1ar0 stron( endo(enous moti4ations !or the &erse)ution o! Je1s su&&orted the e5termination &o.i)ies &ursued -+ the MaIis2 In Hun(ar+0 !or instan)e0 the anti/Je1ish .a1s o! ">?A0 ">?>0 and ">4" had the a&&ro4a. o! a .ar(e &ortion o! the Hun(arian -our(eoisie and 1ere .ar(e.+ res&onsi-.e !or the death o! o4er ha.! a mi..ion Hun(arian Je1s2 3he &ositi4e re)e&tion o! the anti/Je1ish .a1s in Hun(ar+ 1as on.+ seemin(.+ due to the im&ortant &osition o))u&ied -+ Je1s in the )a&ita.ist
<" <<
8oh.0 O:)h.a)ht!e.d I1eier tota.it^rer *iktaturen;0 ?@4/B2 8iotr WroG-e.0 O*ou-.e Memor+P 8o.es and Je1s A!ter the Ho.o)aust;0 "ast "uropean Politics and Societies0 ""0 ? 6">>C70 @C</42
"4@
s+stem2<? 3he main reason is more .ike.+ to -e !ound in the -a)k1ardness o! the masses and identit+ &ro-.ems o! the -our(eoisie2 3he anti/Je1ish .a1s a..o1ed the Hun(arian midd.e ).asses to ensure their )areers and a hi(her standard o! .i!e at the e5&ense o! Je1ish )itiIens2 In Yu(os.a4ia0 -+ )ontrast0 the :e)ond Wor.d War 1as !ou(ht &rimar/ i.+ as a )i4i. 1ar -et1een Croats and :er-s2 Here0 the de!initions o! enemies 1ere not ).ear.+ those -et1een a !orei(n in4ader and a domesti) &artisan or(anisation2 3he+ 4aried a))ordin( to the si(ni!i)an)e atta)hed to e4ents -+ &arti)i&ants in the )on!.i)t2 A!ter the Herman arm+ !ai.ed to take Mos)o1 in *e)em-er ">4"0 3ito;s &artisans0 !or instan)e0 )eased to )onsider MaIi Herman+ as the main enem+0 shi!tin( their stru((.e to the ideo.o(i)a. tar(et o! Yu(os.a4 Ori(htist e.ements;2 <4 3he+ re)koned that the 1ar 1as enterin( the se)ond &ro.etarian sta(e0 in 1hi)h the stru((.e a(ainst the !as)ists had -e)ome se)ondar+ to the ).ass stru((.e a(ainst the domesti) )ounter/re4o.ution2 Con$usion 3etween victory and de$eat ,esides so)ia. de4astation0 the 1ar -eDueathed dee& mora. )on!usion0 .ea4in( man+ o! these so)ieties in an in/-et1een )ondition -et1een 4i)tor+ and de!eat0 or O4i)tor+ in de!eat;2 <@ When ,u.(aria de).ared 1ar on Herman+ in ">440 the :o4iet 9nion had a.read+ de).ared 1ar on ,u.(aria itse.!2 3hus0 ,u.(aria 1as simu.taneous.+ at 1ar 1ith the 9nited :tates0 Hreat ,ritain0 the :o4iet 9nion0 and MaIi Herman+2 3his sentiment o! )on!usion 1as &erha&s stron(est in )ountries .ike 8o.and0 1here se.!/sustained0 so)iet+/1ide0 -ut u.timate.+ unsu))ess!u. resistan)e mo4ements !ai.ed to !u.!i. ho&es !or a se.!/determined &ost/1ar order2 8o.ish so)iet+ 1as )ons)ious o! a dou-.e !ai.ure o! its e.ites0 !irst0 to &rote)t 8o.es !rom a Herman atta)k in ">?> and0 se)ond0 to &ro4e )a&a-.e o! resistin( the :o4iet assau.t on 8o.ish inde&enden)e a!ter ">442 In a s&irit o! de!eat0 the ne1 )ommunist authorities !ai.ed to .i4e u& to so)iet+;s e5&e)tations o! su&&.+in( -asi) ne)essities and o! (i4in( a ).ear &ers&e)ti4e !or &ost/1ar .i!e2 In the de!eat o! a.. methods o! stru((.e a(ainst :o4iet domination0 8o.es de4e.o&ed se4era. mode.s in )o&in( 1ith the &ast0 o!ten mani&u.ated -+ the authorities2 Aimin( at nationa. re4i4a.0 the+ !e.t a &ressin( need to )onstru)t histor+ as a narra/ ti4e o! a)ti4e heroism a(ainst the humi.iatin( and (ui.t/ridden memor+ o!
,i-oS0 is?redespetits4tatsd"uropedel"st0<=@/?CA2 I4o ,ana)0 0ith Stalin Against Tito! Comin$ormist Splits in Pugoslav Communism 6Itha)a and LondonP Corne.. 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">AA70 A<2 Lend4ai0 Die :ngarn0 @""2
<? <4 <@
"4B
de!eat2<B It &ortra+ed the 8o.e as a heroi) so.dier0 !i(htin( on a.. the -arri)ades and -att.e!ie.ds o! the 1or.dR the 8o.e su!!ered the most0 shed the most -.ood0 and 1as s+stemati)a..+ -etra+ed -+ his a..ies2 A.thou(h the romanti) !o..+ o! the 8o.es is o!ten )ontrasted 1ith the rea.ism o! the CIe)hs0 it is !or(otten that the rea.ism re&resented -+ HaG)ha or -+ ,ene_ !ai.ed0 %ust as did 8o.ish romanti)ism2 <C On to& o! the &o1er.essness a(ainst the MaIis and :o4iets0 a 8o.ish !ee.in( o! undeser4ed in%ur+ o! a nation a-andoned -+ its Western a..ies (re1 into e5as&eration2 3he under(round state and the Home.and Arm+ 6Armia Fra%o1a7 had -een animated -+ the 1i.. to ha4e 8o.and .i-erated -+ Polish resistan)e2 'n)oura(ed -+ :o4iet air)ra!t and Ameri)an su&/ &.ies0 the initia. hi(h s&rits and o&timism o! the Warsa1 u&risin( in summer ">44 ended in massi4e -.oodshed0 strikin( a de)isi4e -.o1 a(ainst the mora.e o! the 8o.ish &eo&.e2 A!ter !i4e +ears o! unre.entin( ho&e0 the hea4+ .osses in the 1ake o! the !ai.ed u&risin( and the im&oten)e o! the 8o.ish (o4ernment .e!t 8o.es demora.ised and 1ith a.most no s&irit o! resistan)e in ">4@2 3here is (ood reason to summarise the histor+ o! 8o.and and o! the 8o.es -et1een ">4? and ">4A in a sin(.e senten)eR Oe4er+one su!!ered de!eat and0 at the same time0 e4er+one 1as 4i)torious;2<A Erom ">4@0 O8eo&.e;s Courts; in Hun(ar+ and Romania0 -ut es&e)ia..+ the Eather.and Eront in ,u.(aria0 sett.ed &ost/1ar s)ores 1ith thousands o! rea. or &otentia. &o.iti)a. ri4a.s on the (rounds o! )rimes o! sa-ota(e and )ons&ira)+2 Mo distin)tion 1as made -et1een &ro/Herman0 &ro/ Western0 and anti/)ommunist )andidates !or &unishment0 a.. in the name o! the nation and its 1artime su!!erin(s2 <> 3he sentiment o! -ein( 4i)tims o! !as)ism a))om&anied a stron( tenden)+ to1ards maintainin( s&a)es o! nationa. inde&enden)e a(ainst a seemin(.+ ine4ita-.e :o4iet domination2 Rather than -ein( a no4e.t+0 this maintenan)e o! inde&end/ en)e had )hara)terised the attem&ts o! &o.iti)a. .eadershi& in these )oun/ tries !rom the -e.ated &ro)ess o! nation/-ui.din( at the end o! the nineteenth )entur+ u& to the inter1ar &eriod2 ?= 3hose re(imes that 1ere a..ied to Herman+0 su)h as :.o4akia0 Hun(ar+0 Croatia0 and ,u.(aria0 )are!u..+ manoeu4red -et1een dra1in( the ma5imum -ene!it !rom the Herman a..ian)e and &reser4in( a minimum o! inde&enden)e as
 ?=
Amir Weiner0 aking Sense o$ 0ar! The Second 0orld 0ar and the 'ate o$ the 8olshevik #evolution 68rin)etonP 8rin)eton 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <==<70 <?<2 Fersten0 The "sta3lishment o$ Communist #ule0 4B>/C=2 Fersten0 The "sta3lishment o$ Communist #ule0 4B>2 Judt0 O3he 8ast Is Another Countr+;0 ?==2 ,u.(aria -ein( a nota-.e e5)e&tion0 as it had )onsidera-.+ &ro!ited !rom Russia;s he.& in (ainin( .ar(e &arts o! Ma)edonia in "ACA2
"4C
an assuran)e !or the !uture in )ase o! a Herman de!eat2 ?" Countries 1ith either a dire)t .ink to MaIism or a )oa.ition durin( the 1ar su)h as 3iso;s :.o4ak state or Horth+;s Hun(ar+ had to u&ho.d the m+th o! the ne)essit+ o! &a)ts 1ith Hit.er in order to maintain or restore essentia. (oa.s o! nationa. interest2?< 3he )ommunist &ra)ti)e o! mani&u.atin( histor+ -+ or(anised !or(ettin(0 !or instan)e0 maintained the )on!usion a-out the a)ti4ities o! the )ommunist &art+ or o! the 1artime :.o4ak state2 3he )on!usion -et1een 4i)tor+ and de!eat !ai.ed to &rodu)e a One1 start; 6Stunde ;ull70 1hi)h 1as si(ni!i)ant !or &ost/1ar West Herman+0 s+m-o.i)a..+ se&aratin( 1artime !rom &ea)etime2 3he :e)ond Wor.d War &etered out in a strin( o! e4er more )ontentious and un&rodu)ti4e meetin(s o! !orei(n ministers2?? With the e5)e&tion o! a series o! im&osed a(reements 1ith minor -e..i(erents0 si(ned in 8aris in ">4B0 the A..ies ne4er reso.4ed their &ost/1ar dea.in(s 1ith !ormer enem+ states -+ an+ !ina. &ea)e treat+2 3his )on!usion a-out de!eat and 4i)tor+ 1as e5&ressed in the 1ides&read &er)e&tion o! a mena)in( imminent third 1or.d 1ar2 8.a+in( on this &er)ei4ed threat0 :ta.in en!or)ed the O1eedin( out; o! the enemies o! the &eo&.e2 ?4 Outside Russia0 rumours o! 1ar a.so )ir)u.ated0 !or instan)e0 in the .ead/u& to the 8o.ish e.e)tions o! autumn ">4B2 8erha&s the most o-4ious s+m-o. o! this !ear o! annihi/ .ation is the hu(e num-er o! &i..-o5es that Ho5ha;s re(ime in A.-ania &.a)ed a.. o4er the )ountr+2 3he+ 1ere meant to &rote)t so)iet+ !rom the mena)e -+ &otentia. enemies 1ho 1ere &resuma-.+ u-iDuitous2 'stimates o! the num-er o! su)h &i..-o5es 4ar+ -et1een B==0=== and " mi..ion2 3hat these &i..-o5es 1ere not on.+ a !ad -e)omes ).ear 1hen one )onsiders that !or the )ost o! t1o o! them one )ou.d ha4e -ui.t a t1o/ -edroom a&artment2?@ 8h+si)a..+ and e)onomi)a..+ e5hausted -+ the 1ar e!!ort0 the :o4iet 9nion ne4erthe.ess a)hie4ed an im&ressi4e territoria. e5&ansion into eastern 'uro&e2 In )om&arison0 the e)onomi) and &o.iti)a. su))ess o! the 9nited :tates 1as !ar !rom )ertain2 As the 9nited :tates !ai.ed to ensure 1hat had -een )entra. !orei(n &o.i)+ o-%e)ti4es sin)e ">?> / demo)ra)+0 !reedom !rom !ear and 1ant0 and the inte(rit+ o! sma.. nations / the &ost/">4@ s)enario resem-.ed surrender -are.+ .ess )om/ &.ete than mi(ht ha4e -een e5&e)ted !rom a mi.itar+ 4i)tor+ o! the :o4iet 9nion o4er its t1o )hie! a..ies2 Mationa. (.or+ and internationa. &resti(e
?" Ist4a Gn*eaGk0 ?< ?? ?4 ?@
OIntrodu)tion;0 in *ea Gketa.20ThePoliticso$#etri3ution0A/>2 :hari J2 Cohen0 Politics 0ithout a Past! The A3sence o$ 2istory in Postcommunist ;ationalism 6*urham and LondonP *uke 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>C70 A@/""C2 Judt0 O3he 8ast Is Another Countr+;0 <>?/?=<2 Ri)hard O4er+0 #ussias 0ar 6LondonP 8en(uin ,ooks0 ">>C70 ?"C2 :.a4enka *raku.i)G0Ca$4"uropa6LondonPA-a)us0">>B70@42
"4A
!or the :o4iet 9nion0 ho1e4er0 )ame at the hu(e &ri)e o! the death o! an estimated <@ mi..ion :o4iet )itiIens and materia. de4astation on an un&re)edented s)a.e2 Moreo4er0 the mi.itar+ e5&ansion into eastern 'uro&e )on)ea.ed the dearth o! mora. &ur&ose in :o4iet/t+&e so)ieties a!ter the :e)ond Wor.d War2 *omesti)a..+0 the (reat 4i)tor+ o! the :o4iet 9nion entai.ed the !ier)est &erse)ution o! enemies o! the &eo&.e0 de&or/ tation o! 1ho.e &eo&.es0 and the s1e..in( o! the (u.a(0 &.un(in( the :o4iet &eo&.e into a se)ond *ark A(e2?B Me4er sin)e the termination o! the )i4i. 1ar had the emotiona. deta)hment o! the mass o! the Russian &eo&.e !rom the do)trines o! the )ommunist &art+ -een so drasti)2 A.thou(h the &art+ had -e)ome a (reat and hi(h.+ su))ess!u. a&&aratus o! di)tatoria. admin/ istration0 it had )eased to -e a sour)e o! emotiona. ins&iration2 *es&ite the human su!!erin( and materia. dama(e in!.i)ted u&on the :o4iet 9nion0 the sense o! 4i)timisation amon( Russians 1as ar(ua-.+ hi(hest not durin( -ut ri(ht a!ter the 4i)tor+ a(ainst !as)ism2 Ear !rom aimin( at a so)ia. )onsensus0 :ta.in;s &ost/1ar o-%e)ti4es 1ere )hara)terised -+ the su&&ression o! the inte..i(entsia throu(h &ur(es and -+ su-%u(atin( 1ork/ ers and the &easantr+ throu(h e)onomi) &ressure and )rimina. .a12 ?C Purges Ithe enemy insideJ Internationa..+0 the )ommunist O-.o); !ormed 1hen the (o4ernments o! 8o.and and CIe)hos.o4akia0 1ho had &re4ious.+ a(reed to &arti)i&ate in the 8aris )on!eren)e a-out the Marsha.. 8.an on "< Ju.+ ">4C0 1ere !or)ed -+ the :o4iets to 1ithdra12 Interna..+0 ho1e4er0 the massi4e &o.iti)a. &ur(es in ne1 &eo&.e;s demo)ra)ies -et1een ">4A and ">@< 1ere not on.+ .imited to &o1er stru((.es in .eadin( &art+ )ir).es2 Rather0 the+ &ro.i!erated unti. the+ terrorised 1ho.e so)ieties2 3he moda.ities o! re&ression and the s)o&e o! the &ur(es di!!ered !rom )ountr+ to )ountr+2 ?A Eor 8o.and0 !or instan)e0 the :e)ond Wor.d War entai.ed not on.+ the annihi.ation o! its state and a ruth.ess o))u&ation re(ime -ut a.so the e5termination o! a&&ro5imate.+ < mi..ion mem-ers o! the &ro!essiona. and inte..e)tua. e.ites2 ,+ )ontrast0 Hun(ar+ did not e5&erien)e su)h hea4+ .osses amon( e.ites2 Moreo4er0 it .i4ed throu(h a short demo)rati) inter.ude that !o..o1ed the 1ar and a..o1ed non/)ommunist !or)es to or(anise2 3his re.ati4e initia. ad4anta(e o! a .o1er de(ree o! so)ia. dis/ ru&tion trans.ated into more intense re&ression durin( the esta-.ishment
O4er+0 #ussias 0ar0 <>=2 *ona.d Ei.tIer0 Soviet 0orkers and %ate Stalinism! %a3our and the #estoration o$ the Stalinist System A$ter 0orld 0ar II 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <==<70 <B42 Roths)hi.d0 #eturn to Diversity0 "?</4=2
?B ?C ?A
"4>
o! :ta.inist ru.e as o! ">4A2 3he &h+si)a. &resen)e o! midd.e and &ro!es/ siona. ).asses in Hun(ar+ 1as taken as a %usti!i)ation !or an e5tension o! O).ass stru((.e; a(ainst Orea)tionar+ e.ements; and O!orei(n a(ents;2 8o.iti)a. re&ression in the ear.+ ">@=s in Hun(ar+0 !or instan)e0 entai.ed the im&risonment o! some "@=0=== &eo&.e 6o! a tota. &o&u.ation o! "= mi..ion7 and the e5e)ution o! at .east <0===2 ,et1een ">@< and ">@@0 more than "= &er )ent o! the Hun(arian &o&u.ation 1ere su-%e)t to &o.i)e a)tion0 1hi.e more )ommunists 1ere e5e)uted than under the Horth+ re(ime2?> Con4erse.+0 the :o4iet takeo4er o! the ,a.ti) )ountries o))urred -e!ore the de4astation o! 1ar and met an inta)t so)iet+ 1ith e.ites read+ to &ursue an e5istentia. !i(ht !or &h+si)a. sur4i4a.2 Its O&a)i!i)ation; 1as a)hie4ed throu(h mass de&ortations0 the eradi)ation o! traditiona. 4i..a(e .i!e0 and .ar(e/s)a.e re&ression2 3he num-ers in4o.4ed in and intensit+ o! armed resistan)e in the (uerri..a 1ars 1a(ed a(ainst the :o4iet arm+ -et1een ">44 and ">@= indi)ate the stron( nationa. s&irit under.+in( the stru((.e !or inde&enden)e2 4= A.thou(h di!!erent in s)o&e0 armed resistan)e in Lithuania0 'stonia0 and Lat4ia re.ied )ru)ia..+ on a de)en/ tra.ised mo4ement o! .o)a. )ommunities0 1hi)h &ro4ided the re-e.s 1ith a.. their su&&.ies and in!ormation2 4" ConseDuent.+0 the :o4ietisation o! &o.iti)s and )u.ture &ro4oked the emer(en)e o! Duasi/&ara..e. stru)tures o! so)ieta. and &u-.i) .i!e0 se&aratin( ethni) ,a.ti) &eo&.e !rom ethni) Russians2 :trikin(.+ enou(h0 the 4a.ue s+stems o! Lat4ians0 'stonians0 and Lithuanians in the ear.+ ">>=s 1ere mu)h ).oser to that o! 1estern 'uro&eans than to those o! other east 'uro&ean )ountries2 4< In eastern 'uro&e0 :o4ietisation started 1ith the )am&ai(n a(ainst Yu(os.a4ia in ">4A0 1hen the Comin!orm de).ared the Yu(os.a4 )ommu/ nist &art+ to -e in the hands o! !as)ists2 A.thou(h Yu(os.a4 )ommunism 1as esta-.ished 1ithout the dire)t inter4ention o! the Red Arm+ and resisted the in!i.tration -+ ,o.she4iks0 3ito;s methods o! se)urin( his ru.e
?>
Eeren) Va.i0 #i$t and #evolt in 2ungary! ;ationalism >ersus Communism 6Cam-rid(e0 MAP Har4ard 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">B"70 B42 4= :ee O4er+0 #ussias 0ar0 ?""/"<2 Resistan)e in 1estern 9kraine )aused an estimated "404== Oterrorist raids; -et1een ">44 and ">@?0 and the de&ortation o! a&&ro5imate.+ ?==0===/4==0=== &eo&.e2 In Lithuania0 :o4iet sour)es admitted the .oss o! <=0=== men0 !i(htin( a nationa.ist arm+ estimated at ?=0===2 A))ordin( to data !rom the :o4iet Ministr+ o! Interior0 in ">4C and ">4A some <@0=== Lithuanian (uerri..as 1ere ki..ed2 On the 1ho.e0 -et1een ">44 and ">@? -et1een <==0=== and <@=0=== ,a.ts 1ere de&orted and another "@=0=== sent to the (u.a(2 4" Ro(er *2 8etersen0 #esistance and #e3ellion! %essons $rom "astern "urope 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <=="70 <=@/>2 4< Ar&ad :Iako.)Iai and LaGsI.o G Eustos0 OVa.ue :+stems in A5ia. MomentsP A Com&arati4e Ana.+sis o! <4 'uro&ean Countries;0 "uropean Sociological #eview0 "40 ? 6">>A70 <""/<>2
"@=
1ere4er+mu)h:ta.inist in their nature2 As ear.+ as the .ate">?=s0 3itohad &ur(ed the Yu(os.a4 )ommunist &art+ in order to esta-.ish a !u..+ )entra./ ised &art+ on the :o4iet mode.2With the &ossi-.e e5)e&tion o! Romania0 no other re(ime !o..o1ed the :o4iet mode. more intimate.+ in the institution/ a.isation o! &o.iti)s0 e)onom+0 and domesti) se)urit+2 3he &ro).aimed internationa.ist orientation o! )ommunist )ountries )redited 3ito;s Yu(os.a4ia 1ith a4oidin( a -.ood+ )i4i. 1ar a.on( ethni) .ines0 1hi)h 1as seen as ine4ita-.e had 3ito;s ri4a.0 the CWetnik .eader *ra`a Miha%.o4i)G0 )ome into &o1er24? His ear.+ s&.it 1ith :ta.in in ">4C/A a..o1ed him to (ain a re&utation as a .i-era. &.ura.ist in the so)ia.ist )am&2 ,et1een ">4@ and ">4B0 ho1e4er0 some <@=0=== &eo&.e 1ere ki..ed in &o.iti)a. &erse)u/ tions and )on)entration )am&s2 44 A!ter the s&.it !rom :ta.in0 3ito took the o&&ortunit+ tosta(e a massi4e anti/Comin!ormist &ur(e to).eanse the .and o! a.. &otentia. trou-.emakers0 1hi)h .ed to a 1idenin( &ur(e a(ainst rea. and ima(inar+ !o..o1ers o! the Comin!orm 6i3eovci724@ Whi.e 3ito;s su))ess 4indi)ated his methods 1ith the &artisan/.ed stru((.e !or Yu(os.a4 inde&enden)e !rom :ta.in;s :o4iet 9nion0 the initia..+ insi(ni!i)ant Romanian )ommunist &art+ (ained in!.uen)e as a resu.t o! the seiIure o! northern 3rans+.4ania -+ the Red Arm+ in ">44 and the su-seDuent :o4iet &ressure on domesti) Romanian &o.i)+2 '5terna..+0 Romania;s .ate shi!t o! 1ar a..ian)es in Au(ust ">44 .ed to the in4o.4ement o! the Romanian arm+ on the side o! the A..ies2 Interna..+0 the :o4iets su&&orted the Mationa. *emo)rati) Eront and0 in .ate Ee-ruar+ ">4@0 !or)ed Fin( Mi)hae. to dismiss the Rades)u (o4ernment2 He had to nominate the (o4ernment o! 8etru HroIa0 in 1hi)h the )ommunists )ontro..ed on.+ three ministries -ut 1hi)h 1ou.d -e a.to(ether su-ser4ient to the :o4iet 9nion and res&onsi4e to )ommu/ nist &ressure2 On)e in &o1er0 the Romanian )ommunist &art+ turned its under(round )ons&iratoria. e5&erien)e o! the inter/1ar &eriod into a de.i-erate &er&etuation o! a ).imate o! !ear and sus&i)ion2 4B 8ur(es a.. o4er eastern 'uro&e a!!e)ted not on.+ o-s)ure !i(ures -ut a.so &rominent &art+ .eaders su)h as Fo)Ki Uo5e in A.-ania 6Ma+/June ">4>70 LaGsI.o G Ra%k 6:e&tem-er ">4>7 in Hun(ar+0 3rai)ho Fosto4 6June ">4>7 in ,u.(aria0 Lu)reKiu 8atraK)anu 6Ee-ruar+ ">4A7 in Romania0 or Rudo.! :.aGnsk+ G0,edri)hHeminder0andV.adimirC.ementis6Mo4em-er ">@<7 in CIe)hos.o4akia2 Common.+0 the &ur(es are seen as the ma%or
4? 44 4@ 4B
Hu(h :eton/Watson0 ;ationalism and Communism! "ssays *+@--*+-. 6LondonP Methuen0 ">B470>=2 Moe. Ma.)o.m0 8osnia! A Short 2istory 6,asin(stokeP Ma)mi..an0 ">>470 ">?2 ,ana)0 0ith Stalin Against Tito0 "@42 V.adimir 3ismaneanu0 Stalinism $or All Seasons! A Political 2istory o$ #omanian Communism 6,erke.e+P 9ni4ersit+ o! Ca.i!ornia 8ress0 <==?70 ?C/A42
"@"
mo4e to im&.ement Mos)o1/steered &o1er in eastern 'uro&e -+ e.imi/ natin( domesti) )ommunist &art+ e.ites2 Yet these tria.s and the radi)a. &ur(in( o! &art+ )adres 1ere not the s+m-o. o! stren(th or a mora. &ur&ose de!endin( a )ommunist ethos2 Mot un.ike ">"C in Russia0 the 4io.en)e un.eashed under the :e)ond Wor.d War re(imes o! o))u&ation 1as the ne)essar+ -a)k(round !or ,o.she4ik te)hniDues o! &o1er2 4C 3he main tar(ets o! &ur(e tria.s 1ere those )ommunist .eaders 1ho had not &assed an initiation in &art+ matters in the :o4iet 9nion2 3he+ readi.+ admitted that the+ 1ere not (ood )ommunists0 and that0 -+ these tria.s0 -+ admittin( sins the+ did not )ommit0 the+ 1ere a-.e to re)ti!+ their errors2 With the &ossi-.e e5)e&tion o! 8atraK)anu in Romania0 none o! the )ommunists ste&&ed out o! their ro.e durin( the &u-.i) tria.s0 remainin( !aith!u. )ommunists -+ )on!essin( to a.. the )har(es2 We ma+ -.ame :ta.in;s &aranoia !or their e5e)ution or assume the sheer desire !or :o4iet domination to -e at the root o! esta-.ishin( .eadershi&s de&endent on Mos)o12 3he tri)kster nature o! ,o.she4ik .eadershi&0 ho1e4er0 su(/ (ests that it 1as entire.+ rationa. to &ur(e &o.iti)ians 1ith an idea. o! )ommunism as a )onso.idated s+stem aimed at domesti) &ea)e and sta-i.it+2 Communists 1ithout the e5&erientia. -a)k(round o! )i4i. 1ar and the &ermanent .ate )i4i. 1ar in the :o4iet 9nion 1ere indeed not (ood )ommunists in a tru.+ o-%e)ti4e sense2 ,+ their sin)ere -e.ie! in the su&eriorit+ o! )ommunism0 -+ their (enuine e!!orts to !i(ht the Orea.; enemies and )onso.idate the s+stem0 the+ re&resented a !undamenta. threat to the &o1er0 e4en the sur4i4a.0 o! the &art+2 4A 3he+ .a)ked the initiatin( e5&erien)e in the :o4iet 9nion that 1ou.d ha4e tau(ht them the !undamenta. se)ret o! the )ommunist &art+P that it 1as an im&otent tri)kster2 In other 1ords0 the intentions -ehind the &ur(es 1ere not &rimari.+ dire)ted at the )onso.idation o! .eadershi& de&endent on the :o4iet 9nion -ut0 4er+ mu)h in the s&irit o! the &ermanent re4o.ution in one )ountr+0 de.i-erate.+ maintained )ountries in a )ondition o! !ear0 inse)urit+0 and )on!usion2 3he di4ision o! t1o 1or.ds 3he esta-.ishment o! )ommunist ru.e 1as su&&orted -+ so)ia. disinte(ra/ tion and the disso.ution o! &o.iti)a. identities0 i2e2 .imina. )onditions that .ent themse.4es 1e.. to the &ursuit o! ,o.she4ik/t+&e &ra)ti)es o! &o1er2
4C 4A
Hross0 O3hemes !or a :o)ia. Histor+;0 <</?2 A(nes Hor4aGth0 O3he Mature o! the 3ri)kster;s HameP An Inter&reti4e 9nderstandin( o! Communism;0 8h2* dissertation 6E.oren)eP 'uro&ean 9ni4ersit+ Institute0 <===70 <==/"2
"@<
3he end o! the :e)ond Wor.d War did not inau(urate a &eriod o! &ea)e or a ne1 start2 A.thou(h the 1artime e5&erien)e 4aried !rom )ountr+ to )ountr+0 one ma+ ri(ht.+ assume that it -eDueathed to the &ost/1ar era not on.+ &h+si)a. e5haustion and materia. destru)tion -ut a.so mora. )on!usion and )ontested memories2 OOne )ou.d not ho&e to understand the &eriod 1ithout the rea.isation that the 1artime e5&erien)e o! s&iritua. )risis0 )risis o! 4a.ues0 and normati4e disor(anisation &ro!ound.+ a!!e)ted notions o! )ommon1ea.0 )o..e)ti4e (ood0 and (rou& interests in the so)ieties o! the re(ion2 3he o.d o&erati4e de!initions o! .e(a.it+0 %usti)e0 .e(itima)+0 )ommon &ur&ose0 nationa. interest0 or raison d4tat 1ere &ut in dou-t0 shattered2;4> *es&ite the dee& )risis o! the inter1ar +ears and the !ai.ure to (ain nationa. so4erei(nt+ and a)hie4e nation/-ui.din( in .ar(e &arts o! eastern 'uro&e0 ho1e4er0 the 'uro&ean )i4i. 1ar !rom ">"C to ">4@ reinstated the mora. 4a.ue o! ha4in( .i4ed throu(h an / a.-eit &re)arious / time o! inde&enden)e2 Amidst des&air and ho&e.essness0 di!!erent &o.iti)a. !or)es !o)used &rimari.+ not on so)ia. or e)onomi) re!orm -ut on &reser4in( the &h+si)a. e5isten)e o! the nation and a sense o! identit+2 @= ,e+ond attem&ts -+ the MaIis and the :o4iets to o-.iterate this taste !or inde/ &enden)e0 this s+m-o.isation 1as si(ni!i)ant !or .ater 4ersions o! nationa. )ommunism2@" '4en under )onditions o! e5treme re&ression and mass murder0 su)h as in the !ai.ed 8o.ish resistan)e mo4ement0 &eo&.e main/ tained ho&es !or a mira)u.ous )han(e and a -e.ie! in the messiani) ro.e o! the West2 In the des&erate situation o! !orei(n mani&u.ation o! e.e)tions0 the+ )eased to -e.ie4e that an+thin( )ou.d -e a)hie4ed throu(h their o1n a)tion / )han(e had to )ome !rom e5terna. sour)es2@< The anti-$ascist myth Ithe enemy outsideJ ,esides the identi!i)ation o! enemies 1ithin0 the anti/!as)ist m+th 1as the ma%or s+m-o. !or (i4in( meanin( and sta-i.it+ to ne1 &eo&.e;s demo/ )ra)ies2 Communist re(imes dea.t 4er+ se.e)ti4e.+ 1ith the histor+ o! the :e)ond Wor.d War0 .ea4in( out an+ mention o! the !ate o! Je1s2 3he &u-.i) de!en)e -+ a stron(.+ )entra.ised state a(ainst / essentia..+ unde!ined / !as)ist enemies -e)ame the !oremost )ontent de!inin( ne1 &o&u.ar demo)ra)ies a!ter ">4@2 Leaders in su)h demo)ra)ies attem&ted to -o.ster their &o.iti)a. .e(itima)+ -+ )on4e+in( the histori)a. )ontinuit+
Hross0 O3hemes !or a :o)ia. Histor+;0 <?2 Fersten0 The "sta3lishment o$ Communist #ule0 4B>2 Roths)hi.d0 #eturn to Diversity0 <</B2 Fersten0 The "sta3lishment o$ Communist #ule0 ?"42
4> @= @" @<
"@?
o! !as)ism and0 at the same time0 stressin( the demo)rati) )redentia.s o! the anti/!as)ist resistan)e -+ )ommunist re(imes2 A.thou(h the anti/!as)ist m+th !o..o1ed the )ommunist .o(i) o! the identi!i)ation o! the enem+0 t1o dramati) e4ents at the 4er+ end o! the 1ar rein!or)ed :ta.in;s !ear and sus&i)ion2 @? 3he death o! Roose4e.t and Chur)hi..;s !ai.ure to -e re/e.e)ted in ">4@ de&ri4ed :ta.in o! the 1arm &ersona. re.ationshi&s he had entertained 1ith the Western .eaders0 es&e)ia..+ the 9: &resident2 3he sudden shi!t !rom ).assi) tri.atera. di&.oma)+ into a ho&e.ess internationa. morass s1e&t aside e5&e)tations and o&ened u& un)ertaint+2 8erha&s more )ru)ia..+0 the atomi) -om/ -ardment o! Ja&an in Au(ust ">4@ not on.+ )au(ht :ta.in -+ sur&rise -ut a.so demonstrated the 4u.nera-i.it+ o! the :o4iet 9nion in the not/ so/distant !uture2 Eurthermore0 :ta.in;s )ommunist e5&ansion had to !a)e not on.+ the task o! )onso.idatin( &o1er in &eo&.e;s demo)ra)ies -ut a.so o! )ontainin( the )entri!u(a. trends in 1or.d )ommunism2 Andrei Nhdano4 1as the dri4in( !or)e -ehind the se)ret meetin( in :Ik.arska 8oreb-a in :e&tem-er ">4C0 1hi)h ushered in the )reation o! the In!ormation ,ureau o! the Communist and Workers; 8arties 6Comin!orm7 in ,e.(rade2@4 Nhdano4;s t1o/)am&s theor+ de).ared that the 1or.d had s&.it into an im&eria.ist0 anti/demo)rati) )am& re&resented -+ the Western A..ies and a demo)rati)0 anti/im&eria.ist )am& .ed -+ the :o4iet 9nion0 1hi)h sou(ht to )onso.idate demo)ra)+ -+ eradi)atin( the remnants o! !as)ism2 3he a&&earan)e o! an anti/!as)ist ).ass enem+ in the 1ake o! ">4@ had so)ia. !oundations in the &u-.i).+ a&&ro4ed and dis)ursi4e.+ in)ited radi)a.isation o! desires !or re4en(e0 1hi)h .ar(e &arts o! the &o&u.ations asso)iated 1ith )on)rete e5&erien)es o! .i-eration2 In esta-.ishin( &u&&et re(imes in eastern 'uro&e0 :o4iet )ommunism 1ou.d ha4e &ro-a-.+ !a)ed a more arduous task had it not -een !or the e5haustion o! the &o&u.ation0 the u&rooted so)ia. situation0 the desire to sto& !i(htin( a!ter +ears o! 1ar0 and the ne1 1a4e o! hatred and 4i)timisation2 In 8o.and0 !or instan)e0 :ta.in 1as Duite a1are o! the 1eakness o! 8o.ish )ommunists0 an im&ortant reason 1h+ he ruth.ess.+ &re4ented the re)onstru)tion o! the &ro4isiona. (o4ernment as !oreseen -+ the Ya.ta a))ords2@@
@? @4 @@
V.adis.a4 Nu-ok and Constantine 8.eshako40 Inside the Fremlins Cold 0ar 6Cam-rid(e0 MAP Har4ard 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>B70 ?>/4B2 V.adimir 3ismaneanu0 #einventing Politics! "astern "urope $rom Stalin to 2avel 6Me1 YorkP Eree 8ress0 ">><70 <42 Fersten0 The "sta3lishment o$ Communist #ule0 "4B2
"@4
,oth in the :o4iet 9nion and in man+ &arts o! eastern 'uro&e0 )om/ munist m+ths o! the 1ar re&resented a histori)a. narrati4e !u.. o! in)on/ sisten)ies0 in4entions0 and .ies2@B In the :o4iet 9nion0 :ta.in resumed the (oa. o! -ui.din( a )ommunist so)iet+ in the )ourse o! the ne5t t1ent+ to thirt+ +ears2 :imu.taneous.+0 the m+thi) )onstru)tion o! :ta.in;s heroi) deeds )ame a.on( 1ith a ne1 1a4e o! 1eedin( out enemies2 @C 3he Hreat Eather.and War 1as to suit the needs o! the re(ime0 ser4in( as a stirrin( -ut sa!e.+ distant reminder o! the su))ess o! the so)ia.ist s+stem and its su&reme .eader2 9n.ike the )ommunist &atriotism in the 1ake o! the )i4i. 1ar in the ear.+ "><=s0 the )u.t o! the Hreat Eather.and War e5uded a &ro!ound !a.seness0 as it had -een &ur&ose!u..+ mani&u.ated and t1isted to ser4e &o.iti)a. needs2@A :ta.in;s &riorit+ 1as the &ra(mati) re-ui.din( o! so)iet+ -+ !reeIin( the memor+ o! the :e)ond Wor.d War in an o!!i)ia..+ )ommanded 4ersion o! histor+2 He tried to )ur- the memor+ o! the 1ar and o! its heroes su)h as Marsha. Nhuko4 or those in4o.4ed in the Lenin(rad resistan)e0 reser4in( a )entra. &osition !or himse.!2 A.thou(h he )ou.d not &.a)e a ta-oo on the 1ar as he had done 1ith the terror o! the ">?=s0 he a4oided &o&u.ar )ommemoration -+ demotin( Vi)tor+ *a+ !rom a state ho.ida+ to a re(u.ar 1orkin( da+ in ">4C2 3he 1at)h1ord o! the da+ in &eo&.e;s demo)ra)ies 1as state 4i(i.an)e a(ainst &ossi-.e re4ersa.s o&erated -+ remnants o! &re/">4@ state stru)/ tures2 In the 1ords o! the Romanian !irst se)retar+ o! the )ommunist &art+0 Hheor(hiu/*e%0 state 4i(i.an)e reDuired the &ur(in( and &uri!i)a/ tion o! ideo.o(+0 s)ien)e0 .iterature0 art0 and musi) / o! a.. as&e)ts o! )u.ture2@> Masterminded -+ the )ommunist &art+0 the senten)e in the tria. in Funmadaras in Ma+ ">4B eDuated this Hun(arian anti/Je1ish &o(rom 1ith an assau.t on the ne1 s+stem0 and de!ined the &ur&ose o! the ne1 demo)ra)+ as -ein( an anti/!as)ist -u.1ark2 B= :u((estin( histori)a. )ontinuit+ -et1een MaIism and the anti/Je1ish riot o! Funmadaras0 the &eo&.e;s tri-una. inter&reted anti/Je1ish a)tions as atta)ks on the demo/ )rati) tradition o! the )ountr+2 :u)h a re&resentation o! a )ontinuit+ o! !as)ism a..o1ed &ost/1ar ru.ers to &resent themse.4es as the heirs o! an anti/!as)ist &ast2 3he emer(en)e o! ne1 &eo&.e;s demo)ra)ies in eastern 'uro&e a!ter the :e)ond Wor.d War0 there!ore0 1as e5&.ained not as the resu.t o! the )o..a&se o! the &re/1ar re(ime0 -ut as a )onstant and )ontinuin( anti/!as)ist stru((.e2 In the )ase o! the Herman *emo)rati)
@B @A B=
Cohen0 Politics 0ithout a Past0 >C2
@C
Weiner0
@>
aking Sense o$ 0ar0 ??/@2
3umarkin0 The %iving and the Dead0 "@@2 :ee ,ana)0 0ith Stalin Against Tito0 "?<2 8Vter A&or0 O3he Creati4e EearP Eas)ism0 Anti/:emitism0 *emo)ra)+ and the Eoundation o! the 8eo&.e;s *emo)ra)+ in Hun(ar+;0 in ,o :trath0 ed20 yth and emory in the Construction o$ Community 6,russe.sP 8eter Lan(0 <===70 <B?/C>2
"@@
Re&u-.i)0 a ).ear distin)tion had to -e made -et1een the anti/!as)ist &resent and the !as)ist &ast0 as 1e.. as -et1een the )urrent so)ia.ist re(ime and the ne1.+ esta-.ished / and )a&ita.ist / Eedera. Re&u-.i) o! Herman+2B" 3he anti/!as)ist !oundation m+th radi)a..+ se4ered 'ast Herman+;s destin+ !rom that o! West Herman+ and0 at the same time0 harked -a)k to the (ood so)ia.ist traditions o! Herman+ su)h as the &easants; 1ars in the si5teenth )entur+2 :imi.ar.+0 in Yu(os.a4ia0 )u.tura. &o.iti)s and &o.iti)a. dis)ourse re)on/ stru)ted the 1ar on an anti/!as)ist and0 .ater0 anti/:o4iet -asis2 3he Comin!ormist mo4ement in Yu(os.a4ia sho1ed that the ).ea4a(e .ines -et1een su&&orters o! :ta.in and o! 3ito re!.e)ted to a (reat de(ree those o! the )i4i. 1ar -et1een the di!!erent nationa.ities2 B< Con4erse.+0 the s&.it -et1een 3ito and :ta.in 1as not a mo4e to1ards &o.iti)a. &.ura.ism0 -ut rather a ne)essar+ ste& !or 3ito;s endea4our to )onso.idate his re(ime2 :imi.ar.+0 the dou-.e m+tho.o(isation o! -oth a !as)ist enem+ and a :ta.inist one re!.e)ted ho1 the )i4i. 1ar 1as instrumenta.ised !or &ur&oses o! nationa. inde&enden)e2 It aimed to su&&ress histori)a. memor+ o! a )i4i. 1ar and its de4astatin( )onseDuen)es2 Yu(os.a4ia had -een &at)hed to(ether -+ numerous 1ars0 an un!ortunate e5&eriment in the inter1ar &eriod0 and a )rue. )i4i. 1ar -et1een ">4" and ">4@2 Communism 1as )ru)ia. to the esta-.ishment o! a &ost/1ar Yu(os.a4 state that 1as he.d to(ether -+ the ski.!u. use o! !earP the !ear o! Hreat :er-ian restoration0 the !ear o! a return to the 1artime massa)res0 and 6a!ter ">4A7 the !ear o! the :o4iet 9nion2 B? One o! the e!!e)ts o! !ear 1as that the 1ar 1as de/ethni)ised and &redominant.+ seen !rom a ).ass &ers&e)ti4e2 3ito and the )ommunist &art+ .eadershi& )on)ea.ed the enmities under.+in( the )i4i. 1ar -+ em&hasisin( the internationa.ist -rotherhood o! the Yu(os.a4 nations2 *es&ite this a&&ea. to -rotherhood and unit+0 )u.tura. &o.iti)s in the Yu(os.a4 re&u-.i)s de4e.o&ed into.eran)e a(ainst minorities and &o.iti)a. )on!.i)t 1ith other re&u-.i)s2 3he ideo.o(i)a. &ro(ramme to !a-ri)ate the heroi) stru((.e o! the anti/!as)ist stru((.e -+ Oor(anised !or(ettin(; -ra)keted the e5&erientia. rea.it+ o! the :e)ond Wor.d War in order to &ro4ide &eo&.e;s demo)ra)ies 1ith &o&u.ar .e(itima)+2 O!!i)ia. memor+ did not re!.e)t &.ura.it+0 -ut restri)ted itse.! to a !ra(mented and se.e)ti4e 4ersion that0 &arti)u.ar.+ in the edu)ationa. s+stem0 de.i-erate.+ re)a..ed on.+ those memories that a!!irmed the &o.iti)a. su&rema)+ o!
B" B< B?
Her!ried Munk.er0 OAnti!as)hismus und anti!as)histis)her Widerstand a.s &o.itis)her Hrundun(sm+thos der **R;0 Aus Politik und Ceitgeschichte0 , 4@/>A0 "B/<>2 ,ana)0 0ith Stalin Against Tito0 "@"2 I4o ,ana)0 O3he Eear!u. As+mmetr+ o! WarP 3he Causes and ConseDuen)es o! Yu(os.a4ia;s *emise;0 Daedalus0 "<"0 < 6">><70 "BA2
"@B
its ru.in( &art+2 Most im&ortant.+0 the 1ar;s inter/ethni) dimension 1as si.en)ed2 Containment 3he Co.d War 1as o!ten &ortra+ed as histori)a..+ ine4ita-.e0 sin)e the ideo.o(+ and &ra)ti)e o! tota.itarianism .e!t no o&tion other than to )on/ !ront the )ommunist threat !irm.+2 An+ ).aim a-out the ine4ita-i.it+ o! the Co.d War as an out(ro1th o! a )ontest -et1een the 9nited :tates and the :o4iet 9nion 1ou.d mean !o..o1in( an out)ome/.o(i)2 3he situa/ tiona. .o(i) o! 1ar!are -ut a.so o! the un)ertaint+ in the immediate &ost/ 1ar &eriod su((ests )aution in %ud(ements2 *urin( the :e)ond Wor.d War0 the (enera. nature o! the A..ied res&onse to :ta.in;s 1artime o-%e)/ ti4es 1as one o! dee&/!e.t emotion and so.idarit+ 1ith the !ate o! :o4iet Russia2 Wh+ 1ere the A..ies not tou(her on :ta.in0 1ho %ust t1o +ears -e!ore had sea.ed a &a)t 1ith Hit.erQ 3he ans1er shou.d take into a))ount the e5&erientia. -asis o! the des&erate and so.itar+ ,ritish !i(ht !or mere sur4i4a.0 under tremendous strain and an5iet+0 1ith the out-reak o! 1ar -et1een Herman+ and the :o4iet 9nion &resentin( Othe !irst ra+ o! ho&e 'n(.ishmen had seen in this 1ar;2 B4 Chur)hi.. identi!ied Hit.er;s atta)k on the :o4iet 9nion 1ith the e5istentia. threat !or ,ritain0 ar(uin( that the !i(ht o! e4er+ Russian !or his home.and is the !i(ht o! a.. !ree humans and !ree &eo&.es in a.. &arts o! the 1or.d2 B@ Eor(ed in the des&erate 1ar situation o! ">4= and ">4"0 the re.ationshi&s -et1een the demo)rati)a..+ e.e)ted Ameri)an .eadershi& and :ta.in 1ere emotiona..+ ).ose2 BB 3his emotiona. ).oseness 1as re!.e)tedinho1 Roose4e.tattimes (a4e &re!erentia. treatmentto:ta.inatthe e5&ense o!Chur)hi..-uta.sointheo!ten4er+tense re.ations -et1een senior )ommanders in the )am& o! the Western A..ies2 Assessments o! the ear.+ &ost/1ar &eriod 1ere mu)h more sensiti4e to the (.o-a. )ontin(en)+ o! histor+2 It 1as seen as a-surd to )onsider the a))identa. )onste..ation o! the Co.d War as -ein( &otentia..+ more dura-.e than the internationa. )onste..ation o! the outset o! the t1entieth )entur+2BC In the immediate a!termath o! the 1ar0 !or instan)e0 an armed )on!.i)t -et1een the 9nited :tates and the :o4iet 9nion seemed im&ro-/ a-.e2 A (ood indi)ator !or this 1as the -usiness ).ass;s attitude0 1hi)h / des&ite some anti/:o4iet rhetori) / &.a)ed &riorit+ on the &ros&e)ti4e
B4 B@ BB BC
Heor(e E2 Fennan0 #ussia and the 0est :nder %enin and Stalin 6,oston and 3orontoP Litt.e0 ,ro1n and Com&an+0 ">B"70 ?@42 Winston Chur)hi..0 The Second 0orld 0ar0 4o.2 III0 The 1rand Alliance 6,ostonP Hou(hton Mi!!.in0 ">@=70 ?C</?2 O4er+0 #ussias 0ar0 <>"2 Ra+mond Aron0 %es guerres en chaDne0 "<th edn 68arisP Ha..imard0 ">@"70 "?</?2
"@C
-usiness to -e done 1ith a 4er+ -i( )ustomer2 3his initia..+ &ositi4e attitude in -usiness and &o.iti)a. )ir).es0 ho1e4er0 )han(ed Duite a-ru&t.+ in ear.+ ">4B2 3he a))e&tan)e o! Fennan;s strate(i) ad4i)e in his .on( )a-.e o! << Ee-ruar+ ">4B Duite une5&e)ted.+ stru)k a )hord o! emotion at %ust the ri(ht moment0 1hi.e it mi(ht ha4e -een ne(.e)ted si5 months ear.ier and re(arded as redundant &rea)hin( to the )on4erted had it arri4ed0 sa+0 si5 months .ater2 BA :erious.+ dou-t!u. a-out the :o4iet .eadershi&;s (ri& on the rea.it+ o! internationa. &o.iti)s0 Fennan ad4ised the 9: administration to -e rea.isti) rather than h+steri)a. or a((ressi4e2 His arti).e O3he :our)es o! :o4iet Condu)t; &u-.ished in the Ju.+ ">4C issue o! 'oreign A$$airs under the &seudon+m OU; 1as a )a.. to a&&.+ a 4i(i.ant and e!!e)ti4e a&&.i)ation o! )ounter/!or)e a(ainst the threat o! :o4iet e5&ansion2 I! the strate(+ o! O)ontainment; 1as e5&osed to ha&/ haIard use and (ro1in( )on!usion a-out the ideas and )on)rete aims in4o.4ed0 this a.so he.d true !or Fennan;s ori(ina. de!inition o! the do)/ trine2 ,+ his o1n a))ount0 it 1as -ased on )are.ess and indis)riminate .an(ua(e0 .eadin( him to em&hati)a..+ den+ the &aternit+ o! the )on)e&t t1ent+ +ears .ater2B> 3he roots o! the Co.d War 1ere not )on!ined to a )ontest o4er materia. (oods0 e)onomi) 1ea.th0 territor+0 te)hno.o(i)a. )om&etition0 or re4en(e !or histori)a. de!eats2 C= 3he turn o! e4ents in the 1ake o! ">4@ &rodu)ed not on.+ a shi!t in mi.itar+ a..ian)es -+ disso.4in( the 1ar )oa.ition0 -ut a.so (enerated a Mani)haean s&.it -et1een a !ree so)iet+ and the e4i. em&ire o! tota.itarianism2 C" 3ota.itarian MaIi Herman+ 1as re&.a)ed 1ith the Oe4i.; :o4iet em&ire2 When 8resident 3ruman in a s&ee)h to a %oint session o! Con(ress on "< Mar)h ">4C )a..ed !or the 9nited :tates to en(a(e in the Hreek )i4i. 1ar0 he a)kno1.ed(ed the di4ision o! the 1or.d into t1o hosti.e -.o)s2 He made it ).ear that the 9nited :tates 1ou.d o&&ose an+ attem&t to a.ter that di4idin( .ine 1ith a.. its e)onomi) and mi.itar+ mi(ht2 3ruman &ersona..+ and his administration )ared 4er+ mu)h a-out the usa(e o! the term Otota.itarianism;2 3his notion and the stru((.e a(ainst it in the Ameri)an &o.iti)a. .e5i)on mo-i.ised &u-.i) su&&ort and &rodu)ed a strikin( in)rease in 3ruman;s &o&u.arit+2
BA
B>
C= C"
Heor(e E2 Fennan and John Luka)s0 1eorge '( Fennan and the /rigins o$ Containment *+@@-*+@-! The Fennan-%ukacs Correspondence 6Co.um-iaP 9ni4ersit+ o! Missouri 8ress0 ">>C70<4/@2 John Le1is Haddis0 O3he :trate(+ o! Containment;0 in 3homas H2 'tIo.d and John Le1is Haddis0 Containment! Documents on American Policy and Strategy& *+@<-*+<, 6Me1 YorkP Co.um-ia 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">CA70 <@2 :te!an Ross-a)h0 1nostic 0ars! The Cold 0ar in the Context o$ a 2istory o$ 0estern Spirituality 6'din-ur(hP 'din-ur(h 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>>72 A--ot H.eason0 TotalitarianismP The Inner 2istory o$ the Cold 0ar 6O5!ordP O5!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>@70 C</AA2
"@A
3he dee& un)ertaint+ a-out &o.iti)a. and e)onomi) )hoi)es in imme/ diate &ost/1ar 'uro&e )r+sta..ised in a Mani)hean )on!.i)t -et1een (ood and e4i.0 1hi)h )on!irmed ho1 the &o1er o! Hnosti) s&iritua.it+ 1ith a dri4e to 1or.d/immanent es)hato.o(+ s+m-o.ised institutiona.ised )on/ !.i)t &atterns2 Erom an e5&erientia. &ers&e)ti4e0 the immediate &ost/1ar &eriod sha&ed the order o! indi4idua. sou.s and so)iet+2 A))ordin( to Fennan0 the )on!.i)t;s s&iritua. as&e)t in a )ertain 1a+ a)tua..+ de!ined the Co.d War as the Otota. e5terna.isation o! e4i.;2 C< Henerated in the )on!usion -et1een 4i)tor+ and de!eat0 the tota. e5terna.isation o! e4i. 1as a )ru)ia. means o! s+m-o.isin( the -e(innin( o! the &ost/1ar era o! norma.isation2 3he main threat to Western demo)ra)+ 1as not an immi/ nent :o4iet atta)k -ut the &oor )ondition o! 'uro&ean &ost/1ar e)ono/ mies and the so)ia. and &o.iti)a. insta-i.it+ that resu.ted2 3he s&.it into t1o 1or.ds 1as not su&&osed to ).ose a.. doors -ut rather to kee& o&en the &ossi-i.it+ o! re)on)i.iation2 3he de).aration o! the O3ruman do)trine; maintained that Othe seeds o! tota.itarian re(imes are nurtured -+ miser+ and 1ant2 3he+ s&read and (ro1 in the soi. o! &o4ert+ and stri!e2 3he+ rea)h their !u.. (ro1th 1hen the ho&e o! a &eo&.e !or a -etter .i!e has died2 We must kee& that ho&e a.i4e2; C? 3he &o.i)+ o! )ontainment 1as an attem&t to a4oid the )onta(ion o! Western e)onomies 1ith the so)ia..+ im&o4erishin( -ut &o.iti)a..+ e5&.osi4e )ommunist e)onomi) mode.s2 3he !oundations o! the Marsha.. &.an as a &i..ar o! the )ontainment &o.i)+ hi(h.i(hted the need not !or 9: mi.itar+ assistan)e -ut !or e)onomi) aid0 tr+in( to )ountera)t &o.iti)a. &assions -+ the )reation o! e)onomi) interests2C4 Whi.e &eo&.e in West Herman+ eDuated MaIi Herman+ 1ith 'astern tota.itarianism0 'ast Hermans asso)iated !as)ism 1ith )a&ita.ism2 3he e5terna.isation o! e4i. a(ainst the tota.itarian enem+ 1as &erha&s o! (reat/ est im&ortan)e in the e!!ort o! demo)ratisin( the 1estern &art o! di4ided Herman+2 Eor the Ameri)an hi(h )ommissioner in Herman+0 Henera. C.a+0 the ideo.o(i)a. )ontest -et1een 'ast and West Herman+ 1as &er/ ha&s more e!!i)ient than a.. Ameri)an e!!orts o! demo)ratisation o! &ost/ 1ar Herman+2C@ In the 9nited :tates0 the in)i&ient Co.d War entai.ed an a.most s)hiIo&hreni) state o! mind2 Eee.in( -esie(ed and threatened -+
C< C4 C?
C@
Ross-a)h0 1nostic 0ars0 "AC2 Tuoted in H.eason0 Totalitarianism0 C?2 A &a&er &re&ared -+ the Fennan (rou& de!ined the )riti)a. state o! 1estern 'uro&ean e)onomies and so)ia. attitudes resu.tin( !rom this0 not a &ossi-.e :o4iet mi.itar+ atta)k0 as the main threat to the 'uro&ean -a.an)e o! &o1erR see Fersten0 The "sta3lishment o$ Communist #ule0 4="2 ,ar-ara Mett.er0 Demokratisierung und Falter Frieg( 8erlin! Cur amerikanischen In$ormationsund #und$unkpolitik in 0estdeutschland *+@<-*+@+ 6,er.inP Ver.a( Vo.ker :&iess0 ">C@70 A@/B2
"@>
e5terna. inse)urit+0 the 9nited :tates did not rea..+ Duestion its o1n mora. and materia. su&eriorit+2CB In a strate(i) reassessment0 dra!ted -+ a s&e)ia. :tate and *e!en)e *e&artment stud+ (rou& in ear.+ ">@=0 a su))ess!u. )ondu)t o! the &o.i)+ o! )ontainment 1as seen as eDui4a.ent to a4oidin( a di&.omati) !reeIe2 A !reeIe 1ou.d inhi-it e)onomi) initiati4es -+ the 9nited :tates and de&ri4e it o! o&&ortunities !or maintainin( a mora. as)endan)+ in its stru((.e 1ith the :o4iet s+stem2 CC A.thou(h the Co.d War must -e di4ided into di!!erent &hases0 there is an o4er1he.min( )ontinuit+ not on.+ o! &o.i)ies -ut a.so o! a )entra. )on)e&tion2 3he s+m-o.isation o! (ood and e4i. &eaked in the mora. )rusade o! the Rea(an era2 CA 3akin( the -roader meanin( o! )ontainment as ).ose to one o! the )entra. meanin(s o! the ).assi)a. notion o! arete0 to a -a.an)ed e5isten)e0 a takin( )are o! onese.!0 one )ou.d ar(ue that &ost/1ar )ontainment in man+ as&e)ts 1as an attem&t to re)o(nise and im&ose .imits on the .imit.ess e5isten)e o! Western .i!e2 C> Whereas in Fennan;s o&inion )ontainment in the )onte5t o! Ameri)an/:o4iet re.ations 1as su&&osed Oto tide us o4er a di!!i)u.t &eriod; o! an estimated ten or !i!teen +ears0 )ontainment 1as trans!ormed into a do)trine0 into an Oindestru)/ ti-.e m+th;2A= As an+ m+tho.o(i)a. )onstru)tion0 it has not on.+ a )on)e&tua. -ut a.so a &er)e&tua. stru)ture2 As the 4erita-.e 1ar &ani) in the :o4iet 9nion o! the ear.+ ">@=s intimates0 this &er)e&tion sustained the m+tho.o(isation o! the enem+2 3he Marsha.. &.an as the &rin)i&a. &ie)e o! )ontainment &o.i)+ 1as su&&osed to )onstitute a -e(innin(0 the !oundation o! a ne1 sense o! &ur&ose in Western so)iet+0 on the (rounds o! a4oidin( )onta/ (ion 1ith the 4irus o! tota.itarianism2 A" In this sense0 )ontainment 1as not on.+ meant to &rote)t demo)ra)+0 1e.!are0 and %usti)e a(ainst an outside threat -ut a.so to rein!or)e the &rima)+ Western )i4i.isation as a uni4ersa. 4a.ue des&ite the e5isten)e o! internationa. )ommunism2 3he meanin(s o! the :e)ond Wor.d War 3he :e)ond Wor.d War -eDueathed an am-i4a.ent herita(e2 It .e!t east 'uro&ean so)ieties &o1er.ess -ut a.so &rodu)ed s+m-o.s0 meanin(s0 and memories that 1ou.d sustain ho&es !or their nationa. se.!/a!!irmation2
CB CC CA C> A=
:tan.e+ Ho!!mann0 Primacy or 0orld /rder! American 'oreign Policy Since the Cold 0ar 6Me1 YorkP M)Hra1/Hi..0 ">A=70 C/A2 M:C BA o! "4 A&ri. ">@=0 in 'tIo.d and Haddis0 Containment0 4=<2 H.eason0 Totalitarianism0 ">=/<"=2 Fennan mentions Oen4ironmenta. destru)ti4eness; and the Otenden)+ to .i4e -e+ond our means; as t1o e5am&.es2 :ee Ross-a)h0 1nostic 0ars0 <"?2
A"
Ross-a)h0 1nostic 0ars0 <""/"<2
"B=
Materia. destru)tion0 &h+si)a. e5termination0 (eno)ide0 and !or)ed mi(ration )ou.d a.so (enerate (enuine so.idarit+ and )ommunit+0 shared in the eDua.it+ o! misera-.e )onditions2 3he e5&u.sion o! minorities and the redra1in( o! their territoria. -oundaries -rou(ht a-out a nationa. homo(enisation in )ountries su)h as 8o.and0 CIe)hos.o4akia0 and Hun(ar+2 In the :o4iet )ase0 a (enuine sense o! .i-eration emer(ed in the a!termath o! the Herman atta)k0 1hi)h made re&ressi4e &o.iti)a. )ontro. -+ se)ret &o.i)e )rum-.e and !reed man+ :o4iet o!!i)ia.s0 mana(ers0 and so.diers !rom an atmos&here o! &assi4it+ and !ear o! res&onsi-i.it+2 A< 8arado5i)a..+0 the !irst &hase o! the 1ar 1as the e5)e&tion to the ru.e2 3he mi.itar+ su))esses and the (reat im&ro4ement in :o4iet !i(htin( &o1er !rom the .ate autumn o! ">4< re.ate dire)t.+ to the demotion o! the mi.itar+ )ommissars in the :o4iet arm+2 3he hei(htened sense o! su-%e)ti4it+ and indi4idua. res&onsi-i.it+ at the 1ar )on%un)ture &ro4ed si(ni!i)ant !or the (enuine a))e&tan)e o! and identi!i)ation 1ith the :o4iet re(ime2 8atriotism durin( the 1ar 1as not a &o.iti)a. arte!a)t )reated -+ :ta.in;s &ro&a(anda -ut 1as &rimari.+ e5&erien)ed !rom -e.o10 endo1in( &eo&.e in e5istentia. )risis 1ith a (reater sense o! ini/ tiati4e and res&onsi-i.it+2 3he !irst t1o +ears o! the :e)ond Wor.d War )aused a &arado5i)a. sense o! !reedom and mora. stren(th2 It 1as Oa &eriod o! s&ontaneous de/:ta.inisation2 We 1ere in !u.. )risis - - - 8eo&.e sudden.+ 1ere !or)ed to make their o1n de)isions0 to take res&onsi-i.it+ !or themse.4es2 '4ents &ressed us into -e)omin( tru.+ inde&endent human -ein(s - - - :tran(e as it ma+ sound0 ">4" 1as more o! a .i-eration than 1as ">4@2;A? 3he Hreat Eather.and War a.so stimu.ated !ree thou(ht and autonom+ that a))om&anied the a)ti4ities o! masses o! &eo&.e to(ether riskin( or sa)ri!i)in( their .i4es in de!en)e o! their )ountr+ and its state2A4 3he anti/!as)ist m+th and the &o.i)+ o! )ontainment sea.ed 1hat the de4astation o! the :e)ond Wor.d War and the ad4an)e o! )ommunism into eastern 'uro&e had &re!i(ured2 'a)h )am& dre1 meanin( and .e(iti/ ma)+ !rom the !a)t that the OOther; 6the enem+7 re&resented the missin( .ink to a)hie4e !u.. identit+0 somethin( that 1as ar(ua-.+ .ost on)e the anti/Hit.er )oa.ition had -roken a&art2 3his s+m-o.isation o! 1ar e5&eri/ en)es as a di)hotom+ -et1een (ood and e4i.0 ho1e4er0 must not -e )on!ined to the )on!rontation -et1een t1o -.o)s in 1hat )ame to -e )a..ed the Co.d War2 3he (ro1in( re)i&ro)it+ in the on(oin( )om&etition
O4er+0 #ussias 0ar0 ?<>/?=2 Mikhai. He!ter as Duoted in 3umarkin0 The %iving and the Dead0 B@2 Mi)hae. 9r-an et a.20 The #e3irth o$ Politics in #ussia 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>C70 ?=2
A< A? A4
"B"
.ed to an in)reasin( simi.arit+ o! )om&etitors; attitudes in a -i&o.ar 1or.d0 1hi)h 1as )ounter-a.an)ed -+ the !ear o! annihi.ation2 Mutua. o&&osi/ tion not on.+ eased the ad%ustment o! their re.ations0 -ut ke&t them in a mimeti) re.ationshi& o! $r?res ennemis and ad4ersar+ &artners2A@ 3he ideo.o(i)a. di4ide -et1een the O.i-era. demo)ra)ies; and the O&eo/ &.e;s demo)ra)ies; o&erated 1ith )u.tura..+ determinist 4ie1s a))ordin( to 1hi)h Western demo)ra)+ 1as indi4idua.ist and !ree0 1hi.e )ommunism 1as )o..e)ti4ist and tota.itarian2 3he )on)e&tua. determinism o! the &ost/ 1ar &eriod )on)ea.ed the mani!o.d meanin(s o! the 1ar2 3hus0 the s&.it into a -i&o.ar 1or.d 1as not so mu)h an Oine4ita-.e; )on!rontation o! t1o &o.iti)a. s+stems2 Rather0 the e5&erientia. -asis o! un)ertaint+ and threat &ro&e..ed the sear)h !or a mora. &ur&ose !or so)iet+2 3he s+m-o.isation o! the Co.d War rested on the de!inition o! enemies and on a num-er o! re(iona. )on!.i)ts0 o! 1hi)h the Forean 1ar -et1een ">@= and ">@? 1as the most si(ni!i)ant2 3he di4ision o! t1o 1or.ds 1as in -oth )am&s a &ro)ess o! meanin(/ !ormation under situationa. &remises o! e5istentia. un)ertaint+2 3he ma%or assau.t -+ )ommunist ideo.o(+ on &u-.i) dis)ourse0 the stream/ .inin( o! edu)ation0 and the restri)tions o! the !reedom o! the &ress and historio(ra&h+ )ame a.on( 1ith the stream.inin( o! &u-.i) dis)ourse and risin( &o.iti)a. radi)a.ism in the West2 8o.iti)a..+0 the Co.d War )on/ stru)ted a de.i-erati4e !i.ter that esta-.ished the anta(onism o! &o.iti)a. s+stems -ased on the in)om&ati-i.it+ o! 4a.ues0 &ro)edures0 and -eha4/ iour2 Yet0 seen !rom the situationa. .o(i) o! a)tion and the meanin(s atta)hed to re&resentations0 memories0 and ima(es0 the Co.d War made in)om&ati-.e 1hat 1as a)tua..+ in)om&ara-.e2 AB Whi.e the &ro-.em 1as simi.ar.+ &ressin( !or ea)h side0 s+m-o.s0 meanin(s0 and re&resentations 1ere not -ased on a )ommon (round o! re!eren)es2 An+ re&orted a)t o! re&ression or to.eration 1as %ud(ed on the (rounds o! radi)a..+ di!!erent situationa. &remises2
A@ AB
Wi..iam Nimmerman0 Soviet Perspectives on International #elations *+<--*+-5 68rin)etonP 8rin)eton 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">B>70 "?@ and <A<2 Arne Maess et a.20 Democracy& Ideology& and /3Lectivity! Studies in the Semantics and Cognitive Analysis o$ Ideological Controversy 6O5!ordP ,.a)k1e..0 ">@B70 <@>2
3he arti)u.ation o! dissiden)e
In a time o! uni4ersa. de)eit0 te..in( the truth is a re4o.utionar+ a)t2

Attri-uted to Heor(e Or1e..
Cha..en(es to )ommunist &o1er 3he.ate:ta.inera made the :o4iet9nionintothemi.itar+andte)hno.o(i)a. su&er&o1er !or 1hi)h industria.isation and the 4i)tor+ in the :e)ond Wor.d War had .aid the !oundations2 Whi.e the territoria. e5&ansion o! the :o4iet 9nion into eastern 'uro&e0 the su))ess o! )ommunist mo4ements 1or.d/ 1ide !rom China in ">4> to Vietnam and Cu-a in the ">@=s0 and mi.itar+ and te)hno.o(i)a. su))esses su)h as the H/-om- and the .aun)h o! :&utnik in ">@C testi!ied to (ro1in( stren(th0 )ommunist &o1er 1as )ha..en(ed -+ an im&ressi4e return to di4ersit+0 es&e)ia..+ in eastern 'uro&e2 " 3his )ha&ter ar(ues that des&ite the !ai.ure to o4er)ome )ommunist &o1er0 the re4o.u/ tionar+e4entsinHun(ar+in">@B0inCIe)hos.o4akiain">BA0andin 8o.and in ">A= &rodu)ed authorit+ 4a)uums that entai.ed ne1 s+m-o.isations as markers o! )ertaint+0 1hi)h -e)ame the s&iritua. !oundations o! demo)ra)+2 '5&.anations o! )ommunism;s )o..a&se that are sensiti4e to the &ast ha4e ar(ued that a.. re(imes that ended &ea)e!u..+ 1ere !u..+ inte(rated into the :o4iet -.o)2< *ue to the )entra.ised )ontro. o! domesti) mi.itaries -+ the :o4iet )entre0 Hor-a)he4;s &o.i)+ o! non/inter4ention at the end o! the ">A=s &re4ented &o1er in)um-ents !rom usin( mi.itar+ !or)e in de!en)e o! their &o1er2 ,+ )ontrast0 a.. the )ountries that e5&erien)ed 4io.en)e durin( the )o..a&se o! )ommunist &art+ he(emon+ 1ere either )om&.ete.+ outside the -.o) 6A.-ania70 asso)iated 1ith it -ut not a !u.. mem-er 6Yu(os.a4ia70 or a mem-er in O&oor standin(; 6Romania72 3he .atter0 !or e5am&.e0 re!used to &arti)i&ate in man+ Warsa1 8a)t e5er)ises
" <
Jose&h Roths)hi.d0 #eturn to Diversity! A Political 2istory o$ "ast Central "urope Since 0orld 0ar II0 <nd edn 6Me1 York and O5!ordP O5!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>?72 Va.erie ,un)e0 Su3versive Institutions! The Design and the Destruction o$ Socialism and the State 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>>70 C=/" and "?42
"B<
"B?
and had no :o4iet troo&s stationed 1ithin its -orders2 Whi.e these ar(u/ ments are )onsistent 1ith a &ers&e)ti4e on )ommunist ru.e as -ein( )entred on :o4iet domination o4er its sate..ites0 an e5&erientia. &ers&e)/ ti4e needs to )ha..en(e not on.+ the idea that the )ornerstone o! )ommunist &o1er 1as mi.itar+ !or)e -ut a.so the 4er+ idea o! a -.o)2 At a re.ati4e.+ ear.+ sta(e0 the :o4iet 9nion had .ost mu)h o! its )a&a)it+ to )ontro. the domesti) a!!airs o! its a..ies -+ &o1er a..ian)es0 authorit+0 or in!orma. )hanne.s mastered -+ :ta.in2 ? With the )ontro. o&tions o! the :o4iet 9nion redu)ed to e)onomi) &ressure0 &o.iti)a. disa&&ro4a.0 and iso.ation0 )ommunist &o1er !rom ">@B at the .atest )ou.d -e main/ tained on.+ -+ &re4entin( its east 'uro&ean sate..ites !rom dri!tin( a1a+ to the Oim&eria.ist; )am&2 *es&ite the rea. di!!eren)es -et1een0 sa+0 CIe)hos.o4akia a!ter ">B>0 CeauKes)u;s Romania or FaGda Gr;s Hun(ar+0 it is there!ore &ossi-.e to ta.k a-out a )ontinuin( .e(itimation )risis o! )ommunist &o1er24 3his .e(itimation )risis 1as not an o-%e)ti4e !or)e due to the &ro(ress o! 1hi)h )ommunism 1as doomed to !ai.0 and demo)ra)+ o! a Western t+&e 1as -ound to im&ose itse.!2 Rather0 it indi)ated that the ideo.o(+ and &ra)ti)es that sustained )ommunist &o1er in the !irst &.a)e 1ou.d (enerate the sour)es o! anti/tota.itarian re4o.t2 I!0 a))ordin( to Hannah Arendt0 !ear0 .one.iness0 and des&air make modern t+rann+ &ossi-.e in the sha&e o! a tota.itarian s+stem0 then this !ear0 .one.iness0 and des&air -ear the seeds o! the se.!/destru)tion o! the tota.itarian s+stem2 @ Mo ideo.o(i)a. uni4ersa.ism )an annihi.ate man;s )a&a)it+ !or ne1 -e(innin(s and &o.iti)a. !reedom that is (enerated -+ the human need !or autonom+0 )ommunit+0 and se.!/assertion2 *es&ite this inherent 1eakness o! )ommunism0 its )o..a&se 1as not an ine4ita-.e )onseDuen)e o! su-4ersi4e institutions2 Rather0 traumati) e5&erien)es o! re4o.ution and de!eat 1ere im&ortant !or)es !rom O-e.o1; that trans!ormed meanin(s and )ons)iousness amon( the )itiIenr+ in some &arts o! the O:o4iet -.o);2 Rather than -ein( sim&.+ Os+m-o.i); in the &o&u.ar understandin( o! ine!!i)ient0 these )ha..en(es to )ommunist &o1er 1ere Duests !or meanin(0 1here !reedom 1as not an im&orted (ood or an idea o! 4a.ues and institutions -ut 1as (enerated at these )on%un)/ tures2 *issiden)e 1as not a s&e)i!i) t+&e o! &o.iti)a. su-%e)ti4it+ that )ou.d -e .earnt in te5t-ooks or de4e.o&ed in the en.i(htened minds o! iso.ated
? 4 @
N-i(nie1 ,rIeIinski0 The Soviet 8loc! :nity and Con$lict 6Cam-rid(e0 MAP Har4ard 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">BC72 Les.ie Ho.mes0 The "nd o$ Communist Power! Anti-Corruption Campaigns and %egitimation Crisis 6Cam-rid(e and O5!ordP 8o.it+ 8ress0 ">>?70 <</?2 Hannah Arendt0 The /rigins o$ Totalitarianism 6LondonP Heor(e A..en0 ">@"70 4CA2
"B4
indi4idua.s2 Rather0 it emer(ed as an e5istentia. res&onse to dramati) so)ia. e5&erien)es o!ten in4o.4in( 4io.en)e0 humi.iation0 and des&air2 3he &rimar+ (oa. 1as not to to&&.e )ommunist &o1er -ut to dis).ose its arti!i)ia.it+ and !a.seness0 a &ro)ess that started 1ith de/:ta.inisation2 :u)h e5&erien)es 1ere radi)a..+ &o.iti)a.0 as the+ 1ere .i4ed as )on)rete e5&erien)es o! so.idarit+ and )ommunit+2
*e/:ta.inisation 3he -e(innin( o! de/:ta.inisation is )ommon.+ asso)iated 1ith Fhrush)he4;s s&ee)h OOn the Cu.t o! 8ersona.it+ and Its ConseDuen)es; at a ).osed session o! the 31entieth 8art+ Con(ress o! the Communist 8art+ o! the :o4iet 9nion 6C8:97 on <@ Ee-ruar+ ">@B2 3he need to !orma.ise su)h a )riti)ism in an initia..+ ).osed s&ee)h0 ho1e4er0 ma+ ha4e -een a !un)tion o! the on(oin( &o1er stru((.e -et1een Miko+an0 Ma.enko40 and Fhrush)he4 !or as)endan)+2 3he death o! Jose&h :ta.in on @ Mar)h ">@? had &ro4oked a dee&.+ emotiona. rea)tion o! (rie! and des&air not on.+ in the :o4iet 9nion -ut a.so in man+ &arts o! eastern 'uro&e2 3his sudden .oss o! an a-so.ute authorit+ that had dominated the destinies o! more than one (eneration o! Russian &eo&.e !i..ed :ta.in;s su))essors 1ith !ear and inde)ision2 B *urin( the Osi.ent de/:ta.inisation; that !o..o1ed0 re4isions o! :ta.in;s re&ressi4e &o.iti)s 1ere )arried out in a se)reti4e and ad ho) !ashion2 C 3his si.ent de/:ta.inisation essentia..+ shat/ teredthe:o4iet ).aimtotota.&o1er0 -rin(in(a-outthese.!/de)onstru)tion o! the !undamenta. &rin)i&.e o! :ta.inist ru.e2 Moreo4er0 the dramati) intensit+ o! de/:ta.inisation must -e seen a(ainst a .ar(e.+ de/dramatised settin( on the e4e o! :ta.in;s death0 1hen :o4iet so)iet+ 1as )hara)terised -+ a &er4asi4e atmos&here o! immo-i.it+2A :ta.in;s attem&t to stream.ine so)iet+ 1as !a)ed 1ith an un1e.)ome -ut in)reasin( emotiona. deta)hment o! the &eo&.e !rom the )ountr+;s su&reme &o.iti)a. &ur&ose and0 simu.taneous.+0 the (ro1in( ri(idit+ o! )aste strati!i)ation in :o4iet so)iet+2 With the disa&&earan)e o! the a(e )ohorts that had a &ersona. re)o..e)tion o! &re/re4o.utionar+ times0 a s&iritua. -rea)h -et1een the ru.ers and the ru.ed o&ened u&2 Criti)ism o! :ta.in;s methods and !undamenta. o&&osition to his ru.e had
B C A
Mi)hae. 9r-an et a.20 The #e3irth o$ Politics in #ussia 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>C70 ?<2 :ee Fath.een '2 :mith0 #emem3ering Stalins >ictims! Popular emory and the "nd o$ the :SS# 6Itha)a and LondonP Corne.. 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>B70 <?2 Heor(e E2 Fennan0 Sketches $rom a %i$e 6Me1 YorkP 8antheon ,ooks0 ">A>70 "@?/B2
"B@
&re)eded his death0 as the !irst de/:ta.inisation in the :e)ond Wor.d War or the resistan)e mo4ements in the ,a.ti) )ountries indi)ate2 3he anti/ :emiti) )am&ai(n in the O*o)tors; 8.ot; o! the .ate :ta.in era 1as another turnin( &oint0 a !irst sta(e in the re(ime;s &ro(ressi4e and u.timate.+ !ata. .oss o! .e(itima)+ in the e+es o! the edu)ated e.ite2 > :ta.in;s death made the ru.in( ).ass a1are that it 1as no .on(er a-.e to ).aim e4en to itse.! that the end %usti!ies the means2 "= As :ta.in;s su))essors dis&ensed 1ith :ta.in;s methods0 the ru.in( ).ass 1as not a-.e to &reser4e the do(mati) )hara)ter o! )ommunism2"" 3he re.u)tant a-andonment o! the ideo.o(+ and do(ma )ru)ia. !or the )onso.idation o! )ommunism 1ou.d +ie.d to a stron(er &o1erP !ear o! the e!!e)t &u-.i) o&inion in the 1or.d 1ou.d ha4e on its a-so.ute &o1er2 Fhrush)he4;s )ritiDue o! the :ta.in )u.t o))urred in the )onte5t o! a ma%or stru)tura. trans!ormation that had -een (oin( on sin)e :ta.in;s death and re!.e)ted tenden)ies in so)iet+ that had started mu)h ear.ier2 3he short three months o! La4renti ,eria;s rise to &o1er -et1een Mar)h and Ju.+ ">@? indi)ated a ).ear shi!t to1ards a more &ra(mati) a&&roa)h to &o.iti)s2 3he ,a.ti) )ountries 1ere (i4en serious &ros&e)ts o! nationa. autonom+2"< Moreo4er0 ,eria initiated the 1a4e o! .i-erations !rom (u.a( )am&s and insta..ed Imre Ma(+ as !irst &art+ se)retar+ in Hun(ar+2 Most im&ortant.+0 the 1orkers; &rotests on "C June ">@? in the Herman *emo)rati) Re&u-.i) 1ere dire)t.+ .inked to :ta.in;s death and to ,eria;s short/term .i-era.isation &o.i)ies2 3he &rodu)tion o! )onsumer (oods 1as ste&&ed u&0 .eadin( to a situation 1here their (ro1th out/ stri&&ed the (ro1th o! industria. &rodu)tion2 In ear.+ ">@?0 the )ommu/ nist re(ime in 'ast Herman+ a&&eared to -e !urther 1eakened -+ a stead+ !.i(ht o! )itiIens into West Herman+ and -+ (ro1in( !ood shorta(es2 "? As the ne1 :o4iet .eadershi& 1as not 1i..in( to )ontinue the e5traordinar+ e)onomi) and !inan)ia. su&&ort !or the 'ast Herman re(ime0 the &o.it/ -uro o! the :o)ia.ist 9nited 8art+ 6:'*7 im&.emented a ne1 .ine -+ im&osin( a (enera. in)rease o! "= &er )ent in a.. 1ork Duotas and threat/ enin( 1a(e redu)tions2"4 A.thou(h the ensuin( mass demonstrations o!
> "= "" "< "? "4
:hei.a EitI&atri)k0 OI :ai.ed a1a+ 1ith a Mi(ht+ 8ush0 Me4er to Return;0 %ondon #eview o$ 8ooks0 <C0 B 6"C Mar)h <==@70 B2 Mikita :2 Fhrush)he40 Fhrushchev #emem3ers0 trans2 and ed2 :tro-e 3a.-ot 6Me1 YorkP ,antam0 ">C=70 ?C<2 :e1er+n ,ia.er0 Stalins Successors 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">A<72 Leonard :)ha&iro0 The /rigin o$ the Communist Autocracy 6LondonP H2 ,e.. and :ons0 ">@@70<4C2 In the !irst ha.! o! ">@? a.one an estimated <<@0=== &eo&.e .e!t the H*R2 Arnu.! ,arin(0 :prising in "ast 1ermany! Gune *5& *+<. 0 trans2 !rom the Herman -+ Hera.d Onn 6Itha)a and LondonP Corne.. 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">C<72
"BB
"C June ">@? in4o.4ed u& to ?==0=== &eo&.e0 the+ !ai.ed to entai. a &o&u.ar u&risin(0 as the )entres 1ere industria. 1ork units and rare.+ in4o.4ed the 1ider &o&u.ation2 3he utter.+ s&ontaneous 1a4e o! demonstrations .a)ked an+ strate(i) or &ra)ti)a. o-%e)ti4es and had e--ed a1a+ -e!ore :o4iet troo&s inter4ened2 Whi.e these attem&ts at .i-era.isation 1ere soon o4ershado1ed -+ the &o1er stru((.e in the Frem.in0 the se)ond e5&erien)e o! de/:ta.inisation a!ter ">@B -rou(ht a-out rea. s&a)es o! !reedom2 9nder Fhrush)he4;s ru.e0 so)ia. unrest )onsidera-.+ in)reased0 and the authorities had to re&ress e.e4en u&risin(s o! more than ?== &eo&.e2 "@ *e/:ta.inisation re4i4ed the )ate(or+ Odemo)ra)+; in :o4iet so)iet+2 "B One )entra. as&e)t o! Hor-a)he4;s rise to &o1er in ">A@ is that he and his ma%or a..ies su)h as Li(a)he4 and Yako4.e4 1ere &art o! the (eneration o! the ">B=s 6 shestidesiatki70 1hose &er)e&tions o! so)ia. and &o.iti)a. rea.it+ 1ere .ar(e.+ sha&ed in the a!termath o! ">@B2 3his (rou& o! .eaders not on.+ %oined the &art+ a!ter the :e)ond Wor.d War and had -e)ome &ro!essiona. &o.iti)ians durin( the Fhrush)he4 era2 3he+ had a.so e5&erien)ed si(/ ni!i)ant &ersona. mo-i.it+ and0 in the )ase o! Yako4.e40 e5)han(e &ro/ (rammes 1ith the 9nited :tates2 Ar(ua-.+0 the .etter o! the :o4iet dissident mo4ement to the :o4iet .eaders on "> Mar)h ">C= &re!i(ured the inte..e)tua. thrust o! Hor-a)he4;s perestroika and his dis)ourse on demo)ratisation2"C Mu)h o! its s&e)i!i) 4o)a-u.ar+ / su)h as Osta(nation;0 the ur(ent need to a))e.erate Os)ienti!i) and te)hni)a. &ro(ress;0 or Odemo/ )ratisation; that shou.d stren(then and maintain the .eadin( ro.e o! the &art+0 throu(h the introdu)tion o! Omu.ti/)andidate e.e)tions; and Omeas/ ures dire)ted to1ard in)reasin( &u-.i) dis)ussion in the 1ork o! (o4ern/ in( -odies; / 1ou.d -e)ome a &rominent &art o! the re(ime;s re!orm dis)ourse in the perestroika &eriod2 In &arts o! eastern 'uro&e0 this &ro)ess o! deta)hment !rom and sus&i)ion o! )ommunism 1as rein!or)ed -+ as&irations to nationa. inde&enden)e2 Varieties o! re4o.ution A&art !rom the O(reat e4ents; that marked dee& not)hes in the histor+ o! humanit+ in the t1entieth )entur+0 other0 Ose)ond/).ass; re4o.utions are
V.adimir A2 FoI.o4 et a.20 assovye 3esporiadki v SSS# pri Fhrushcheve i 8re)hneve I*+<.-nachalo *+6,-x gg(J 6Mo4osi-irskP :io-irskii Fhrono(ra!2 ">>>72 "B 9r-an et a.20 The #e3irth o$ Politics in #ussia0 ?B2 "C :ee the te5t in Ri)hard :ak1a0 ed20 The #ise and 'all o$ the Soviet :nion *+*5-*++* 6London and Me1 YorkP Rout.ed(e0 ">>>70 ?C4/>R !or an ana.+sis0 see 9r-an et a.20 The #e3irth o$ Politics in #ussia0 B=/42
"@
"BC
)ru)ia. !or the e4o.ution o! indi4idua. nations2"A 3he re4o.utions in Hun(ar+ in ">@B0 in CIe)hos.o4akia in ">BA0 or in 8o.and in ">A= ha4e -een &er)ei4ed most.+ as !ai.ed re4o.ts -+ the &o&u.a)e a(ainst the a../ mi(ht+ :o4iet mi.itar+ ma)hine2 "> 3he+ 4aried )onsidera-.+ as re(ards the s)o&e o! )o..e)ti4e a)tion0 the re!orm o-%e)ti4es0 the (eo&o.iti)a. settin(0 and the res&onses o! &o1er in)um-ents2 As the+ did not en!or)e su-stantia. dis)ontinuities in &o1er stru)tures / des&ite &rom&tin( some modi!i)ations o! the ideo.o(i)a. and &ra)ti)a. )ourse o! )ommunist re(imes / the+ are ).assi!ied as either &re.udes or a!termaths o! a &arti)/ u.ar su-&hase o! )ommunist &o.iti)a. e4o.ution2 In the a!termath o! the tha1 &eriod0 the :o4iet 9nion entered the &eriod o! sta(nation0 Hun(ar+ a!ter ">@B de4e.o&ed Fadarism0 CIe)hos.o4akia a!ter ">BA took on the &ath o! re&ressi4e norma.isation0 and martia. .a1 in 8o.and in .ate ">A" entai.ed a &re)arious re-a.an)in( o! the status Duo2 3he Hun(arian re4o.ution 1as o!ten des)ri-ed as a (enuine attem&t to dis)ontinue :o4iet/t+&e ru.e and to re&.a)e it 1ith a nationa. (o4ernment -ased on 1orkers; )oun)i.s2 In CIe)hos.o4akia0 the im&etus !or )han(e )ame !rom 1ithin the re(ime0 essentia..+ &ro&e..ed -+ ideo.o(i)a. disi..u/ sionment 1ith :ta.inism and aimin( at Oso)ia.ism 1ith a human !a)e;2 In the a!termath o! the Hun(arian re4o.ution in ">@B0 a short &eriod o! mass terror 1as !o..o1ed -+ an e5tended sear)h !or )om&romise2 In &ost/">BA CIe)hos.o4akia0 a short/term sear)h !or )om&romise 1as !o..o1ed -+ a .on(/term re&ressi4e &o.i)+ in the norma.isation re(ime2 Re&ression in CIe)hos.o4akia )ontinued -e)ause o! the a-sen)e o! -road so)ieta. resist/ an)e0 o! )entres o! inde&endent &o.iti)a. a)ti4it+0 and o! si(ni!i)ant &o&/ u.ar mo-i.isation2 :u)h tenden)ies &re4ai.ed in Hun(ar+ and 8o.and 1here the ).ea4a(e -et1een state and so)iet+ 1as mu)h stron(er2 3he dee& im&a)t o! :ta.inist re&ression in Hun(ar+ -ore the seeds o! )ha..en(es to )ommunist &o1er2 3he re-uria. in summer ">@B o! LaGsI.o G Ra%k0 a reha-i.itated 4i)tim o! a ">4> sho1 tria.0 &ro4ed to -e a dress rehearsa. !or so.idarit+ !rom -e.o1 as it -rou(ht thousands o! &eo&.e to(ether in a s+m-o.i) mani!estation a(ainst :ta.inist ru.e2 <= Erom the -e(innin( to the end o! the Hun(arian re4o.ution o! ">@B0 the demands o! the 4arious re4o.utionar+ )ommittees and 1orkers; )oun)i.s !or nationa. inde&enden)e and demo)rati) !reedom 1ere not )ou)hed in terms o!
"A
"> <=
Mi.an Fundera0 Ignorance! A ;ovel0 trans2 Linda Asher 6Me1 YorkP Har&er 8erennia.0 <==<70""/"<2 Fundera a.so mentions ">4A as the moment 1hen Yu(os.a4 )itiIens rose u& a(ainst :ta.in2 HrIe(orI 'kiert0 The State Against Society! Political Crises and Their A$termath in "ast Central "urope 68rin)etonP 8rin)eton 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>B70 <=C2 Heor(e :)ho&!.in0 Politics in "astern "urope *+@<-*++A 6O5!ord and Cam-rid(eP ,.a)k1e..0 ">>?70 "<@/B2
"BA
).aims !or materia. 1e.!are or o! &hi.oso&hi) %usti!i)ations0 as in Fossuth;s de).aration o! inde&enden)e o! "A4>0 -ut &.a)ed s&iritua. 4a.ues o4er e)onomi) and so)ia. as&e)ts2 <" 3he ).eansin( o! &u-.i) &.a)es o! s+m-o.s o! &o1er su)h as the red star0 :ta.in statues0 and :o4iet 1ar memoria.s si(ni!ied s&iritua. .i-eration2<< A.thou(h a s&e)i!i)a..+ Hun(arian e4ent0 O)to-er ">@B 1as i(nited -+ the Os&ark; &ro4ided -+ the 8o.ish O)to-er2 <? 3he trium&hant s&ee)h o! WLad+sLa1 HomuLka0 the reinstated !irst se)retar+ o! the 8o.ish )ommunist &art+0 -e!ore an enthusiasti) 8o.ish &u-.i) on <= O)to-er ">@B 1as &u-.ished in !u.. in a Hun(arian ne1s&a&er three da+s .ater2 3his 4er+ da+ the !irst student demonstration in Hun(ar+ assem-.ed u& to "=0=== demonstrators and took o4er the streets o! ,uda&est in a !e1 hours2 <4 3he s.o(ans )hanted in !ront o! the statue o! the 8o.ish (enera. JoGIe! ,em / the hero o! the Hun(arian re4o.ution o! "A4A/> / in).uded OInde&enden)e -ased on !reedom and eDua.it+c;0 O8o.and sho1s us the 1a+R .et;s !o..o1 the Hun(arian 1a+c;0 and OLon( .i4e the 8o.ish nationc; <@ :tartin( !rom <? O)to-er0 there 1as a 4irtua. e5&.osion in &u-.i) de-ate0 e5)han(es o! &oints o! 4ie1 that took the !orm o! reso.utions0 mani!estos0 hand-i..s0 and -rie! tra)ts2 ,road)astin( at 4er+ short inter4a.s0 the Hun(arian re4o.utionaries indu.(ed themse.4es in the sheer &.easure o! s&ee)h2 @B in 8o.and and in Hun(ar+ to a.. sate..ite states0 in a &ers&e)ti4e radi)a..+ di!!erent !rom the o!!i)ia. :o4iet a))ounts2 One im&ortant im&u.se !or Yu(os.a4ia;s ro.e in in!ormin( 8o.es a-out Hun(arian e4ents and 4i)e 4ersa 1as the animosit+ a(ainst MaGt+a Gs RaGkosi0 1ho had )ondu)ted the ">4A anti/3itoist )am/ &ai(n more Iea.ous.+ than other )ommunist .eaders2 <C 3he sudden su))ess o! &re4ious.+ )autious o&&osition inte..e)tua.s 1ithout an+ &ur&ose!u. strate(i) 4ision in Hun(ar+ in ">@B 1ou.d ha4e -een im&ossi-.e 1ithout the &re4ious mora. )o..a&se o! authorit+2 <A In a
<" << <? <4
<@ ersus Communism 6Cam-rid(e0 MAP Har4ard 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">B"70 ??</@2 H+or(+ Lit4an0 ed20 The 2ungarian #evolution o$ *+<- 6Me1 YorkP Lon(man0 ">>B70 BB2 Johanna Hran4i..e0 O:ate..ites or 8rime Mo4ersQ 8o.ish and Hun(arian Rea)tions to the ">@B '4entsP Me1 Ar)hi4a. '4iden)e;0 "ast "uropean Ouarterly0 ?@0 4 6<==<70 44?2 Heor(e Homori0 OErom the *iar+ o! an '+e/WitnessP Motes on the Hun(arian Re4o.ution;0 in Leo&o.d 3+rmand0 ed20 Fultura "ssays 6Me1 YorkP Eree 8ress0 ">C=70 "?C/@=2 Hran4i..e0 O:ate..ites or 8rime Mo4ersQ;0 44>2 :ee 'kiert0 The State Against Society0 @>2 Hran4i..e0 O:ate..ites or 8rime Mo4ersQ;0 4442 H+or(+ FonraGd0 Antipolitics! An "ssay0 trans2 !rom the Hun(arian -+ Ri)hard '2 A..en 6:an *ie(o/Me1 York/LondonP Har)ourt ,ra)e Jo4ano4i)h0 ">A470 C=2
"B>
state o! dee& )on!usion and .a)kin( orders !rom the (o4ernment author/ ities0 Hun(arian )oer)i4e !or)es 1ere re.u)tant to a)t de)isi4e.+ a(ainst the &o&u.ar demonstrations durin( the !irst da+s o! the re4o.ution2 3he &o.iti)a. .eadershi& did not inter4ene -et1een <? and <A O)to-er nor did the 1e../eDui&&ed Hun(arian arm+ im&.ement the martia. .a1 de)ree that the (o4ernment e4entua..+ &ro).aimed2 3he 4irtua. )o..a&se o! the )om/ munist &art+ (a4e rise to ra&id esta-.ishment o! ne1 institutions su)h as inde&endent 1orkers; )oun)i.s0 re4o.utionar+ )ommittees0 and &o.iti)a. &arties2<> 3he :o4iet inter4ention )rushed this mo4ement o! nationa. inde&end/ en)e0 &rom&tin( more than <==0=== Hun(arians to !.ee the )ountr+2 *urin( and immediate.+ a!ter the re4o.ution0 tens o! thousands 1ere im&risoned and more than <0=== &eo&.e 1ere e5e)uted2 Lea4in( Hun(arian so)iet+ initia..+ &o1er.ess0 the restoration under JanoG FaGda Gr soon o&ened u& s&a)es o! e)onomi) !reedom and a.so a &artia. de)on/ stru)tion o! the &o.iti)a. s+m-o.ism o! )ommunism2 ?= In ">B<0 the reha/ -i.itation o! the 4i)tims o! sho1 tria.s in the ear.+ ">@=s 1as !o..o1ed -+ a (enera. amnest+ !or &o.iti)a. &risoners %ai.ed a!ter ">@B2 In the same +ear0 JanoG FaGdaGrstru)ka-.o1atthesear)h!orenemiesasaninstitutiona.ised &attern o! !ear 1hen he de).ared0 OWhoe4er is not a(ainst us is 1ith us2; In A&ri. ">B?0 the &o.iti)a. )ommittee o! the &art+ a-o.ished the e5).usion o! ).ass a.iens !rom uni4ersit+ entran)e2 Hun(arian so)iet+ res&onded to this re&ressi4e &aterna.ism 1ith di!!erent strate(ies2 Whi.e some 1ithdre1 into indi!!eren)e and a&ath+0 others -e)ame massi4e.+ in4o.4ed in the se)ond e)onom+2 3hus0 the so)ia.isation !rom -e.o1 o! mass or(anisa/ tions and state a(en)ies &art.+ &reser4ed inte..e)tua. traditions and inde/ &endent .i!e/st+.es2?" 3his intera)tion -et1een the state and so)iet+ )ou.d -e seen as Othe si.ent re4o.ution !rom -e.o1;0 in 1hi)h initia..+ s)attered so)ia. (rou&s !or)ed )on)essions !rom their -ureau)rati) ru.ers and &rom&ted others to ar(ue a-out Othe ad4anta(e o! -ein( atomised;2 ?< A mo4ement -ased on s&ontaneous and Dui)k.+ a))e.eratin( rh+thms o! mass demonstrations is more 4u.nera-.e to -ein( destro+ed than s.o1.+ -ui.t u& net1orks o! &o.iti)a. resistan)e2 Whereas the Hun(arian re4o.ution
<>
Whereas on the e4e o! the re4o.ution the Hun(arian Workers; 8art+ had A""0"?@ mem-ers and 4<04=B )andidates !or mem-ershi&0 in the )ourse o! autumn ">@B the mem-ershi& dramati)a..+ dro&&ed to ?C0A"A in *e)em-er ">@B0 -e!ore risin( to around @==0=== -+ Januar+ ">B<R see 'kiert0 The State Against Society0 @= and A@2 ?= I4an 32 ,erend0 The 2ungarian "conomic #e$orms *+<.-*+66 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">AA70 "?4/B2 ?" '.emer Hankiss0 O*emo-i.iIation0 :e.!/Mo-i.iIation and Tuasi/Mo-i.iIation ">4A/">AC;0 "ast "uropean Politics and Societies0 ?0 " 6">A>70 "<</?"2 ?< Tuoted in 'kiert0 The State Against Society0 "=42
"C=
o))urred in a short !ourteen/da+ e5&.osion0 the 8ra(ue s&rin( in ">BA .asted se4era. months2 Initia..+0 the CIe)hos.o4ak re!orm &ro)ess 1as .ar(e.+ )on!ined to the o!!i)ia. institutions o! the &art+/state and ke&t these institutiona. stru)tures re.ati4e.+ inta)t2 As no serious inde&endent or(an/ isationa. -ases emer(ed 1ithin so)iet+ to )ha..en(e the authorit+ o! the &art+/state0 the &o.iti)a. sta-i.it+ o! the re(ime ne4er seemed to -e serious.+ threatened durin( the 1ho.e &eriod o! the CIe)hos.o4ak re!orm mo4e/ ment2?? Whi.e the CIe)h &art+/state sur4i4ed the intra/e.ite )on!.i)t a.most inta)t0 in Hun(ar+ in ">@B the )ommunist &art+ 1as .itera..+ )rushed and &ara.+sed2 9n.ike the Hun(arian re4o.ution in ">@B and the 8o.ish re4o.ution in ">A=0 1hi)h had nationa. so.idarit+ and s&iritua. re4i4a. at their )entre0 the 8ra(ue s&rin( is usua..+ not )onsidered as a Ore4o.ution;0 a.thou(h its )om&rehensi4e so)ia. dimension 1ou.d su((est su)h a des)ri&tion to -e a&&ro&riate2?4 O-%e)ti4e.+0 the 8ra(ue s&rin( )an -e em-edded in a re(u.arit+ o! )+).es o! )risis that s&an ei(ht de)ades 6">"A0 ">?A/>0 ">4@0">4A0">BA0">BA/>0 ">A>/>=0 and ">><7 o! Ouninterru&ted re4o/ .ution;2 'a)h date seems to )onstitute a -ruta. ru&ture 1ith the &ast0 -ut ne4erthe.ess maintains )ru)ia. )ontinuities 1ith it2 CIe)hos.o4ak &o.iti)s )an -e )hara)terised in terms o! an e5traordinar+ toin( and !roin( o! &o.iti)a. and so)ia. .i4es that (enera..+ took on a re4o.utionar+ )hara)/ ter2?@ :u-%e)ti4e.+0 the 8ra(ue s&rin( 1as the resu.t o! a (radua. a1aken/ in( o! so)iet+0 a sort o! )ree&in( o&enin( o! the hidden s&here2 In a s&e)i!i) 1a+0 the 8ra(ue s&rin( 1as not the -e(innin( -ut the O!ina. a)t o! a .on( drama ori(ina..+ &.a+ed out )hie!.+ in the theatre o! the s&irit and the )ons)ien)e o! so)iet+2 And that some1here at the -e(innin( o! this drama0 there 1ere indi4idua.s 1ho 1ere 1i..in( to .i4e 1ithin the truth0 e4en 1hen thin(s 1ere at their 1orst - - - One thin(0 ho1e4er0 seems ).earP the attem&t at &o.iti)a. re!orm 1as not the )ause o! so)iet+;s rea1akenin(0 -ut rather the !ina. out)ome o! that rea1akenin(2;?B Indeed0 the )ree&in( dis)ontent had an im&ortant in!.uen)e on the re(ime/initiated out-reak o! the )risis2 When A.e5ander *u-)Wek re&.a)ed Antondn Mo4otn+G as the .eader o! the )ommunist &art+ in Januar+ ">BA0 CIe)hos.o4ak so)iet+ remained a&atheti)2?C *es&ite a si(ni!i)ant
?? ?4 ?@ ?B ?C
'kiert0 The State Against Society0 "@A2 Eran[ois Ee%to and Ja)Dues Ru&nik0 eds20 %e printemps tch4coslova7ue *+-6 68arisP 'ditions Com&.e5es0 ">>>70 "<C/?42 Hordon :ki..in(0 O">BA2 9ne rV4o.ution interrom&ue;0 in Ee%to and Ru&nik0 %e printemps tch4coslova7ue *+-60 <A@/A2 VaG).a4 Ha4e.0 O3he 8o1er o! the 8o1er.ess;0 in John Feane0 ed20 The Power o$ the Powerless! Citi)ens Against the State in "astern "urope 6LondonP Hut)hinson0 ">A@70 4?2 'kiert0 The State Against Society0 "?A/442
"C"
o&enin( in the &o.iti)a. o&&ortunit+ stru)ture and the emer(en)e o! re.ati4e.+ un)onstrained &u-.i) s&a)e0 the institutiona. stru)ture o! the CIe)hos.o4ak re(ime remained a.most inta)t and the re!orm mo4ement 1as )hanne..ed throu(h e5istin( institutiona. stru)tures2 Yet0 a!ter the a-o.ition o! )ensorshi& in Ma+ ">BA0 CIe)hos.o4akia e5&erien)ed an e5&.osion o! in!ormation0 and the &ress &.a+ed a ma%or ro.e as a 4oi)e o! so)ia. )riti)ism0 stimu.atin( &o.iti)a. de-ates and esta-.ishin( !reedom o! o&inion2 As 1ou.d -e)ome ).ear a!ter the :o4iet inter4ention0 it 1as &rimari.+ the )u.tura. rea.m 1here s&a)es o! !reedom sur4i4ed -e+ond the mi.itar+ in4asion and )ou.d -e re!ramed as an inte(ra. &art o! the 'uro&ean )u.tura. tradition2 3he :o4iet inter4ention in CIe)hos.o4akia on <" Au(ust ">BA &rodu)ed a stron( resistan)e mo4ement under&inned -+ a s&ontaneous and dee& so.idarit+ o! the o4er1he.min( ma%orit+ o! the &o&u.ation2?A A.thou(h the e5isten)e o! a -road resistan)e mo4ement 1as not a !ore(one )on).usion unti. the end o! <" Au(ust0 sma../s)a.e e4ents su)h as the !ai.ure to disseminate inter4ention &ro&a(anda and the &ro/ ).amation o! the 8residium o! the Communist 8art+ )riti)a. o! the inter/ 4ention he.&ed to sha&e initia. &u-.i) &er)e&tions2 3he 8residium &ro).amation0 1hi)h de).ared the i..e(itima)+ o! the :o4iet in4asion0 (ained &o.iti)a. im&ortan)e on.+ throu(h the s&ontaneous emer(en)e o! a -road resistan)e mo4ement2 I! mu)h o! the s&ontaneous &o&u.ar mo-i/ .isation -et1een <" and <C Au(ust 1as s+m-o.i)0 the -ondin( e!!e)t o! mani!estations o! so.idarit+ in4i(orated &ersona. res&onsi-i.it+ and !riend.+ re.ationshi&s in so)iet+ 1here the a-sen)e o! dissenters -rou(ht &ride and satis!a)tion in a )ommon enter&rise2 3hus0 the )a&itu.ation o! the re!orm mo4ement -e!ore the mi.itar+ re&ression (a4e rise to the stron(est !ormu.ation o! an a.ternati4e and meanin(!u. 1a+ o! .i4in(2 3he s+m-o. o! &rotest a(ainst humi.iation -+ :o4iet &o1er -e)ame Jan 8a.a)h;s se.!/immo.ation in VaG).a4 :Duare in Januar+ ">B>2 A.thou(h 8a.a)h;s e5am&.e )ou.d not -e !o..o1ed0 nor had he e5a)t.+ -een a 4i)tim o! )ommunist re&ression0 this (reat ethi)a. a)t o! mart+rdom 1ou.d -e )ommemorated in massi4e s&ontaneous demonstrations in Januar+ ">A>2?> *es&ite the mar(ina.isation o! Charter CC0 !or man+ &eo&.e the s+m-o.i) markers o! nationa. &rotest a(ainst humi.iation 1ere )ru)ia. !or makin( ">A> the !u.!i.ment o! the 8ra(ue s&rin(2
?A
?>
E2H2 'id.in0 The %ogic o$ K;ormali)ation! The Soviet Intervention in C)echoslovakia o$ A* August *+-6 and the C)echoslovak #esponse 6Me1 YorkP Co.um-ia 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">A=70>?/"@B2 8adrai) Fenne+0 A Carnival o$ #evolution! Central "urope *+6+ 68rin)etonP 8rin)eton 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <==<70 <44/>2
"C<
3he 8o.ish se.!/.imitin( re4o.ution -e(an in the strike mo4ement in Ju.+ and Au(ust ">A= and !inished 1ith the &ro).amation o! martia. .a1 in *e)em-er ">A"24= It 1as -oth the )u.mination &oint o! a &re4ious )+).e o! )rises and the &re.ude to the round/ta-.e ne(otiations -et1een the 8o.ish )ommunist &art+ and the :o.idarnoG)G trade union in ear.+ ">A>2 A )om&.e5 )+).e o! )rises sin)e at .east ">@B had resu.ted in a (radua. -ut !ar !rom ine4ita-.e )on4er(en)e o! di!!erent !or)es in so)iet+0 united in dissiden)e and so.idarit+ a(ainst the )ommunist state2 4" Initia..+0 the 8o.ish inte..i(entsia had not o&&osed )ommunism -ut had su&&orted )ommunist authorities / more !or &atrioti) than ideo.o(i)a. reasons / in an e!!ort to re-ui.d a de4astated )ountr+2 '4en thou(h the )+).e o! &o.iti)a. )rises o! ">@B0 ">BA0 ">C=0 and ">CB did not )reate authorit+ 4a)uums su)h as in Hun(ar+ in ">@B or in 8o.and itse.! in ">A=0 the+ had an Oa!ter/.i!e;0 1hi)h nurtured o&&ositiona. a)ti4it+ and resistan)e 1ith a &o1er!u. s+m-o.i) re&ertoire2 4< 3he emer(en)e o! the :o.idarnoG)G trade union en.ar(ed an a.read+ e5istin( )ounter/&u-.i)2 3he massi4e dro& in &art+ mem-ershi& and the mem-ershi& o! near.+ "= mi..ion 8o.es in :o.idarnoG)G intimated a situation o! dua. so4erei(nt+2 4? 3he &o1er o! s+m-o.s a(ainst )ommunism o1ed its emer(en)e not to an anar)hi)a. menta.it+ -ut to the )autious and un&redi)ta-.e !or(in( o! an a..ian)e -et1een ori(ina..+ di4er(in( se)tors o! so)iet+ su)h as .e!tist inte..e)tua.s0 the Catho.i) Chur)h0 and the 1orkers2 :ti..0 the initiation o! an im&ortant strike mo4ement in HdanGsk and :I)Ie)Iin G in Ju.+ ">A= 1as not ine4i/ ta-.e2 A.thou(h the e.e)tion o! Faro. Wo%t+La as 8o&e John 8au. II in O)to-er ">CA 1as not the sour)e o! the -road mo4ement that -rou(ht :o.idarnoG)G into -ein(0 his !irst &i.(rima(e to 8o.and in June ">C> -e)ame the dress rehearsa. in terms o! s&iritua. mo-i.isation o! 8o.ish so)iet+2 Or(anisin( this 4isit 1ithout the he.& o! the authorities0 some "= mi..ion 8o.es attended outdoor )e.e-rations0 re).aimin( indi4idua. di(nit+ and s&iritua. .i-ert+0 -ut a.so e5&erien)in( a )o..e)ti4e s&irit o! mo-i.isation and em&o1erment2 3he 8o.ish re4o.ution 1as not &rimari.+ a matter o! settin( the Omi)ro; .e4e. o! so)iet+ a(ainst the Oma)ro; dimension o! the state2 :o.idarnoG)G;s
4= 4"
4< 4?
Jad1i(a :tanisIkis0 Polands Sel$-%imiting #evolution 68rin)etonP 8rin)eton 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">A472 Mei. As)herson0 The Polish August! The Sel$-%imiting #evolution 6LondonP 8en(uin0 ">A"7R 3imoth+ Harton Ash0 The Polish #evolution! Solidarity 6LondonP Hranta ,ooks0 ">>"72 :ee Jane Curr+ and Lu-a Ea%!er0 Polands Permanent #evolution 6Washin(ton0 *CP Ameri)an 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>B72 In 8o.and0 the num-er o! &art+ mem-ers de).ined !rom near.+ ?2" mi..ion in ">A= to a&&ro5imate.+ <2C mi..ion in ">A" and to some <2" mi..ion in ">A40 then remainin( re.ati4e.+ sta-.e u& to ">AAR see 'kiert0 The State Against Society0 @=0 A@0 and ?"A2
"C?
emer(en)e -rid(ed the (a& -et1een Omi)ro; and Oma)ro;0 -ein( the moment O1hen indi4idua.s0 -rou(ht u& in the tota.itarian situation0 1ere a-.e to o4er)ome their o1n mora. indi!!eren)e to so)iet+ and to themse.4es;244 3he s&irit o! )o..e)ti4e a)tion 1as )ontinued in the O.on( mar)h; -et1een ">A< and ">AA throu(h the under(round under )ondi/ tions o! i..e(a.it+ and so)ia. atomisation2 3he .ink -et1een indi4idua. destin+ and )o..e)ti4e identit+ 1as e5&ressed -+ the dissident Adam Mi)hnik in a .etter to the minister o! interior0 Henera. FisI)Iak0 1ho had -een res&onsi-.e !or the &ro).amation o! martia. .a12 OEor me0 Henera.0 &rison is not su)h a &ain!u. &unishment2 On that *e)em-er ni(ht it 1as not I 1ho 1as )ondemned -ut !reedomP it is not I 1ho is -ein( he.d &risoner -ut 8o.and2;4@ 3he arti)u.ation o! dissiden)e 3he di!!erent s+m-o.isations o! re4o.utionar+ e5&erien)es )on4er(ed on 4arious !orms o! resistan)e0 1hi)h )an -e seen as the e5&erientia. -asis o! dissiden)e2 It is di!!i)u.t to Omeasure; dissiden)e )om&arati4e.+ a))ordin( to the kind and de(ree o! &o.iti)a. !reedom and the s&e)i!i) !orms o! dissiden)e a)hie4ed2 Rather0 it has to -e a&&re)iated 1ith re(ard to the so)io&o.iti)a. -a)k(round a(ainst 1hi)h it arose2 What )ou.d -e an astoundin(.+ !ree a)t in Romania;s ethno)entri) and &aranoid di)tator/ shi& )ou.d -e seen as insi(ni!i)ant in the en.i(htened des&otism o! FaGda Gr2 3he 8ra(ue s&rin( )aused mu)h e5)itement in the ,a.ti) re&u-.i)s0 1here the in)iden)e o! indi4idua. a)ts o! de!ian)e su)h as raisin( the nationa. !.a( in)reased24B A.on( 1ith the re.ati4e o&enness o! Yu(os.a4ia and its )itiIens; interest in the West )ame e5)han(es 1ith )entra. 'uro&e0 1hi)h -oth rein!or)ed a sense o! Yu(os.a4ia;s materia. su&eriorit+ o4er )entra. 'uro&e and stren(thened &atrioti) !ee.in(s domesti)a..+2 ,+ )ontrast0 :o4iet )itiIens0 A.-anians0 CIe)hs0 and 'ast Hermans 1ere !ar .ess mo-i.e0 to the &oint o! -ein( &re4ented !rom an+ )onta)t 1ith the West2 ,ased on (eo(ra&h+0 (eo&o.iti)a. !a)tors0 and the &ra)ti)a. a-sen)e o! an inte..e)tua. emi(ration0 !or instan)e0 ,u.(aria;s o-%e)ti4e iso.ation 1as intensi!ied -+ !ee.in(s o! -ein( o4er.ooked and !orsaken2 In this )onte5t0 e4en the i..usion o! the Hun(arian 1riter H+or(+ FonraGd;s a&&ea. to the
44 4@ 4B
Jad1i(a :tanisIkis0 The Dynamics o$ the 8reakthrough in "astern "urope! The Polish "xperience 6,erke.e+P 9ni4ersit+ o! Ca.i!ornia 8ress0 ">>"70 <?C2 Adam Mi)hnik0 Polnischer 'rieden( Au$sat)e )ur Fon)eption des 0iderstandes0 ed2 He.(a Hirs)h 6,er.inP Rot-u)h Ver.a(0 ">A@70 BA2 :tan.e+ Vard+s and Judith :edaitis0 %ithuania! The #e3el ;ation 6,ou.derP West4ie1 8ress0 ">>C70 A@2
"C4
Ointernationa. inte..e)tua. aristo)ra)+; o! 'uro&e and the West seems &retentious and in)on)ei4a-.e24C A.thou(h ima(es !rom the OWest; 1ere in!.uentia. in sha&in( &er)e&/ tions o! o!ten idea.ised ima(es o! demo)ra)+ as Otota.; !reedom0 the emer(en)e o! dissiden)e 1as not &redetermined -+ en.i(htened indi4id/ ua.s 1ho es&oused s+stemi) a.ternati4es su)h as .i-era. demo)ra)+ or market )a&ita.ism -ut 1as !or(ed in &er!ormati4e dramati) a)tion2 A )om&arison -et1een the death o! 3ito in s&rin( o! ">A= and the rise o! :o.idarnoG)G in the summer o! ">A= indi)ates the dramati) )on%un)ture that 1ou.d !oster the unit+ o! the nation in 8o.and and a))e.erate the !ra(mentation o! the Yu(os.a4 !ederation2 Whi.e 8o.and 1as ethni)a..+ the most homo(eneous )ountr+ in the 'astern -.o)0 Yu(os.a4ia 1as a mu.ti/ethni) !ederation )om&osed o! si5 !edera. re(ions0 one o! 1hi)h 6:er-ia7 )ontained t1o autonomous &ro4in)es 6Vo%4odina and Foso4o7 as o! ">C42 Moreo4er0 the esta-.ishment o! )ommunist ru.e in ea)h )ountr+ had !o..o1ed t1o entire.+ di!!erent &aths2 Mot on.+ 1ere 8o.ish/Russian re.ations histori)a..+ 4er+ )on!.i)t/ridden0 -ut a.so the 1ar in "><= and the non/a((ression &a)t -et1een Herman+ and the :o4iet 9nion in Au(ust ">?>0 1ith the ensuin( o))u&ation o! eastern 8o.and -+ :o4iet !or)es0 had a.read+ &resa(ed :ta.in;s &ost/1ar :o4iet &o.i)+2 Aimin( !or a )om&.ete.+ de&endent )ommunist &art+/re(ime in a )ountr+ that had -een e5hausted -+ a &arti)u.ar.+ de4astatin( o))u&a/ tion0 :ta.in neither su&&orted the Warsa1 u&risin( nor did he 1ant sim&.+ a !riend.+ (o4ernment in 8o.and as he used to de).are2 3he im&osition o! :o4iet ru.e in 8o.and a..o1ed !or hard.+ an+ mani!estation o! nationa. inde&enden)e or se.!/a!!irmation2 Con4erse.+0 the seeds o! dissiden)e in the )ommunist -.o) )an -e seen in the 1ide/rea)hin( &o.iti)a. im&a)t o! the s&.it -et1een :ta.in and 3ito0 1hen Yu(os.a4ia 1as e5).uded !rom the Comin!orm in ">4A2 9nder the im&ression o! the emer(in( tota.itarian &aradi(m0 man+ Western o-ser4/ ers %ud(ed 3ito;s )on!.i)t 1ith :ta.in as a si(n o! emer(in( &o.iti)a. &.ura.ism in Yu(os.a4ia and :ta.in;s rea)tion as an a)t o! a((ression a(ainst 3ito2 Ho1e4er0 this 1as to underestimate the de(ree to 1hi)h 3ito;s administrati4e )entra.isation0 the mono&o.isation o! &art+ .eader/ shi&0 and the domesti) !orm o! re4o.utionar+ terror had -een 4er+ :ta.inist in nature24A 3he stron( &resen)e o! &ro/:ta.in Comin!ormists
4C
4A
Maria 3odoro4a0 OIm&ro-a-.e Ma4eri)k or 3+&i)a. Con!ormistQ :e4en 3hou(hts on the Me1 ,u.(aria;0 in I4o ,ana)0 ed20 "astern "urope in #evolution 6Itha)a and LondonP Corne.. 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">><70 "B"2 I4o ,ana)0 0ith Stalin Against TitoP Comin$ormist Splits in Pugoslav Communism 6Itha)a and LondonP Corne.. 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">AA70 <@C2
"C@
in Yu(os.a4ia 1as a.so a si(n o! :er-ian resistan)e a(ainst 3ito;s .eadershi&2 As this !irst )ase o! Onationa. )ommunism; su((ests0 dissiden)e re.ied u&on a sense o! &atriotism and the )on)ern !or -a.an)in( &o1er re.ations -et1een di!!erent nationa.ities -+ rein!or)in( :ta.inism as an ima(e o! the Oenem+ outside;2 3ito;s death not on.+ .e!t a 4oid o! &o.iti)a. authorit+ -ut a.so s+m-o./ ised the .oss o! meanin( o! the &ost/1ar Yu(os.a4 order2 :hort.+ a!ter his death on 4 Ma+ ">A=0 a !unera. ritua. 1as arran(ed that 1as intended to (uarantee the trans!erra. o! s+m-o.i) &o1er !rom 3ito;s dead -od+ to the s+m-o. o! the Yu(os.a4 !.a(2 4> 3his !unera. 1as si(ni!i)ant in so !ar as it e5terna.ised the (reat emotion in .ar(e &arts o! the &o&u.ation2 @= Yet su)h emotions a.so a..o1ed ri4a. memories a-out the )i4i. 1ar -et1een ">4" and ">4@ to resur!a)e2 3he ,a.kans had -een the sta(e o! a re)urrent tra(i) O&.a+; o! minorities and ma%orities0 o! 4i)tims and &er&etrators2 3he ro.es o! minorit+ and ma%orit+ 1ere reshu!!.ed ane1 in end.ess )om-ina/ tions and )oa.itions0 )reatin( an atmos&here o! inse)urit+ in 1hi)h e4er+/ -od+ )ou.d -e)ome a 4i)tim2 *urin( the )eremonies0 man+ nationa.0 not Yu(os.a40 !o.kson(s 1ere sun(0 1hi.e too man+ 1reaths )arried ins)ri&/ tions that read OCroatian; or O:er-ian; and not OYu(os.a4;2 3he issue o! the !.a(0 ho1e4er0 seems )ru)ia.2 3he e!!orts to su-stitute the Yu(os.a4 !.a( !or 3ito;s -od+ as the s+m-o. o! )ontinuit+ -a)k!ired2 Rather than di4or)e the &h+si)a. !rom the s+m-o.i)a. -od+0 the t1o 1ere not on.+ in &ro5imit+ -ut in dire)t )onta)t2 On the )o!!in;s .ast %ourne+0 1ith the Yu(os.a4 !.a( dra&ed o4er it0 tens o! thousands at the !unera. and mi..ions o! te.e4ision s&e)tators had the im&ression that it 1as not a -od+ -ut the Yu(os.a4 !.a( as the s+m-o. o! the )ountr+ that 1as s.o1.+ (oin( to1ards its tom-2 3ito;s !unera. as a s+m-o.i) e4ent stron(.+ 1eakened the internationa.ist m+tho.o(+ em-odied -+ 3ito and rein!or)ed the .atent resur(en)e o! nationa.ist as&irations2 :o.idarnoG)G in 8o.and (enerated a menta.it+ o! es)hato.o(i)a. re.ati4/ ism that did not re!er to the )urrent state or &resent/da+ )on)erns -ut anti)i&ated a )ondition o! !u.. !reedom2 It )onne)ted the s&iritua. re4i4a. o! indi4idua.s and their se.!/rea.isation 1ith romanti) m+ths o! a )o..e)ti4e re4i4a. o! the nation0 identi)a. 1ith the re)o4er+ o! inde&enden)e and0 )onseDuent.+0 1ith the re)onstru)tion o! so)iet+2 @" 3he intensit+ o!
4> @=
@"
Ma%a ,rk.%a)i)0 OA Case o! a Ver+ *i!!i)u.t 3ransitionP 3he Ritua. o! the Eunera. o! Josi& ,roI 3ito;0 %imen Mo2"0 htt&P//.imen2mm)2hr/.imen"/<=="/ma%aZ-rk.%a)i)2htm.0 "/C2 It is re&orted that !rom Fra(u%e4a) / a midd.e/siIed )it+ in :er-ia 1hi)h e5&erien)ed a MaIi &o(rom in the :e)ond Wor.d War / a.one an estimated "<=0=== .etters arri4ed 1hi)h 1ere sent to L%u-.%ana 6,rk.%a)i)0 OA Case o! a Ver+ *i!!i)u.t 3ransition;0 <72 :er(iusI Fo1a.ski0 Frytyka solidarnosciowego ro)umu 6Warsa1P W+da1ni)t1o 8'M0 ">>=70CB2
"CB
emotions in the months -et1een Au(ust ">A= and *e)em-er ">A" trans/ .ated into the (eneration o! ne1 s+m-o.s2 3he &rimar+ s+m-o. )reated in the 8o.ish summer o! ">A= 1as the red s.o(an O:o.idarnoG)G;2 3he s&irit o! 8o.and;s se.!/.imitin( re4o.ution in ">A= and ">A" 1as not OHo1 )an the s+stem o! &o1er -e re!ormedQ;0 -ut OHo1 )an one de!end onese.! !rom the s+stemQ;@< 3his )on4er(en)e o! 8o.ish so)iet+ a(ainst and outside the )ommunist state )ame do1n to -rea)hin( the humi.iation im&osed -+ )ommunist ru.e2 3he &ro).amation o! martia. .a1 in *e)em-er ">A" rein!or)ed the &er)e&tion o! 4i)timhood and humi.iation0 as so)iet+ 1as turned a(ain into an o-%e)t o! &o1er &o.iti)s2 A.thou(h or(anisationa..+ -ruised and i..e(a. a!ter ">A"0 :o.idarnoG)G maintained an o4er1he.min( s+m-o.i) &resen)e in terms o! !.a(s0 s.o(ans0 &.aDues0 and !.o1er )rosses 1hi)h maintained the memor+ o! su!!erin( and &romised the e5&e)ted resur/ re)tion o! the trade union2 *es&ite martia. .a1 and the im&risonment o! its .eadershi&0 :o.idarnoG)G as a Omono.ithi) )o..e)ti4e su-%e)t; @? 1as maintained throu(h indi4idua. .i!e/)ondu)t on a so)ia. s)a.e0 1hi)h 1as )ommitted to &ursuin( the meanin(s and as&irations o! the trade union mo4ement2 3he 1e/ima(e o! :o.idarnoG)G as a )o..e)ti4e su-%e)t sur4i4ed the &eriod o! martia. .a1 -e)ause it 1as &reser4ed throu(h the indi4idua. I/ima(es o! the .eaders o! :o.idarnoG)G and the 8o.ish &eo&.e2 *es&ite -ein( he.d a))ounta-.e !or the -ad e)onomi) situation0 :o.idarnoG)G )ontinued to en%o+ a hi(h mora. re&utation0 1hi)h 1as maintained throu(h re(u.ar de)entra.ised (atherin(s in the mu.ti&.i)it+ o! se)ret )ommunities in the hidden s&here0 under the she.ter o! the Catho.i) Chur)h2 A.thou(h 8o.ish so)iet+ 1as .ar(e.+ demo-i.ised in ear.+ ">A>0 the s+m-o.s o! :o.idarnoG)G 1ere de)isi4e !or -rin(in( a-out the round/ta-.e ne(otiations2 As a communitas e5&erien)e0 these ta.ks re4ersed the anta(onism -et1een Ous; and Othem; that 1as so 4ita. !or the emer(en)e o! :o.idarnoG)G in ">A=2 As the &re4ious dis)ussion has sho1n0 dissiden)e 1as not )oterminous 1ith nationa. re4o.utions2 3he )onstitution o! su-%e)ti4it+ 1as not sim&.+ a-out re&.a)in( )ommunist ideo.o(+ 1ith nationa. s+m-o.s or the rhet/ ori) o! Western demo)ra)+2 In 'ast Herman+0 !or instan)e0 an e.a-orate set o! anti/!as)ist m+tho.o(ies )ou.d not make u& !or the )ountr+;s .a)k o! a nationa. identit+2 3he !orma.isation o! nationa. :ta.inism in Romania 1as a )om&.e5 &ro)ess 1here &o.iti)a. o&&ortunities mer(ed 1ith )u.tura. s&e)i!i)ities2 :tate &o1er in Romania united ,o.she4ik &ra)ti)es 1ith an
@< @?
Tuoted in Hara.d W+dra0 Continuities in Polands Permanent Transition 6,asin(stokeP Ma)mi..an0 <=="70 ?42 3his term 1as )oined -+ JerI+ :Ia)ki2
"CC
a.read+ e5istin( state/)entred nationa.ism and a stron(.+ -ureau)ratised state2 ,ased on an in)reased )on)entration o! nationa. 4a.ues and s+m/ -o.s0 the mono.ithi) &art+/state &rodu)ed a mono.ithi) nation2 @4 3he initia..+ mar(ina.ised )ommunist &art+ had re.ied0 &erha&s more than an+ other &art+0 on :ta.inist he.& in its ,o.she4isation and in assumin( &o1er2@@ 3he resu.t 1as a mono.ithi) -ureau)rati) nationa.ism0 1here mani!estations o! nationa. sentiments a(ainst :o4iet )ommunism 1ou.d -e a-sor-ed in the s&e)i!i)a..+ Romanian !orm o! Mar5ism/Leninism2 Whi.e the ne1 :o4iet .eadershi& to.erated and &romoted ne1 dire)tions in the &o.iti)s o! its sate..ites0 Romania em-arked u&on Mationa. :ta.inism0 )u.minatin( in the &o.iti)a. tria. o! Lu)reKiu 8atraK)anu in ">@42 :e4ere.+ )on!used0 traumatised0 and outra(ed a!ter the 31entieth Con(ress o! the C8:90 the Romanian )ommunist .eaders rea)ted 1ith dee& distrust to1ards Fhrush)he42 3he .o1 de(ree o! resistan)e to the CeauKes)u re(ime durin( the )ommunist &eriod 1as .ar(e.+ due to the !a)t that the re(ime su))ess!u..+ inte(rated nationa. identit+ into the 4er+ !oundation o! )ommunist ru.e2 A.thou(h the so)ia. trans!ormations a!ter ">@? in)reased .e4e.s o! edu)ation0 )han(ed &atterns o! so)ia. mo-i.it+0 and .ed to (ro1in( ur-anisation and thus trans!ormed modest ).ea4a(es under :ta.in into su-stantia. ones in the ear.+ ">A=s0 the ma(nitude o! 4a.ue )han(es shou.d not )ause us to underestimate the thrust !or re!orm e4en in the .ate :ta.in +ears2@B In the :o4iet 9nion0 the desire !or )han(e in this &eriod 1as not dissimi.ar to that at the end o! the ,reIhne4 era2 :imi.ar.+0 the re)onstru)tion o! the )u.t o! the Hreat Eather.and War 1as a ritua.ised s+m-o. o! nationa. &ride durin( the time o! sta(nation2 @C :imu.taneous.+0 !rom ">@B on1ards a trans!ormation in the )ommuni)ati4e )onte5t / a.thou(h 4a(ue0 .imited0 or )ontradi)tor+ / took &.a)e0 1hi)h 1as medi/ ated -+ the !o)us on demo)ra)+ and so)ia.ist .e(a.it+ as 4irtues to -e re)a&tured in their &ro&osed return to OLeninist &rin)i&.es;2@A :o4iet dissent had a tra(i) histor+0 as it remained s)attered and its immediate demands 1ere !rustrated0 1hereas the 8o.es )ou.d ).aim that
@4 @@ @B @C @A
Fatherine Verder+0 ;ational Ideology :nder Socialism! Identity and Cultural Politics in Ceausescus #omania 6,erke.e+P 9ni4ersit+ o! Ca.i!ornia 8ress0 ">>"70 ?"4/"@2 V.adimir 3ismaneanu0 Stalinism $or All SeasonsP A Political 2istory o$ #omanian Communism 6,erke.e+P 9ni4ersit+ o! Ca.i!ornia 8ress0 <==?70 "442 *onna ,ahr+0 O:o)iet+ 3rans!ormedQ Rethinkin( the :o)ia. Roots o! 8erestroika;0 Slavic #eview0 @<0 ? 6">>?70 @"</@42 Mina 3umarkin0 The %iving and the Dead! The #ise and 'all o$ the Cult o$ 0orld 0ar II in #ussia 6Me1 YorkP ,asi) ,ooks0 ">>470 "??2 9r-an et a.20 The #e3irth o$ Politics in #ussia0 ?B2
"CA
dissiden)e 1as the norma.it+ rather than the e5)e&tion2 @> A&art !rom the ear.+ ideo.o(i)a..+ moti4ated dissiden)e o! &art+ .eaders !a..en into dis/ (ra)e su)h as 3rotsk+0 &oets and 1riters su)h as Osi& Mande.stam0 Isaak ,a-e.0 and Anna Akhmato4a -ut a.so Mikhai. ,u.(ako4 and ,oris 8asternak remained )onsistent 4oi)es o! .i-ert+0 o!ten )a.)u.atin( the risk o! -ein( de&orted or ki..ed2 In Mande.stam;s 1ords0 &oetr+ is res&e)ted on.+ in Russia0 as there is no other &.a)e 1here more &eo&.e are ki..ed !or it2B= ,o.she4iks su)h as ,ukharin 1arned :ta.in that &oets are a.1a+s ri(ht -e)ause histor+ is on their side2 B" Rare attem&ts at s&eak/ in( the truth durin( the Hreat 3error o))urred e4en in the re(iona. to& hierar)h+2 At a meetin( o! the Centra. Committee in O)to-er ">?C0 the !irst se)retar+ o! the Fursk re(iona. )ommittee o! the )ommunist &art+0 8eskare40 )riti)ised in the &resen)e o! :ta.in the )ondemnation o! some AC0=== inno)ent &eo&.e 1ithin three +ears on the (rounds o! un.a1!u. a)ts2B< 3he e5termination o! a .ar(e &art o! the &easantr+ and inte..e)tua. e.ite in 9kraine entai.ed the di4ision o! ea)h indi4idua.;s &ersona.it+ -e)ause0 a.thou(h the stru((.e had to -e 1a(ed in the outer 1or.d0 it a.so Odestro+ed the human sou.;2 B? :imi.ar.+0 )ommunist &ra)ti)es o! dis)i/ &.ine and sur4ei..an)e &ro4oked a &e)u.iar (ame o! se.!/sti(matisation0 1here indi4idua.s 1ou.d res&ond to &ressure -+ dissimu.ation and se.!/ )ensorshi&2 3estimon+ !rom sho1 tria.s in eastern 'uro&e su)h as in ,rno in ">@< su((ested the e5&erien)e o! the Odou-.in( o! the se.!;2 B4 Whi.e the &ost/tota.itarian s+stem renoun)ed :ta.in;s terror0 the ne1 trend to1ards so)ia.ist .e(a.it+ maintained the &rin)i&.e o! identi!i)ation o! the enem+ as the authorities re&.a)ed strate(ies o! des&otism 1ith those o! &enetration2 3he )reation o! s&a)es o! !reedom made .i!e and )hoi)es a-out e5isten)e easier -ut a.so -.urred the distin)tion -et1een )om&romises that had to -e a))e&ted2B@ Ideo.o(i)a..+0 the ori(ina. sour)e o! &o.iti)a. dis)ourse
@>
B= B" B< B? B4 B@
Ludmi..a A.e5e+e4a0 Soviet Dissent! Contemporary ovements $or ;ational& #eligious& and 2uman #ights 6Midd.eto1n0 C3P Wes.e+an 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">AC70 44>R Ja)ek FuronG TtkuLaTcych 6Wro)La1P W+da1ni)t1o do.noG.a and Ja)ekY ako1ski0 P#% dla poc)a bskie0 ">>@70"4C2 MadeIhda Mande.stam0 2ope Against 2ope! A emoir 6Me1 YorkP Atheneum0 ">C=70 "@>2 Vita.+ :henta.insk+0 The F18s %iterary Archive 6LondonP Har4i.. 8ress0 ">>C70 "A?2 8eskare4 1as arrested in :e&tem-er ">?A and shot in Mar)h ">?>R see I)vestiya0 A Ee-ruar+ <=="0 >2 Juri% La1r+nenko0 O3he Literature o! ,order.ine :ituations;0 in 3+rmand0 Fultura "ssays0 ">A/<"=2 Fare. ,artosek0 O'uro&e )entra.e et du :ud/'st;0 in :tV&hane Courtois et a.20 eds20 %e livre noir du communisme 68arisP Ro-ert La!!ont0 ">>C70 44A2 A(nes Hor4eth and Ar&ad :Iako.)Iai0 The Dissolution o$ Communist Power! The Case o$ 2ungary 6LondonP Rout.ed(e0 ">><70 <"C2
"C>
dissentin( !rom the )orre)t .ine 1as not -ased on a theoreti)a. mode. o! a ).ass o! inte..e)tua.s or an under.+in( O)i4i. so)iet+;2 Rather0 it 1as arti)u/ .ated in the !rame o! the dominant state ideo.o(+0 Mar5ism2 Mar5ism 1as not on.+ dominant as the o!!i)ia. state ideo.o(+ -ut0 as a radi)a. )ritiDue0 a.so -e)ame the on.+ &ossi-.e .an(ua(e in 1hi)h to arti)u.ate )riti)a. inte..e)tua. dis)ourse2 3his )om-ination entai.ed the &arado5i)a. )onse/ Duen)e that0 to -e )onsidered serious.+0 re!orm attem&ts had to -e !or/ mu.ated in a Mar5ist idiom2 In this .o(i)0 :ta.inism a&&eared as a distortion o! the O(ood; Lenin and the Omodest; Mar52 On.+ a !e1 others / su)h as LesIek FoLako1ski in 8o.and or Mi.o4an *%i.as in Yu(os.a4ia / su))eeded in sha&in( their dissent in terms o! a O)reati4e Mar5ism;0 1hi)h 1ou.d -e .u)id a-out Mar5ism;s ideo.o(i)a. short)omin(s2BB 3he restru)turin( o! :o4iet so)iet+ intensi!ied the ritua.isation o! &o.it/ i)a. .i!e as 1e.. as the )onso.idation o! &ra)ti)es o! so)ia. )ontro.2 BC A.thou(h )on)rete dai.+ re&ression in the :o4iet 9nion su-sided a!ter the ">@=s0 the FH, remained a ma%or s+m-o. o! intimidation and terror 1ith a )onsidera-.e im&a)t on so)ia. )ontro.2 BA 3he &ost/:ta.in era -rou(ht a-out a !urther dissimu.ati4e s&.it in the -eha4iour o! t+&i)a. :o4iet )itiIens0 makin( the s1it)hin( o! !a)es a ritua.ised ski..2 One )ou.d sit at a Fomsomo. meetin( and raise one;s arm in a ritua.ised 4ote 1ithout re!.e)tion0 1hi.e -ein( immersed in readin( A.e5ander :o.Ihenits+n2B> 3his is 1h+ the most .astin( and dan(erous im&a)t o! )ommunism is to -e e5&e)ted at the .e4e. o! the de&th o! &ersona.it+2 C= A.thou(h one mi(ht ar(ue that Duite soon a ne1 (eneration o! indi4idua.s 1i.. )ome into &o.iti)s 1ith no &ersona. e5&erien)e o! the :o4iet re(ime0 the momentous task is one o! a so)ia. and )u.tura. dimension2 *issimu.ation -e)ame a ma%or me)hanism !or &eo&.e in :o4iet/t+&e states0 1ho had to )o&e 1ith the &ressure o! an omni&resent &art+/state on &ri4ate and so)ia. .i!e2 *issimu.ation -e)ame a strate(+ !or intera)tion 1ith the re(ime0 aimin( to res&ond to !ear and su-ordination -ut a.so to de4e.o& s&a)es !or &ri4a)+2 3he s&here o! :o4iet &ri4a)+ ori(inated in dissimu.ation0 un.ike its )ounter&art in the West2 3here!ore0 the meanin( o! statements that use the &hrase chastnaia )hi)n 6a rou(h eDui4a.ent o!
BB BC BA B> C=
Mi.o4an *%i.as0 'all o$ the ;ew Class! A 2istory o$ Communisms Sel$-Destruction 6Me1 YorkP A.!red A2 Fno&!0 ">>A70 <B=2 O.e( Fharkhordin0 The Collective and the Individual in #ussia! A Study o$ Practices 6,erke.e+P 9ni4ersit+ o! Ca.i!ornia 8ress0 ">>>70 <C>/A<2 *onna ,ahr+ and ,rian :i.4er0 OIntimidation and the :+m-o.i) 9ses o! 3error in the 9::R;0 American Political Science #eview0 A"0 4 6">AC70 "=BC2 Fharkhordin0 The Collective and the Individual0 <CA2 Hor4aGth and :Iako.)Iai0 The Dissolution o$ Communist Power0 <"C2
"A=
O&ri4ate .i!e; in 'n(.ish7 in Russian ma+ -e radi)a..+ di!!erent !rom those in 'n(.ish or Eren)h2C" 3he ke+ ro.e o! Mar5ism as a .an(ua(e o! re(ime )riti)ism made radi)a. dissent 1ithin the &o.iti)a. arena a.most im&ossi-.e2 3he di4idin( .ine in )ommunist so)ieties ran not -et1een state and so)iet+ -ut ri(ht throu(h indi4idua. su-%e)ts 1ho &ra)tised dissimu.ation0 se.!/sti(matisation0 and se.!/)ensorshi&2 Whi.e the ritua.isation o! .i!e under )ommunism re&.a)ed o&en resistan)e 1ith in!orma. net1orks0 su-)u.tures0 and !riendshi&s0 it a.so &romoted a)Duies)en)e and the si.ent )om&.i)it+ o! re(ime )riti)s 1ith the o!!i)ia. e5terna.it+2 In).usion and e5).usion denoted s&e)i!i) te)hniDues a&&.ied -+ )ommunist authorities in order to san)tion non/ )om&.ian)e0 or to a)hie4e )om&.ian)e and su&&ort .e(itima)+2 C< 3he &ra)ti)es o! dissimu.ation and the stron( inter&enetration o! )ommunist &art+ .o(i) made inte..e)tua.s -are.+ distin)t !rom the state -ureau)ra)+2 Western &er)e&tions o! resistan)e to )ommunism os)i..ated -et1een o&en !as)ination and dis-e.ie!2 3he+ e5a.ted the resistan)e mo4ements in the re4o.utionar+ u&hea4a.s !or their )oura(e -ut a.so )riti)ised them !or their &o.iti)a..+ naf4e stan)e and the a-sen)e o! a ).ear &o.iti)a. &ro/ (ramme !or an a.ternati4e to )ommunist &o1er2 3he de.i-erate )hoi)e to 1ithdra1 !rom &o.iti)s and not to seek &o.iti)a. o&&ortunities 1ou.d kee& dissident .iterature more )harmin( than &o.iti)a..+ e!!i)ient and make o! O)i4i. so)iet+; a O&ri4ate so)iet+;2 Its ethi)a. indi4idua.ism !ai.ed to &ro&ose an a.ternati4e &o.iti)a. mode. and to ra..+ s)attered indi4idua.s around a !or)e!u. idea !or &o.iti)a. re!orm2 C? *issiden)e 1as a 1a+ o! )ir)um4entin( the strate(+ a&&.ied -+ )om/ munist authorities2 Hoin( -e+ond a stereot+&i)a. distin)tion -et1een Ous; and Othem;0 the im&ortant ste& 1as to re)o(nise that dissident inte..e)/ tua.s themse.4es had assimi.ated -eha4iour &atterns and attitudes the+ identi!ied in the )ommunists2 *issidents e5).uded themse.4es !rom the &ro)ess o! )arrots and sti)ks in order to a)hie4e the inte(ration o! su-/ %e)ti4it+0 &ersona.it+0 and human di(nit+2 *issiden)e im&.ied deta)hment and e5tri)ation !rom o&&ression 1ith a 4ie1 to tota.isin( tenden)ies in an+ area o! human a)ti4it+2 At the same time0 ho1e4er0 the dis)ourse o! Oethi)a. )i4i. so)iet+; 1as not a hermeti)a..+ iso.ated se.!/re!erentia. dis/ )ourse in a Oso)iet+ a(ainst the state; s)enario2 Rather0 it 1as nurtured -+ the idea o! the se.!/)onstitution o! su-%e)ts on the -asis o! )onstituti4e
C" C< C?
Fharkhordin0 The Collective and the Individual0 ?@C/A2 Fen Jo1itt0 OAn Or(aniIationa. A&&roa)h to the :tud+ o! 8o.iti)a. Cu.ture in Mar5ist/ Leninist :+stems;0 American Political Science #eview0 BA0 ? 6">C470 ""A?/42 H2M2 3ames0 O3he Le(a)+ o! *issent;0 in V.adimir 3ismaneanu0 ed20 The #evolutions o$ *+6+ 6London and Me1 YorkP Rout.ed(e0 ">>>70 ">B/C2
"A"
&rin)i&.es that 1ere -e+ond the immanen)e o! the 1or.d o! rea..+ e5istin( so)ia.ism2C4 3he re4o.utionar+ 8o.ish :o.idarnoG)G mo4ement0 !or instan)e0 1as (uided -+ a de.i-erate non/en(a(ement in &o.iti)a. re!orm0 aimin( instead at the su-%e)ti4isation 6podmiotowoSU7 o! 8o.ish so)iet+2 In the e)onomi)a..+ more O.i-era.; Hun(ar+0 dissidents did not 1ant to re!orm the s+stem &o.iti)a..+ -ut res&onded to an e5istentia. threat 1ith a Otota.; e5istentia. strate(+2 In the 1ords o! H+or(+ FonraGd0 the Hun(arian 1riter and dissident0 the re.ationshi& -et1een anti/&o.iti)s and &o.iti)s )orres&onded to that -et1een t1o mountains2 3he a-so.ute deta)hment -et1een these t1o s&heres 1ou.d )ontinue e4en i! s+m&a/ theti) indi4idua.s or !riends 1ere to !orm a ne1 (o4ernment2 C@ In Ha4e.;s de!inition0 O.i4in( 1ithin the .ie )an )onstitute the s+stem on.+ i! it is uni4ersa.2 3he &rin)i&.e must em-ra)e and &ermeate e4er+thin(2 3here are no terms 1hatsoe4er on 1hi)h it )an )oe5ist 1ith .i4in( 1ithin the truth0 and there!ore e4er+one 1ho ste&s out o! .ine denies it in &rin)i&.e and threatens it in its entiret+2;CB 3he &o1er o! the &o1er.ess 3he su&&ression o! the re4o.utions in ">@B0 in ">BA0 and in ">A" sho1ed the im&ossi-i.it+ o! a.terin( the Ya.ta s+stem !rom inside east )entra. 'uro&e -+ means o! d+nami)0 un)ontro..ed mass mo4ements2 CC In H+or(+ FonraGd;s 4ie10 the re/esta-.ishment o! !reedom reDuired the mora. !or)e o! an ethi)s o! non/4io.en)e that )ou.d o4er)ome this &o1er on.+ i! it renoun)ed an+ arran(ement 1ith it0 i2e2 a.so dis&ensed 1ith the &h+si)a. (uarantees o! &o1er2CA 3he &arti)u.ar stren(th o! east 'uro&eans )onsisted in hand.in( interna. &arado5es more !.e5i-.+0 in takin( &.easure in di4ersit+0 in kno1in( ho1 to )on4ert di!!eren)es into )reati4e tension0 and in understandin( and .o4in( other )u.tures2 3he ne1 1a+ o! .i!e en4isa(ed -+ the ethi)s o! non/4io.en)e 1as not dra1n -+ a -eauti!u. a.ternati4e &o.iti)a. mode. -ut (enerated !rom the so)ia..+ e5&erien)ed e5istentia. tension o! )o&in( 1ith the )onstant assau.t on the -asi)s o! human )oe5isten)e2 3he )ontinuous humi.iation and the tediousness o! dai.+ .i!e )ou.d -e o4er)ome on.+ -+ de4e.o&in( a di(ni!ied and meanin(!u. .i!e/)ondu)t in the se)ond0 Ohidden s&here;2 *issiden)e im&.ied a )hoi)e o! an o&tion a.ternati4e to the ritua.ised distortion o! rea.it+ &ra)ti)es im&osed -+
C4 C@ CC
Je!!re+ C2 Isaa)0 Democracy in Dark Times 6Itha)a and LondonP Corne.. 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>A72 FonraGd0 Antipolitics0 <?"2 FonraGd0 Antipolitics0 C=2
CB CA
Ha4e.0 O3he 8o1er o! the 8o1er.ess;0 4=2 FonraGd0 Antipolitics0 ></""?2
"A<
)ommunism2 O9nder the order.+ sur!a)e o! the .i!e o! .ies - - - there s.um/ -ers the hidden s&here o! .i!e in its rea. aims - - - 3he sin(u.ar0 e5&.osi4e0 in)a.)u.a-.e &o.iti)a. &o1er o! .i4in( 1ithin the truth resides in the !a)t that .i4in( o&en.+ 1ithin the truth has an a..+0 in4isi-.e to -e sure0 -ut omni&resentP this hidden s&here2; C> Yet0 the hidden s&here as a s&iritua. area !or the )onstitution o! su-%e)ti4it+ did not ori(inate !rom an innate tenden)+ to1ards in!orma.it+ -ut had its roots in a &arti)u.ar.+ se4ere so)ia. )ontro. su)h as in CIe)hos.o4akia2 Ha4e.;s truth/te..er is there to dis).ose the )entra. !eature o! )ommunism0 1hi)h 1as to den+ e5istin( rea.it+ and to trade the ima(inar+ !or the rea.2 I! a (reen(ro)er han(s a si(n in his sho& 1indo1 )a..in( !or the 1orkers o! the 1or.d to unite0 the meanin( o! the a)tion is ritua.isti)2 3he (reen(ro)er sho1s throu(h his s.o(an that he adheres to the ru.es o! the s+stem out o! !ear0 sho1in( the i..usion o! an identit+2 *issiden)e 1as not s+stemi) Odemo)rati) o&&osition;0 1here a 1e../ de!ined (rou& or ).ass in so)iet+ 1ou.d &ursue 1e../esta-.ished &o.i)+ (oa.s2A= It 1as an e5istentia. o&tion !or deta)hment !rom &ra)ti)es o! :o4iet &o1er0 1hi)h aimed to dis).ose the )on!usion o! &o1er0 the humi./ iation o! human -ein(s0 and the atomisation o! so)ia. .i!e2 A))ordin( to VaG).a4 Ha4e.0 e4en the most -eauti!u. a.ternati4e &o.iti)a. mode. )ou.d not ins&ire &o.iti)a. instin)ts2 Rather0 the rea. s&here o! &otentia. &o.iti)s in the &ost/tota.itarian s+stem 1as in the O)ontinuin( and )rue. tension -et1een the )om&.e5 demands o! that s+stem and the aims o! .i!e0 that is0 the e.ementar+ need o! human -ein(s to .i4e0 to a )ertain e5tent at .east0 in harmon+ 1ith themse.4es0 that is0 to .i4e in a -eara-.e 1a+0 not to -e humi.iated -+ the su&eriors and o!!i)ia.s0 not to -e )ontinua..+ 1at)hed -+ the &o.i)e0 to -e a-.e to e5&ress themse.4es !ree.+0 to !ind an out.et !or their )reati4it+0 to en%o+ .e(a. se)urit+0 and so on2;A" 3he -ureau)rati) re&ression had not on.+ sho1n that the em&eror had no ).othes -ut a.so made ).ear that the true endea4our to -e a))om&.ished 1as a .i!e in truth0 an attem&t to sa4e the di(nit+ and identit+ o! the su-%e)t in the a-surd 1or.d o! &ost/tota.itarianism2 3he arti)u.ation o! dissi/ den)e0 there!ore0 must not -e mistaken !or a &o.iti)a. )u.ture o! a))om/ modation -ased on an inherent rationa.it+ 1ith a 4ie1 to the out)ome o! O.i-era. demo)ra)+;2 One must not )on!use the undou-ted.+ in!.uentia. ima(e o! demo)ra)+ as an ur(ent ho&e that &ermeated &o.iti)s o! dissi/ den)e 1ith the +ardsti)k o! .i-era. demo)ra)+ as an institutiona.ised .o(i)2
Ha4e.0 O3he 8o1er o! the 8o1er.ess;0 @C2 A4ieIer 3u)ker0 The Philosophy and Politics o$ C)ech Dissidence $rom Patocka to 2avel 68itts-ur(hP 9ni4ersit+ o! 8itts-ur(h 8ress0 <===70 ""@/"C2 Ha4e.0 O3he 8o1er o! the 8o1er.ess;0 @"/<2
C> A= A"
"A?
In a simi.ar 4ein0 the o&&osition -et1een state and O)i4i. so)iet+; does not seem entire.+ a&&ro&riate2 3he so)ia. si(ni!i)an)e o! dissiden)e does not rest u&on the num-ers o! &eo&.e in4o.4ed2 In the )ate(ories o! an o&en &o.iti)a. s+stem0 the )on!rontation -et1een "0=== Chartists dedi)ated to .i!e in truth and the im&ressi4e :o4iet mi.itar+ ma)hine 1ou.d ha4e a&&eared ho&e.ess &o.iti)a..+2 In the situation o! the e5istentia. resistan)e in the &ost/tota.itarian s+stem0 this )on!rontation a&&ears in a !undamen/ ta..+ di!!erent .i(ht2A< *issiden)e shou.d -e seen &rimari.+ as an e5istentia. ans1er o! denoun)in( the 4io.ent nature o! the e5istin( s+stem2 3he O&o1er o! the &o1er.ess; 1as not an ideo.o(+0 e4en .ess a uto&ia0 -ut a !orm o! .i!e/ )ondu)t deta)hed !rom the o!!i)ia. s&here and re.+in( u&on in!orma. net1orks o! emotiona. )ommunit+ that remained re.ati4e.+ resistant to )ommunist mani&u.ation2 In the &hase o! .ate )ommunism0 dissiden)e -e)ame s+non+mous 1ith (rou&s o! &ersons !ormin( &o)kets o! so)iet+ that a)ti4e.+ or &assi4e.+ resisted )ommunist ru.es2 *issiden)e em-odied an attem&t at e5istentia. re&resentation o! the &eo&.e 1ithout the ).aim to re&resent them in a s+stem o! )onstituted &o1er2 In terms o! Omethod;0 it is a mo4ement o! deta)hment !rom the 1orkin(s and the rationa.e o! a &o.iti)a. rea.it+ that &ermeates a.. s&heres o! &u-.i) and &ri4ate .i!e2 *issiden)e mode..ed &o.iti)a. rea.it+ in so !ar as it &romoted a ne1 )ons)iousness 1ith the (oa. o! mora. re(eneration0 ).aimin( to )reate a ne1 1a+ o! .i!e2 3he Oreturn to 'uro&e; 1as undou-ted.+ one o! the )entra. s+m-o.i) markers o! the annus mira3ilis ">A>2 3he &enetration o! ima(es o! Western modes o! .i!e and 4a.ues and their a))e&tan)e in eastern 'uro&e &.a+ed an im&ortant ro.e in disen(a(in( )itiIens !rom the )on/ ta(ion o! )ommunist s+m-o.ism2 3he .on(/term ha-it in man+ )ountries o! seein( themse.4es not in the )ate(or+ o! eastern 'uro&e -ut in that o! the West 1as rein!or)ed -+ the a4ai.a-i.it+ o! )ommodities and the re)o(nition o! an+thin( !rom the West as in!inite.+ -etter than somethin( !rom the 'ast2 Yet the !ee.in( o! -ein( a-andoned -+ the West (a4e rise to s+m-o.isations o! )u.tura. s&a)es2 Re!.e)tin( a .on(/standin( tradition o! se.!/in).usion in the Western t+&e o! )i4i.isation0 Mi.an Fundera ).aimed in ">A4 that )entra. 'uro&e as a )u.tura. s&a)e had -een kidna&&ed -+ the -ar-ari) and un)i4i.ised Russian 'ast2 A? 3hus0 the s+m-o.ism o! the West 1as not sim&.+ a 4a.ue eDui4a.ent to .i-era. demo)ra)+ or market )a&ita./ ism2 Tuite the o&&ositeP Western .i!e/st+.es )ome a.so to -e o! &ra(mati)
A< A?
Ha4e.0 O3he 8o1er o! the 8o1er.ess;0 442 Mi.an Fundera0 O3he 3ra(ed+ o! Centra. 'uro&e;0 ;ew Pork #eview o$ 8ooks0 A42
"A4
si(ni!i)an)e not on.+ !or re(ime )riti)s -ut a.so !or )ommunist authorities attem&tin( to restore their o1n .e(itima)+2 3he mi..ions o! Yu(os.a4s 1ho 1ent a-road in the ">C=s0 ">A=s0 and ">>=s 1ere not e)onomi) or &o.iti)a. emi(rants -ut instead sim&.+ 1anted to s&end their mone+ there2A4 Eor man+ 8o.es0 the rea. moments o! !reedom dated -a)k to Hierek;s e)onomi) mira).e on )redits0 1hen a short/term )onsumer -oom in the ear.+ ">C=s -rou(ht man+ )ommodities !rom the West into the )ountr+ and &art.+ !ree tra4e. -e)ame a4ai.a-.e2 3his in!.u5 o! Western (oods .ed dissidents to !ee. that the )ommunists had e!!e)ti4e.+ -ou(ht the 8o.es2 A )riti) mi(ht 1e.. ar(ue a(ainst the &o.iti)a. re.e4an)e o! dissiden)e0 as it 1as not dire)ted at &o.iti)a. re!orm0 .et a.one re4o.ution2 A))ordin( to A.-ert Hirs)hman;s 1e../kno1n &aradi(m o! e5it and 4oi)e0 rea.isti) o&tions !or &h+si)a. e5it !rom a s+stem o! or(anisation su)h as a state redu)e the arti)u.ation o! 4oi)e2 Erom this &ers&e)ti4e0 the +ear ">A> in the Herman *emo)rati) Re&u-.i) sa1 a !ruit!u. s+ner(+ -et1een e5it and 4oi)e2A@ 3he !ai.ure to 4oi)e &o.iti)a. re!orms in ">@B0 in ">BA0 or in the )+).es o! )rises in 8o.and;s &ermanent re4o.ution a.tered the )hara)ter o! the ori(ina. o&tion2 *issiden)e &resu&&osed renoun)in( &h+si)a. e5it -ut demanded that one )om-ine 4oi)e 1ith s&iritua. e5it !rom so)iet+2 In other 1ords0 it 4oi)ed e5it as an e5istentia. )hoi)e to a-andon the tan(.ed 1e- o! )ommunist so)ia. order throu(h indi4idua. .i!e/)ondu)t and de!i/ an)e at the &ersona. .e4e.2 Rather than !ormu.atin( a.ternati4es in a-stra)t terms o! an anta(onism -et1een Western .i-era.ism and )o..e)ti4ist )ommunism0 the &o.iti)s o! anti/&o.iti)s 1as an e5istentia. res&onse to .i!e rea.ities and &o1er stru)tures in s&e)i!i) )ountries2 ,+ se&aratin( Ous; !rom Othem;0 the a)tors o! anti/&o.iti)s did not seek to &res)ri-e their ideo.o(+ !or the &ur&ose o! &o.iti)a. re!orm -ut ).aimed a se.!/)ons)ious e5).usion !rom the mora. )orru&tion o! )ommunism2 *urin( the ">B=s and ">C=s0 the num-er o! non/)on!ormist asso)iations and dissident (rou&s in)reased )onsidera-.+0 o&enin( u& s&a)es o! .i-ert+ !rom state authorities in some areas o! indi4idua.0 so)ia.0 and )u.tura. .i!e2 3he d+nami) (ro1th o! dissident mo4ements materia.ised in )ounter/&u-.i)s0 Ose)ond; e)onomies0 or Ose)ond; so)ieties2AB I! the !oundation o! )ommunist &o1er 1as -ased on the sur4ei..an)e o! the indi4idua. -+ the )o..e)ti4e0 o4er)omin( this dou-.e -ind meant to e5).ude onese.! !rom the )o..e)ti4e2
A4 A@ AB
:.a4enka *raku.i)G0 Ca$4 "uropa 6LondonP A-a)us0 ">>B70 "B2 A.-ert O2 Hirs)hman0 O'5it0 Voi)e0 and the Eate o! the Herman *emo)rati) Re&u-.i)P An 'ssa+ in Con)e&tua. Histor+;0 0orld Politics0 4@ 6">>?70 "C?/<=<2 Hordon :ki..in(0 Sami)dat and an Independent Society in Central and "astern "urope 6Co.um-usP Ohio :tate 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">A>72
"A@
Whi.e the &resen)e o! :o4iet mi.itar+ &o1er sti!.ed the 4oi)e o! dissiden)e0 this 4er+ mi.itar+ &o1er and its 4io.en)e 1ere at the roots o! non/4io.ent strate(ies2 Hor-a)he4;s )ommitment to non/4io.en)e 6nye streliat7 1as not sim&.+ the (uidin( idea o! a &o.i)+ o! non/inter4ention -+ the :o4iet 9nion0 -ut had its 4er+ so)ia. !oundations in the .essons o! de/:ta.inisation and the 4io.ent in4asions o! Hun(ar+ and CIe)hos.o4akia2 I! the arti)u.ation o! 4oi)e is .imited to the &u-.i) arena0 one under/ em&hasises the ro.e o! the hidden s&here !or ins&irin( )han(es in .i!e/ )ondu)t2 A.thou(h &eo&.e 1ere de&ri4ed o! a &u-.i) arena !or &o.iti)a. 4oi)e0 ne4erthe.ess the &o1er o! 4oi)e 1as arti)u.ated throu(h in!ra/ &o.iti)s in the hidden s&here2 As James :)ott has su((ested0 &o.iti)s is not %ust a-out o&en.+ de).ared dominan)e and re4o.t0 -ut a.so a-out the Odis(uised0 .o1/&ro!i.e0 unde).ared; resistan)e o! su-ordinate (rou&s2 AC ,et1een Duies)en)e and re4o.t0 there is a )om&.e5 rea.it+ o! in!ra&o.iti)s0 i2e2 ne(otiations and inter&.a+ -et1een the &u-.i) and the hidden tran/ s)ri&t2AA 3he &u-.i) trans)ri&t re!.e)ts e5istin( re.ations -et1een domi/ nant e.ites and su-ordinates2 Out o! &ruden)e or !ear0 the .atter;s &u-.i) &er!orman)e 1i.. usua..+ -e / 1ith rare e5)e&tions / aimed at )om&.+in( 1ith the e5&e)tations o! the &o1er!u.2 3he hidden trans)ri&t0 -+ )ontrast0 )onsists o! s&ee)hes0 (estures0 and &ra)ti)es that o))ur o!!sta(e and de!+ the )onsensus o! e5istin( &o1er re.ations esta-.ished in the &u-.i) tran/ s)ri&t0 thus )ontradi)tin( or in!.e)tin( it2 8rodu)ed !or a di!!erent audi/ en)e and under di!!erent )onstraints o! &o1er !rom the &u-.i) trans)ri&t0 the hidden trans)ri&t assumes the !orm o! &o.iti)a. stru((.e 1hen !ronta. assau.ts are im&ossi-.e or hi(h.+ un.ike.+ to su))eed2 Erom this &ers&e)/ ti4e0 it seems more a))urate to see the rea.ities o! &o1er not as strai(ht!or/ 1ard di4ision -et1een state and so)iet+0 -et1een the &o1er!u. and the su-ordinate0 -ut rather to a)kno1.ed(e a tension -et1een )om&.ian)e and the &otentia. o! a)ts o! resistan)e2 3hus0 the de!eren)e and )onsent to domination ma+ on.+ -e a &re.iminar+ !orm o! su-4ersion2 ,reakin( the si.en)e -+ the &u-.i)ation o! a hidden trans)ri&t is not on.+ a &s+)ho.o(/ i)a. re.ease !or the one 1ho s&eaks on -eha.! o! othersR it is a.so a moment o! &o.iti)a. e.e)tri)it+2 3he )om&u.sor+ emi(ration o! :o.Ihenits+n0 !or instan)e0 1as not due to this &o1er &osition -ut rested on his 1ritin(s that 1ere a Odread!u. 1e../ s&rin( o! truth; 1ith the risk o! Oin)a.)u.a-.e trans!ormations in so)ia. )ons)iousness;0 1hi)h in turn mi(ht one da+ &rodu)e &o.iti)a. de-a).es
AC AA
James :)ott0 Domination and the Art o$ #esistance 6Me1 Ha4en and LondonP Ya.e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>=70 ">A/>2 :)ott0 Domination and the Art o$ #esistance 0 </@2
"AB
un&redi)ta-.e in their )onseDuen)es2A> What the :o4iet authorities !eared 1as the &otentia..+ e5&.osi4e situation i! the hidden trans)ri&ts -e)ame &u-.i)2 :in)e the authorised &u-.i)ation o! /ne Day in the %i$e o$ Ivan Denisovich in ">B< as a 1a+ o! dis)reditin( the :ta.in era0 :o.Ihenits+n;s darin( and ).air4o+ant )riti)ism o! the 1ret)hed histor+ and inherent insta-i.it+ o! the :o4iet s+stem had -een su&&orted -+ hundreds o! .etters0 a !a)t that 1as im&ortant in dra!tin( the manus)ri&t o! The 1ulag Archipelago2>= A!ter the manus)ri&t had -een smu((.ed to the West0 the 8o.it-uro re)o(nised the &otentia..+ su-4ersi4e and &o.iti)a..+ dan(erous dimensions e4en outside the :o4iet 9nion and de)ided to de&ort him !rom the )ountr+ 1ithout his )onsent2 :imi.ar.+0 Ha4e.;s essa+ O3he 8o1er o! the 8o1er.ess; 1as not a treatise destined to (ather dust0 -ut had )onsidera-.e im&a)t on a)ti4ists in other )ountries0 makin( it &o.it/ i)a..+ more si(ni!i)ant in 8o.and than in CIe)hos.o4akia2 Eor N-i(nie1 ,u%ak0 .ater a &rominent :o.idarnoG)G a)ti4ist0 the u.timate 4i)tories o! :o.idarnoG)G and o! Charter CC 1ere an astonishin(!u.!i.ment o! the &ro&he/ )ies and kno1.ed(e )ontained in Ha4e.;s essa+0 1hi)h rea)hed 8o.ish 1orkers in the 9rsus !a)tor+ in ">C> at a &oint 1hen the+ !e.t the+ 1ere at the end o! the road2 OReadin( it (a4e us the theoreti)a. under&innin(s !or our a)ti4it+2 It maintained our s&iritsR 1e did not (i4e u&0 and a +ear .ater0 in Au(ust ">A= / it -e)ame ).ear that the &art+ a&&aratus and the !a)tor+ mana(ement 1ere a!raid o! us2 We mattered2 And the rank and !i.e sa1 us as .eaders o! the mo4ement2;>" 3he o&tion !or a &ea)e!u. resistan)e e4en in )ountries su)h as CIe)hos.o4akia or the :o4iet 9nion must ha4e seemed uto&ian or ho&e/ .ess.+ irrationa.2 3he demands o! :o.idarnoG)G in Au(ust ">A= must ha4e seemed a-surd 1hen %ud(ed 1ith kno1.ed(e o! the -.ood+ su&&ression o! the 1orkers; re4o.t in HdanGsk in .ate ">C=2 A Orea.ist; &ers&e)ti4e 1ou.d assume that non/4io.en)e is a strate(+ doomed to !ai.ure -e)ause it 1ou.d not threaten a s+stem !irm.+ rooted in re&ressi4e terror0 mi.itar+ &o1er0 and &o.iti)a. ruth.essness2 Yet0 1hereas :ta.in;s rationa.e )ou.d -e sum/ marised in his Duestion a-out ho1 man+ di4isions the &o&e had0 its .o(i) o! tota.isin( &o1er &rom&ted non/4io.ent resistan)e as a Orationa.; res&onse2 Mon/4io.en)e 1as not -ased on autonomous &re!eren)es -ut 1as a s+m-o. in its o1n ri(ht0 (enerated in the e5&erien)es o! humi.iation0 des&air0 and &o1er.essness2 3he )ommunities o! !ate that had endured0
A> >= >"
Ha4e.0 O3he 8o1er o! the 8o1er.ess;0 4<2 *a4id Remni)k0 #esurrectionP The Struggle $or a ;ew #ussia 6Me1 YorkP Random House0 ">>C70""B/">2 Tuoted in A--ot H.eason0 TotalitarianismP The Inner 2istory o$ the Cold 0ar 6O5!ordP O5!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>@70 "AC/A2
"AC
ho1e4er0 1ou.d !a)e a diminished and )orru&ted )ommunist &o1er 1ith an attitude that had (ained stren(th !rom the )ha..en(esR the+ !e.t em&o1ered to !a)e the !uture undaunted2 3he mora. &er!e)tionism o! ethi)a. indi4idua.ism 1as )riti)ised as a retreat into the &ri4ate rea.m0 a..ied 1ith irres&onsi-i.it+ to the so)ia. )ause2 Yet dissiden)e a&&eared in di!!erent !orms de&endent on the sha&e and &enetration o! so)iet+ -+ )ommunist &o1er2 Whi.e under Husak;s norma.isation re(ime indi4idua. mora. )odes &re4ai.ed o4er more so)ia..+ oriented O)o..e)ti4e; ideas o! a &ara..e. &o.is0 in 8o.and the stron(.+ &o.iti)a. meanin( o! so)iet+ 6spoHec)enSstwo7 made the so)ia..+ in).usi4e idea o! the nation the !o)us o! dissiden)e2 A.e5ander :o.Ihenits+n 1as 1ritin( !rom a re.i(ious and :.a4o&hi.e &ers&e)ti4e 1hen he e5&osed the )rue.ties o! s+stemati) terror and the (u.a( )on)entration )am&s0 1hi.e the eminent s)ientist and human ri(hts a)ti4ist Andrei :akharo4 -e)ame the s+m-o. o! a more se)u.ar and Westernisin( )ritiDue o! the :o4iet s+stem2 >< Russian dissiden)e 1as hera.ded -+ some !i(ures 1ho )onstituted the modern eDui4a.ent o! the truth/te..in( ho.+ !oo.2 3he Russian 1ord !or truth has the dou-.e meanin( o! -oth s)ienti!i) 4erit+ 6 pravda-istina7 and mora. %usti)e 6pravda-spravedlivost72 *mitri Likha)he4 1as an outstand/ in( and .ess 1e.. kno1n pravednik 6truth/te..er7 1ho emer(ed in the mid/ ">A=s 1hen he -e)ame a &art/time tutor on Russian )u.tura. histor+ to Hor-a)he4 and his 1i!e Raisa2 As a sur4i4or o! the (u.a( on :o.o4etsk+ is.and0 his su!!erin( (a4e him mora. authorit+0 1hi)h he in4ested in ad4o)atin( the )om&rehensi4e re)o4er+ o! the Russian )u.tura. herita(e and o&enin( u& to the outside 1or.d2 His ur(e to s&eak the truth to &o1er 1as o-4ious in his &rominent ro.e in the !i(ht a(ainst the &uts)h o! Au(ust ">>" as 1e.. as in his )ritiDue o! Ye.tsin;s 1ar in Che)hn+a or in his a&&ea. to the Russian Orthodo5 Chur)h to &u-.i).+ a)kno1.ed(e its )om&.i)it+ 1ith :o4iet re&ression2 3hrou(hout the :o4iet &eriod0 the !a)e o! a truth/ seeker 1as o!ten hidden0 as in a matryoshka0 inside the outer !a)e o! &o1er that &ursued &resuma-.+ o-%e)ti4e0 s)ienti!i) truth in the name o! )om/ munist &ro&a(anda2 'thi)a. indi4idua.ism as a sear)h !or meanin( in meta&h+si)a. truth did not O)ause; the )o..a&se o! )ommunism2 *issident thou(ht and a)tion atta)ked the dehumanisin( -asis o! :o4iet &o1er not &rimari.+ on the (rounds o! an innate mora. ur(en)+ -ased on demo)rati) indi4idua.ism or the rationa. insi(ht in the uni4ersa.it+ o! human di(nit+2 Rather0 this se.!/ de).ared anti/&o.iti)a. de!ensi4e mo4ement 1as hi(h.+ &o.iti)a.0 as it aimed to re)onstitute the -asi)s o! (enuine human .i!e0 sear)hin( !or a
><
James ,i..in(ton0 #ussia in Search o$ Itsel$ 6Washin(ton0 *CP Woodro1 Wi.son Center0 <==470B=/@2
"AA
(round u&on 1hi)h to -ui.d a meanin(!u. e5isten)e2 3he 4ision o! a :o4iet -.o) that 1ou.d re.ease those under its domination underem&ha/ sises the tru.+ &o.iti)a. )hara)ter o! dissiden)e0 1hi)h aimed to en(a(e the &u-.i) in a dis&.a+ o! )i4i) s&irit2 Re%e)tin( the Ja)o-in/,o.she4ik insur/ re)tionist 4ersion o! re4o.ution0 the arti)u.ation o! dissiden)e and su-/ %e)ti4isation o! so)iet+ )an -e seen as a )i4i.isin( e!!ort )hara)terised -+ an en(a(ed )itiIenr+2>? I! )ommunist ru.e 1as the e5istentia..+ 1ho.esa.e in4asion o! the indi4idua.0 the !irst and !undamenta. ans1er had to -e e5istentia. and indi4idua. as 1e..2 I! the atta)k on the -asis o! human .i!e and di(nit+ is tota.0 then the re)onstru)tion o! .i!e0 di(nit+0 and ethi)s must -e tota. as 1e..2 3o -ase a strate(+ o! resistan)e a(ainst a &o1er!u. state a&&aratus on the su-%e)ti4it+ o! &ursuin( a truth!u. .i!e 1as a risk+ enter&rise2 3his de.i-erate tota.it+ o! the e5istentia. o&tion to )om-at )ommunism in the Ohidden; s&here 1as (oin( a(ainst one;s o1n se.!/interest2 3he immense in4estment o! time in under(round &ursuits 1ent at the e5&ense o! de4e.o&in( &ro!essiona. )areers or -ene!itin( !rom some .i-erties su)h as o))asiona. tra4e. to the West2 Man+ dissidents ser4ed .on( &rison senten)es0 had to 1ork in menia. %o-s0 and/or 1ere e5&osed to &u-.i) deni(ration and a-use in the o!!i)ia. media2 Most o! a..0 there 1as &er4a/ si4e un)ertaint+ a-out the &ossi-.e a-surdit+ o! one;s o1n resistan)e 1ith no (uarantee 1hatsoe4er a-out a &ossi-.e Osu))ess;2 3he )om&.ete un&re/ di)ta-i.it+ o! Osu))ess; in terms o! s&e)i!i) &o.iti)a. )han(es0 ho1e4er0 is &art o! the e5istentia. so.ution o! .i4in( 1ithin the truth2 Eirm.+ (rounded in their o1n identit+0 some &eo&.e )onsider it 1orth riskin( the (ame o! )han(e 1here the stakes are a.. or nothin(2 >4 Its .o(i) 1as not sa)ri!i)ia. -ut rather se.!/sa)ri!i)ia.2 Communi)ati4e intera)tion and &er!ormati4e s+m-o.ism un)o4ered the sa)ri!i)ia. Oinhuman; .o(i) o! the )o..e)ti4e s+m-o.ism o! )ommunism2 A.thou(h )ommunism 1as &er)ei4ed as the Oenem+;0 the aim 1as not the enem+;s annihi.ation -ut the )reation o! a 1a+ o! .i4in( that 1ou.d set an e5am&.e !or others to !o..o12
>?
,ar-ara Ea.k0 The Dilemmas o$ Dissidence in "ast-Central "urope! Citi)en Intellectuals and Philosopher Fings 6,uda&estP Centra. 'uro&ean 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <==?72 >4 Ha4e.0 O3he 8o1er o! the 8o1er.ess;0 442
3he )o..a&se o! )ommunism
Amon( demo)rati) nations0 men easi.+ attain a )ertain eDua.it+ o! )on/ ditionsP the+ )an ne4er attain the eDua.it+ the+ desire2 It &er&etua..+ retires !rom -e!ore them0 +et 1ithout hidin( itse.! !rom their si(ht0 and in retirin( dra1s them on2 A.e5is de 3o)Due4i..e
,et1een &ast and !uture 3he )o..a&se o! )ommunism 1as so sur&risin( and )onseDuentia. that it made a &ro!ound im&ression e4en on the )riti)a. o-ser4er2 Cautious &redi)tions a-out a &otentia. )o..a&se o! the :o4iet 9nion !ore)ast not a sudden and )om&.ete disinte(ration o! the )ountr+0 -ut a sta-.e &attern o! de)a+2" 3he Co.d War 1as so dee&.+ rooted in the .i!e/1or.ds o! )on/ tem&oraries that it is di!!i)u.t to resist the im&ression that ">A> 1as a de)isi4e ru&ture &oint2 Eor some0 the end o! )ommunism 1as tantamount to the e4ent that marked the Oend o! the short t1entieth )entur+;0 i! not Othe end o! histor+;2 < Eor others0 :o4iet )ommunism ar(ua-.+ )ou.d -e Dua.i!ied as a histori)a. )ha&ter 1ith a ).ear.+ de!ina-.e -e(innin(0 a Omidd.e;0 and an end2 ? 9n.ike 1hat the Eren)h Re4o.ution or Ma&o.eon;s em&ire -eDueathed to &osterit+ in terms o! s+m-o.s0 institutions0 ideas0 and memories0 ho1e4er0 the :o4iet em&ire;s )o..a&se .e!t nothin( -ehind -ut a ta3ula rasa0 as its &rin)i&.es0 )odes0 institutions0 and histor+ -e)ame su&erseded24
"
< ? 4
Fen Jo1itt0 O3he Me1 Wor.d *isorder;0 in Larr+ *iamond and Mar) 8.attner0 eds20 The 1lo3al #esurgence o$ Democracy 6,a.timore and LondonP Johns Ho&kins 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>B70<B/?@2 'ri) Ho-s-a1m0 The Age o$ "xtremes! A 2istory o$ the 0orld& *+*@-*++* 6LondonP Vinta(e0 ">>B7R Eran)is Euku+ama0 The "nd o$ 2istory and the %ast an 6Me1 YorkP A4on0 ">>?72 Martin Ma.ia0 The Soviet Tragedy! A 2istory o$ Socialism in #ussia& *+*5-*++* 6Me1 YorkP Eree 8ress0 ">>"72 Eran[ois Euret0 The Passing o$ an Illusion 6Chi)a(o and LondonP 9ni4ersit+ o! Chi)a(o 8ress0 ">>>72
"A>
">=
Whi.e there has -een serious disa(reement a-out the de(ree to 1hi)h &o.iti)a. or(anisation a!ter )ommunism 1ou.d -e in!.uen)ed -+ .e(a)ies o! the &ast0 there has -een ta)it a(reement a-out ana.+ti)a..+ dis)onne)t/ in( the o.d order !rom the ne1 !or t1o )entra. reasons2 Or(anisationa..+0 the &.ura.isation o! &o.iti)a. )om&etition -e)ame 4isi-.e in the e5isten)e o! mu.ti&.e &arties0 !ree e.e)tions0 the ru.e o! .a10 and !reedom o! the &ress2 3he disso.ution o! )ommunist &arties re&.a)ed the tota. ).aim on &o1er -+ .imitin( &o.iti)a. authorit+ on the (rounds o! )onstitutiona. (uarantees o! -asi) human and )i4i. ri(hts 6 glasnost72 :imi.ar.+0 trans/ !ormations o! e)onomi) and &ro&ert+ order and the order.+ &o.iti)a. mana(ement o! &ressin( &rodu)tion and distri-ution &ro-.ems 6 perestroika7 -e)ame )entra.2 :+m-o.i)a..+0 re%e)tin( )ommunism o))urred in the tension -et1een retraditiona.isation and an un)ertain !uture0 in a )ondition in -et1een &ast and !uture2 3he re4o.utions o! ">A> sho1ed the )ons&i)uous a-sen)e o! )harismati) a)tors0 es)hato.o(i)a. re)i&es0 or te.eo.o(i)a. intentions2@ Mo ne1 uto&ia o! &ro(ress shone at the horiIon o! e5&e)tationR the o4era.. !ee.in( 1as o! a )onser4ati4e Oreturn to norma./ it+;2 Contrar+ to the ).ass o! ">4@ or to the ).ass o! ">BA0 1ho had a )ertain set o! idea.s and a )ertain 4ision o! so)iet+0 the ).ass o! ">A> is no1here to -e !ound2B Whereas ten +ears on !rom ">"C there 1as a.read+ a ri)h .iterature on the a)tors0 methods0 and moti4ations o! the O)to-er Re4o.ution0 a de)ade a!ter ">A> a))ounts o! the e4ents o! that +ear and their a!termath 1ere re.ati4e.+ s)ar)e0 o!ten redu)in( a)tors to o-%e)ts o! Histor+ as a rei!ied a)tor2 C In this )ons&i)uous a-sen)e o! )harismati) .eaders 1ith an e.a-orate ideo.o(i)a. a(enda !or !uture &o.iti)a. order0 the Oa)tors; ha4e -e)ome histori)a. !or)es su)h as Omodernisation;0 Odemo/ )ratisation;0 and O(.o-a.isation;2 A &ra)ti)a. )onseDuen)e o! this rei!i)ation o! histor+ 1as to ).assi!+ re(ime trans!ormations a))ordin( to out)ome/.o(i) 1here the re!orm &eriod O!rom -e.o1; 1ou.d -e dis)onne)ted !rom the trans!ormation &eriod O!rom a-o4e;2 Con)e&tua..+0 the -reakdo1n o! the o.d order 1as dis)onne)ted !rom the emer(en)e o! the ne1 order -e)ause -eha4iour &atterns under the ru.es o! )ommunism 1ere not )onsidered to -e a&&ro/ &riate to demo)rati) (o4ernment2 With on.+ a minor risk o! o4ersim&.i!i/ )ation0 there ha4e -een t1o a&&roa)hes2 On the one hand0 there is the idea that the stru)tura. &re)onditions o! authoritarian &o.iti)a. )u.ture
@ B C
:hmue. M2 'isenstadt0 O3he ,reakdo1n o! CommunistRe(imes;0 in V.adimir 3ismaneanu0 ed20 The #evolutions o$ *+6+ 6London and Me1 YorkP Rout.ed(e0 ">>>70 A>/"=C2 3imoth+ Harton Ash0 OCon).usions;0 in :orin Antohi and V.adimir 3ismaneanu0 eds20 8etween Past and 'uture 6,uda&estP Centra. 'uro&ean 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <===70 4=<2 8adrai) Fenne+0 OWhat Is the Histor+ o! ">A>Q Me1 :)ho.arshi& !rom 'ast/Centra. 'uro&e;0 "ast "uropean Politics and Societies0 "?0 < 6">>>70 4">/?"2
">"
and the .a)k o! demo)rati) e5&erien)e 1ou.d )onstrain the o&tions o! su))ess!u. transitions and )onso.idations o! demo)ra)+2 3his .o(i) o! )ausa.it+ has &erha&s -een most &rominent in the &aradi(m o! O&ost/ )ommunism;0 1hi)h re.ied on the re%e)tion o! the )ommunist &ast0 -oth in terms o! Mar5ist/Leninist ideo.o(+ and re(ardin( the &o.iti)a. &ra)ti)e in !ormer.+ )ommunist )ountries2 3he .e!to4ers o! )ommunism 1ere )om&ared to a Okind o! deserti!i)ation; that s1e&t a1a+ ideas0 4a.ues0 institutions0 so.idarities0 and &eo&.e2 A ,e+ond its a&&.i)ation to the t1ent+/se4en !ormer.+ )ommunist )ountries in 'urasia0 in a more Ouni4ersa.; meanin( it a.so a&&.ies to the (.o-a. &ost/so)ia.ist e&o)h a!ter ">A>/>"0 thus in).udin( not on.+ the )ountries )on)erned -ut e4er+1here e.se0 re!.e)tin( the irru&tion o! un)ertaint+ in the West2 > On the other hand0 the Otransition/to/demo)ra)+; a&&roa)h !o)used on e.ite &a)ts and demo)rati) dis&ositions o! ke+ a)tors2 Whi.e &ost/ )ommunism has .ar(e.+ -een a ne(ati4e )on)e&t e4a.uatin( the &resent out/ )omes o! the -reakdo1n o! )ommunism -+ stressin( .e(a)ies o! the &ast0 the transition/to/demo)ra)+ .iterature has !o)used on the institutiona. )hoi)e in the autonomous moment o! the &o.iti)a.2 3he )on)e&t o! transition has su!!ered !rom mu.ti&.e and indis)riminate use -e)ause it 1as seen as an inter4a.0 1hi)h 1ou.d -e demar)ated -+ an out)ome asso)iated 1ith a s&e)i!i) !orm o! .i-era. demo)rati) (o4ernment2 3he .a-e..in( o! transitions as Osu))ess!u.;0 Oha.tin(;0 or O!ai.ed; has -een )om/ mon2 3his use o! the notion o! transition is reasona-.e as !ar as it is a des)ri&ti4e )ate(or+ !or the &ur&ose o! ).assi!+in( &hases o! de4e.o&ment2 Yet0 i! transitions are Dua.i!ied as su))ess!u. or !ai.ed0 then their meanin( is trans!ormed !rom a &ro)ess )ate(or+ o! an inter4a. in time into a s+stemi) 4aria-.e2 Ho1 )an a transition !ai.0 ha.t0 or -e )onsidered sta-.e0 ho1e4er0 i! the 4er+ &arameters o! transito.o(+ ha4e de!ined it as the &hase o! un)ertaint+Q Moreo4er0 in mu)h o! the .iterature on demo)rati) tran/ sition0 un)ertaint+ is sti.. re(arded as a means to an end2 A))ordin( to a ).assi)a. !ormu.ation0 Othe &ro)ess o! esta-.ishin( a demo)ra)+ is a &ro)ess o! institutiona.isin( un)ertaint+0 o! su-%e)tin( a.. interests to un)er/ taint+;2"= Erom su)h a &ers&e)ti4e0 un)ertaint+ remains an inde&endent 4aria-.e to a )onstitutiona. !orm0 demo)ra)+2 I! transitions are to -e understood in terms o! a theor+ o! a-norma.it+0 ho1e4er0 )an the+ -e Omeasured; -+ the de(ree o! )on(ruit+ 1ith a de4e.o&menta. (oa.Q One
A > "=
Heor(e :)ho&!.in0 Politics in "astern "urope *+@<-*++A 6O5!ord and Cam-rid(eP ,.a)k1e..0 ">>?70 <@B2 Ri)hard :ak1a0 Postcommunism 6,u)kin(hamP O&en 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>>70 "<@2 Adam 8rIe1orski0 O8ro-.ems in the :tud+ o! 3ransition to *emo)ra)+;0 in Hui..ermo O;*onne.. et a.20 Transitions $rom Authoritarian #ule! Comparative Perspective 6,a.timore and LondonP Johns Ho&kins 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">AA70 @A2
"><
&ossi-.e reason !or this ma+ -e that the transition &aradi(m &aid .itt.e attention to the e5&erientia. -asis o! histor+2 It has rei!ied Otransition; as an out)ome o! histori)a. de4e.o&ment2 3he re.ati4e su))ess o! &o.iti)a. demo)ra)+ in some )ountries su)h as 8o.and0 :.o4enia0 Hun(ar+0 or the ,a.ti) )ountries0 !or instan)e0 1ou.d su((est that mass mo-i.isation redu)ed the un)ertaint+ o! the transition2 It 1ou.d then -e )on).uded that -e)ause un)ertaint+ 1as .o1er0 the transition in these )ases &rodu)ed a shar& -reak 1ith the )ommunist &ast2"" 8erha&s the most authoritati4e a))ount o! institutiona. )hoi)e in dee& un)ertaint+ de!ined the situation a!ter )ommunism;s )o..a&se -+ three )riteria2"< Eirst0 no )onstituted authorit+ sur4i4ed the o.d re(ime0 1hi)h .e!t a ta3ula rasa a!ter its demise2 :e)ond0 there is a .a)k o! )r+sta..ised &o.iti)a. a(en)+0 as the ho&es !or a stren(thened )i4i. so)iet+ and the a&&.i)a-i.it+ o! Western mode.s are de)ei4ed2 3hird0 stru)tura. &redis/ &ositions and a reasona-.+ uni!ied 1i.. to )reate ne1 )entres o! authorit+ are missin(2 In su)h reasonin(0 ">A> a-ru&t.+ thro1s eastern 'uro&e into a situation 4oid o! authorit+0 a(en)+0 and normati4e ru.es0 1here non/ )ontin(ent (i4ens are missin(2 Erom this &ers&e)ti4e o! methodo.o(i)a. e5)e&tiona.ism0 indi4idua. dis&ositions o! .eaders are se&arated !rom attitudes and dis&ositions o! )o..e)ti4e (rou&s or O!or)es !rom -e.o1;2 Indi4idua. e5&erien)e is attri-uted a Dua.it+ o! mere &assi4it+0 as the &eo&.e o! state so)ia.ist so)ieties had not Omade; the -reakdo1n o! the o.d re(ime -ut had %ust Oe5&erien)ed; it 1ith the same de(ree o! sur&rise and amaIement as outside o-ser4ers2 Hen)e0 the+ had remained Othe same; 1hi.e the institutiona. she.. o! their so)iet+ 1as )rum-.in(2 3his 4ision &ostu.ates the )oin)iden)e o! ma)ro/)han(e 1ith mi)ro/)ontinuit+ on the indi4idua. .e4e.0 to(ether 1ith a sense o! &ani)0 ur(en)+0 and un)ertaint+ resu.tin( !rom the !ormer2 :u)h a distin)tion -et1een mi)ro/)ontinuit+ and ma)ro/)han(e .imits the im&a)t o! so)ia. e5&erien/ )es on the trans!ormation o! indi4idua. )o(niti4e !rames2 Eo..o1in( this .o(i) !urther0 the )onstitution o! &o.iti)a. authorit+ is .o)ated at the .e4e. o! strate(i) intera)tion amon( e.ites0 more &re)ise.+ -et1een !our se&arate (rou&s2 3hese are hard/.iners and re!ormers 1ithin the re(ime as 1e.. as moderates and radi)a.s in the o&&osition2 "? 3his idea o! strate(i) )hoi)e and -ar(ainin( is )ou)hed in a .o(i) o! heroism that identi!ies en.i(htened e.ites 1ho a)t in a))ordan)e 1ith s+stemi)
"" "< "?
Va.erie ,un)e0 ORethinkin( Re)ent *emo)ratisationP Lessons !rom the 8ost)ommunist '5&erien)e;0 0orld Politics0 @@0 < 6<==?70 "AA/>2 3his &ara(ra&h is -ased on Jon '.ster et a.20 Institutional Design in Post-Communist Societies 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>A70 <@/B2 Adam 8rIe1orski0 Democracy and the arket 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>"72
">?
reDuirements set !rom outside the domesti) )onte5t2 In other 1ords0 the su))ess o! Odemo)rati) )onso.idation; in east )entra. 'uro&e has .ed s)ho.ars to assume the demo)rati) dis&ositions o! ke+ a)tors2 Eo..o1in( this out)ome/.o(i)0 the dee& un)ertaint+ a-out !uture &o.iti)a. o&tions that surrounded the round/ta-.e s)enarios in 8o.and0 Hun(ar+0 and ,u.(aria 1ou.d not rea..+ )onstitute a threat !or demo)ratisers2 :ome authors then )on).ude that the uneDua. distri-ution o! &o1er &rodu)ed the Dui)kest and most sta-.e transitions !rom )ommunist ru.e2 "4 In )oun/ tries 1here demo)rats en%o+ed a de)isi4e &o1er ad4anta(e0 demo)ra)+ emer(ed2 In )ountries in 1hi)h di)tators maintained a de)isi4e &o1er ad4anta(e0 di)tatorshi& emer(ed2 :u)h e.ite/!o)used a))ounts o! transition take non/e.ites into a))ount on.+ in so !ar as their &otentia. !or &rotest or re%e)tion ma+ th1art the su))ess o! &a)ts2 ,e)ause nationa. traditions0 re)ords o! resistan)e0 and moda.ities o! the -reakdo1n o! )ommunism 4aried !rom )ountr+ to )ountr+0 (enera.isations reDuire e5treme )aution2 Ho1e4er0 it is sa!e to sa+ that dis&ositions o! a)tors 1ho de)ide u&on institutiona. )hoi)es in the em&t+ s&a)e o! &o1er are not dis)onne)ted !rom &ressures !rom -e.o10 !rom the ima(es and memories that s+m-o.ise a nation;s histor+0 and thus that identi!+ them 1ith &ast o))urren)es2 *id the -reakdo1n o! )ommu/ nism mean the end o! the o.d order and the re)onstru)tion o! a ne1 one on the -asis o! heroi) indi4idua.s 1ith demo)rati) dis&ositionsQ Were the &eo&.e mere &assi4e on.ookers 1ho on.+ e5&erien)ed itQ I! )ommunism -e)omes rei!ied as a O.e(a)+;0 ho1 does this sDuare 1ith the o4era.. im&ression that the re4o.utions or transitions themse.4es did not &rodu)e ne1 ideas or !orms o! (o4ernmentQ Can one e5).ude the &eo&.e;s &arti)/ i&ation in re(ime )han(es on the assum&tion that transitions 1ere ne(o/ tiated in &a)ts -et1een e.ites and &o.iti)ians0 and rare.+ indu)ed -+ mass mo-i.isationsQ Whi.e su)h Duestions are immense.+ di!!i)u.t to address0 a tentati4e inter&reti4e assessment ma+ -e 4entured2 3he &o.iti)s o! en)hantment 3he 4ast .iterature on transitions and demo)ratisation has sho1n a ).ear .eanin( to1ards a -i!ur)ation o! ana.+sis2 Can meanin(s o! demo)ra)+ &rior to the -reakdo1n o! )ommunism .e(itimate.+ -e dis)arded !rom the thinkin( a-out demo)ratisationQ *id the &ro)esses o! de/:ta.inisation
"4
Eor instan)e0 see Mi)hae. M)Eau.0 O3he Eourth Wa4e o! *emo)ra)+ and *i)tatorshi&P Mon)oo&erati4e 3ransitions in the 8ost)ommunist Wor.d;0 in Mi)hae. M)Eau. and Fathr+n :toner/Weiss0 eds20 A$ter the Collapse o$ Communism 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <==470 @A/>@2
">4
and the re4o.utionar+ u&risin(s in eastern 'uro&e )ontri-ute nothin( to demo)ratisation0 on.+ -e)ause the+ 1ere not animated -+ .i-era. )on/ )e&tions o! ru.e o! .a1 or a rea.isti) &o.i)+ orientationQ 3he o-.i4ion to 1hi)h the east 'uro&ean re4o.utions -e!ore ">A>0 or Hor-a)he4;s perestroika0 ha4e -een )onsi(ned seems to su((est that these so)ia.ised as&e)ts o! demo)rati) s+m-o.ism 1ere not a&&ro&riate !or a .i-era. re4o.ution2 I! the s+m-o.s o! demo)ra)+ disinte(rated short.+ a!ter the )o..a&se o! )ommunism0 does it mean that the+ shou.d -e e5).uded !rom the dem/ o)rati) re4o.utionQ 3his -i!ur)ation o! ana.+sis has underem&hasised the !a)t that the disso.ution o! the s+m-o.s o! demo)ra)+ does not mean that the+ 1ere ine!!e)ti4e in -.aIin( the trai. !or demo)ra)+2 Tuite the o&&o/ siteP the uni!ied s+m-o.ism 1as 4ita. !or a tota. resistan)e a(ainst )om/ munist &o1er2 3he &ro)esses o! o4erthro1in( these s+m-o.s 1ere trans!ormati4e in their o1n ri(ht0 and re&.a)ed Oo.d; meanin(s o! demo)/ ra)+ 1ith One1; ones2 Erom ">A> on1ards0 not on.+ did )ommunist &arties )rum-.e .ike houses o! )ards -ut &ra)ti)a..+ a.. determinin( &o.iti)a. and so)ia. markers o! )ertaint+ 1ere destro+ed0 renamed0 or so.d out2 As mu)h as the emer/ (en)e o! )ommunism -rou(ht a-out a ne1 1a+ o! .i!e 1ith a ne1 termi/ no.o(+ su)h as Othe di)tatorshi& o! the &ro.etariat;0 the O4an(uard &art+;0 the O)orre)t .ine;0 and Odemo)rati) )entra.ism;0 the &o.iti)s o! en)hant/ ment (enerated a 4ariet+ o! d+nami) &otentia.s !or the a&&earan)e o! (enuine.+ ne1 1a+s o! .i!e0 e&itomised in the as&irations o! glasnost and perestroika2 Me1 s+m-o.s su)h as round ta-.es0 the 4e.4et re4o.ution0 the market0 and the return to 'uro&e re&resented the 1inds o! )han(e0 the s&rin( o! &eo&.es mar)hin( to1ards .i-ert+2 3he dis)ourses o! demo)rati) )onso.idation ha4e .ar(e.+ ne(.e)ted the im&ortan)e o! meanin(s o! demo)ra)+ !or the arti)u.ation o! &o.iti)a. authorit+2 3he )om&.e5 tasks o! simu.taneous transitions in the &o.iti)a.0 e)onomi)0 so)ia.0 and .e(a. s&heres reDuired doin( a1a+ 1ith the &ast -+ disarti)u.atin( Leninist .e(a)ies2 At the .e4e. o! meanin(/!ormation0 ho1e4er0 the e5&erien)e o! the disso.ution o! )ommunism sha&ed identi!i)ations0 -e.ie!s0 dis&osi/ tions0 and &re!eren)es2 It re)a&tured some o! the e5)itement to start ane10 1hi)h had )hara)terised the arti)u.ation o! ,o.she4ik &o1er in ">"C0 the esta-.ishment o! )ommunist ru.e in eastern 'uro&e a!ter ">4@0 or the sma.. re4o.utions in eastern 'uro&e2 3he .i-era.isation under perestroika and glasnost dramati)a..+ &rodu)ed an un&re)edented &ro.i!eration o! s+m-o.s and )ounter/s+m-o.s0 1hi)h undermined the &art+;s mono&o.+ on &o1er0 kno1.ed(e0 and the Otruth!u.; &ath !or so)iet+2 In &ra)ti)a..+ a.. )ountries0 the &er4asi4e desire to !or(et a-out )om/ munism 1as mat)hed -+ an eDua..+ enormous desire to return to di!!erent
">@
O&asts; -+ restorin( inde&endent statehood or nationa. identit+0 or0 as in Russia0 to reso.4e the na((in( Duestion o! 1hether it shou.d understand itse.! as an em&ire or a nation/state2 3he demo)rati) moment0 there!ore0 not on.+ reDuired the !orma.isation o! &o.iti)a. authorit+ as a)hie4ed in di!!erent &o.iti)a. &ro)esses -et1een ">A> and ">>"0 su)h as round/ta-.e ne(otiations0 !oundin( e.e)tions0 or &o&u.ar mo-i.isation and -road )oa/ .ition a..ian)es2 It a.so in).uded en)hanted &arti)i&ation and the sear)h !or meanin(2 Whereas an out)ome/.o(i) )onsiders the Hun(arian re4o/ .ution0 the 8ra(ue s&rin(0 Hor-a)he4;s perestroika0 :o.idarnoG)G0 or Charter CC as .e(a)ies o! the o.d order0 the s+m-o.isation o! su)h O.e(a/ )ies; )annot -e !roIen in the &ast2 3he e5&erien)es asso)iated 1ith these s+m-o.s are not sim&.+ the dead .etter o! the &ast -ut0 in e5istentia. un)ertaint+0 )an ha4e a trans!ormati4e &otentia. that )an determine the )hoi)es o! &eo&.e and .eaders2 ,e+ond the determination o! .eaders or an a-stra)t a..e(ian)e to a mode. o! .i-era. demo)ra)+0 the )ata.+st to dia.o(ue 1as the -road so)ia. unrest on doIens o! sta(es2 ,oth in )entra. 'uro&e and in the :o4iet 9nion0 &eo&.e in the .ate ">A=s -roke do1n -orders o! a.. kinds0 sus&end/ in( a)Duired so)ia. ro.es and Duestionin( &o.iti)a. hierar)hies2 ,e)ause o! the -road im&a)t o! (rassroots mo4ements0 1e )an s&eak o! a O)arni4a. o! re4o.ution; in eastern 'uro&e or a O)arni4a. o! perestroika; in the :o4iet 9nion2"@ 3he &er!ormati4e &o1er o! resistan)e 1ent -e+ond the .ar(e )ities to &.a)es su)h as MiebdI+rIe)I0 3e&.i)e0 and Ma(+maros0 and in).uded 1orkers as mu)h as retirees or hi(h s)hoo. students2 "B 3he )arni4a.esDue o&&osition in .ar(e &arts o! eastern 'uro&e &re)eded Hor-a)he4;s &.ura.ism o! o&inions -+ some +ears2 Hor-a)he4;s )u.tura. re4o.ution tou)hed u&on a.most e4er+ !ie.d in &u-.i) and &ri4ate e4er+da+ .i!e and e5tended the o&&ortunities that had -een a.read+ seiIed -+ -o+)otts o! e.e)tions or o! steri.e &art+ )on(resses2 A.thou(h the mono/ &o.+ o! the C8:9 1as .i!ted on.+ in ">>=0 the )ommuni)ati4e d+nami) re.eased -+ Hor-a)he4;s re!orm (a4e !u.. o&&ortunit+ to the radi)a. !or)es o! the )u.tura. inte..i(entsia to (o -e+ond the -oundaries set -+ the &art+ se)retar+2 Where Hor-a)he4;s glasnost a..o1ed )riti)ism o! :ta.in0 o! )orru&tion inside the )ommunist &art+0 and o! )ensorshi&0 radi)a.s 1ou.d atta)k Lenin0 the sin(.e/&art+ ru.e as su)h0 or demand a-so.ute )ommitment to !ree s&ee)h2 It is an iron+ o! histor+ that the ar(ua-.+ t1o !oremost a)tors o! re(ime )han(e in eastern 'uro&e and Russia0 the 8o.ish :o.idarnoG)G mo4ement
"@ "B
8adrai) Fenne+0 A Carnival o$ #evolution 68rin)etonP 8rin)eton 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <==<72 Fenne+0 A Carnival o$ #evolution0 ?==/"2
">B
and the (enera. se)retar+ o! the C8:9 Mikhai. Hor-a)he40 1ere not intent to de-unkin( )ommunism as an institutiona. stru)ture2 Hor-a)he4;s &ro(ramme o! demo)ratisation had at its )ore a -id !or a rene1a. o! the re&resentati4e nature o! the &art+2 In!.uen)ed -+ a 4ision o! a re!ormed :o4iet so)ia.ist so)iet+ that remained !aith!u. to traditiona. Mar5ist so)ia.ism and romanti) Leninism0 -ut that -roke 1ith the di)tatoria. !eatures o! the s+stem0 he 1ent 1e.. -e+ond &re4ious do)trina. .imits2"C Perestroika 1as &resented as a )ontinuation o! ear.ier e!!orts o! &ro(ressi4e !or)es 1ithin the &art+ -a)k in ">@?0 ">@B0 and ">B@2 A.thou(h the disinte(ration o! the :o4iet 9nion o))urred at the end o! ">>"0 there is (ood reason to assume that ">A> 1as a.so the )ardina. +ear in the disarti)u.ation o! )ommunist &o1er there2 "A In that +ear0 )om&rehensi4e &o.iti)a. re!orms 1ou.d )ome into e!!e)t that in).uded the introdu)tion o! )om&etiti4e e.e)tions !or re(iona. so4iets and the reor(anisation o! the &art+ se)retariat0 1hi)h -e!ore .on( 1ou.d su-stantia..+ redu)e its )ontro. o4er state institutions in the re&u-.i)s2 3he re4i4a. o! .o)a. so4iets -+ means o! )ontested e.e)tions and the esta-.ishment o! a ne1 a../union -od+0 the Con(ress o! 8eo&.e;s *e&uties0 meant an assau.t on the mono&o.+ o! &o1er and the m+th that the &art+ 1as in &ossession o! kno1.ed(e a-out the )orre)t .ine2 Whi.e -oth Hor-a)he4 and Ye.tsin endorsed Odemo)ratisation;0 the di4idin( issue 1as their &osition on the .eadin( ro.e o! the &art+2 At the te.e4ised Eirst Con(ress o! 8eo&.e;s *e&uties on ?" Ma+0 Hor-a)he4 de!ined the C8:9 as the (uarantor o! demo)ra)+0 1hereas Ye.tsin )har/ a)terised the &art+ as the main o-sta).e to demo)ratisation2 "> 3he introdu)tion o! ne1 me)hanisms o! intra/&art+ demo)ra)+ and0 simu.taneous.+0 o! o!!i)ia. e.e)tora. a))ounta-i.it+ 1as so)io.o(i)a..+0 not .e(a..+0 at odds 1ith the !undamenta. &rin)i&.e o! )ommunist &o1er2 3he reor(anisation o! the &art+ se)retariat introdu)ed .a-our/intensi4e &art+ )ommissions and made the su&er4isor+ !un)tions o! union/1ide &art+ )ommittees &ra)ti)a..+ im&ossi-.e due to time )onstraints2 <= 3he (ro1in( num-er o! )i4i) mo4ements and &o.iti)a..+ oriented asso)ia/ tions in .ate )ommunism &ra)tised a 4er+ hi(h de(ree o! interna. demo/ )ra)+2 3hese mo4ements em&hasised non/hierar)hi)a. re.ations0 o! a
"C "A "> <=
Heor(e W2 ,res.auer0 1or3achev and Peltsin as %eaders 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <==<70 B?2 Mi)hae. Wa..er0 The "nd o$ the Communist Power onopoly 6Man)hester and Me1 YorkP Man)hester 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>?70 <?42 ,res.auer0 1or3achev and Peltsin as %eaders0 "?@2 :te&hen Fotkin0 Armageddon Averted! The Soviet Collapse *+5,-A,,, 6O5!ordP O5!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <=="70 CC2
">C
hi(h.+ de)entra.ised and &arti)i&ator+ )hara)ter0 1hi.e &o.iti)a. &arties &ra)tised )ommunit+0 eDua.it+0 and non/hierar)h+2 <" Hor-a)he4;s em&hasis on a .a1/-ased state 6 pravovoe gosudarstvo7 i(nored the !a)t that the true -asis o! )ommunist &o1er 1as not in the )onstitutiona..+ enshrined re(u.ations -ut in the &ermanent )ontro. o! state institutions -+ the &art+ a&&aratus2 Whi.e state mana(ement and &art+ a&&aratus 1ere .e(a..+ se&arated0 in &ra)ti)e the a&&arent.+ e5&ert and Onon/&o.iti)a.; -odies o! &ro!essiona. mana(ers took the most O&o.it/ i)a.; o! a.. de)isions in the state2 3here 1as a 4irtua. o4er.a& -et1een &art+ and state0 as the same (rou& o! &eo&.e on a.. &ossi-.e .e4e.s o! state administration 1ou.d meet0 1ith on.+ minor ad%ustments0 !irst in the )a&a)it+ o! a &art+ -od+0 then in the )a&a)it+ o! an industria. -oard2 << :o4iet/t+&e institutions )o..a&sed not -e)ause the+ 1ere too ri(id -ut -e)ause the+ 1ere too !.e5i-.e2 Perestroika 1as .ess a sudden re.a5ation o! )om&rehensi4e )ontro.0 and more a massi4e in)rease in the a.read+ 1ide dis)retion o! (rou&s and asso)iations at the non/state .e4e.2 <? 3he ne1 autonom+ (i4en to .o)a. so4iets rein!or)ed ).aims -+ nationa. e.ites and their -ids !or &o.iti)a. )areer o&&ortunities2 In the stron(.+ ethni)ised !rame1ork o! :o4iet nationa.it+ &o.i)+0 and 1ith in)reasin( e)onomi) &ro-.ems and &u-.i) )riti)ism raised a(ainst the C8:90 the &o.iti)a. re!orms su&&orted state disinte(ration2 Whi.e the institutiona.isation o! ethni)it+ as a -asis !or :o4iet nationa.ism had -een a (uarantee !or the )entra. ro.e o! the )ommunist &art+ in the :o4iet 9nion0 the stren(then/ in( o! the so4iets in the re&u-.i)s and the idea o! a nas)ent &ar.iamentar/ ism .ar(e.+ su&&orted ideas o! nationa. inde&endent statehood2 A!ter Lithuania and the Russian Re&u-.i) de).ared their so4erei(nt+ in s&rin( ">>=0 Hor-a)he4 announ)ed &.ans !or a ne1 union treat+ 1ith a 4ie1 to sa!e(uardin( the statehood o! the :o4iet 9nion2 Whi.e the tides o! nationa.ist mo-i.isation in the .ate :o4iet 9nion 1ere im&ossi-.e to ima(ine in ">A@0 the+ -e)ame ine4ita-.e !our +ears .ater2 <4 In the tida. 1a4es o! state -reakdo1n0 the )on!usion o! &o.iti)a. .eadershi& and the un)ertainties a-out the )ountr+;s identit+ and !uture -e)ame mani!est2 Hor-a)he4;s Ii(Ia( &o.i)ies in ">>= and ">>" in).uded radi)a. shi!ts to
<" << <? <4
:te4en M2 Eish0 Democracy $rom Scratch 6:tan!ordP :tan!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>@70 ""?/"A2 N+(munt ,auman0 O3he :e)ond Heneration :o)ia.ism;0 in Leonard :)ha&iro0 ed20 Political /pposition in /ne-Party States 6LondonP Ma)mi..an0 ">C<70 <?@2 :te4en L2 :o.ni)k0 Stealing the State! Control and Collapse in Soviet Institutions 6Cam-rid(e0 MA0 and LondonP Har4ard 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>A70 <</?2 Mark ,eissin(er0 ;ationalist o3ili)ation and the Collapse o$ the Soviet State 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <==<72
">A
the .e!t su)h as the @==/da+ &ro(ramme !or a transition to the market0 1hi)h he dro&&ed in mid/:e&tem-er in order to ask !or s&e)ia. emer(en)+ &o1ers !or the sake o! sa4in( the inte(rit+ o! the :o4iet 9nion2 In *e)em-er ">>=0 Hor-a)he4 res&onded to a Duestion a-out 1hether he 1as (oin( to the Ori(ht;P OA)tua..+0 I;m (oin( round in )ir).es2; <@ In s&rin( ">>"0 1ithin rea)h o! a ne1 dra!t o! a union treat+ 1ith the ri(ht to se)ession0 Hor-a)he4 o&ened dire)t ne(otiations 1ith the nine re&u-/ .i)s sti.. 1i..in( to )onsider a re.ationshi& 1ith Mos)o12 Yet the atta)h/ ment to the 9nion 1as su&erseded -+ ne1 !orms o! en)hantment in a ra&id &ro)ess o! !ra(mentation o! &o1er0 identities0 and meanin(s2 Transitional uncertainty! enemies& cleansing and purity 8eo&.e are not on.+ )itiIens o! a state or mem-ers o! a &art+ -ut a.so emotiona. -ein(s0 1hose .i4es are a!!e)ted -+ e5istentia. )rises0 1hi)h in turn0 sha&e their memories0 desires0 and -e.ie!s2 What &re4ai.ed in eastern 'uro&e a!ter ">A> 1as !ra(mentation0 )hara)terisin( the re(ion as O-ritt.e;2A> 1ere0 to a .ar(e e5tent0 mode..ed 1ith -inar+ o&&ositions0 1here the se&aration o! O1e; !rom Othem; or the o&&osition -et1een (ood and e4i. a&&eared as s+m-o.isations o! un)ertaint+2 8o.iti)a..+0 the re%e)tion o! )ommunism 1as more o! a Odou-.e re%e)tion; rather than the &ositi4e ado&tion o! a 1e../de!ined a.ternati4e2 3he !irst re%e)tion )on)erned the e5terna. domination to 1hi)h non/:o4iet mem-ers o! the !ormer.+ )ommunist -.o) had -een su-%e)ted0 1hereas the se)ond re%e)tion 1as that o! )ommunism as a s+stem o! &o1er2 <C 3his dou-.e re%e)tion re!.e)ted the )entra.it+ o! the uni!ied s+m-o.ism a(ainst the )ommunist enem+ as under.+in( the )risis o! .e(itima)+ as the )entra. !eature o! )ommunism;s 1eakness2 <A 3he )on4er(en)e o! the de.e(a.ised :o.idarnoG)G and the )risis/ridden )ommunist &art+ at the 8o.ish round/ ta-.e in ear.+ ">A>0 !or instan)e0 turned the radi)a. se&aration -et1een Ous; and Othem;0 so )ru)ia. !or the 8o.ish se.!/.imitin( re4o.ution in ">A= and ">A"0 into an understandin( amon( Oe.ites;2 3his &a)t0 ho1e4er0 1as not so mu)h the out)ome o! arti)u.ated strate(ies2 Rather0 it 1as !a)i.itated -+ a s&ontaneous )ommunit+ o! mutua. !or(i4in( and under/ standin( amon( !ormer enemies under the situationa. &remises o!
<@ "/<2 Fen Jo1itt0 The ;ew 0orld Disorder 6,erke.e+P 9ni4ersit+ o! Ca.i!ornia 8ress0 ">><70 <"A2 Les.ie Ho.mes0 Post-Communism 6*urham0 MCP *uke 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>C70 "42 Les.ie Ho.mes0 The "nd o$ Communist Power! Anti-Corruption Campaigns and %egitimation Crisis 6Cam-rid(e and O5!ordP 8o.it+ 8ress0 ">>?72
">>
the ne(otiations in the Warsa1 Ma(da.enka 8a.a)e in ear.+ ">A>2 In this 4ein0 it 1as hi(h.+ in!.uen)ed -+ the s&irit o! non/4io.en)e o! the 8o.ish se.!/.imitin( re4o.ution near.+ a de)ade ear.ier2 <> When the 8o.ish :o.idarnoG)G o&&osition une5&e)ted.+ 1on a trium&ha. 4i)tor+ in the semi!ree e.e)tions o! June ">A>0 its .eaders 1ere )om&.ete.+ dis)on)erted0 .a)kin( an+ strate(+0 and o4er1he.med -+ the s+m-o.i) 4i)tor+ 1hi)h 1ou.d -rin( them &o1er e!!e)ti4e.+2 3his is a.. the more im&ortant as the :o.idarnoG)G o&&osition 1as )onsidered the on.+ rea.0 )oherent0 and 4ia-.e )ounter/e.ite in eastern 'uro&e2 '4ents in CIe)hos.o4akia !o..o1ed a di!!erent )ourse2 In the a!termath o! the -ruta. )ra)kdo1n -+ the &o.i)e on "C Mo4em-er ">A>0 the CIe)hos.o4ak mass demonstrations essentia..+ s+m-o.ised the radi)a. se&aration o! the &ure )ommunit+ o! Ous; !rom the dan(erous and &o..ut/ in( e.ements o! Othem;2 3he rhetori) o! the 4e.4et re4o.ution maintained &o&u.ar &er)e&tions o! ).ear/)ut )ate(ories0 he.&in( to esta-.ish )on)e&ts su)h as demo)ra)+0 !reedom0 humanit+0 and non/4io.en)e as s+non+/ mous !or the CIe)hos.o4ak &eo&.e as a(ainst the re(ime2 ?= In Russian &o.iti)s0 a Mani)hean di4ision o! the &o.iti)a. 1or.d into -inar+ !orms o! re&resentation )ame to &ortra+ the &o.iti)a. )on!.i)t in terms o! Ous;/Othem; distin)tions that re&eated.+ ru.e out Othem; !rom the &o.iti)a. )ommunit+2?" Whi.e Mar5ism/Leninism identi!ied a O:o4iet &eo&.e; -+ -anishin( a.. enemies o! the &eo&.e to the )ate(or+ Oanti/ :o4iet;0 the &eriod o! glasnost &ro&a(ated a host o! Odemo)rati); &o.iti)a. identities0 1hi)h soon )ame to eDuate Odemo)rati); 1ith Oanti/)ommunist;2 As the &o.iti)a. )ommunit+ 1as &o.arised o4er the Duestion o! nationa. identit+0 there 1as a tenden)+ to &re).ude a mutua. re)o(nition o! the &arti)u.ar identities ad4an)ed -+ &o.iti)a. su-%e)ts2 As a )onse/ Duen)e0 &o.iti)a. )ommunities su)h as demo)rats0 ad4o)ates o! a stron( state 6gosudarstvenniki70 &atriots0 and )ommunists 1ere s+m-o.i)a..+ mediated2 Moreo4er0 the .a)k o! !ree and o&en &ar.iamentar+ e.e)tions at the !edera. .e4e. in Russia unti. the end o! ">>? &re4ented &arties !rom de4e.o&in( identities -+ means o! the arti)u.ation o! interests and the &ro(rammati) !o)us o! &o.iti)a. dis)ourse in a )om&etiti4e &o.iti)a. en4ironment2 Rather0 &o.iti)a. su-%e)ts remained Duite se.!/re!erentia.0
<> ?= ?"
:ee Hara.d W+dra0 Continuities in Polands Permanent Transition 6,asin(stokeP Ma)mi..an0 <=="70 @=/42 James Fra&!.0 O3he Rhetori) o! the Ve.4et Re4o.ution;0 Center $or Slavic and "ast "uropean Studies ;ewsletter0 ">0 ? 6<==<70 ?/C and "B/">2 Mi)hae. 9r-an0 O:ta(es o! 8o.iti)a. Identit+ Eormation in Late :o4iet and 8ost/:o4iet Russia;0 in Vi)toria ,onne..0 ed20 Identities in Transition! "astern "urope and #ussia A$ter the Collapse o$ Communism 6,erke.e+P 9ni4ersit+ o! Ca.i!ornia0 ">>B70 "4C2
<==
and the (ro1in( (a& -et1een state institutions and so)iet+ entai.ed the !ormation o! O&hantom identities;2 3he mani!o.d attem&ts at de)ommunisation or .ustration in di!!erent )ountries ha4e s+m-o.ised the need to &uri!+ the &o.iti)a. s)ene0 e5&e..in( &eo&.e asso)iated 1ith the !ormer )ommunist re(ime2 A.thou(h the a4ai./ a-i.it+ o! re.ia-.e kno1.ed(e in !i.es !rom the se)ret ser4i)e and the intensit+ o! s)reenin(0 retri-ution0 or disDua.i!i)ation 4aried 1ide.+0 the ritua. as&e)t o! O)eremonia. &uri!i)ation as a means o! remo4in( -.ood/(ui.tiness and ).eansin( a house; has -een )ru)ia. !or -reakin( the distrust to1ards man+ as&e)ts o! the &u-.i) s&here -+ esta-.ishin( an enem+ (rou& 1ithin so)iet+2?< ')onomi) re!orms ha4e -een s.o1 in &ro4idin( so)ia. markers o! )ertaint+ a!ter )ommunism destro+ed ).asses0 de!inite so)ia. (rou&s0 or &o.iti)a. identities2 It 1as in this sense / rather than in the sense o! materia. eDua.it+ / that )ommunist so)ieties had -e)ome O).ass.ess;2 ?? A!ter )ommunism0 the di!!eren)es -et1een ri)h and &oor in)reased ra&/ id.+0 -ut the+ are de!ined -+ .e4e.s o! )onsum&tion rather than -+ so)ia. st+.e2 A.thou(h this 1eakness o! so)ia. markers )onditions so)ia. and &o.iti)a. )on!.i)t0 it is remarka-.+ de4oid o! ).ass/oriented dis)ourse or ).ear/)ut identities2 3hose 1ho &ossess are en4ied and o!ten .oathed2 ,ut the+ are .oathed as indi4idua.s or as so)ia. a-stra)tions / 1i.+ apparatchiki0 ma$iosi0 or )heatin( -usinessmen / .oathin(s that are not as eas+ to &o.iti)ise as the hi(h.+ 4isi-.e and st+.ised e5isten)e o! the o.d aristo)ra)ies or (entri!ied &ro!essiona.s and -ureau)rats2 3he s&e.. o! .i-era.ism as one o! the )ru)ia. )on)e&ts re&resentin( an a../en)om&assin( a.ternati4e to )ommunism has -een su-%e)t to )on!u/ sion0 distortion0 and disi..usionment2 Li-era.ism in &ost/)ommunist )ountries has -een )hara)terised more -+ a .a)k o! su-stanti4e rationa.it+ and ima(es than -+ kno1.ed(e or e5&ertise2 ?4 3he su))ess o! &o.iti)a. .i-era.ism in &ost/)ommunist Russia has -een su-stantia..+ ham&ered -+ a three!o.d )risis2 *e&ri4ed o! a norma. situation0 the de4e.o&ment o! state/so)iet+ re.ations on the -asis o! the .i-era. mode. su&&orted -+ the midd.e ).ass and .i-era. &o.iti)a. &arties seems to -e &re).uded2 *es&ite the momentous )han(es in &o.iti)a. &ra)ti)e0 &o.iti)a. .e(itima)+0 and so)ia. or(anisation0 there seems to -e a &er4asi4e .a)k o! endo(enous.+
?< ?? ?4
Mata.ia Letki0 OLustration and *emo)ratisation in 'ast/Centra. 'uro&e;0 "urope-Asia Studies0 @40 4 6<==<70 @<>/@<2 Andre1 Janos0 "ast Central "urope in the odern 0orld! The Politics o$ the 8orderlands $rom Pre- to Postcommunism 6:tan!ordP :tan!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <===70 4=@2 JerI+ :Ia)ki0 %i3eralism A$ter Communism 6,uda&estP Centra. 'uro&ean 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>@7R Mar)ia A2 Wei(.e0 O8o.iti)a. Li-era.ism in 8ost)ommunist Russia; & #eview o$ Politics0 @A0 ? 6">>B70 4B>/@=?2
<="
)reated &o.iti)a. !ormu.as0 ideo.o(ies0 or ).asses2 ?@ O!ten0 m+tho.o(isa/ tions o! the &ast under&in e)onomi) issues su)h as &ost/)ommunist .i-era.ism2?B Linkin( the CIe)h e)onomi) trans!ormation a!ter ">A> to nationa. re4i4a. in the .ate ei(hteenth and ear.+ nineteenth )enturies is to &ortra+ .i-era.ism as !undamenta. to the )onstitution o! CIe)h identit+0 to a return to 1hat is Onatura.2; :u)h a 4ision &resents the CIe)h nation as 'uro&eans natura..+ in).ined to demo)ra)+0 )ommer)e0 and se.!/re.ian)e2 It thus erases a1k1ard !a)ts su)h as the times 1hen CIe)hs 1ere in).ined to &an/:.a4ism and .ooked a1a+ !rom 1estern 'uro&e0 or a)Duies)ed to authoritarian ru.e0 either -+ !orei(ners or )om&atriots2 3he renaissan)e o! Fantian and He(e.ian .e(a)ies re!.e)ted the o&ti/ mism !or a ne1 &ea)e!u. 1or.d order a!ter the end o! the Co.d War2 ?C 3he sur&risin(.+ non/4io.ent end o! )ommunism has made &o.iti)a. s)ientists -.inkered 1ith re(ard to the &s+)ho.o(i)a. truism that the &er)e&tion o! -ein(a4i)timdoes notreDuirea 1aror.ar(e/s)a.e 4io.en)e2:e.!/&er)e&tions o! ethni) (rou&s or nationa.ities as 4i)tims o! e5istentia. annihi.ation or humi.iation a-ound in the re(ion2 3he rea. issue !or :er-s0 !or e5am/ &.e0 1as a )o..e)ti4e !ear o! disinte(ration and !orm.essness0 as e5&ressed in the Memorandum &u-.ished -+ the :er-ian A)adem+ o! :)ien)e in ">AB2 C.aimin( the restoration o! nationa. and )u.tura. inte(rit+ o! the :er-ian &eo&.e as a histori)a. and demo)rati) ri(ht0 it denoun)ed re&eated attem&ts at the &h+si)a. annihi.ation o! :er-s2 ?A 3here is &er/ ha&s no -etter i..ustration o! ho1 heroisation in &ost/">A> stands !or !ra(mentation than the -att.e!ie.ds o! e5/Yu(os.a4ia0 1here 1ar.ords ha4e )ome to &.a+ an im&ortant &art in esta-.ishin( )o..e)ti4e identit+/ &atterns2 '4en in )ountries 1ithout a .on(/standin( ethni) )on!.i)t0 the ">A=s sa1 1a4es o! hatred and 4i)timisation2 3hus0 in the 1inter o! ">A4/@0 the ,u.(arian re(ime .aun)hed a massi4e )am&ai(n a(ainst 3urkish Mus.ims0 1ith the aim o! )han(in( their names to :.a4i) ,u.(arian ones2 3he a))om&an+in( -ruta. measures a(ainst Is.ami) ritu/ a.s and )ustoms0 as 1e.. as a(ainst the use o! the 3urkish .an(ua(e0 mo-i.ised resistan)e and insti(ated the &ani)/stri)ken mass e5odus o! more than ?<=0=== 3urks in s&rin( ">A>0 o! 1hi)h a&&ro5imate.+
?@
?B ?C ?A
'.emer Hankiss0 OOur Re)ent 8astP Re)ent *e4e.o&ments in 'ast Centra. 'uro&e in the Li(ht o! Various :o)ia. 8hi.oso&hies;0 "ast "uropean Politics and Societies0 A0 ? 6">>470 @?@/4"2 Fieran Wi..iams0 OMationa. M+ths in the Me1 CIe)h Li-era.ism;0 in Heo!!re+ Hoskin( and Heor(e :)ho&!.in0 eds20 yths and ;ationhood 6LondonP Hurst0 ">>C70 "?</4=2 8ierre Hassner0 >iolence and Peace! 'rom the Atomic 8om3 to "thnic Cleansing 6,uda&est/ London/Me1 YorkP Centra. 'uro&ean 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>B70 <>/?<2 Mirko Hrmek et a.20 %e nettoyage ethni7ue2 Documents histori7ues sur une id4ologie ser3e 68arisP Ea+ard0 ">>?70 <B@/B2
<=<
"B=0=== had )ome -a)k -+ the se)ond ha.! o! ">>=2 ?> A!ter the !or)ed assimi.ation &o.i)ies in )ommunist ,u.(aria0 the Mationa. 'du)ation A)t in ">>" reintrodu)ed 3urkish .an(ua(e instru)tion in &u-.i) s)hoo.s2 A.thou(h this 1as met -+ some o&&osition !rom ,u.(arian nationa.ists as 1e.. as &ra)ti)a. &ro-.ems0 su)h as .a)k o! tea)hin( materia.s and irre(u.ar s)hoo. .essons0 the 3urkish minorit+ has -een &ro(ressi4e.+ inte(rated2 In the se)ond ha.! o! the ">>=s0 s+m-o.isations o! a heroi) .eader ha4e -e)ome im&ortant !or )o..e)ti4e identit+/!ormation2 In the 4oid o! &ost/ )ommunist un)ertaint+0 monar)hi)a. dis)ourse rose in ,u.(arian &o.iti)s and .ed to the e.e)tion o! !ormer kin( :imeon II as &rime minister2 4= Mumerous e5)u.&ator+ m+tho.o(ies0 su)h as narrati4es o! mass nationa. resistan)e to )ommunism0 tend to heroise nationa. histor+ and0 simu.ta/ neous.+0 minimise the heroi) meanin( o! the e!!orts o! !ormer dissidents2 8u-.i) re-uria.s o! nationa. heroes e4oke &ersona. .osses and the identi/ !i)ation 1ith s&e)i!i) as&e)ts o! the dead &erson;s -io(ra&h+2 4" '5&erien)in( death;s Ou.timate Duestions; su)h as !ear and a1e in &u-.i) settin(s / !or e5am&.e0 in mass re-uria.s .ike those o! Imre Ma(+ or the Yu(os.a4 ske.etons !rom the :e)ond Wor.d War / enhan)es their emo/ tiona. si(ni!i)an)e2 3he (a& -et1een the Oo-%e)ti4e; &resen)e o! the tar(ets and Osu-%e)ti4e; &er)e&tion a&&ears to -e &arti)u.ar.+ a)ute2 '4en in )ountries 1ith a hi(h de(ree o! ethni) homo(eneit+ and an e5treme.+ .o1 num-er o! Je1s0 anti/ :emitism has -e)ome the .an(ua(e o! nosta.(ia0 resentment0 and se.!/ 4i)timisation2 A.thou(h it did not rise as a )onseDuen)e o! the )o..a&se o! )ommunism -ut had -een there !or a .on( time0 anti/:emitism in the ">>=s has -e)ome the most &ersistent0 endurin(0 and tra(i)a..+ e!!e)ti4e m+tho.o(+ o! s)a&e(oatin(2 3he Russians; o1n mo4ement !or the &ro/ te)tion o! the en4ironment and histori)a. monuments 68am+at7 1as soon hi%a)ked -+ those ea(er to -.ame the Je1s !or a.. the 1ron(s su!!ered2 4< 8arado5i)a..+0 anti/:emitism in &ost/)ommunist eastern 'uro&e ser4es &rimari.+ a s+m-o.i) !un)tion in that it identi!ies the Je1s / thou(h there
?>
4=
4" 4<
Maria 3odoro4a0 OIm&ro-a-.e Ma4eri)k or 3+&i)a. Con!ormistQ :e4en 3hou(hts on the Me1 ,u.(aria;0 in I4o ,ana)0 ed20 "astern "urope in #evolution 6Itha)a and LondonP Corne.. 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">><70 "@4/C2 I4a.+o Nne&o.ski0 OLe retour du dis)ours monar)hiDue2 La !.u)tuation &ost)ommuniste de .a sou4erainVtV;0 &a&er de.i4ered at the Co..oDue internationa. OLa rein4ention de .;Vtat;0 @ and B A&ri. <==<0 8aris2 Fatherine Verder+0 The Political %ives o$ Dead 8odies! #e3urial and Postsocialist Change 6Me1 YorkP Co.um-ia 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>>70 ??2 Heo!!re+ Hoskin(0 A 2istory o$ the Soviet :nion& *+*5-*++* 6LondonP Eontana0 ">><70 4AB2
<=?
1ere !e1 .e!t0 es&e)ia..+ in eastern 'uro&e / 1ith the )auses o! nationa. disaster !rom )ommunism to the e!!e)ts o! e)onomi) .i-era.ism2 4? Whi.e the :er-s identi!ied 1ith -oth the :er-ian and Yu(os.a4 states in a &ositi4e manner and their sense o! 4i)timisation 1as ethni)0 in the .ate :o4iet 9nion the sense o! 4i)timisation 1as &o.iti)a.0 .eadin( to the )oun/ tr+;s -reakdo1n throu(h nationa.ist mo-i.isation244 Whi.e in the .ate Hor-a)he4 era the m+th o! a histori)a. mission o! the :o4iet &eo&.e 1as &ro(ressi4e.+ de)onstru)ted0 &o.iti)a. dis)ourse in nas)ent Russia soon turned to1ards the re/esta-.ishment o! a &atrioti) m+th o! a Russian mission24@ It is there!ore not sur&risin( that the attem&ts to rem+tho.o(ise the Russian state dra1 hea4i.+ on the ins&iration o! state &atriotism .inked 1ith a mi5ture o! :o4iet s+m-o.ism and traditiona. re.i(ious s+m-o.ism2 In this res&e)t0 one )an &oint to the )ontro4ers+ a-out the -uria. o! Lenin;s mumm+0 an initiati4e a.read+ taken -+ Ye.tsin and -+ &atriar)h A.e5ei II 6thou(h as +et 1ithout su))ess72 In *e)em-er <===0 the Russian *uma -+ an o4er1he.min( ma%orit+ 6?A" 4otes to @"7 restored the :o4iet anthem at the reDuest o! 8resident 8utin2 :imi.ar.+0 the tsarist !.a( and ea(.e 1ere ado&ted as the )ountr+;s state s+m-o.s24B 3he s+m-o.i) si(ni!i)an)e o! the se)ond 1ar in Che)hn+a is in .ine 1ith the most e.ementar+ as&e)ts o! &reser4in( territoria. inte(rit+ and the mono&o.+ o! 4io.en)e2 3he disorder and .a1.essness in Che)hn+a are &resented as an e5treme )ase0 -ut as a.so e5istin( in Russia0 as e&itomised -+ a 1ide.+ )ir)u.ated a&horism o! 8resident 8utinP OWe;4e (ot Che)hn+a 1here4er +ou .ook2; 4C ,e+ond &er)e&tion0 there!ore0 one must not !or(et that0 !or .ar(e &arts o! the &o&u.ation0 the !ee.in( o! 4i)timisation in a.most an+ )ountr+ in the re(ion is rea.2 War/torn re(ions &aid the hi(hest &ri)e in terms o! death to..s and mass mi(ration2 3he 1ars in e5/Yu(os.a4ia -et1een ">>" and ">>> ma+ ha4e )aused the death o! a&&ro5imate.+ <<=0=== &eo&.e0 in).udin( "B=0=== ,osnians0 ?=0=== Croats0 and <@0=== :er-s2 O! a tota. o! more than < mi..ion e5&e..ed &eo&.e0 -+ the +ear <===0 "2< mi..ion ,osnians sti.. had not returned home24A :e.!/4i)timisation a.so -ears
4? 44 4@ 4B 4C
4A
V.adimir 3ismaneanu0 'antasies o$ Salvation 68rin)etonP 8rin)eton 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>A70>B/C2 Ve.%ko Vu%a)i)0 OHistori)a. Le(a)ies0 Mationa.ist Mo-i.iIation0 and 8o.iti)a. Out)omes in Russia and :er-iaP A We-erian Vie1;0 Theory and Society0 <@ 6">>B70 CB@/A="2 Mi)hae. 9r-an0 ORem+tho.o(iIin( the Russian :tate;0 "urope-Asia Studies0 @=0 B 6">>A70 >B>/><2 :ee oscow Times0 > *e)em-er <===2 Tuoted in :er(e+ 8roIoro40 ORussian 8ost)ommunism and Tuestions o! *emo)ra)+P 8ost)ommunist Constitution o! :tate/:o)iet+ Re.ations as a Moment o! the 8o.iti)a.;0 &a&er &resented at the 'uro&ean Consortium !or 8o.iti)a. Resear)h )on!eren)e0 B/A :e&tem-er <=="0 Canter-ur+0 <@2 "xit iloVevic0 su&&.ement to %e onde0 A/> O)to-er <===2
<=4
hea4i.+ on the e)onom+0 so)ia. stru)ture0 and demo(ra&h+2 3he situation in ">A> in man+ res&e)ts thre1 the re(ion -a)k to .e4e.s o! de4e.o&ment o! &re/">"4 or &re/">4@2 Eor the &o&u.ation0 e5&e)tations !or the !uture 1ere 4er+ .o10 in man+ )ases mu)h .o1er than durin( the ">C=s or ">A=s0 1hen the e)onomi) situation 1as more des&erate -ut ho&e !or &o.iti)a. re!orm 1as mu)h hi(her2 3he &rimar+ !a)tor !or the re(ion;s -a)k1ard/ ness 1as inherent.+ &s+)ho.o(i)a.0 -ased on an endemi) sense o! re.ati4e de&ri4ation (enerated -+ ima(es o! the materia. &ro(ress o! the ad4an)ed West24> In &arti)u.ar0 the a1areness o! -ein( doomed to )ontinue to .i4e on Ostar4ation 1a(es; &er&etuates a )o..e)ti4e !ee.in( o! remainin( se)ond/ rate 'uro&eans2 In this 4ein0 the .e4e. o! -a)k1ardness in Russia and eastern 'uro&e 1ith re(ard to the Western 1or.d at the -e(innin( o! the ">>=s 1as mu)h hi(her than0 sa+0 at the out-reak o! the :e)ond Wor.d War2@= Crime rates in)reased drasti)a..+ -et1een ">A> and ">>@2 @" 3he demo(ra&hi) )o..a&se in the a!termath o! )ommunism throu(hout the entire re(ion 1as re!.e)ted in the net natura. de)rease o! the &o&u.ation 1ith the e5)e&tion o! 8o.and0 the CIe)h Re&u-.i)0 and :.o4akia2 @< With the hi(hest &er )a&ita a.)oho. )onsum&tion in the 1or.d0 Russia a.so sho1s a 1ider (a& in .i!e e5&e)tan)+ -et1een men 6!i!t+/nine7 and 1omen 6se4ent+/three7 than an+ other )ountr+2 3he morta.it+ rate o! "@2" deaths &er "0=== &eo&.e &uts Russia ahead o! on.+ A!(hanistan amon( the )ountries o! 'uro&e0 Asia0 and Ameri)aR the death rate amon( 1orkin(/a(e Russians toda+ is hi(her than a )entur+ a(o2@? The demise o$ sym3ols o$ democracy In an en4ironment o! un)ertaint+ and e&istemo.o(i)a. anar)h+0 the 4er+ s+m-o.s o! the re4o.utions in ">A> or ">>" ha4e a.. -ut eroded2 @4 Eor man+ ana.+sts0 these s+m-o.s o! demo)ra)+ did not mat)h the
4> @=
Janos0 "ast Central "urope in the odern 0orld0 4"4/"C2 I4an 32 ,erend0 Central and "astern "urope& *+@@-*++.! Detour $rom the Periphery to the Periphery 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>B72 @" A su-re(iona. summar+ sho1s rates o! in)rease in )entra. 'uro&e o! "=A2> &er )ent0 in south/eastern 'uro&e o! 2? &er )ent0 in the ,a.ti) states o! A42= &er )ent0 and in the !ormer :o4iet 9nion 6e5).udin( the Cau)asus7 o! @>2< &er )ent2 Homi)ide rates in )entra. 'uro&e 1ent u& -+ CA2= &er )ent0 in the ,a.ti) states -+ "C424 &er )ent0 and in the !ormer :o4iet 9nion 6e5).udin( the Cau)asus7 -+ ><2? &er )entR see 9MIC'E0 Children at #isk in Centraland "astern "urope! PerilsandPromises0 Re(iona.Re&ort Mo2 4 6">>C70E.oren)e0 "=2 @< Crude -irth rates !e.. steadi.+ -et1een ">A= and ">AB0 in some )ountries 6CIe)h Re&u-.i)0 8o.and0 and Romania7 -+ a.most @= &er )entR see 9MIC'E0 Pu3lic Policy and Social Conditions0 Re(iona. Monitorin( Re&ort Mo2 ? 6">>?70 E.oren)e0 >42 @? :ee International 2erald Tri3une0 > June ">>C2 @4 3ismaneanu0 'antasies o$ Salvation0 "@?2
<=@
reDuirements o! institutiona. demo)rati) arran(ements !or e!!e)ti4e (o4ernment2 It has -een a )entra. ).aim o! the .iterature on demo)rati) transitions that anti/&o.iti)s or O.i4in( in truth; are dis&ositions that are not ada&ted to institutiona.isin( a ne1 &o.iti)a. order or to )ondu)tin( &u-.i) &o.i)+2@@ 3he &o.iti)s o! en)hantment and its s+m-o.i) )om&rehensi4eness )annot -e a&&ro&riate !or the institutiona.ised demo)rati) (o4ernment 1ith its !o)us on &o.i)ies0 ru.e o! .a10 and a))ounta-i.it+2 3he+ are not a&&ro&riate to a demo)rati) Oout)ome;0 1hi)h makes their !ai.ure to sur4i4e a &roo! o! their inadeDua)+2 3he harsh )riti)ism o! dissident &o.iti)s in man+ )ountries seemed to )on!irm this &ers&e)ti4e2 *omesti)a..+0 the herita(e o! dissiden)e 1as met .ar(e.+ 1ith em-arrassment0 i! not o&en s)orn and )ontem&t0 -+ &ost/ ">A> &o.iti)a. e.ites2 As a!ter )ommunism e4er+-od+ tended to &resent himse.! as an anti/)ommunist 1ith hindsi(ht0 !ormer dissidents 1ere not )onsidered to -e mora. e5am&.es -ut )ou.d indeed ha4e -een neuroti) se.!/a-sor-ed indi4idua.s mani&u.ated -+ Western inte..i(en)e ser4i)es2 @B As the &roudest s+m-o.s o! this Onon/heroi); resistan)e su)h as WaLebsa0 Ha4e.0 or FonraGd1ereOde)onstru)ted;0it-e)amein)reasin(.+).earthat dema(o(ues0 &riests0 and )o.one.s0 more than demo)rats and )a&ita.ists0 1ou.d sha&e eastern 'uro&e;s (enera. institutiona. identit+2 @C ,e!ore Hor-a)he4;s a))ession to &o1er0 :o.idarnoG)G in 8o.and 1as in)ontesta-.+ the most &o1er!u. s+m-o. o! .i-ert+ in the )ommunist 1or.d2 Its emer(en)e in ">A= 1as !o..o1ed -+ a.most a de)ade o! e5istin( under(round0 1here the mo4ement 1as de)isi4e.+ 1eakened2 :o.idarnoG)G .ost its .e(a. status0 its 1ides&read su&&ort in the !a)tories0 and a.so o&en su&&ort in &u-.i) o&inion2 Ho1e4er0 the s+m-o.i) a&&ea. o! Le)h WaLebsa as the trade union;s .eadin( !i(ure 1as de)isi4e !or the re/emer(en)e as a ne(otiation &artner !or the )ommunist re(ime2 It 1as the -ad(e o! :o.idarnoG)G that 1as on the !ront &a(e o! the !irst o!!i)ia..+ .e(a.ised o&&osition ne1s&a&er in a )ommunist )ountr+0 the 1a)eta 0y3orc)a2 3he o4er1he.min( su))ess in the June e.e)tions o! ">A> !or the :o.idarnoG)G )am& 1as .ar(e.+ attri-uted to the !ami.iar :o.idarnoG)G .o(o and the &erson o! Le)h WaLebsa2 3he interne)ine )on!.i)t in the &ost/:o.idarnoG) G )am& and its institutiona. di!!erentiation in se4era. O1ars at the to&; -et1een ">A> and ">>? shi!ted the !o)us to the e)onomi) and materia. )onditions o! transi/ tion0 thus re&.a)in( &o.iti)a. s+m-o.s o! the 8o.ish re4o.ution su)h as the
@@ @B @C
C.aus O!!e0 >arieties o$ Transition! The "ast "uropean and "ast 1erman "xperience 6Cam-rid(e0 MAP MI3 8ress0 ">>C70 "AC2 H2M2 3ames0 O3he Le(a)+ o! *issent;0 in V.adimir 3ismaneanu0 ed20 The #evolutions o$ *+6+ 6London and Me1 YorkP Rout.ed(e0 ">>>70 "A"/<2 Jo1itt0 The ;ew 0orld Disorder2
<=B
re!orm0 the ,a.)ero1i)I &.an2@A A simi.ar kind o! s+m-o.i) disarti)u.ation a&&.ies to the 4e.4et re4o.u/ tion in CIe)hos.o4akia0 1hi)h stands !or the &ea)e!u. mass (atherin(s that to&&.ed the CIe)hos.o4ak (o4ernment in Mo4em-er ">A>2 Whi.e the notions O4e.4et re4o.ution; 6ne)naS revoluce7 or Oso!t re4o.ution; 6he3ka S revoluce7 re!erred on.+ to the mass &rotests in Mo4em-er0 the+ soon )ame to si(ni!+ the 1ho.e &ro)ess o! the demise o! )ommunism2 3he 4e.4et s+m-o. 1as a&&.ied to other histori)a. &eriods and e4en to mean a s&e)i!i) CIe)hos.o4ak O4e.4et kno1/ho1;0 1hi)h )ou.d -e e5&orted to other )ountries2 3he e5&erien)e o! Mo4em-er ">A> 1as .ikened to the e4ents o! ">"AP the -irth o! the CIe)hos.o4ak state 1as re!erred to as a O4e.4et re4o.ution o! ">"A;0 1hi.e CIe)hos.o4ak norma.isation !rom ">BA on1ards 1as termed O4e.4et tota.it+;2 @> 3he 4e.4et s+m-o. 1as a.so used to hi(h.i(ht a sense o! CIe)h e5)e&tiona.ism 6 neLsme Lako oni70 1hi)h &.a+ed on the idea o! a CIe)h )i4i. so)iet+ and demo)rati) tradition2 As time 1ent -+0 ho1e4er0 the 4e.4et s+m-o. 1as su-%e)t to a trans!ormation in meanin(0 turnin( it (radua..+ into a si(n o! 1eakness0 o! Oa.i-iism;0 and o! the ha.!/heartedness o! the CIe)h Mo4em-er0 1hi)h !ai.ed to a)hie4e a )atharsis2 3hus0 the 4e.4et s+m-o. -e)ame dou-.e/ed(ed0 standin( !or the a..e(ed &o.iti)a. &assi4it+ o! CIe)h .eadershi& usua..+ &rone to a4oidin( )on!.i)ts and )hoosin( the Orea.ist; o&tion0 su)h as in ">?A0 ">4A0 or ">BA2 ConseDuent.+0 the attri-ute O4e.4et; )ou.d e4en -e a&&.ied to the neo/ .i-era. &o.iti)s as &ursued -+ the F.aus (o4ernment and im&.+in( O4e.4et )orru&tion;2B= In Hun(ar+0 the demo)rati) -reakthrou(h -et1een Mar)h and June ">A> )onsisted in a )onsidera-.e shi!t !rom a di)hotom+ -et1een o!!i)ia./ dom and the o&&osition to1ards a (ro1in( se.!/in).usion o! &art+ hard/ .iners into the o&&osition2 B" Eo..o1in( demands -+ the o&&osition0 the Hun(arian &ar.iament had de).ared "@ Mar)h a &u-.i) ho.ida+0 the da+ !or the )ommemoration o! the re4o.ution o! "A4A2 A.thou(h the+ 1ere o&&osin( a )e.e-ration or(anised -+ the authorities in &re!eren)e to an a.ternati4e )eremon+ o! more than "==0=== &arti)i&ants0 it 1as ne4er/ the.ess a uniDue o&&ortunit+ !or the o&&osition to sha&e the moda.ities o! the ne(otiations &ro&osed -+ the )ommunist &art+2 3hree months .ater0
@A @> B= B"
Jan 32 Hross0 O8o.en na)h der Re4o.ution2 *ie Mar(ina.isierun( des 8o.itis)hen;0 Transit0 ? 6">>"70B>/CA2 V.adimdr Ma)ura0 O:amtene Re4o.ution / samtene :)heidun(;0 in Wa.ter Fos)hma. et a.20 eds20 Deutsche und Tschechen2 1eschichte-Fultur-Politik 6Muni)hP ,e)k0 <=="70 @4>2 A4ieIer 3u)ker0 The Philosophy and Politics o$ C)ech Dissidence $rom Pato?ka to 2avel 68itts-ur(hP 9ni4ersit+ o! 8itts-ur(h 8ress0 <===70 <=>/4"2 Fenne+0 A Carnival o$ #evolution0 <B"/@2
<=C
the re-uria. o! Imre Ma(+ on "B June ">A> did not &ro4e to -e an unam-i(uous demar)ation -et1een Ous; and Othem;2 3he authorities )are!u..+ or)hestrated this mass e4ent2 3he o!!i)ia..+ authorised s&ee)h -+ EidesI re&resentati4e Viktor Or-aGnarti)u.atedthes&irito!thetimes0 )riti)isin( the &art+;s sudden shi!t to rea&&ro&riate a herita(e the+ had -een des&isin( !or more than thirt+ +ears2 3his re-uria. as a &er!ormati4e a)t -e!ore <@=0=== &eo&.e 1as the ).imati) moment that0 on its o1n0 s+m-o.ised Hun(ar+;s ne(otiated re4o.ution2 In Romania0 the 4io.ent o4erthro1 o! CeauKes)u in *e)em-er ">A> &rodu)ed 4arious ritua.s and s+m-o.isations o! resistan)e and anti/ )ommunism2B< A.thou(h the m+th o! a s&ontaneous re4o.ution has -een disa4o1ed0 the -road)ast re4o.ution s&a1ned numerous s.o(ans0 indi)at/ in( the re%e)tion o! )ommunism 6Los comunismul7 as the )entra. intention o! the &o&u.ar re4o.t2 Mot on.+ ha4e s&e)i!i) s+m-o.s and ritua.s -e)ome o-so.ete Duite soon a!ter ">A>0 -ut a.so0 a.thou(h man+ Romanians seem to -e )ons)ious o! ha4in( .i4ed throu(h a re4o.ution0 !reDuent re!eren)es to a Osto.en;0 O)on!is)ated;0 or Oun!inished; re4o.ution su((est that the &er)e&tion o! no )han(e at a.. &re4ai.s2 3hus0 the )ountr+ that e5&eri/ en)ed the most radi)a. -reak 1ith the !ormer s+stem has ar(ua-.+ -een most a!!e)ted -+ the O&ermanen)e o! the &ast;2 3he &o&u.ar mass mo-i.isation in 'ast Herman+0 su)h as in the (ather/ in(s o! an estimated A=0=== &eo&.e in Lei&Ii( durin( Hor-a)he4;s 4isit in ear.+ O)to-er ">A>0 a&&ro&riated the notion o! the >olk 6the &eo&.e7 / used -+ the 'ast Herman re(ime to )reate a nationa. identit+ / as a )entra. ra..+in( )r+ -+ statin( OWir sind das Vo.k; 61e are the &eo&.e72 B? A si(ni!i)ant )han(e o))urred 1hen this re/identi!i)ation )han(ed to the s.o(an OWir sind ein Vo.k; 61e are one &eo&.e/nation72 It is &ra)ti)a..+ im&ossi-.e to tra)k do1n 1ho used it !irst -ut Oat the 4er+ .atest; it 1as used at the -e(innin( o! *e)em-er ">A> durin( demonstrations in :a5on+0 es&e)ia..+ in Lei&Ii(2 3his s+m-o.isation o! Oone &eo&.e; has not 1e.ded to(ether 1hat shou.d -e.on( to(ether in Herman+0 des&ite hu(e materia. and administrati4e e!!orts2 As Christian Meier ar(ued0 the e5&erientia. -asis o! West Hermans and that o! 'ast Hermans 1ere radi)a..+ di!!erent2 A.thou(h a!!e)ted -+ the &ros&e)t o! reuni!i)ation0 most West Hermans 1ere more )on)erned 1ith not disru&tin( their o1n .i4es2 'ast Hermans0 -+ )ontrast0 1ere e5)ited and )on!used0 seein(
B< B?
Anne.i 9te Ha-an+i0 ORumanien2 *ie insIenierte Re4o.ution;0 Sudosteuropa0 4C0 ?/4 6">>A70"BA/A?2 Ered L2 Casmir0 OOOWir sind ein Vo.k;;P I..usions and Rea.it+ o! Herman 9ni!i)ation;0 in Ered L2 Casmir0 ed20 Communication in "astern "urope! The #ole o$ 2istory& Culture& and edia in Contemporary Con$licts 6Mah1ah0 MJP La1ren)e 'r.-aum0 ">>@70 ?"/@B2
<=A
tota..+ ne1 &ossi-i.ities and a ne1 &.a+in( !ie.d 1hen uni!i)ation -e)ame a &ossi-i.it+R in man+ )ases0 thou(h0 the+ needed assistan)e and he.&0 e4en -asi) e5&.anations2 Ye.tsin;s dire)t e.e)tion as Russian &resident on "< June ">>" 1as the s+m-o.i) re-irth o! demo)rati) Russia0 -ut a.so 1as hi(h.+ am-i(uous in the )onte5t o! the )onstitutiona. arran(ement o! the .ate :o4iet era2 B4 When amendin( the :o4iet )onstitution in A&ri. ">>"0 the idea 1as to &.a)e the &residen)+ in a &osition su-ordinate to the .e(is.ature0 )onsist/ in( o! the Con(ress o! 8eo&.e;s *e&uties and the :u&reme :o4iet2 3he am-i(uit+ a-out 1hi)h institution 1as !ina..+ su&reme and the sheer &o1er o! Ye.tsin;s &o&u.ar e.e)tion on.+ t1o months .ater de4e.o&ed into a dee& &o.arisation inside the )entra. state institutions2 3he st+.e o! &o.iti)s turned to1ards ,ona&artism0 1hi)h aimed at &re4entin( &arti)/ u.aristi) interests !rom emer(in(2 8ra)ti)a..+0 the o&tion !or )onstitutiona. (o4ernment 1as )hara)terised -+ the demo)rati) mo4ement o! anti/)ommunism )ham&ioned -+ Ye.tsin on the one hand0 and -+ the re&.i)ation o! the )ore !eatures o! )ommunist do)trine on the other2 A!ter the &uts)h attem&t in Au(ust ">>"0 Ye.tsin disso.4ed the Russian )ommunist &art+ -ut did not o&t !or demo)rati) e.e)tions or a )onstituent assem-.+2 At the hei(ht o! the demo)rati) eu&horia0 he did not !u..+ e5&.oit his )harisma and re&utation2 Ea)ed 1ith ra&id state disinte(ration and the )o..a&se o! &o.iti)a. authorit+0 the Ye.tsin administration not on.+ !ai.ed to de!end Russia;s state assetsR in addition0 the radi)a. shi!t to1ards e)onomi) sho)k thera&+ !a)i.itated the a&&ro&riation o! these assets -+ an e)onomi) o.i(ar)h+ emer(in( !rom !ormer &o.iti)a. and administrati4e e.ites2 B@ *urin( the demo)rati) moment0 Ye.tsin &ursued &o.i)ies that 1ere ).ear.+ dri4en -+ -inar+ o&&ositions2 Rather0 in &.a)e o! the mono.ithi) &art+0 he de4e.o&ed a uni!ied e5e)uti4e and an unDua.i!ied endorsement o! monetarism as the e)onomi) &hi.oso&h+ that re&resented the &o.ar o&&osite o! &o.iti)a. e)onom+ under )ommunism2BB Ye.tsin;s administration e.e4ated not on.+ the m+th o! market e)onom+ -ut a.so the )u.t o! a stron( .eader to a-so.ute status in the months a!ter ">>"2 Moreo4er0 the Russian e5&eri/ en)e e5em&.i!ies the &o.iti)a. moment o! the e5)e&tion0 1here the stru(/ (.e o4er so4erei(nt+ )annot -e mediated2 3he )ontest !or &o1er in a &o.iti)a. moment does not di!!erentiate -et1een Onatura..+ in).ined;
B4 B@ BB
Hraeme Hi.. and Ro(er *2 Mark1i)k0 #ussias Still3orn DemocracyN 'rom 1or3achev to Peltsin 6O5!ordP O5!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <===70 "<</42 :o.ni)k0 Stealing the State2 Mi)hae. 9r-an et a.20 The #e3irth o$ Politics in #ussia 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>C70 <B"/?2
<=>
demo)rats or )ommunists -ut !o..o1s the situationa. .o(i) o! annihi.atin( the enem+2 3he stando!! -et1een the :u&reme :o4iet and 8resident Ye.tsin in autumn ">>? &ointed to the a-sen)e o! a nationa. m+tho.o(+ that 1ou.d ha4e attenuated the e5treme &o.arisation o! t1o institutions that had si(ni!ied the turn !or demo)ratisation in ">A> and ">>"2 In man+ 1a+s0 the disso.ution o! the uni!ied &o.iti)a. s+m-o.ism o! )ommunist &o1er and its O)orre)t .ine; has )oin)ided 1ith the as)endan)+ o! the a.ternati4e s+m-o.i) uni4erses e5&ressed in Western 4a.ues o! demo)ra)+2 3he .oss o! !aith in the )ommunist authorities 1as a))om/ &anied -+ the institution o! an internationa..+ sustained in!rastru)ture !or demo)rati) 4a.ues2 3he internationa. )onte5t in the ">C=s and ">A=s )reated an a))umu.ated !or)e o! internationa. &u-.i) o&inion2 Institutions su)h as the 'uro&ean 9nion0 MA3O0 and the Con!eren)e on 6.ater Or(aniIation !or7 :e)urit+ and Co/o&eration in 'uro&e and (ro1in( !inan)ia. su&&ort !or &o.iti)a. &arties in eastern 'uro&e 1ere not desi(ned to -rin( do1n the Iron Curtain -ut in !a)t )reated an e4ident Oin!ra/ stru)ture !or demo)rati) 4a.ues;2 In Duite a !e1 1a+s0 the disso.ution o! demo)rati) s+m-o.ism su((ests another humi.iatin( e5am&.e 1hen eastern 'uro&e;s .i-eration .ar(e.+ de&ended on the mer)+ o! the :o4iets2 A!ter the )o..a&se o! )ommunism0 (o4ernments in mu)h o! eastern 'uro&e and Russia 1ere !or)ed to do the same as the+ had done o4er de)ades and )enturies0 name.+ to )ontro.0 ins&ire0 and a))e.erate re!orm in so)iet+2 3he ina-i.it+ to )reate sustain/ a-.e &o.iti)a. !ormu.as and a rather &oor set o! 4ia-.e a.ternati4e mode.s !rom nationa. histories has .ed east 'uro&eans to !o)us on &o.iti)a. strate(ies and ideo.o(i)a. kits that 1ere .ar(e.+ im&orted !rom the West2 What matters most0 &erha&s0 is that the share o! dissiden)e in the destru)/ tion o! )ommunism 1as hard.+ re)o(nised -+ domesti) and internationa. &u-.i)s2 Western &u-.i) &er)e&tions attri-uted it either to the Hor-a)he4 !a)tor or to the ma(i) o! the s+m-o. Odemo)ra)+;2 I! s+m-o.isation is a-out the s+m-o.;s &o1er to e4oke !ee.in(s or attitudes0 then the &.ura.it+ o! s+m-o.isations o! ">A> and ">>" has o-!us)ated an+ ).ear )onstituti4e !oundation in a )on)rete e4ent2 Attem&ts to dra1 a .ine under or to -reak 1ith the )ommunist &ast ha4e o!ten -een the resu.t o! o!!i)ia..+ authorised &o.i)+ rather than a s+m-o.i) 1atershed2 3he +ear ">A> !aded Dui)k.+ in &eo&.e;s memories -e)ause it had !ai.ed to -e)ome a )atharti) moment2 BC 9n.ike the !a.. o! the ,er.in 1a.. on > Mo4em-er and the re4o.ution o! "C Mo4em-er in CIe)hos.o4akia0 the ne(otiated re4o.utions su)h as in Hun(ar+ and 8o.and ha4e not -e)ome e4ents to -e )ommemorated2
BC
Fenne+0 A Carnival o$ #evolution0 ?=42
<"=
3he sudden end o! )ommunism 1as !o..o1ed -+ the Dui)k o-.iteration o! ">A> in &ost/">A> &o.iti)a. dis)ourse2 In man+ 1a+s0 the 4er+ e4ents o! ">A> ha4e entered into the no/man;s .and o! m+thi)a. &asts2 3he dis/ so.ution o! the s+m-o.s o! demo)ra)+ and the disen)hantment 1ith the ne1 order has ar(ua-.+ &ut &ost/)ommunism on histori)a. sands at .east as unsta-.e as those on 1hi)h the &ost/1ar edi!i)e 1as mounted2 BA 3he e4ents o! ">A> -ut a.so o! ">>= and ">>" ha4e not -e)ome the mode.s !or ne1 nationa. ho.ida+s 61hi)h in most )ases hark -a)k to other e4ents in nationa. histories72 A &re4ious .e(itimisin( e4ent su)h as the de).aration o! Russian state so4erei(nt+ on "< June ">>= is no .on(er )e.e-rated as Oinde&enden)e da+; -ut0 in an amor&hous !ashion0 as a ORussia da+;0 1hi.e !or man+ it is )oterminous 1ith the destru)tion o! the :o4iet state2 B> 3he e4ents o! the Au(ust &uts)h in ">>"0 ori(ina..+ standin( !or the mani!es/ tation o! an a)ti4e and inde&endent )itiIenr+ in the de!en)e o! the White House0 ha4e -een o4ershado1ed -+ the un)onstitutiona. she..in( o! the same White House -+ its !ormer de!ender0 8resident Ye.tsin2 :+m-o.s su)h as 'uro&e0 demo)ra)+0 or market that 1ere a)ti4e.+ used -+ dissidents to undermine the .e(itima)+ o! )ommunism .ost their uni/ !ied Otota.; meanin(2 As :.a4enka *raku.i)G &ut it0 'uro&e Odes)ri-es on.+ one &art o! it0 the 1estern &art0 in a (eo(ra&hi)a.0 )u.tura.0 histori)a.0 and &o.iti)a. sense2 Mo10 it .ooks as i! a.. o! the e5/)ommunist east 'uro&ean )ountries ha4e the same a.most &a.&a-.e 1ish to &ush that di4idin( .ine as !ar to the east as &ossi-.e0 so that e4entua..+ 'uro&e 1i.. -e a 1ho.e undi4ided )ontinent2 Yet it is this desire itse.! that !orms the )urrent di4idin( .ine2 3he West does not !ee. the need to -e.on( 6it %ust is7 or to a..o1 the )ountries standin( at its thresho.d to enter2; C= 3he Oreturn to 'uro&e; a!ter ">A> -eDueathed to 1estern 'uro&e the task o! re&resentin( the 1ho.e o! 'uro&e2 3his 'uro&e has0 des&ite )on)rete ste&s to1ards uni!i)ation0 remained an idea. ima(e that seems to retreat !urther the ).oser 'asterners a&&roa)h2 In a simi.ar 4ein0 O)entra. 'uro&e; as one o! the &rimar+ s+m-o.s o! demo)ratisation in the !ormer 'astern -.o) has remained an inherent.+ .imina. )ate(or+2 La)kin( ).ear/ )ut -oundaries and identities0 )entra. 'uro&e has remained su-%e)t to !.uidit+0 un)ertaint+0 and re4ersa.s o! status2 C" In the ">>=s0 the Oreturn to 'uro&e; .ost its Duasi/ma(i)a. attra)tion and -e)ame asso)iated 1ith a
BA
3on+ Judt0 O3he 8ast Is Another Countr+P M+th and Memor+ in 8ost1ar 'uro&e;0 in Ist4aGn *ea Gk et a.20 eds20 The Politics o$ #etri3ution in "urope 68rin)etonP 8rin)eton 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <===70 ?"@/"C2 B> Ri)hard :ak1a0 O:u-%e)ti4it+ and CitiIenshi& in 8ost/Communist Russia; 6un&u-.ished t+&es)ri&t0 <==@72 C= :.a4enka *raku.i)G0 Ca$4 "uropa 6LondonP A-a)us0 ">>B70 "<2 C" H+or(+ Fonred0 Identitat und 2ysterie 6Erank!urt am MainP :uhrkam&0 ">>@70 "4"/<2
<""
matter o! te)hni)a. !easi-i.it+0 normati4e ada&ta-i.it+0 and &o.iti)a. )om/ &ati-i.it+2 In this &ro)ess0 east 'uro&ean )ountries ha4e -een !o)used on their indi4idua. tra%e)tories and interested in their nei(h-ours on.+ to the e5tent that the+ &er)ei4e them as )om&etitors !or the .imited resour)es o! the West2C< Hen)e0 the in)i&ient )o/o&eration -et1een )entra. 'uro&ean )ountries0 su)h as in the Vise(rad !our0 !ai.ed to re)on/ )i.e their Western )u.ture0 their 'astern &o.iti)s0 and their in/-et1een (eo(ra&hi)a. situation2C? Moreo4er0 the eastern en.ar(ement o! the 'uro&ean 9nion has )on/ )ea.ed that Western )ountries 1ere !ar !rom enthusiasti) a-out eastern 'uro&e;s .i-eration0 as its -e.on(in( to the :o4iet -.o) had the dou-.e 4irtue o! kee&in( it a1a+ !rom the &ros&erous West 1hi.e at the same time a..o1in( the .atter the .u5ur+ o! .amentin( the 4er+ )ir)umstan)es !rom 1hi)h it 1as -ene!itin(2 In essen)e0 the West itse.! a-ounds 1ith a 1ho.e set o! m+tho.o(ies a-out &re/">A> and a-out the e5&erien)es o! ">A>2 3he demo)rati) moment destro+ed the demo)ratisers -ut it )on!irmed the )ommitment o! the &eo&.e to demo)rati) e.e)tions0 )han(e in (o4ern/ ment0 and a))ounta-i.it+2 A.thou(h .a)k o! &o.iti)a. )hoi)e -e!ore the o4erar)hin( &aradi(ms o! &ro)edura. .i-era. demo)ra)+ and market e)onom+ re4ea.ed the a-sen)e o! a.ternati4es in terms o! )onstitutiona. a)ts0 the demo)rati) moment introdu)ed the O&eo&.e; in their ro.e -oth as the sour)e o! &o1er and as the sour)e o! (o4ernment !or the &eo&.e2 Whi.e perestroika (enerated intra/&art+ demo)ra)+ in the :o4iet )ommu/ nist &art+ and the round/ta-.e &a)ts in Hun(ar+ or 8o.and a..o1ed !or a non/4io.ent transition0 the mass mo-i.isations su)h as in CIe)hos.o4akia and the H*R resem-.ed most &o&u.ar re4o.utions2 3he oran(e re4o.u/ tion in .ate <==4 in 9kraine rearti)u.ated the -onds -et1een )itiIens and the state2 Here0 demo)ra)+ 1as e!!e)ti4e.+ re!ounded0 as the &resumed !raud in the &residentia. e.e)tions 1as !o..o1ed -+ a )i4i) u&sur(e in the de!en)e o! su-stanti4e &o.iti)a. ri(hts2C4 The Kdemocratisation o$ meanings o$ democracy 3he )o..a&se o! )ommunism )ame do1n not on.+ to the re%e)tion o! )ommunist ideo.o(+ and institutions0 -ut a.so o! an+ t+&e o! uni!ied
C< C? C4
:orin Antohi0 OHa-its o! the MindP 'uro&e;s 8ost/">A> :+m-o.i) Heo(ra&hies;0 in Antohi and 3ismaneanu0 8etween Past and 'uture0 B>2 Ja)Dues Ru&nik0 O'uro&e )entra.e2 Les atouts et .es .imites de .a )oo&Vration rV(iona.e;0 Pouvoirs0 C4 6">>@70 "A?/>2 :ak1a0 O:u-%e)ti4it+ and CitiIenshi&;2
<"<
)o..e)ti4e s+m-o.ism2 8arado5i)a..+0 the disso.ution o! the s+m-o.s that stood !or a)ti4e )itiIenshi& and re&resented demo)rati) ho&es -+ resistin( )ommunist &o1er 1as a )ru)ia. &re)ondition !or !reedom and inde&end/ en)e0 -ut a.so !or interest/-ased &art+ &o.iti)s and re&resentation2 An ana.+sis o! &ost/)ommunist dis)ourses on demo)ra)+ in thirteen di!!erent )ountries in the re(ion has e.a-orated the 1ide and di4erse set o! di!!erent dis)ourses o! demo)ra)+ in di!!erent )ountries2 C@ It has disti..ed out !our demo)ratisation roadsP the .i-era.0 the re&u-.i)an0 the &arti)i&ator+0 and the statist2 3hese roads do not &re).ude the &ossi-i.ities o! other tra%e)to/ ries0 nor are the+ mutua..+ e5).usi4e2 Li-era. dis)ourses de!ine demo)ra)+ in terms o! the a((re(ation and re)on)i.iation o! (i4en interests emanat/ in( !rom the &ri4ate rea.m and re&resented -+ &arties and interest (rou&s under re.ati4e.+ neutra. )onstitutiona. ru.es that s&e)i!+ a ran(e o! indi/ 4idua. ri(hts2 3he state remains .imited as it is )onstrained -+ the se&ar/ ation o! &o1ers and indi4idua. &ursuit o! materia. interests2 With )ertain )a4eats0 .i-era. demo)rati) dis)ourses are !ound in )ountries su)h as Yu(os.a4ia in the .ate ">>=s 6i2e2 :er-ia and Montene(ro / thou(h it is .imited in its to.eration o! &er)ei4ed e5tremists70 Heor(ia 61ith a mora./ isti) 4ie1 o! &o.iti)s70 :.o4akia 61ith a )ommitment to the )ommon (ood70 and ,u.(aria 61ith a denia. o! the need !or )he)ks on the &o1er o! an a)ti4e )itiIenr+72 Con4erse.+0 dis)ourses o! )i4i) re&u-.i)anism in 8o.and and )i4i) enthusiasm in the CIe)h Re&u-.i) &oint to the im&ortan)e o! a)ti4e0 &u-.i)/s&irited )itiIenshi&2 Whi.e the re&u-.i)an 4ie1 shares the .i-era. em&hasis on the se&aration o! &o1ers and the ru.e o! .a10 it is Duite )riti)a. o! se)tiona. interests o! )areer &o.iti)ians and !a4ours !orma. and in!orma. o&&ortunities !or the e5er)ise o! a)ti4e )itiIenshi&2 :ome dis)ourses inte(rate a mora.isti) )ommitment to a &o.iti)s o! the )ommon (ood0 su)h as *emo)rati) 'nthusiasm in Heor(ia or *e4e.o&in( 8.ura.ism in :.o4akia0 1hi.e others0 su)h as Ci4i. Eundamenta.ism in Romania0 treat &o.iti)a. truth in unitar+ terms as somethin( e5istin( and not somethin( to -e dis)o4ered in dia.o(ue2 3he third t+&e0 the &arti)i&ator+ road0 has not -e)ome &o.iti)a. rea.it+ in an+ )ountr+0 -ut some dis)ourses in )ountries su)h as ,u.(aria0 8o.and0 the CIe)h Re&u-.i)0 and Yu(os.a4ia su((est that it takes the sha&e o! a radi)a.ised re&u-.i)anism0 1here the &otentia. o! an a)ti4e )itiIenr+ shou.d -e ma5imised2 's&e)ia..+ in Yu(os.a4ia0 the dis)ourse o! &arti)i/ &ator+ se.!/mana(ement reminds the o-ser4er o! the se.!/mana(ement
C@
John *r+Iek and Les.ie Ho.mes0 Post-Communist Democrati)ation 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <==<72
<"?
mode. &ra)tised under 3ito2 3his &arti)i&ator+ road Yu(os.a4/st+.e is deta)hed !rom a .i-era. mode.0 1hi)h man+ Yu(os.a4s sti.. asso)iate 1ith Western enemies o! their )ountr+0 and it )uts a)ross &o.iti)a. di4isions in a dee&.+ torn so)iet+2 3he !ourth road0 the statist one0 in4o.4es a stron( state 1ith e!!e)ti4e .eadershi& )ommitted to un)orru&ted and )onstitu/ tiona. (o4ernment2 :u)h a 4ersion is es&e)ia..+ attra)ti4e 1here )i4i. so)iet+ is 1eak0 so)iet+ is dee&.+ di4ided0 and )orru&tion and or(anised )rime are ram&ant2 Indeed0 under the )onditions o! the disinte(ration o! the :o4iet 9nion and the 1eakness o! the Russian state in sensiti4e areas su)h as ta5 )o..e)tion or .a1 en!or)ement0 the on.+ 1a+ to mat)h &o.iti)s to the )enturies/o.d .i-era. &ro%e)t !or Russia seems to -e state .i-era.ism2 CB Whi.e su)h dis)ourses .ar(e.+ re!.e)t histori)a. traditions -e!ore ">A> and e5&erien)es therea!ter0 the+ not on.+ are seemin(.+ rea.isti) -ut a.so )arr+ as&irations and ho&es2 *i!!erent understandin(s o! demo)ratisation ha4e -een re!.e)ted in inter/ &reti4e a))ounts o! the demo)rati) )redentia.s o! a state2 In the Russian )ase0 the )hoi)e o! su&er/&residentia.ism is seen as the sin(.e institutiona. )hoi)e that de(raded Russian demo)ra)+ as it esta-.ished Odemo)rati) &o.iti)s; a.most 1ithout a))ounta-i.it+2 CC In this 4ie10 Ye.tsin;s )hoi)es 1ere not in!.uen)ed -+ stru)tura.0 )u.tura.0 or histori)a. )onditions -ut shou.d -e re)onstru)ted !rom autonom+ o! the &o.iti)a. moment2 3he &erni)ious e!!e)ts o! su&er/&residentia.ism are seen in the )on)entration o! &o1er0 in the o&tion !or a radi)a. &ri4atisation &ro(ramme 1hose se)ond &hase o! .oans/!or/shares !a)i.itated the emer(en)e o! a &o1er!u. )aste o! o.i(ar)hs0 and in a .a)k o! .a1 en!or)ement2 Yet0 demo)rati) de4e.o&ment )an a.so -e assessed not !rom the )entra. nationa. &ers&e)/ ti4e -ut !rom the re(iona. one0 1hi)h (i4es &riorit+ to the dramati) rise in .o)a. )u.tura. identit+0 re(iona. m+ths0 and s+m-o.s2 As Mi)o.ai 8etro;s stud+ o! Mo4(orod su((ests0 e)onomi) (ro1th0 asso)iationa. .i!e0 and the &riorit+ o! se.!/(o4ernment )an thri4e in the a-sen)e o! a &art+ s+stem2CA O))u&+in( a uniDue &.a)e in the nation;s histori)a. memor+0 Mo4(orod has dra1n on its s+m-o.i) herita(e0 its ethni) di4ersit+0 its re.i(ious to.eran)e0 and the tradition o! a )on!ederated s+stem o! admin/ istration sin)e the !i!teenth )entur+2 3he a-i.it+ to e.e)t inde&endent
CB CC
CA
Mar)ia A2 Wei(.e0 #ussias %i3eral ProLect 69ni4ersit+ 8ark0 8AP 8enn :tate 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <===72 :te4en M2 Eish0 OCon).usionP *emo)ra)+ and Russian 8o.iti)s;0 in No.tan ,aran+ and Ro-ert H2 Moser0 eds20 #ussian Politics 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <=="70 <"@/@"2 Mi)o.ai 8etro0 Cra$ting Democracy! 2ow ;ovgorod 2as Coped with #apid Social Change 6Itha)a and LondonP Corne.. 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <==472
<"4
heads o! .o)a. muni)i&a.ities to the re(iona. .e(is.ature stren(thens rather than 1eakens the .e(is.ature;s inde&enden)e !rom the (o4ernor and &rodu)es an un&re)edented de(ree o! .o)a. autonom+2 The experiential 3asis o$ the Kconstitutional moment Hi(h.i(htin( histor+ and )u.ture makes a )ase !or the s+m-o.i) !oundations o! demo)ra)+2 3he institutiona. desi(n o! demo)rati) &o.ities has reDuired )onstitutiona.ism to -e -ased on de.i-eration and dis)ursi4e &ro)esses rather than on a sear)h !or tradition2 3here is (ood reason to assume that ri(hts are a &rodu)t o! )riti)a. re!.e)tion0 suita-.+ dis)i&.ined and )on/ strained in the 1a+ a .e(a. s+stem reDuires2 C> I! the demise o! the mono&o.+ o! the )ommunist &art+ and the -e(innin( o! the ne1 order on the -asis o! so4erei(nt+0 .a10 and demo)rati) indi4idua.ism are se&arated into t1o ana.+ti)a. units0 the in!.uentia. im&a)t o! trans!ormati4e e5&erien)es under )ommunism is o4er.ooked2 An+ re!eren)e to .e(a)+ -e)omes -+ de!inition &reser4ati4e0 1hi.e !uture orientation is seen as trans!ormati4e2 3his is re!.e)ted in 1hat )onstitutiona.ist thou(ht has de!ined as the distin)tion -et1een &reser4ati4e and trans!ormati4e )onstitutions2 8reser4ati4e )onstitutions tend to &rote)t .on(/standin( traditions0 o!ten an idea.ised &ast !rom 1hi)h )onstitutiona. ri(hts are deri4ed2 3rans!ormati4e )onstitutions su)h as in :outh A!ri)a0 in )ontrast0 -roke radi)a..+ 1ith the &ast2 Whi.e east 'uro&ean )onstitutions ha4e a stron(.+ &reser4ati4e )hara)ter0 as the+ resort to nationa.0 &re/)ommunist tradi/ tions0 su)h a ).assi!i)ation omits the !a)t that the histori)a. e4o.ution o! )ommunism has )onsisted o! a seDuen)e o! trans!ormati4e &ro)esses0 1here meanin(s 1ere sha&ed0 disso.4ed0 and resha&ed2 In &o.iti)a. terms0 man+ )ountries ha4e either attem&ted to dra1 a .ine under the &ast0 -+ a kind o! demo)rati) or(anised !or(ettin(0 or0 as in Russia0 -+ em-arkin( u&on a &ain!u. &ro)ess o! re)onstitutin( a )om&.e5 herita(e !rom &re/ and &ost/re4o.utionar+ Russia0 1hi)h are a.. &art o! a nation;s identit+2 Erom an e5&erientia. &ers&e)ti4e0 ho1e4er0 1hat a&&ears as &reser4ati4e in east 'uro&ean )onstitutiona.ism )an -e seen as !undamenta..+ trans!ormati4e0 as it has -een sha&ed -+ a)ti4e attem&ts to trans!orm )ommunism2 Hen)e0 there is (ood reason to understand the )onstitutiona. moment and the disarti)u.ation o! )ommunism not as t1o se&arate entities0 -ut as one mo4ement2 I! the )onstitutiona. moment is on.+ a-out re(u.atin( the re.ations -et1een the state and other states0 -et1een the &arts o! the state 1ith ea)h other0 -et1een the state and the )itiIen0 and amon( )itiIens0
C>
Cass :unstein0 Designing Democracy! 0hat Constitutions Do 6O5!ordP O5!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <=="72
<"@
then the out)ome side.ines the situationa. &remises2 3he s+stemi) under/ standin( o! the )onstituti4e a)t as re(u.atin( re.ations -et1een s&e)i!i) su-%e)ts &resu&&oses the e5isten)e o! )onstituted identities su)h as states or )itiIens2 9nder )ommunist ru.e0 ho1e4er0 the a-sen)e o! a shared &u-.i) identit+ as )itiIens not on.+ &re4ented truth!u. dis)ourse -et1een ru.ers and the ru.edR it a.so iso.ated indi4idua.s in &ri4atised and indi!/ !erent s&a)es0 1hi)h o-stru)ted an+ disinterested &u-.i) dis)ussion o! nationa. issues2A= Re&ressed )ommuni)ation and hi(h.+ restri)ted &o.it/ i)a. o&&ortunities &re4ented the )ir)u.ation o! indi4idua. and )o..e)ti4e re&resentations o! identit+0 makin( intera)tion amon( &o.iti)a..+ )onsti/ tuted su-%e)ts Dua su-%e)ts 4er+ di!!i)u.t2 3his .a)k o! intera)tion .e!t %ust the &resen)e o! mani!est di!!eren)es or 4arieties to1ards 1hi)h ea)h su-%e)t 1ou.d remain indi!!erent2 A" I! the s&e)i!i)it+ o! the )onstitution as a )onstituti4e a)t is to re(u.ate the re.ations amon( )itiIens and -et1een )itiIens and the state0 the )onstitutiona. arti)u.ation in )onsti/ tuent &o1er )ontri-utes to the emer(en)e and se.!/identi!i)ation o! su-/ %e)ts2 In man+ 1a+s0 the &arti)i&ants in a )onstituent assem-.+ or the )om&etin( a.ternati4es .aid out in the )onstitution ha4e not -een at a.. ).ear at the -e(innin( o! the &ro)ess2 Rather the+ -e)ome arti)u.ated as a &art o! the stru((.e itse.!2 A< As a :o.idarnoG)G mem-er in the 8o.ish :e%m de).ared in :e&tem-er ">A>P OI re&resent su-%e)ts that do not +et e5ist2; A? ,e!ore )onstitutions -e)ome .e(a. a)ts0 the &o.iti)s o! en)hantment in its e5istentia. dimension under&ins the )onstitutiona. moment2 3he trans!ormations a!ter ">A> and ">>" are ar(ua-.+ mu)h -i((er than s)ho.ars ha4e rea.ised0 a)Duirin( a )osmi) dimension0 1here the reorder/ in( o! &eo&.e;s entire meanin(!u. 1or.ds is at stake2 A4 3he disso.ution o! )ommunist &o.iti)a. authorit+ 1as &re)eded -+ the disso.ution o! e5istin( stru)tures0 -oundaries0 and 4a.ues2 8asts and !utures 1ere rede!ined0 meanin(s -e)ame 4a)uous and identities un)ertain2 3he un&re)edented &o.iti)a. trans!ormations )ame a.on( 1ith the emotiona. dimension o! en)hantment and en.i4enin(2 3hese emotiona. out-ursts0 the irrationa./ it+0 and 4io.en)e in &o.iti)a. a)tion must not -e taken as &atho.o(i)a. or d+s!un)tiona.2 8o.iti)a. trans!ormations )om&rise more than the te)hni/ )a. desi(n o! institutions2 3his Osomethin( more; in).udes meanin(0 !ee./ in(s0 the sa)red0 ideas o! mora.it+0 and the Onon/rationa.; as in(redients o! &o.iti)a. .e(itima)+ and authorit+2
A= A" A< A?
Jo1itt0 The ;ew 0orld Disorder0 <""2 9r-an et a.20 The #e3irth o$ Politics in #ussia0 "A2 Feith ,antin( and Ri)hard :imeon0 #edesigning the State! The Politics o$ Constitutional Change in Industrial ;ations 63orontoP 9ni4ersit+ o! 3oronto 8ress0 ">A@70 ">2 W+dra0 Continuities0 >?2
A4
Verder+0 The Political %ives o$ Dead 8odies0 <@/?@2
<"B
It is &ro-.emati) to iso.ate the demo)rati) moment o! ">A> !rom the e5&erientia. -asis o! its so)ia. !oundations 1ith a 4ie1 to the .o(i) o! a&&ro&riateness 1ith a )onstituted s+stem o! &o1er2 *emo)ratisation 1as a.so the e!!e)t o! a host o! memories o! &eo&.e;s e5&erien)es0 1hi)h %oined ima(es o! &o&u.ar so4erei(nt+ and demo)rati) ri(hts as !ormin( the e5istentia. -asis !or the )onstitution o! ne1 &o.iti)a. authorit+2 More than %ust s+m-o.s o! the end o! )ommunism0 :o.idarnoG)G0 perestroika0 glasnost0 and the 4e.4et re4o.ution har-oured the eman)i&ator+ meanin(s o! demo)ra)+ -ased on de)ades o! attem&ts to re)onstru)t &u-.i) .i!e2 Constituent &o1er has to inte(rate the idea o! a .on(/dra1n/out re-irth 1here the )reati4e0 )i4i) side o! &o.iti)s eman)i&ates itse.! !rom the destru)ti4e side o! )ommunist &o1er2 In this 4ein0 the +ears ">A> and ">>" a.so su((est a ne1 dee& sour)e o! ho&e0 1hose -asis is not the ine4ita-i.it+ o! &ro(ress -ut the re4ersi-i.it+ o! destru)tion2 A@ Ho1 )an it -e e5&.ained that the three )ountries 1ith the -est demo)rati) )redentia.s in the !ormer :o4iet hemis&here0 8o.and0 Hun(ar+0 and CIe)hos.o4akia0 o&ted !or radi)a. )ontinuit+ in the )onstitutiona. orderQ In a.. three0 demo)rats used the !ormer )ommunist )onstitutions as a &oint o! de&ar/ ture !or institutiona.isin( demo)ra)+2AB Erom a .i-era. &ers&e)ti4e0 the !ai.ure to radi)a..+ dis)ontinue the )ommunist )onstitution in these )ountries )ame do1n to missin( the )onstitutiona. moment2 Erom an e5&erientia. &ers&e)ti4e0 ho1e4er0 the )onstitutiona. moment is not eDui4a.ent to a 4o.untar+ )onsent to the ru.es o! the (ame2 Rather0 the re)onstitution o! demo)rati) &o.iti)s needs to take into a))ount the s+m-o.ism o! non/4io.ent and &rin)i&.ed resistan)e that made the round/ ta-.es o! ">A> and the 4e.4et re4o.ution &ossi-.e2 On the one hand0 the un)onstitutiona.it+ o! )ommunism a&&eared to -e at odds 1ith the demo/ )rati) .e(itima)+ o! the ne1 order2 On the other0 ho1e4er0 1ithout this un)onstitutiona.it+0 the e5istentia. o&tion to )ha..en(e )ommunism -+ means o! s+m-o.s and .i!e/)ondu)t 1ou.d not ha4e -een &ossi-.e2 3he method o! radi)a. )ontinuit+0 there!ore0 is )onsistent 1ith the s&irit o! dissiden)e as e5istentia..+ re&resentati4e0 1hi)h a&&eared to -e a more radi)a. &o.iti)a. so.ution than re4o.utionar+ )han(e2
A@
AB A..ison
Faro. :o.tan0 O">A> as Re-irth;0 in Antohi and 3ismaneanu0 8etween Past and 'uture0 ?42 :tan(er0 OLeninist Le(a)ies and Le(a)ies o! :tate :o)ia.ism in 8ost)ommunist 'astern 'uro&e;s Constitutiona. *e4e.o&ment;0 in HrIe(orI 'kiert and :te&hen Hanson0 eds20 Capitalism and Democracy in Central and "astern "urope 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <==?70 "A</<=>2
Part III
*emo)ra)+ as a &ro)ess o! meanin(/!ormation
>
3he &o1er o! memor+
3he stru((.e o! man a(ainst &o1er is the stru((.e o! memor+ a(ainst !or(ettin(2 Mi.an Fundera
3he -reakdo1n o! )ommunism re4ea.ed the momentous task o! tr+in( to make sense o! se4era. de)ades o! !a.si!i)ation o! histor+ and distortion o! memor+2 OIt;s as i! the re(ime 1ere (ui.t+ o! t1o )rimes on a massi4e s)a.eP murder and the unendin( assau.t a(ainst memor+2 In makin( a se)ret o! histor+0 the Frem.in made its su-%e)ts %ust a .itt.e more insane0 a .itt.e more des&erate2;" A (ro1in( -od+ o! .iterature0 res&ondin( to the re&res/ si4e nature o! )ommunism -ut &rimari.+ interested in the &ra)ti)a. side o! resha&in( &u-.i) &o.i)ies and returnin( to Onorma. &o.iti)s;0 has dra1n attention to ho1 transitiona. %usti)e and the &o.iti)s o! memor+ )an )ontri-ute to re1orkin( the &ast2 < 8ost/)ommunist so)ieties !a)ed the di!!i)u.t )hoi)e -et1een &u-.i) &o.i)ies o! retri-ution0 disDua.i!i)ation0 or re)on)i.iationR in addition0 in man+ )ountries0 the -reakdo1n o! )ommu/ nism did not a&&ear as a de)isi4e -reakthrou(h at a..2 Mu)h o! the &ost/ )ommunist &redi)ament seems to )onsist in an a&&arent )ontradi)tion -et1een simu.taneous ).aims a-out the e5tin)tion o! histori)a. )ons)ious/ ness and &ersistent in!.uen)e o! too mu)h memor+2 ? 3his di.emma )a..s !or reassessin( the tem&ora.it+ a&&.ied to studies o! )ommunism0
" <
*a4id Remni)k0 %enins Tom3P The %ast Days o$ the Soviet "mpire 6Me1 YorkP Vinta(e ,ooks0 ">>?70 "="2 ,ar-ara MisIta.0 OHo1 Mot to *ea. 1ith the 8astP Lustration in 8o.and;0 Archives "urop4ennes de Sociologie0 4=0 " 6">>>70 ?"/@@R A.e5andra ,arahona de ,rito0 et a.20 The Politics o$ emory and Democrati)ation! Transitional Gustice in Democrati)ing Societies 6O5!ordP O5!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <=="7R Fath.een '2 :mith0 ythmaking in the ;ew #ussia! Politics and emory in the Peltsin "ra 6Itha)a and LondonP Corne.. 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <==<7R Jon '.ster0 Closing the 8ooksP Transitional Gustice in 2istorical Perspective 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <==472 Jean/Eran)Kois Hossiau50 OLes deu5 &assVs du Foso4o;0 Socio-Anthropologie0 40 < 6">>A70 4?/@?R JerI+ :Ia)ki0 O*1ie historie;0 in 8iotr Wand+)I0 ed20 SpMr o P#% 6Frako1P W+da1ni)t1o Nnak0 ">>B70 BA/C4R Christo&h Rein&re)ht0 ;ostalgie und Amnesie( 8ewertungen von >ergangenheit in der Tschechischen #epu3lik und :ngarn 6ViennaP Ver.a( !ur Hese..s)ha!tskritik0 ">>B7RWo%)ie)hRosIko1ski0 OW+(LusIanie &amieb)i;0 #)ec)pospolita0 <@ O)to-er ">>>2
<">
<<=
demo)ratisation0 and &ost/)ommunism2 3he re)o4er+ o! the &rima)+ o! histori)a. e4ents as e5&erien)es o! meanin(/!ormation as &ursued in the &re)edin( )ha&ters ne)essitates three )onsiderations2 Eirst0 it 1ou.d -e an o4ersim&.i!i)ation to redu)e )ommunism to a .e(a)+ o! re&ression24 Whi.e it has -een )ommon to re!er to &o.iti)a. trans!ormations in eastern 'uro&e and Russia -+ distin(uishin( sta(es o! de4e.o&ment su)h as &re/)ommunist0 )ommunist0 and &ost/)ommunist &asts0 su)h tenden)ies to &a)ka(e the &ast are as misdire)ted as are assum&tions a-out time.ess anta(onisms or the )ontinuit+ o! a &o.iti)a. )u.ture o! authoritarianism2 A(ainst su)h trends o! ).assi!+in( histor+ into -.o)s and &hases0 so)ia. inDuir+ reDuires re4isitin( d+adi) s)hemes that se&arate the O)ommunist .e(a)+; !rom the O&resent; on the assum&tion o! the )ontinuit+ o! an onto.o(+ o! tradition2 ,e+ond (enera.ised assertions a-out Ohistor+ matters; or a Ore4en(e o! the &ast;0 mu)h o! the -est resear)h on the )onseDuen)es o! the )o..a&se o! )ommunism has stressed ho1 )ontentious meanin(s o! )riti)a. %un)tures in!.uen)ed trans!ormati4e &eri/ ods o! re)onstru)tion2 @ :e)ond0 &o.iti)a. memor+ is not on.+ the o!!i)ia..+ im&osed )o..e)ti4e memor+ in a (i4en s+stemR it is a.so a4ai.a-.e !or im&.ementation a(ainst su)h o!!i)ia. memor+2 3he ma..ea-i.it+ o! histori)a. memor+ -+ 4o.untar/ ism is )onditioned -+ 1hat -road .a+ers o! so)iet+ )onsider as re.e4ant2 3here!ore0 &o.iti)a. memor+ is attuned to the res&onsi4eness o! &o&u.ar masses0 more &arti)u.ar.+ to the )ommuni)ati4e and )u.tura. inter&ene/ tration 1ith so)iet+2 As the arti)u.ation o! dissiden)e su((ests0 the )u./ tura. )reati4it+ and the &o.iti)a. s+m-o.ism o! memor+ )an turn meanin(s o! histor+ a(ainst &o1er in)um-ents and their strate(ies o! or(anised !or(ettin(2 3hird0 the &o.iti)a. e4o.ution o! )ommunism has -een ti(ht.+ inter/ t1ined 1ith the emer(en)e o! demo)rati) )ons)iousness2 Whi.e the &ra)/ ti)es o! )ommunist &o1er aimed at annihi.atin( the &ast0 the )ha..en(es to )ommunist &o1er and (ro1in( menta. and so)ia. resistan)e su&&orted the emer(en)e o! )ontested memories and a )ounter/s+m-o.ism that 1ou.d undermine the sa)ri!i)ia. .o(i) o! )ommunist &o1er2 Me5t to a red -ook o! the )ommunist uto&ia and a -.a)k -ook o! )ommunist )rimes0 there is the need !or a (re+ -ook o! the histor+ o! )entra. 'uro&ean )ountries under )ommunism2 3hese so)ieties 1ere -oth 4i)tims and
*a4id Jora4sk+0 OCommunism in Histori)a. 8ers&e)ti4e;0 American 2istorical #eview0 >>0 ? 6">>470A?C/@C2 @ La GsI.oG ,rusIt and *a4id :tark0 Post-Socialist Pathways! Trans$orming Politics and Property in "ast Central "urope 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>A72
4
3he &o1er o! memor+
<<"
a))om&.i)es0 1a4erin( at di!!erent times -et1een resistan)e and ada&ta/ tion2B :imi.ar.+0 the stron( desire to 1rite and re1rite -io(ra&hies and auto-io(ra&hies a.. o4er the !ormer.+ )ommunist east )entra. and south/ eastern 'uro&e &resents a (ood o&&ortunit+ to hi(h.i(ht Iones o! .i(ht and Iones o! darkness2 Criti)a. e4ents su)h as the Russian Re4o.ution0 the :e)ond Wor.d War0 and the re4o.utions in eastern 'uro&e )onstituted the so)ia. )onte5t in 1hi)h )ommunist ru.e or(anised !or(ettin( and introdu)ed m+thi) time/ dimensions into &o.iti)s2 3heir Ore4o.utionar+ memor+; is un.ike.+ to -e stream.ined -+ the tota.isin( attem&t at or(anised !or(ettin(2 3akin( the s&e)i!i) -.end o! their (enerati4e stru)ture and their am-i4a.ent asso)ia/ ti4e dimension0 memories o! re4o.utions and the :e)ond Wor.d War 1ere )ru)ia. in &ro4idin( )ommunist ru.e 1ith .e(itima)+ -ut a.so har-oured )onsidera-.e &otentia. !or dissiden)e2 As a mani!estation o! indi4idua. )ons)iousness0 memor+ )an -e tru.+ su-4ersi4e0 essentia..+ anti/tota.itarian0 and Odemo)ratisin(;2 3he demo)rati) &o1er o! memor+ is in its mani!est/ ation a(ainst )ommuni)ati4e si.en)in( o! in%usti)e0 (eno)ide0 and the o!!i)ia. &rodu)tion o! or(anised !or(ettin(2 C :u-seDuent.+0 I sha.. ar(ue that memories o! su)h e4ents are ke+ e.ements !or )ha..en(in( o!!i)ia. do)trine0 or(anised !or(ettin(0 and the !reeIin( o! the &ast2 3akin( m+ de&arture !rom an a))ount o! )ommunist te)hniDues o! the &rodu)tion o! histor+0 I sha.. then dea. 1ith the !ra(mentation0 the mo-i.isation0 and the &o.iti)a. uses o! memor+2 Memor+ as re&resentin( mu.ti&.e &asts 3he ke+ o-sta).e to theorisin( memor+ is ar(ua-.+ that it is a mani!est/ ation o! indi4idua. )ons)iousness0 1hi)h is )ir)umstantia. and uniDue !or di!!erent )ases o! histori)a. e4o.ution2 3ainted 1ith su-%e)ti4it+0 the mu./ ti&.i)it+ o! &ast e4ents !urther .imits the &ossi-i.it+ o! (enera.isa-.e ).aims and seems to -e in o&&osition to mu)h o! )on)e&t/-ui.din( in the so)ia. s)ien)es2 Ho1e4er0 memor+ )annot -e dis)onne)ted !rom the so)ia. and Oo-%e)ti4e; -a)k(round )onditions o! its )omin( into e5isten)e throu(h a)tion2 I! memor+ has remained a 4ita. !a)tor in identit+ &o.iti)s0 then the O&ast; needs to -e inte(rated in the understandin( o! the emer(en)e o! the ne1 order2 9n.ike histor+0 it )annot -e redu)ed to an o-%e)t o! inDuir+ 1ith re(ard to its ada&ta-i.it+ to t+&es o! re(imes or (oa.s o! de4e.o&ment2
Ja)Dues Ru&nik0 OWas tun mit der kommunistis)hen Ver(an(enheitQ 3s)he)his)he Re&u-.ik;0 Transit0 << 6Winter <=="/<70 "<42 Jan/Werner Mu..er0 emory and Power in Post-0ar "urope 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <==<70 ??/42
B C
<<<
:imi.ar.+0 memor+ )annot -e .imited to &ossi-.e stru)tura. )onstraints0 1hi)h O)ommunist .e(a)ies; ha4e on &ost/)ommunist &o.iti)s in terms o! retri-ution0 re)on)i.iation0 tria.s0 or &ur(es2 Rather0 it remains )u.tura..+ &resent and &otentia..+ &o.iti)a..+ Oa4ai.a-.e;2 A Whi.e histor+ is somethin( that de!inite.+ -e.on(s to the &ast0 memor+ is (enerated in histor+ -ut remains a.i4e in re&resentations0 -e.ie!s0 and attitudes o! !uture (enera/ tions2 In other 1ords0 the Omateria.; !or memor+ is sha&ed -+ mu.ti&.e .ines o! meanin(0 1hi)h (enerate di!!erent !orms o! so)ia. and )u.tura. memor+2 3hese -e)ome in!.uentia. in terms o! dis)ursi4e &atterns0 &o.it/ i)a. s+m-o.ism0 and &er!ormati4e ritua. a)tion2 > 3he &oint is not to make a %ud(ement a-out O(ood; or O-ad; memories -ut to a)kno1.ed(e the am-i4a.en)e o! memor+ that )an -e mo-i.ised !or &o.iti)a. &ur&oses2 3o .ink )riti)a. e4ents under )ommunism to memor+ is )onsistent 1ith the )entra. )hara)teristi) o! re)ent attention to memor+ in the so)ia. s)ien)es2 3he main reason 1h+ memor+ has a)Duired a d+nami) !or)e is the !a)t that the &ast is no .on(er a (uarantee !or the !uture2 In this 4ie10 the end o! the t1entieth )entur+ seems to -e )hara)terised -+ &er4asi4e un)ertaint+ a-out 1hat the !uture )ou.d -e2 3he demise o! an+ !orm o! te.eo.o(+ o! histor+ -urdens the &resent 1ith the Odut+ to remem-er;2 3his insi(ht is 4a.ua-.e as a startin( &oint !or the understandin( o! the &redi)/ ament o! memor+ in &ost/)ommunist eastern 'uro&e2 3he a!termath o! )ommunism made it &ossi-.e !or .ar(e &arts o! eastern 'uro&e to o4er/ )ome their histori)a. and (eo(ra&hi)a. situation -+ se)urin( a))ession to MA3O and to the 'uro&ean 9nion2 Whi.e this a))e.eration o! histor+ has -een a .eadin( idea in assessments o! &ost/)ommunism0 the arti)u.ation o! memor+ under )ommunism has to in).ude a 1ho.e seDuen)e o! a))e./ erations0 1here the situationa. .o(i) o! a)tion &rodu)ed mu.ti&.e re&re/ sentations o! the e4ents2 In Russia0 the O)to-er Re4o.ution !undamenta..+ restru)tured &o.iti)a. institutions and so)ia. stru)tures -ut a.so time &er)e&tions0 histori)a. )ons)iousness0 and memor+2 3he :e)ond Wor.d War 1as not on.+ a mi.itar+ )on!.i)t -et1een states -ut a.so entai.ed an un&re)edented so)ia./ isation o! 1ar!are that 1itnessed massi4e e5&u.sions0 s+stemati) e5termi/ nation0 and resha&in( o! -oundaries0 thus stam&in( &er)e&tions o! )itiIens and o!!i)ia. &o.iti)s o! )ommemoration2 "= 3he memories o! the re4o.utions in Hun(ar+ in ">@B0 in CIe)hos.o4akia in ">BA0 and the
A > "=
8ierre Mora0 ed20 #ealms o$ emory! #ethinking the 'rench Past 6Me1 YorkP Co.um-ia 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>B72 8au. Connerton0 2ow Societies #emem3er 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">A>72 Amir Weiner0 aking Sense o$ 0ar! The Second 0orld 0ar and the 'ate o$ the 8olshevik #evolution 68rin)etonP 8rin)eton 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <=="72
3he &o1er o! memor+
<<?
)+).es o! )ontention in 8o.and in ">@B0 ">BA0 ">C=0 ">CB0 and ">A= &.a+ed an im&ortant ro.e !or the re%e)tion o! )ommunist ru.e in ">A>2 "" Memor+ is the so)ia..+ re.e4ant re&resentation o! trans!ormations o! )ons)iousness in e4ents/that/mode.2 Whi.e re)o..e)tions and traditions are sha&ed in su)h &eriods0 their O)ontent; in terms o! s+m-o.isation o! e5&erien)es is ma..ea-.e as the+ are !a-ri)ated in an on(oin( &ro)ess o! inter&retation and )ontention2 3here is o!ten a )onsidera-.e dis)re&an)+ -et1een 1hat &o.iti)a. histor+ has made o! an e4ent and 1hat the .i4ed e5&erien)e o! this e4ent meant to man+ &eo&.e at the time2 It is strikin(0 !or instan)e0 ho1 three +ears a!ter the atta)ks on the 31in 3o1ers in Me1 York and the 8enta(on in Washin(ton the emotiona. )om&.e5it+ and )rushin( immedia)+ o! "" :e&tem-er <==" had -een sDueeIed out o! the memories &eo&.e har-our o! this da+2 "< A.thou(h its histori)a. )om/ &.e5it+ has -een (ro1in( e4er sin)e0 O>/""; 1as turned into a s+m-o.0 a moti4e0 a &ro-.em o! inte..i(en)e and !inan)e0 and0 a-o4e a..0 a &o.iti)a. ra..+in( )r+ )on)ernin( 1hat the 9nited :tates stands !or and 1here it stands no12 Whereas &o.iti)a. memor+ is -+ no means e5).usi4e.+ O(enerated; in so)ia..+ dense and dramati) )onte5ts0 re4o.utionar+ &eriods0 1ars0 and &o.iti)a. )rises .ea4e an e5traordinar+ im&a)t -oth on the se.!/de!inition o! the re(ime and on the so)ia. memor+ o! )itiIens2 3he task o! a (enea.o(+ o! &o.iti)a. memor+ is to inte(rate the emotiona. intensit+ o! the .i4ed/ throu(h e5&erien)es 1ith their s+m-o.i) re&resentations2 What is at stake is to )om-ine the (enerati4e dimension o! memor+ 1ith its asso)iati4e dimension as it kee&s &asts a4ai.a-.e !or the !uture2 A.thou(h !or the outside o-ser4er &ast re4o.utions and 1ars are on.+ one 4ersion o! rea.it+0 !or the &arti)i&ants the .i4ed/throu(h un)ertaint+ and se.!/reso.ution o! )risis a)Duire the status o! tota.it+2 "? 3he+ (enerate a so)ia. mi)ro)osm o! the .i4ed/in 1or.d0 1hi)h in its tota.it+ is re.ati4e.+ autonomous !rom the )om&.e5 rea.it+ o! Onorma. times;2 Whi.e sma..er e4ents a.so (enerate memories0 the+ o!ten .a)k the )riti)a. mass that is ne)essar+ !or -e)omin( )onstituti4e o! a memor+ re(ime2 "4
""
"< "? "4
Jan Fu-ik0 The Power o$ Sym3ols Against the Sym3ols o$ Power! The #ise o$ Solidarity and the 'all o$ State Socialism in Poland 69ni4ersit+ 8arkP 8enn :tate 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>47R Heino M++ssonen0 The Presence o$ the Past in Politics! K*+<- a$ter *+<- in 2ungary 6J+4ask+.aP :o8hi2 9ni4ersit+ o! J+4ask+.a0 ">>>72 International 2erald Tri3une0 ""/"< :e&tem-er <==40 B2 *on Hande.man0 odels and irrors! Towards an Anthropology o$ Pu3lic "vents 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>=70 <C/A2 3his )on)e&t 1as e.a-orated 1ith re(ard to the &o.iti)a. uses o! the Ho.o)aust in Herman+R see 'ri) Lan(en-a)her0 OMemor+ Re(imes in Contem&orar+ Herman+;0 &a&er &resented at the Joint :essions o! the 'uro&ean Consortium !or 8o.iti)a. Resear)h in 'din-ur(h0 A&ri. <==?2
<<4
In other 1ords0 memor+ is the e!!e)t o! histori)a. ru&tures -ut itse.! has e!!e)ts on the !urther e4o.ution o! histor+2 'ssentia..+0 memor+ mer(es di!!erent meanin(s and )u.tura. &atterns under the situationa. &remises o! un)ertaint+2"@ :u)h e4ents are )hara)terised -+ a hi(h de(ree o! anti/ )i&ation0 in terms o! -oth ho&es and !ears a-out the h+&otheti)a. !uture o! the )ommunit+2 3hus memor+ )om&rises t1o O!un)tions;2 On the one hand0 it re&resents .i4ed e5&erien)es su)h as )ommunities o! !ate in a re4o.ution0 a 1ar0 or a nationa. emer(en)+2 On the other hand0 these )ommunities o! !ate remain a4ai.a-.e as the s+m-o.i) re!eren)e that emer(ed in order to make sense o! this e5&erien)e2 Hen)e0 trans!ormati4e e5&erien)es -oth )onstrain and ena-.e the )reation o! s+m-o.i) meanin(2 Whi.e &o1er in)um-ents use so)ia. e5&erien)es !or the )reation o! o!!i)ia. )o..e)ti4e memor+ throu(h or(anised !or(ettin(0 su)h e5&erien)es a.so (enerate so)ia. and )u.tura. !orms o! memor+0 1hi)h remain .ar(e.+ -e+ond the )ontro. o! )entra.ised &o1er2 :+m-o.s o! )riti)a. e4ents )an remain a4ai.a-.e !or &o.iti)a. uses in the &resent not -e)ause the+ 1ere inte(rated into )o..e)ti4e nationa. memor+ -+ &o.iti)a. &o1er0 -ut -e)ause their in!.uen)e &ersists in a.ternati4e s+m-o.ism0 mu.ti&.e mem/ ories0 and a tension -et1een !or(et!u.ness and remem-erin(2 I! the indi/ 4idua.it+ o! memor+ a..o1s the di!!erent &asts to remain a4ai.a-.e0 )ommunities o! memor+ )an mo-i.ise su)h )ounter/memories in order to )ha..en(e s+m-o.s o! &o1er2 3he !irst &eriod o! de/:ta.inisation -e)ame a sour)e o! meanin( !or man+ )itiIens0 e4en &ro4idin( them 1ith a (enuine sense o! identi!i)ation 1ith the :o4iet s+stem2 "B 3he de4astation o! the :e)ond Wor.d War not on.+ 1as a nationa. disaster -ut a.so o!!ered identi!i)ation0 mora.it+0 and meanin(2 3his 1as .ar(e.+ due to the !a)t that the sheer su!!erin( and enduran)e durin( the 1ar !or man+ &eo&.e 1as their e5&erien)e that )ou.d not -e distorted -+ an o!!i)ia..+ im&osed memor+2 3he a4ai.a-i.it+ o! di!!erent and sometimes )ontradi)tin( memories su((ests that )u.tura. re!eren)es are not .o(i)a..+ )oherent or assi(ned identi)a. meanin( -+ di!!erent indi4idua.s or (rou&s2 Remem-erin( and !or(ettin( are -+ de!inition )ontentious issues0 an o-ser4ation that s&eaks a(ainst a )on)e&tion o! memor+ as standin( !or )o..e)ti4e identit+2
"@
Marsha.. :ah.ins0 Islands o$ 2istory 6Chi)a(oP 9ni4ersit+ o! Chi)a(o 8ress0 ">AC7R Wi..iam :e1e.. %nr0 OHistori)a. '4ents as 3rans!ormations o! :tru)turesP In4entin( Re4o.ution at the ,asti..e;0 Theory and Society0 <@ 6">>B70 AB"R 3on+ Judt0 O3he 8ast Is Another Countr+P M+th and Memor+ in 8ost1ar 'uro&e;0 in Ist4en *eek et a.20 eds20 The Politics o$ #etri3ution in "urope 68rin)etonP 8rin)eton 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <===70 <>?/?<?R ,o :trath0 ed20 yth and emory in the Construction o$ Community 6,russe.sP 8eter Lan(0 <===72 "B Mi)hae. 9r-an0 et a.20 The #e3irth o$ Politics in #ussia 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>C70 ?=2
3he &o1er o! memor+
<<@
Moreo4er0 the en(ineerin( o! histor+ -+ a &o.iti)a. re(ime is )ontin(ent u&on other une5&e)ted e4ents0 o! 4er+ minor or e4en in4isi-.e s)o&e to the &u-.i) or to re)orded histor+2 3here is am&.e e4iden)e !or ho1 the &o1er o! histor+ and )u.ture )an (enerate a)tion 1ithout e.ite en(ineerin(2 "C In Lithuania0 the meanin( o! the ).ash -et1een the )ro1ds / )ommemoratin( the dead in the stru((.e !or inde&enden)e / and :o4iet mi.itia in Faunas on A.. :ou.s; *a+ in ">4= needed no de!inition -+ Lithuanian e.ites to -e)ome a s+m-o. !or nationa. identi!i)ation and !or the 4a.ue o! resist/ an)e2 CIe)hs (athered on VaG).a4 :Duare in Mo4em-er ">A> 1ithout dire)tion0 and 'ast Hermans had sho1ed u& to the Monda+ demonstra/ tions some 1eeks ear.ier2 3he eru&tion o! Ouno!!i)ia.; or Oinde&endent; s+m-o.s0&rin)i&.es0 and traditions durin(the :o.idarnoG)G &eriod in 8o.and stron(.+ su((ests that there 1as no need to de!ine the meanin( o! an inde&endent so)iet+2 *ra1in( on other e5&erien)es in the O)+).es o! )rises; su)h as the 1orkers; unrest in HdanGsk in *e)em-er ">C=0 8o.ish 1orkers kne1 that the+ had to sta+ inside their !a)tories rather than (o outside in order to &resent their strike demands2 In Hun(ar+0 the &o1er o! the so)ia. memor+ o! the ">@B re4o.ution e5tended the &eriod o! the O.on( ">@=s; in Hun(arian histor+ u& to the .ate ">A=s and -e)ame )ru)ia. !or the disarti)u.ation o! )ommunist &o1er2 *e&ri4ed o! )hanne.s o! &o.iti)a. arti)u.ation and resour)es !or )o..e)ti4e &rotest and resistan)e0 Hun(arian so)iet+ maintained si.ent &ressure and stood as a reminder o! 1hat mi(ht ha&&en i! the :ta.inist methods and &ra)ti)es 1ere to -e re&eated2 "A :u)h )ommuni)ati4e memor+ )an undermine the m+thi)a. Dua.it+ o! o!!i)ia..+ en(ineered histor+2 On these (rounds0 and des&ite the manu!a)turin( o! &o.iti)a. memor+ -+ e.ites0 it is im&ortant not to o4erstress the )onstru)tion o! memor+ !or &resent &o.iti)a. &ur&oses2 As a )om&arati4e stud+ o! the &o.iti)s o! )ommemoration o! "A4A in di!!erent )ountries su)h as :.o4akia0 Hun(ar+0 and Romania has ar(ued0 the nature and stru)ture o! Oa4ai.a-.e &asts; )onstrains o&&ortunities o! )ommemoration2 "> 3he am-i4a.en)e o! memor+ 3he sta-i.it+ o! nation/states in 1estern 'uro&e has .ar(e.+ -een -ased on a &o.iti)a..+ !a-ri)ated and )u.tura..+ sustained &oo. o! s+m-o.s asso)iated
"C "A ">
Ro(er *2 8etersen0 #esistance and #e3ellion! %essons $rom "astern "urope 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <=="70 <>>2 HrIe(orI 'kiert0 The State Against Society! Political Crises and Their A$termath in "ast Central "urope 68rin)etonP 8rin)eton 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>B70 "=?2 Ro(ers ,ru-aker and Mar(it Eeis)hmidt0 O"A4A in ">>AP 3he 8o.iti)s o! Commemoration in Hun(ar+0 Romania0 and :.o4akia;0 Comparative Studies in Society and 2istory0 440 4 6<==<70 C==/442
<<B
1ith re4o.utionar+ e4ents0 the )onseDuen)es o! 1ars0 or the !oundin( e4ents o! )onstitutions2 3he histor+ o! state/!ormation has -eDueathed u&on &o.iti)a. so)ieties in eastern 'uro&e a m+riad o! )ontested memories to dea. 1ith2 3he non/)on(ruit+ o! nationa. )ons)iousness 1ith the terri/ toria. !rame o! the state in eastern 'uro&e 1as a ma%or dri4in( !or)e o! nationa.ism in its irredentist !orm o! ).aimin( .ost territor+ and in its a((ressi4e !orm o! dis)riminatin( a(ainst ethni) minorities2 EreDuent -order )han(es0 !or)ed mi(rations0 and re)urrent 1ars &rodu)ed m+ths o! 4i)timisation0 4en(ean)e0 and retri-ution2 <= 3he re.u)tan)e to )on!ront onese.! 1ith a )om&.e50 &ain!u.0 and thus/!ar untou)hed &ast must -e seen in the )onte5t o! traumati) e5&erien)es2 A )ru)ia. &re)ondition !or startin( ane1 in 1estern 'uro&e a!ter the :e)ond Wor.d War 1as a O-.essed a)t o! o-.i4ion;0 as ad4o)ated -+ Winston Chur)hi.. in his !amous Nuri)h s&ee)h on "> :e&tem-er ">4B2 <" Eo..o1in( .i-era. a&&roa)hes to histor+0 su)h a)ts are )ru)ia. e.ements !or esta-.ishin( )onstituti4e -e(innin(s and !or(in( )o..e)ti4e identities2 << Whi.e these a)ts stress the disso)iati4e )hara)ter o! memor+0 the so)ia. memor+ o! traumati) e5&e/ rien)es har-ours a distin)ti4e.+ asso)iati4e dimension0 1hi)h -esto1s u&on memor+ a re&resentati4e !un)tion0 as it re&resents that &ast !or the &resent2<? ,.essed a)ts o! o-.i4ion do not erase so)ia. memor+0 -ut the+ Duite su))ess!u..+ dra1 a .ine under the &ast 1ith the &ur&ose o! identit+/!ormation2 ,ui.din( u& ne1 identities is inherent.+ .inked to the )a&a)it+ !or !or(ettin( a )ertain &art o! our &ast2 3o &ut it &ro4o)ati4e.+0 1e are not on.+ the &ast that 1e 6)an7 remem-er 6as the histori)ists ha4e a.1a+s ar(ued70 -ut 1e are a.so the &ast that 1e )an !or(et2 <4 Eor(ettin( ma+ -e di4ided into !our t+&es o! e5&erien)es2 <@ Eor m+ &ur&ose0 the third and !ourth t+&es are es&e)ia..+ interestin(2 3he third re!ers to e4ents that &ut too mu)h o! a strain on )o..e)ti4e )ons)iousness0 )ausin( &ain or trauma2 3he outstandin( e4ent o! that t+&e in the t1entieth )entur+ is the
<=
Maria 3odoro4a0 O3he Course and *is)ourses o! ,u.(arian Mationa.ism;0 in 8eter E2 :u(ar0 ed20 "astern "uropean ;ationalism in the Twentieth Century 6Washin(ton0 *CP Ameri)an 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>@70 @@/"=<2 <" W2W2 Rosto10 The Division o$ "urope A$ter 0orld 0ar II! *+@- 6A.dershotP Ho1er0 ">A<70"@<2 << *e.i-erate !or(ettin( and histori)a. error are seen as )ru)ia. to su))ess!u. nation/-ui.din(R see 'rnest Renan0 OWhat Is a Mation;0 in Heo!! '.e+ and Rona.d H2 :un+0 eds20 8ecoming ;ational! A #eader 6Me1 YorkP O5!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>B70 4@2 <? 8au. Ri)oeur0 %a m4moire& lhistoire& lou3li 68arisP :eui.0 <===70 "=B2 <4 E2R2 Ankersmit0 O3he :u-.ime *isso)iation o! the 8astP Or Ho1 to ,e6)ome7 What One Is Mo Lon(er;0 2istory and Theory0 4=0 ? 6<=="70 ?=A2 <@ Ankersmit0 O3he :u-.ime *isso)iation o! the 8ast;0 ?==2 3he !irst t+&e o! !or(ettin( re!ers to those as&e)ts o! the &ast that are de4oid o! an+ re.e4an)e !or our &resent or !uture identit+2 3he se)ond t+&e )on)erns !or(ettin( somethin( that is tru.+ re.e4ant to our identit+ and our a)tions0 thou(h 1e 1ere una1are o! this im&ortan)e2
3he &o1er o! memor+
<<C
Ho.o)aust0 1hi)h 1as O!or(otten; -oth in Herman+ and e.se1here o4er a&&ro5imate.+ t1o de)ades2 In the !ourth t+&e0 this !or(ettin( o! a trauma is ar(ua-.+ not &ossi-.e2 One ma+ think o! the (reat trans!ormations su)h as the Eren)h Re4o.ution or the industria. re4o.ution that )han(ed the .i!e o! 1estern 'uro&eans &ro!ound.+2 What is re.e4ant here is the distin)tion -et1een the third and the !ourth t+&es o! !or(ettin( as to the Dua.it+ o! the trauma and the &ossi-i.it+ o! )reatin( a ne1 identit+2 '4ents su)h as the Ho.o)aust ma+ entai. the 1orst/)ase s)enario o! the )oe5isten)e o! t1o identities 6the !ormer one and a ne1 identit+0 )r+sta..isin( around the traumati) e5&erien)e72 In the !ourth t+&e0 histori)a. trans!ormations )ause !ee.in(s o! a &ro!ound and irre&ara-.e .oss0 o! )u.tura. des&air0 and o! ho&e.ess disorientation2 Here0 the traumati) e5&erien)e is more dramati)0 sin)e a !ormer identit+ is irre4o)a-.+ .ost !ore4er and su&erseded -+ a ne1 histori)a. or )u.tura. identit+2 ConseDuent.+0 the ne1 identit+ is )onstituted -+ a trauma !or 1hi)h no )ure is to -e !ound and 1hi)h .eads to a &ermanent .oss o! the !ormer identit+2 :ummin( u&0 it mi(ht -e &ossi-.e to distin(uish t1o kinds o! traumaP 1hereas the third t+&e o! !or(ettin(0 ho1e4er dramati)0 1i.. .ea4e identit+ inta)t0 the kind o! trauma re.ated to the !ourth t+&e o! !or(ettin( in4o.4es the transition !rom a !ormer to a ne1 identit+ 1hi)h ma+ im&.+ the .oss o! one;s !ormer se.!2 :o)ia. re4o.utions and so)ia.ised 1ar!are im&.+ the destru)tion and re)onstitution o! identit+2 In this 4ein0 mu)h o! the &o.iti)s o! memor+ in eastern 'uro&e and Russia has -een )hara)terised not -+ remem-erin( in order not to !or(et -ut rather -+ the di!!i)u.t+ o! !or(ettin(2 Communist mani&u.ation o! histor+ )ou.d or(anise !or(ettin( !or the &ur&ose o! distortin( histori)a. truth0 -ut it did not &rodu)e -.essed a)ts o! !or(ettin(2 In )ontrast to the memor+ o! Aus)h1itI in Herman+0 !or instan)e0 e4en the memor+ o! the Hreat Eather.and War in Russia is an+thin( -ut uneDui4o)a.2 <B 3he dou-.e herita(e o! MaIism and ,o.she4ik )ommunism in man+ &arts o! the re(ion remains di!!i)u.t to -a.an)e 1ithout indu.(in( in the e5or)isin( o! one throu(h the other2 I! the sentiment o! .oss is a )ru)ia. )ondition !or the memor+ -oom0 then eastern 'uro&e is o! interest &re)ise.+ -e)ause there has -een a mu.ti&.i)it+ o! traumati) e5&erien)es2 9n.ike the One1 start; o! the Ameri)an and Eren)h Re4o.utions0 or o! &ost/1ar Herman+0 re4o.ution/ ar+ ru&tures in eastern 'uro&e and Russia 1ere )hara)terised -+ re)ur/ rent .oss o! identit+ 1ithout the a)Duisition o! a ne1 one2 3he &ermanent
<B
Andreas Lan(enoh.0 "rinnerung und odernisierung( Die E$$entliche #ekonstruktion politischer Follektivitat am 8eispiel des neuen #uWland 6Hottin(enP Vandenhoe)k X Ru&re)ht0 <=="70?"42
<<A
re4o.ution o! )ommunism is i..ustrati4e here2 Whene4er the ,o.she4iks initiated a radi)a. turn0 o-ser4ers !o)used on the &ossi-.e resu.ts or )onseDuen)es o! this &o.i)+ 6su)h as the Me1 ')onomi) 8o.i)+ or de/:ta.inisation72 3hus0 the+ atta)hed .ess im&ortan)e to mo4ement itse.!0 1hi)h in the O&ermanent re4o.ution in one )ountr+; 1as o! utmost si(ni!i/ )an)e as it maintained so)ia. disru&tion and )on!usion2 As :o.Ihenits+n &ut it0 OWe !or(et e4er+thin(2 What 1e remem-er is not 1hat a)tua..+ ha&&ened0 not histor+0 -ut mere.+ that ha)kne+ed dotted .ine the+ ha4e )hosen to dri4e into our memories -+ in)essant hammerin( --- It makes us an eas+ &re+ !or .iars2; <C 3he rise o! :o4iet )ommunism 1as a))om&anied -+ )i4i. 1ar0 .ar(e/s)a.e so)ia. en(ineerin(0 massi4e re&ression0 !amines0 and a )onsidera-.e demo(ra&hi) .oss2 3he Hreat 3error in ">?B/A or the :o4iet 9nion;s 4i)tor+ in the :e)ond Wor.d War on.+ in)reased :ta.in;s !ear o! enemies0 .eadin( to massi4e de&ortation o! entire &o&u.ations into the (u.a( or resett.ement2 The production o$ history Communist re(imes used or(anised !or(ettin( to o-!us)ate su)h traumati) e5&erien)es2 3his &o.iti)a. te)hniDue o! im&osin( a &o.iti)a..+ O)orre)t .ine; )onsisted essentia..+ o! three &i..ars2 Eirst0 the destru)tion o! memor+ aimed to in4a.idate an+ un)ontro..ed re!eren)es to histori)a. time -e!ore the ad4ent o! :o4iet )ommunism2 :imi.ar.+0 the ).aim to in!a..i-i.it+ reDuired )onstant ad%ustments o! histori)a. rea.it+ to the needs o! )om/ munist &arties2 :e)ond0 tota.itarian .an(ua(e )ame a.on( 1ith a O)u.ture o! .ies; &re4entin( (rou&s 1ith a.ternati4e 4isions a-out their identit+ !rom emer(in(2 Or(anised !or(ettin( 1as -ased on a tissue o! .ies0 in4en/ tions0 and !antasies that 1as un)ons)ious.+ sustained -+ dissimu.ation and had a disastrous e!!e)t on (rou& identit+ and histori)a. )ons)iousness2 Eina..+0 the &u-.i) s&a)e 1as )hara)terised -+ O)ommuni)ati4e si.en)in(;0 -+ a dearth o! o&en histori)a. de-ate0 o! )riti)a. dis)ussion0 and o! e5)han(e o! memories to 1hi)h the &u-.i) a)Duies)ed !or !ear o! .osin( so)ia. o&&ortunities and so)ia. mo-i.it+2 Whi.e or(anised !or(ettin( o! &ast o))urren)es had a sta-i.isin( e!!e)t on )ommunist &o1er0 it a.so )ontained the seeds !or a &ro)ess o! dis/ mem-erin( the )a&a)it+ !or &er)e&tions o! histor+2 As su((ested in a stud+ o! CIe)hos.o4akia0 the )ommunist &rodu)tion o! histor+ stream/ .ined nationa. histor+ a))ordin( to the e5&e)tation o! a su))ess!u. stru((.e
<C
A.e5ander :o.Ihenits+n0 The 1ulag Archipelago *+*6-*+<-! An "xperiment in %iterary Investigation0 4o.s2 I and II0 trans2 !rom the Russian -+ 3homas 82 Whitne+ 6,ou.derP West4ie1 8ress0 ">>A70 <>>2
3he &o1er o! memor+
<<>
a(ainst man;s e5&.oitation -+ )a&ita.ists2 <A 3he trans!ormation o! man;s nature into the ne1 so)ia.ist man re.ied hea4i.+ u&on the institutiona.isa/ tion o! uto&ian time re(imes0 1hi)h 1ou.d turn u&side do1n orientations in time and thus a.ter &ersona. identities2 <> 3he Romanian state0 !or instan)e0 introdu)ed ne1 time/&er)e&tions seekin( to )reate the -a)k/ (round e5&e)tan)ies u&on 1hi)h )itiIens; sense o! the Onorma.; is ere)ted2 3he aim 1as to kee& &eo&.e &ermanent.+ o!! -a.an)e0 to undermine the sense o! a Onorma.; order0 and to institute un)ertaint+ as the ru.e2 3his &ra)ti)e o! Oetatisation; o! time entai.ed a +a1nin( (a& -et1een e.ites and the &o&u.a)e2 Whi.e the &art+ e.ites .i4ed -+ &romised ima(es o! a radiant !uture0 the &o&u.a)e .i4ed under the im&ression o! !.attened time and end.ess re&etition2 3his &rodu)tion o! histor+ -+ &o.iti)a..+ )ra!tin( time/&er)e&tions Oreinter&reted; e.ements o! nationa. tradition in order to a))ommodate )ommunist ru.e2 Mi)o.ae CeauKes)u;s 2istory o$ #omania0 a )o..e)tion o! te5ts !rom s&ee)hes in 1hi)h he mentions histor/ i)a. e4ents0 is or(anised into !i4e se)tions0 the !irst )ontainin( o-ser4a/ tions a-out the ne)essar+ re.ation o! historio(ra&h+ to &o.iti)s and the remainin( !our )o4erin( antiDuit+ and the midd.e a(es0 the !ourteenth to nineteenth )enturies0 "A<"/">"A0 and ">">/4A2 3he or(anisation o! !or(ettin( rein!or)ed m+thi) time/dimensions2 3he se.e)ti4e )reation o! &asts and their instrumenta.it+ !or the !uture %usti!ied )ontem&orar+ interests0 as m+thi) time/dimensions are an essen/ tia. &art o! the meta&hori)a. &o.iti)a. 1or.d2 ?= 9n.ike histori)a. time0 m+thi)a. time/&er)e&tions )on)ei4ed o! the &ast as a-so.ute0 dis&ensin( 1ith the Duestion o! O1h+; somethin( ha&&ened2 Histor+ 1as stri&&ed o! its e4ent!u.ness -+ re(ressin( e4er !urther -a)k into a ne4er/endin( seDuen)e o! -e)omin(2?" 3he re)ourse to m+thi) time/dimensions under )ommunism 1as )onsistent 1ith the )ommunist &art+;s Iea. to &rodu)e its o1n .a1 and histor+ -+ the mani&u.ation o! histor+ and the destru)tion o! memor+2 3he resur(en)e o! !oundation m+ths is Duite t+&i)a. o! )rises o! .e(itima)+0 1hen &o.iti)a. !ormu.as and mode.s !or the !uture are o!ten missin(2 3he histor+ o! the :e)ond Wor.d War 1as dea.t 1ith se.e)ti4e.+0 .ea4in( out an+ mention o! the !ate o! the Je1s or the -ui.din(/u& o! m+ths o! enemies 1hi)h 1ou.d maintain the )on!usion a-out the a)ti4ities o! the
<A <> ?= ?"
*erek :a+er0 The Coasts o$ 8ohemia! A C)ech 2istory 68rin)etonP 8rin)eton 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>C70 <A?/42 Fatherine Verder+0 0hat 0as Socialism and 0hat Comes ;extN 68rin)etonP 8rin)eton 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>B70 @4/C2 Murra+ 'de.man0 The Sym3olic :ses o$ Politics 69r-anaP 9ni4ersit+ o! I..inois 8ress0 ">A@70"AC2 'rnst Cassirer0 The Philosophy o$ Sym3olic 'orms0 4o.2 II0 ythical Thought 6Me1 Ha4en and LondonP Ya.e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">A@70 "=@/B2
<?=
)ommunist &art+ or the a)tua. )on!.i)t .ines in the 1ar2 Eear o! 4i)tim/ isation has -een one0 i! not the most im&ortant0 e.ement in man+ nationa. historio(ra&hies2 In the )ase o! Foso4o0 !or instan)e0 -oth the :er-s and the A.-anians rooted ar(uments a-out their o1n distin)ti4eness in histor+ and re.i(ion in ).aims o! their tem&ora. an)estr+ in this re(ion2 ?< ,oth :er-s and A.-anians a&&eared to share .e(itima)+/&atterns an)hored in a remote and time.ess &ast2 :er-s ).aimed the status o! an e.e)ted &eo&.e -ased on the .e(end o! 8rin)e LaIar0 1hose de!eat -+ the 3urks in "?A> 1as a sa)ri!i)e -ound to -e redeemed2 A.-anians tended to (o !urther -a)k in time to the si5th and se4enth )enturies0 ).aimin( an I..+rian/ A.-anian )ontinuit+ and su&eriorit+ o4er :.a4i) &eo&.e2 When :.o-odan Mi.o_e4i)G un.eashed nationa.ist a((ression a(ainst the A.-anian ethni) ma%orit+ in Foso4o0 he )ou.d dra1 on the m+thi)a. )ons)iousness in &o&u.ar memor+ o! "?A>0 1hi)h 1as )ommemorated in a uniDue (ather/ in( o! some < mi..ion &eo&.e on Foso4o &o.%e in Ju.+ ">A>2 The $ragmentation o$ memory Histor+ under )ommunism -e)ame an o-%e)t o! !or(et!u.ness rather than a sour)e o! historio(ra&hi) inDuir+ and sear)h !or truth2 On the one hand0 )+ni)ism and mistrust &er4aded man+ so)ia.0 )u.tura.0 and e4en &ersona. e5)han(es2 On the other hand0 the )a&a)it+ o! )ommunist states to &rodu)e histor+ 1as )he)ked -+ &ri4ate and uno!!i)ia. 4ersions o! )ount/ .ess o))urren)es that 1ou.d !orm &o1er!u. )ounter/histories o! a mutua..+ anta(onisti) and di4isi4e nature2 ?? Rather than maintainin( a unitar+ )ommunist identit+0 the &rodu)tion o! histor+ -+ or(anised !or(ettin( entai.ed the !ra(mentation o! memories2 Era(mentation o! memories )on)erns not on.+ the o-%e)t o! memor+0 i2e2 the !a)tua. )ontent o! a (i4en e4ent0 -ut a.so the so)ia. )arriers0 i2e2 a)tors 1ho do the remem-erin(2 As )an -e demonstrated -+ .ookin( at the &o.iti)s o! memor+ in &ost/1ar Herman+0 one )an di!!erentiate -et1een )ommuni)ati4e0 )o..e)ti4e0 and )u.tura. memor+2 ?4 Communi)ati4e mem/ or+ is main.+ indi4idua. memor+ that (ro1s in mi.ieus o! s&atia. &ro5imit+0 re(u.ar intera)tion0 )ommon !orms o! .i!e0 and shared e5&erien)es2 ,e+ond the )ommon e5&erien)e in a so)ia. mi.ieu0 )ommuni)ati4e memor+ is s&e)i!i) !or (enerations2 '5&.i)it.+ su-%e)ti4e memories are -ound u& in an im&.i)it (enerationa. memor+2 Eor )o..e)ti4e memor+ to -e)ome an im&ortant !a)tor in )onstru)tin(and re)onstru)tin(e4ents0 the e5isten)e o!
?< ?4 ??
Hossiau50 OLes deu5 &assVs;0 4?/@?2 Judt0 O3he 8ast Is Another Countr+;0 ?=A2 A.eida Assmann and 9te Ere4ert0 1eschichtsvergessenheit& 1eschichtsversessenheit( >om :mgang mit deutschen >ergangenheiten nach *+@< 6:tutt(artP *VA0 ">>>70 4"/@=2
3he &o1er o! memor+
<?"
a se.!/)ons)ious &o.iti)a. )ommunit+ is reDuired2 Co..e)ti4e memor+ is &o.iti)a. memor+0 sha&ed -+ institutiona. )ontro. o4er the a4ai.a-i.it+ o! memor+R it has a stron( tenden)+ to1ards uni!i)ation0 and is Duite resistant tode)a+ or o-.i4ion2Itis)hara)terised -+minima. )ontentand -+s+m-o.i) redu)tionism that ma+ -e )entred on one sin(.e e4ent2 3he memories o! -oth 4i)tors and .osers tend to1ards a stron(.+ a!!e)t/oriented inter&reta/ tion o! histori)a. data and are there!ore &rone to -e)omin( immune to a.ternati4e 4ersions o! histor+2 3he di!!erentiation into memories o! 4i)tors0 memories o! 4i)tims0 and memories o! &er&etrators is )hara)teristi) !or most )o..e)ti4e memories in modern so)ieties2 ,e+ond -oth !orms o! memor+0 a third rea.m o&ens u&0 1hi)h )an -e termed )u.tura. memor+2 Cu.tura. memor+ &ro&er reDuires Otrans.ation; -+ e5terna. media to make )om&.e5 s+m-o.i) !orms a4ai.a-.e to e4er+-od+2 Media o! )u.tura. memor+ )om&rise arte!a)ts su)h as te5ts0 &i)tures0 and s)u.&ture as 1e.. as s&atia. )om&ositions su)h as monuments0 ar)hite)ture0 .ands)a&e0 and tem&ora. orders su)h as !easts0 )ustoms0 or ritua.s2 Whi.e )o..e)ti4e memor+ e5&resses a )ommon e5&erien)e and a )ommon 1i..0 -+ )u.tura. memor+ mem-ers o! a &o.iti)a. so)iet+ )ommuni)ate -e+ond the indi4idua. .i!etime in a .on(/term histori)a. &ers&e)ti4e2 3heir aim is to -e)ome a1are o! an identit+0 !or(ed throu(h -e.on(in( to -road histori)a. e5&erien)es -e+ond (enerationa. -oundaries2 3he dis)re&an)+ -et1een di!!erent !orms o! memor+ is thus not a &arti)u.arit+ o! &ost/)ommunist eastern 'uro&e2 Comin( to terms 1ith the &ast in Herman+ has -een a .a-orious and &o.iti)a..+ )ontested enter/ &rise that has &rodu)ed a 1ho.e termino.o(+ o! its o1n and0 !ar !rom su-sidin(0 has -een &ro.i!i) in the se)ond ha.! o! the ">>=s and -e+ond2 ?@ Eor the immediate Herman &ost/1ar histor+0 the s&.it -et1een )ommu/ ni)ati4e memor+ and )o..e)ti4e memor+ has -een si(ni!i)ant2 In the Eedera. Re&u-.i) o! Herman+ o! the ">@=s one )ou.d identi!+ t1o )u./ turesP one &u-.i) )u.ture )hara)terised -+ the &aradi(m o! (ui.t0 1ith another0 hidden )u.ture o! si.en)e (uided -+ the &aradi(m o! shame2 ?B ,e+ond re&ressi4e methods desi(ned to stream.ine histori)a. )ons)ious/ ness0 memor+ in eastern 'uro&e has had the trans!ormati4e &o1er o! (eneratin( )ounter/narrati4es and a.ternati4e so)ia. memor+2 3his !ra(/ mentation o! memories 1as &erha&s most intense 1here &o.iti)a. so)ieties 1ere su-%e)t at se&arate times to the domination o! -oth MaIism and
?@
?B
3he Herman terms OVer(an(enheits-e1a.ti(un(; or OHes)hi)htsau!ar-eitun(;0 !or instan)e0 )annot -e trans.ated in one 1ord0 e2(20 in 'n(.ishR Ro-ert H2 Moe..er0 OWhat Has OOComin( to 3erms 1ith the 8ast;; Meant in 8ost/Wor.d War II Herman+Q Erom Histor+ to Memor+ to the OOHistor+ o! Memor+;;;0 Central "uropean 2istory0 ?@0 < 6<=="70 <<?/@B2 Assmann and Ere4ert0 1eschichtsvergessenheit0 """2
<?<
)ommunism2 Eo..o1in( u&on an entire.+ di!!erent &er)e&tion o! enemies in the e5&erien)es o! non/Je1ish 8o.es and Je1ish 8o.es durin( the :e)ond Wor.d War0 the memories in its a!termath 1ere di4ided2 ?C Catho.i) 8o.es and Je1ish 8o.es0 !or instan)e0 re.ied u&on se.e)ti4e &er/ )e&tions o! the &ast0 mutua..+ i(norin( the other;s histor+ -+ &resentin( themse.4es as uniDue 4i)tims2 3his dou-.e memor+ .ooked !or re1ard !or their su!!erin( as a -asis !or the ).aim o! their mora. su&eriorit+2 Re)ent.+0 the ro.e o! non/Je1ish 8o.es in the massa)re o! Je1s in the 4i..a(e o! Jed1a-ne durin( the :e)ond Wor.d War -e)ame the sin(.e most im&or/ tant &u-.i) de-ate a-out 8o.and;s &ast2 ?A 3he &ermanen)e o! !ra(mented memories a-out the )ommunist &ast0 radi)a.ised -+ the re.ati4e.+ ).ear/ )ut anta(onism -et1een )ommunist authorities and the :o.idarnoG)G o&&osition0 .ed to &arti)u.ar.+ )ontested assessments o! 8o.and;s &ost/ 1ar histor+2?> In ethni)a..+ di4ided so)ieties su)h as Yu(os.a4ia0 )u.tura. &o.iti)s and &o.iti)a. dis)ourse in se&arate re&u-.i)s dee&ened the !ra(mentation o! memories2 3ito su-ordinated memories o! the )i4i. 1ar to the dominant )o..e)ti4e memor+ o! the anti/!as)ist m+th0 1hi)h 1as su&&orted -+ the m+th o! the uni!+in( &artisan e5&erien)e and the heroi) !i(ure o! 3ito himse.!2 3he initia..+ sta-i.isin( im&osition o! or(anised !or(ettin( rein/ !or)ed (eo(ra&hi)a..+ and nationa..+ s&e)i!i) memories0 1hi)h sustained m+tho.o(ies o! 4i)timisation that -e)ame )ru)ia. to Yu(os.a4ia;s -.ood+ disinte(ration2 In ">4B0 Yu(os.a4 state &ro&a(anda !i5ed the tota. num/ -er o! Yu(os.a4 dead in the :e)ond Wor.d War at "2C mi..ion0 a num-er that remained -asi)a..+ un)ontested in hand-ooks0 s)hoo.-ooks0 and o!!i)ia. state do)trine !or !ort+ +ears0 -e!ore re)ent histori)a. s)ho.arshi& esta-.ished the num-er at an estimated " mi..ion2 Whereas this m+thi)a. )onstru)tion initia..+ rein!or)ed the im&ression o! a &arti)u.ar.+ (reat num-er o! 4i)tims in the anti/!as)ist stru((.e !or a united Yu(os.a4ia0 the :er-ian .eadershi& used it in the ">A=s in order to &ro4e the hu(e num-er o! :er-s ki..ed -+ Croatian 9sta_e2 3he !reeIin( o! num-ers o! the dead )ou.d ha4e )om&.ete.+ di!!erent )onseDuen)es0 ho1e4er0 de&endin( on the )han(in( )ir)umstan)es2 Whereas the arti!i)ia..+ e.e4ated num-ers o! Yu(os.a4 1ar 4i)tims )ontri-uted to radi)a.isin( :er-ian nationa.ist !ee.in(s0 the num-ers o! dead used -+ the anti/!as)ist m+th in 'ast Herman+ &ro4oked the o&&osite rea)tion2 3he 'ast Herman :o)ia.ist 9nited 8art+ 6:'*7 dre1 mu)h o! its .e(itima)+ !rom the
?C ?A ?>
8iotr WroG-e.0 O*ou-.e Memor+P 8o.es and Je1s A!ter the Ho.o)aust;0 "ast "uropean Politics and Societies0 ""0 ? 6">>C70 @B=/C42 Jan 32 Hross0 ;eigh3ors! The Destruction o$ the Gewish Community in Gedwa3ne0 Poland 6LondonP 8en(uin ,ooks0 <==<72 Fr+st+na Fersten0 O,i.ans Iamknig)ia;0 in SpMr o P#% 6FrakoG1P Nnak0 ">>B70 "C/<C2
3he &o1er o! memor+
<??
re!eren)e to its dead in the anti/!as)ist !i(ht a(ainst Hit.er -et1een ">?? and ">4@2 It a&&ears to -e this !o)us on the dead 1hi)h )ontri-uted to the !reeIin( and ritua.isation o! a )u.t o! the dead that ke&t a 1ho.e &o&u.a/ tion as &risoners o! those dead0 a dead/end that )ontri-uted to a &ro)ess o! indi!!eren)e24= 3he !ra(mentation o! memories in Russia has )onsisted in a )ontest o! ri4a. 4ersions o! Russian histor+ makin( use o! tsarist0 &re/re4o.utionar+0 :o4iet0 and &ost/:o4iet Russian herita(e2 4" 3here0 &o.iti)a. dis)ourse has .ar(e.+ turned around the o&&osition -et1een demo)rats/Westernisers and &atriots/)ommunists2 3he state -reakdo1n o! the :o4iet 9nion !i..ed )ommunists 1ith a &ro!ound (rie! o4er the .oss o! territor+ and disinte/ (ration o! 4a.ues0 &ro4okin( a stron(.+ &atrioti) rea)tion2 4< 3he .eader o! the Communist 8art+ o! the Russian Eederation0 Hennadi N+u(ano40 inter&reted histor+ as a dramati) narrati4e0 &ortra+in( the Russian nation as torn -et1een -ein( a hero/4i)tim and -ein( e5&osed to enemies !rom the West2 Histor+ is seen as takin( its de&arture !rom the ine4ita-.e Russian Re4o.ution0 risin( in the &eriods o! Lenin and :ta.in -e!ore enterin( de)a+ throu(h de/:ta.inisation and redu)in( Russia to a 4i)tim a!ter the end o! the :o4iet 9nion2 Me5t to the hero/4i)tim0 the ma.e!i)ent West -e)omes the s+m-o. o! e4i.0 1hi)h is re&resented -+ an interior !i!th )o.umn that ado&ted a .i-era. demo)rati) ideo.o(+ in order to destro+ Russian s&iritua.it+ and )u.ture2 The mo3ilisation o$ memory 3he !ra(mentation o! memories under )ommunism has -een )entra. to the &o.iti)a. s+m-o.ism o! demo)ratisation2 3he !ra(mentation o! mem/ ories 1as a ne)essar+)ondition !or demo)ratisationin so !ar asitun)o4ered the arti!i)ia.it+ and !a.seness o! the tota.it+ su((ested -+ the 8eo&.e/as/ One or the anti/!as)ist m+th2 On the one hand0 )oer)i4e &ra)ti)es o! or(anised !or(ettin( under )ommunist ru.e 1ere main.+ dire)ted a(ainst )ommuni)ati4e memor+ !or the &ur&ose o! mode..in( a unitar+ )o..e)ti4e memor+2 In the a!termath o! the :e)ond Wor.d War0 !or instan)e0 this ha&&ened 4ia the )onstru)tion o! !as)ist )ons&ira)ies0 throu(h the .inka(e o! nationa. histor+ 1ith )ommunist/:ta.inist ideo.o(+0 throu(h an ama./ (am o! so)ia.ist internationa.ism and o&en nationa.ism and throu(h the
4= 4" 4<
Her!ried Munk.er0 OAnti!as)hismus und anti!as)histis)her Widerstand a.s &o.itis)her Hrundun(sm+thos der **R;0 Aus Politik und Ceitgeschichte0 4@ 6">>A70 "B/<>2 Jutta :)herrer0 ORussia / In :ear)h o! a 9se!u. 8ast;0 in Atti.a 8ok0 et a.20 "uropean 2istory! Challenge $or a Common 'uture 6Ham-ur(P For-er/:ti!tun(0 <==<70 >=/"=A2 Mi)hae. 9r-an0 ORem+tho.o(iIin( the Russian :tate;0 "urope-Asia Studies0 @=0 B 6">>A70 >B>/><2
<?4
si.en)in( o! o&en ethni) )on!.i)t -+ )a..in( on the &eo&.e to !ee. -rother/ hood and unit+2 Communist re(imes tended to esta-.ish a uni!ormit+ o! nationa. histor+ -+ 1hi)h the histor+ o! )ommunism and the nation in one )ountr+ 1as &resented as a &redestined histori)a. out)ome attuned to the ideo.o(i)a. ).aims o! Mar5ist/Leninist theor+2 On the other hand0 )om/ muni)ati4e memor+ took on an im&ortant ro.e in the re)onstru)tion o! histori)a. e4ents and the sha&in( o! s+m-o.i) &o.iti)s2 Mu)h o! the risin( )ounter/&u-.i)0 &ara..e. so)iet+0 or se)ond &o.it+ in eastern 'uro&e 1ou.d not ha4e )ome into e5isten)e 1ithout the mo-i.isation o! )ommuni)ati4e memor+2 Fee&in( dissident 4ersions o! memora-.e a)ts a4ai.a-.e0 &o1er!u. )ounter/narrati4es resist a )o..e)ti4e .o(i) o! one truth or one meanin(2 3he+ )onsist in di!!erent truths that are su-%e)t to )ontested and on(oin( inter&retations0 thus arti)u.atin( so)iet+;s )ontinuin( Duest !or meanin(2 :+m-o.ism is not a-out one s&e)i!i) memor+ -ut a-out somethin( a-sent0 1hi)h the .on(in( !or )ommemoration re&resents2 '4ident.+0 as Heor(e Or1e..;s remark Ohe 1ho )ontro.s the &ast )ontro.s the !uture; su((ests0 )ommunist re(imes 1ere masters in im&.ementin( the !ra(men/ tation o! memories2 Yet0 1hi.e re&resentations o! the &ast )ou.d -e !roIen in o!!i)ia. dis)ourse and )o..e)ti4e memor+0 )ommunist ru.e !ai.ed to mani&u.ate indi4idua. )ons)iousness and )ommunities o! remem-erin( that resisted the dominant 4ersions o! or(anised !or(ettin(2 Histori)a. e5&erien)es hidden in )ommuni)ati4e memor+ are mo-i.ised !or the &ur&ose o! re)onstitution o! identit+ 1hen &o.iti)a. so)ieties are )on/ !ronted 1ith a sudden .oss0 .eadin( to an e5istentia. )risis2 A!ter the atta)ks on the 31in 3o1ers on "" :e&tem-er <=="0 !or instan)e0 the 9nited :tates rea)ted 1ith a 1a4e o! &atriotism0 re&rodu)in( nationa. s+m-o.s su)h as the !.a( in hu(e Duantities0 e4okin( the re&u-.i)an idea.s o! nation/-ui.din(2 Yet0 there 1as a.so an u&sur(e o! )om&arisons 1ith other traumati) e4ents0 in &arti)u.ar 1ith the Ja&anese atta)k on 8ear. Har-or in *e)em-er ">4"2 3he notion O(round Iero; 1as instant.+ used -+ the media to s+m-o.ise the area 1here the 31in 3o1ers on)e stood2 3he s&ontaneous namin( o! this s&a)e O(round Iero; re)a..ed the &.a)e 1here an atomi) -om- had e5&.oded on 9: territor+ on "B Ju.+ ">4@2 4? In Russia0 the O)to-er Re4o.ution has -een )odi!ied as the -irth o! modern Russian so)iet+ in an essentia.ist 1a+2 :ome ar(ue that the
4?
3his 1as at A.amo(ordo in Me1 Me5i)o2 3he re!eren)e to the atomi) -om- is o! (reat interest 1hen seen in )onte5t 1ith ,in Laden;s ).aim that one o! his &rin)i&a. o-%e)ti4es is to )om-at the Ameri)ans -e)ause the+ started -+ dro&&in( atomi) -om-s on Hiroshima and Ma(asakiR see Jean/8ierre *u&u+0 Avions-nous ou3li4 le malN 68arisP ,a+ard0 <==<70 4A/>2
3he &o1er o! memor+
<?@
re4o.ution is to -e inter&reted as a t+&i)a. so)ia. )on!.i)t in Russian histor+ 1ith the )ontrast o! the a.ienated masses and deta)hed e.ites2 A di!!erent t+&e o! inter&retation )on)ei4es o! the re4o.ution as a modernisin( enter/ &rise in the tradition o! the tsarist em&ire0 thus .e(itimate.+ esta-.ishin( a s&irit o! im&eria. modernisation2 Eina..+0 some 4ie1 the re4o.ution as a (rand )rime a(ainst the Russian nation and the Russian s&irit2 44 :imi.ar.+0 one )an s&eak a-out 1hat are )omin( to -e seen as the t1o .i4es o! the Russian Re4o.ution0 the !irst .i!e -ein( )onsidered as &art o! the &resent0 inse&ara-.e !rom )ontem&orar+ &o.iti)s0 the se)ond .i!e as -ein( deta)hed !rom the &resent and mo4in( into histor+ and nationa. .e(end2 4@ 3he ine5&ressi-.e su!!erin( durin( the :e)ond Wor.d War in the :o4iet 9nion 1as a.so !e.t to -e a .i-eration !rom re&ression and an identi!i)ation 1ith the nation2 As !ar as the so)ia. te5ture o! e4er+da+ .i!e is )on)erned0 this &eriod o! ha4o)0 de4astation0 nationa. su!!erin(0 and death has -rou(ht not on.+ s&a)es o! !reedom -ut e4en the (enuine a))e&tan)e o!0 and identi!i)ation 1ith0 the :o4iet s+stem2 In Hun(ar+0 CIe)hos.o4akia0 and 8o.and0 memories o! the re4o.utions 1ere har-oured in the )ommuni)ati4e memor+ o! dissident stru)tures2 It is true that0 some +ears do1n the .ine !rom the 8ra(ue s&rin(0 &eo&.e )ou.d hard.+ remem/ -er the e4ents o! ">BA as rea. -e)ause )han(e 1as so dramati) !o..o1in( the arri4a. o! :o4iet troo&s and -e)ause o!!i)ia. a))ounts o! the e4ents 1ere so &er4asi4e and so di!!erent !rom their o1n e5&erien)es2 4B Yet0 it -e)ame a mi.estone !or the trans!ormation o! )ons)iousness0 as &o1er/ .essness -e!ore a mi.itar+ in4asion mo-i.ised the O&o1ers o! the &o1er.ess; )onsistin( in an o&&osition in a hidden s&here and united -+ .i4in( in truth2 3his rea.m o! the hidden s&here .i4ed on the mer(er o! )ommuni)ati4e 1ith )u.tura. memor+2 In &re/">A> Hun(ar+0 the memor+ o! Imre Ma(+ and the ">@B re4o.ution had sur4i4ed in )ounter/narrati4es de!+in( the s+stem o! or(anised !or(ettin(2 3he ">@B re4o.ution &re!i(ured the re)ent demo)rati) )han(es in Hun(ar+0 as the memor+ o! thirt+/+ear/o.d e4ents and the )han)e that demands o! that time mi(ht -e satis!ied ha4e a)ted as a )onsidera-.e inte(ratin( !or)e2 Imre 8osI(a+;s o!!i)ia. a)kno1.ed(e/ ment that the ">@B e4ents 1ere not a )ounter/re4o.ution -ut a &o&u.ar u&risin( under)ut the .e(itima)+ o! the )ommunist re(ime and o!!ered a &o1er!u. s+m-o.i) resour)e to emer(in( &o.iti)a. o&&osition2 3he
:ee Lan(enoh.0 "rinnerung und odernisierung0 <B@/A2 :ee :hei.a EitI&atri)k0 The #ussian #evolution0 <nd edn 6O5!ordP O5!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <=="70 "C"2 4B Mi.an : Wime)Wka0 The #estoration o$ /rder! The ;ormali)ation o$ C)echoslovakia& *+-+-*+56LondonP Verso0 ">A470 "@/"B2
44 4@
<?B
)on4er(en)e o! di!!erent and o!ten o&&osed traditions in 8o.and;s &erma/ nent re4o.ution 1as .ar(e.+ sustained -+ the memories o! ">@B0 ">BA0 ">C=0 and ">CB2 A series o! 4io.ent e5&.osions 6O)to-er ">@B0 Mar)h ">BA0 *e)em-er ">C=0 June ">CB7 1as remem-ered in )ommuni)ati4e memor+ -ut a.so -e)ame &art o! )u.tura. memor+0 thus )reatin( a s&irit o! si.ent0 dai.+0 and o-stinate resistan)e2 As Adam Mi)hnik remarked0 this 1as the reason 1h+ 8o.es )ou.d -reathe a ).eaner air than e.se1here0 an air o! s&iritua.it+ 1hi)h 1as rene1ed e4er+ da+0 in4isi-.e -ut essentia. !or )u.ture and nationa. )ons)iousness2 In &ost/martia. .a1 8o.and a!ter ">A"0 the memor+ o! the :o.idarnoG)G e5&erien)e 1as ke&t a.i4e in in!or/ ma. stru)tures under the she.ter o! the Catho.i) Chur)h and de&endin( on indi4idua. .i!e/)ondu)t24C 'du)ationa. &o.iti)s and &u-.i) dis)ourse in Yu(os.a4ia 1ere e!!i)ient in or(anisin( the !or(ettin( a-out the )i4i. 1ar -et1een ">4" and ">4@0 -ut )ou.d not undo the &o1er o! )ommuni)ati4e memor+2 A.thou(h the disinte(ration o! Yu(os.a4ia !rom the .ate ">A=s on1ards 1as due to a )om&.e5 -.end o! &o.iti)a.0 e)onomi)0 and mi.itar+ !a)tors0 the !ra(men/ tation o! memories in Yu(os.a4ian &o.iti)s &.a+ed a &aramount ro.e !or the identi!i)ation o! di!!erent ethni) )ommunities 1ith m+ths o! 4i)tim/ isation and 4en(ean)e o! the interethni) )i4i. 1ar -et1een ">4" and ">4@2 Yu(os.a4ia remains the &rimar+ e5am&.e 1here the &rodu)tion o! histor+ a!ter ">4@ shi!ted !rom the em&hasis on sa.ient nationa. identit+ to a di4ided identit+24A *es&ite 3ito;s s.o(an o! O-rotherhood and unit+;0 Yu(os.a4 so)iet+ 1as marked -+ !ra(mented memories0 -+ a !reeIin( o! )onstru)ted histori)a. e4iden)e into a-stra)t time0 and -+ a su-ordination o! histor+ to the .e(itima)+ o! the re(ime2 4> 3he memories o! the )i4i. 1ar 1ere not -ad memories as su)h2 3ito;s Mos)o1/inde&endent seiIure o! &o1er 1as !ormati4e !or identities in the &ost/1ar (eneration in Yu(os.a4ia0 1here the 1ar 1as not seen as !uti.e and sense.ess -.ood/ .ettin(0 -ut on the )ontrar+ as a heroi) and meanin(!u. e5&erien)e that 1as 1orth more than its " mi..ion 4i)tims2 @= Whereas or(anised !or(ettin( a-out 1ar memories 1as )entra. !or esta-.ishin( a m+thi)a. )u.t su((est/ in( so.idarit+0 -rotherhood0 or a !oundin( e4ent !or a nationa. re4o.ution0
4C 4A 4> @=
Hara.d W+dra0 Continuities in Polands Permanent Transition 6,asin(stokeP Ma)mi..an0 <=="70"44/B2 Andre1 ,2 Wa)hte.0 aking a ;ation& 8reaking a ;ation! %iterature and Cultural Politics in Pugoslavia 6:tan!ordP :tan!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>A70 "AC2 Wo.!(an( Ho&ken0 OWar0 Memor+0 and 'du)ation in a Era(mented :o)iet+P 3he Case o! Yu(os.a4ia;0 "ast "uropean Politics and Societies0 "?0 " 6">>>70 ">=/<<C2 :.a4enka *raku.i)G0The8alkan"xpress!'ragments$romthe/therSideo$the0ar 6Me1 York and LondonP W2W2 Morton0 ">>?70 "<2
3he &o1er o! memor+
<?C
3ito;s death and !unera. in Ma+ ">A= !ormed a )riti)a. moment that re&resented the !ra(mentation o! )ommuni)ati4e memor+2 3he mo-i.isation o! memor+ a!ter ">A> has o!ten Orationa.ised; -a)k/ 1ardness or nationa. humi.iation -+ settin( a ne1 horiIon o! e5&e)tation2 Memories o! the domesti) Osma.. re4o.utions; 1ere side.ined !rom o!!i)ia. )o..e)ti4e memor+2 With re(ard to ">BA0 shame .ooms .ar(e as the sour)e o! the .a)k o! interest &ro!essed -+ the CIe)hs !or their re)ent &ast2 @" 3his shame or e4en )+ni)ism mi(ht stem !rom the irre)on)i.a-i.it+ o! t1o histories or truths that 1ere inherent to ">BAP on the one hand0 the a))ount o! a )i4i)0 human0 and s&ontaneous 8ra(ue s&rin(R on the other0 the re&resentation o! ">BA as a !ai.ure rooted in the &o.iti)a. nai4et+ o! CIe)hos.o4aks2 As the notorious Oh+&hen de-ate; in CIe)hos.o4akia indi)ated0 )ontested memories a-out the -a.an)e o! &o1er in the !edera. state )onsidera-.+ )ontri-uted to the 4e.4et di4or)e2 :.o4ak re&resenta/ ti4es in the Eedera. Assem-.+ resisted the idea o! CIe)h re&resentati4es to name the ne1 re&u-.i) the CIe)hos.o4ak Re&u-.i)0 reminis)ent o! the ear.ier states0 1hen the CIe)h &art had -een dominant2 Insistin( u&on their nationa. distin)ti4eness0 the &ro&osa. -+ CIe)hs to ado&t the neo/ .o(ism CIe)ho/s.o4ak Re&u-.i) under the )ondition that s.o4ak remains in the .o1er )ase s&arked o!! demonstrations in ,ratis.a4a demandin( a :.o4ak state o! their o1n2 3his unha&&+ )om&romise &rodu)ed demon/ strations in ,ratis.a4a the 4er+ ne5t da+0 demandin( a :.o4ak state0 and 1ithin three 1eeks the Eedera. Assem-.+ 1as !or)ed to )ome u& 1ith a ne1 )om&romise0 O3he CIe)h and :.o4ak Eedera. Re&u-.i);2 @< 3his tension -et1een the disso)iation !rom the &ast and the &rodu)tion o! the &ast !or &o.iti)a. needs in the &resent has -een &arti)u.ar.+ a)ute in Russia2 Ci4i) initiati4es su)h as Memoria. !o)used on the !a)tua. e.u)i/ dation o! the 4i)tims o! :ta.inism0 dis).osin( )rimes in tens o! thousands o! )ases in the .ate ">A=s2 A.thou(h in O)to-er ">>< the *uma &assed a )om&rehensi4e .a1 reha-i.itatin( 4i)tims o! &o.iti)a. re&ressions sin)e C Mo4em-er ">"C0 the Russian .eadershi& has re)ent.+ em-ra)ed &atri/ oti) dis)ourse0 1hi)h restores the memor+ o! histori)a. e4ents and em-.emati) .eadin( !i(ures o! -oth &re/ and &ost/re4o.utionar+ Russian histor+2@?
@"
@<
@?
8etr 8ithart0 OLa dua.itV du 8rintem&s t)heG)hos.o4aDue2 :o)iVtV )i4i.e et )ommunistes rV!ormateurs;0 in Eran[ois Ee%to and Ja)Dues Ru&nik0 eds20 %e Printemps tch4coslova7ue *+-6 68arisP 'ditions Com&.e5es70 A@/B2 3on+ Judt0 OMetamor&hosisP 3he *emo)rati) Re4o.ution in CIe)hos.o4akia;0 in I4o ,ana)0 ed20 "astern "urope in #evolution 6Itha)a and LondonP Corne.. 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">><70"=@2 Fath.een :mith0 #emem3ering Stalins >ictims! Popular emory and the "nd o$ the :SS# 6Itha)a and LondonP Corne.. 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>B70 CA/"C?2
<?A
In sear)h o! a stru)turin( &rin)i&.e o! Russian histor+0 Ye.tsin;s and 8utin;s .eadershi& has !o)used identit+/!ormation on the rea!!irmation o! the im&eria. .e(a)+ su)h as in the re-uria. o! the .ast tsar in .ate ">>A or the re/esta-.ishment o! the me.od+ o! the :o4iet nationa. anthem2 @4 Amon( a (reat 4ariet+ o! &ossi-.e nationa..+ si(ni!i)ant e4ents0 the da+ o! the 4i)tor+ in the Hreat Eather.and War 6> Ma+7 stands out as em-od+/ in( Russia;s &atrioti) sentiment2 In this 4ein0 8utin;s &ro%e)t o! re%e)tin( an+ m+th o! Russia;s &ath as &ermanent.+ de4iant !rom the norma. )ourse o! de4e.o&ment asso)iated 1ith the West is )om&ensated !or -+ his attem&t to turn Russia into a Onorma.; )ountr+2 3his return to norma.it+ in itse.! is a m+thi)a. )onstru)t0 as it needs to retrie4e a 4ariet+ o! nationa. s+m-o.s0 1hose m+tho.o(isation is essentia. to attenuate Russia;s &erma/ nent )ontradi)tion 1ith itse.!2@@ :imi.ar.+0 the mu.ti&.e s+m-o.s o! Russian &o.iti)a. )u.ture that are )ondensed on Red :Duare re&resent the on(oin( sear)h !or truth and meanin( in the !a)e o! the a4ai.a-i.it+ o! )on!.i)tin( memories2 'a)h e.ement &resent is reminis)ent o! di!!erent !orms o! &o.iti)a. domination and &hases in nationa. histor+0 o!ten shar&.+ in )ontradi)tion 1ith ea)h other2 On this uniDue s&ot :aint ,asi.;s )athe/ dra. e4okes the Hreat Russia o! I4an the 3erri-.e2 3he Frem.in 1a..s and the red stars on the to1ers re)a.. the tsarist re(ime and the re4o.ution -ut a.so s+m-o.ise &ost/)ommunist &residentia. &o1er2 Lenin;s mauso.eum indi)ates the omni&resen)e o! ideo.o(+ and the )u.t o! &ersona.it+2 3he )rosses o! the )athedra.s em&hasise the re.i(ious essen)e o! the sDuare2 @B 3he demo)rati) uses o! memor+ Conne)tin( the (enerati4e )onte5t o! memor+ in e4ents/that/mode. to the asso)iati4e dimension o! a4ai.a-.e &asts does not &ro4ide a )om&rehen/ si4e 4ie1 o! ho1 &ost/)ommunist )ountries )an or shou.d )ome to terms 1ith the &ast2 Rather0 I ha4e su((ested that the stud+ o! )ommunism and &ost/)ommunism shou.d -e Ore.eased; !rom the .o(i)a..+ )onstru)ted o&&osition -et1een a .e(a)+ and the &resent2 3he mu.ti&.i)it+ o! memo/ ries does not indi)ate a &atho.o(i)a. )ondition o! a -ritt.e re(ion that is detrimenta. to demo)rati) identit+2 3hus0 transitin( -et1een &ast and !uture has not -een the &atho.o(i)a. )ondition o! !ormer.+ )ommunist
@4 @@
@B
Fommersant0 > *e)em-er <===2 :ee Ri)hard :ak1a0 OM+th and 8o.iti)a. Identit+ in Russia;0 &a&er &resented at the )on!eren)e M+th and *emo)ra)+ in 'astern 'uro&e0 <B/<A O)to-er <==<0 9ni4ersit+ o! Re(ens-ur(2 C.aire 8etrou)hine0 Il $aut 7uune place soit ouverte ou $erm4e( %a place #ouge& oscou& printemps *+++ 6MVmoire de *'A 9ni4ersitV LumieSre L+on II0 ">>>70 "">2
3he &o1er o! memor+
<?>
so)ieties -ut is )onsistent 1ith a )entra. &attern o! identit+/!ormation in modern nation/states2 As a )om&arison 1ith &ost/1ar West Herman+ and &ost/1ar Eran)e indi)ates0 the &ermanen)e o! the &ast has not -een an east 'uro&ean &atho.o(+2 West Herman &ost/1ar histor+ o! memor+ )an -e di4ided into three &hases2@C A !irst &hase0 1hi)h )an -e )a..ed O&o.iti)s o! the &ast;0 stret)hed !rom ">4@ to ">@C2 It 1as )hara)terised -+ an unremittin( de!en)e a(ainst memor+ and a strate(+ o! O)ommuni)ati4e si.en)in(;0 ne)essar+ !or &ro4idin( a sense o! )ommunit+ in the ear.+ &ost/1ar +ears2 It 1as in!ormed -+ the 4i)tim/s+ndrome0 1hi)h sustained a ).ear se&aration -et1een the MaIi re(ime and the Herman &eo&.e0 attri-utin( the ro.e o! &er&etrator to the !ormer0 that o! the 4i)tim to the .atter2 A se)ond &hase )an -e )on%e)tured as s&annin( !rom ">@A to ">A40 1hen )ritiDues o! )omin( to terms 1ith the &ast in)reased2 On the one hand0 it )onsisted o! a risin( num-er o! tria.s a(ainst MaIi &er&etratorsR on the other hand0 it sa1 an in)reasin( se.!/)riti)ism a-out the !orms o! )omin( to terms / or not / 1ith the &ast2 A third &hase0 startin( !rom ">A@0 sa1 an in)reasin( im&ortan)e o! memor+0 stren(thenin( o!!i)ia. )ommemora/ tion and s+m-o.s2 3his ).assi!i)ation sho1s interestin( &ara..e.s 1ith the !our &hases that 1ere &ro&osed as a &ara..e. histor+ o! the Vi)h+ re(ime in Eran)e2@A 3he !irst &hase 1as the Omournin( &hase; 6">44/@47 that hi(h.i(hted &ain and (rie!0 thus &re4entin( so)iet+ !rom 1orkin( on the &ain2 '5terna. si(ns o! this &hase 1ere the &ur(es and the su-seDuent amnest+2 Vi)h+ 1as si.en)ed0 1hi.e the resistan)e mo4ement 1as !o)used u&on2 3he se)ond &hase 6">@4/C"7 1as the &hase o! re&ressed memories0 1hen Oresistan)ia.ism; 1as esta-.ished as the dominant m+th o! an anti/ !as)ist Eran)e2 It sou(ht to minimise the im&ortan)e o! the Vi)h+ re(ime and turned the OReGsistan)e; into an o-%e)t o! memor+0 identi!+in( it 1ith the Eren)h nation as a 1ho.e2 3he third &hase 6">C"/47 1itnessed the shatterin( o! the so)ieta. )onsensus on the m+th and the return o! re&res/ sion2 Eina..+0 the &hase o! o-sessi4e memor+ 6!rom ">C4 )ontinuin( to toda+7 has -een marked -+ the rea1akenin( o! Je1ish memor+ throu(h memoirs o! 4i)tims0 resear)h on the Ho.o)aust0 and tria.s o! its &er&etra/ tors0 and the (ro1in( im&ortan)e o! reminis)en)es o! the o))u&ation in the Eren)h &o.iti)a. de-ate2 As the Herman and Eren)h )ases su((est0 memor+ is -oth a &reser4a/ ti4e0 O-a)k1ard/.ookin(;0 and a trans!ormati4e0 O!or1ard/.ookin(; &o1er2 3he !ra(mentation and mo-i.isation o! memories -e)ome s+m-o.i)
@C @A
3his a))ount a.so re.ies on Assmann and Ere4ert0 1eschichtsvergessenheit0 "44/@2 Henr+ Rousso0 The >ichy Syndrome! 2istory and emory in 'rance Since *+@@0 trans2 Arthur Ho.dhammer 6Cam-rid(e0 MAP Har4ard 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>"72
<4=
markers o! )ertaint+ -+ re&resentin( a nation;s )ontro4ersia. histor+ !or the &resent2 3he return to di!!erent O&asts; in &ost/)ommunist 'uro&e amounted to a 3ricolage o! re)o4erin( nationa. identit+0 a sense o! &ride -ut a.so o! hea.in( 1ounds in indi4idua. and )o..e)ti4e memor+2 3he )o..a&se o! )ommunism has rein!or)ed an im&ortant mo-i.isation o! nationa..+ uniDue and histori)a..+ s&e)i!i) e4ents !rom the O&re/)ommunist; &eriod at the e5&ense o! the inDuir+ into the :ta.inist &ast in Russia0 or the sma.. re4o.utions in Hun(ar+0 CIe)hos.o4akia0 and 8o.and2 *es&ite the esta-.ishment o! nationa. institutes o! memor+ &ra)ti)a..+ e4er+1here in the re(ion0 the s+stemati) e.u)idation o! )rimes has ke&t a rather .o1 &ro!i.e2@> 3he &o.iti)s o! identit+/!ormation instead in).uded s+m-o.isa/ tions re&resentin( mo4es O-a)k to the truth;0 O-a)k to the nation;0 O-a)k to norma.it+;0 O-a)k to 'uro&e;0 or O-a)k to the &resent;2 B= Eor mu)h o! non/ Russian eastern 'uro&e0 the :e)ond Wor.d War )ut o!! their ties 1ith Western demo)ra)+0 a ma%or reason 1h+ these )ountries 1anted to return to the startin( &oint o! ">4@/B2 B" In Romania0 sin)e ">A>0 due to the !ai.ed ru&ture in its Osto.en; or O)on!is)ated; re4o.ution o! ">A>0 the &er)e&tion o! a O&ermanen)e o! the &ast; has &re4ai.ed2 B< Russians )ame to 1rite the O1hite &a(es o! the &ast;0 tr+in( to re)onstru)t a -ra4e and sa!e &re/re4o.utionar+ so)iet+ that 1as to&&.ed o4erni(ht -+ a sma.. (rou& o! ,o.she4ik ro(ues2 Comin( to terms 1ith the &ast has -een re&.a)ed -+ a m+tho.o(ised re&resentation o! an inta)t 1or.d o! &re/re4o.utionar+ Russia2B? Contested memories indi)ate ho1 )ommuni)ati4e and )u.tura. mem/ or+ )an -e (enerati4e o! e5istentia. re&resentation o! a &eo&.e2 3he desire to o4er)ome the -a)k1ard )ondition o! one;s o1n )ountr+ or the o&&res/ sion o! )ommunist ru.e o!ten ta..ied 1ith rea)hin( the shores o! Western )i4i.isation2 :in)e the nineteenth )entur+0 domesti) &o.iti)a. dis)ourse amon( the Russian and east 'uro&ean inte..i(entsia !o)used on the se.!/ &er)e&tion o! one;s o1n nation as -ein( an is.and )ut o!! !rom &ro(ress0 modernit+0 and the Onorma.; )ourse o! histor+0 asso)iated 1ith the West2 Mu)h o! the histor+ o! Westernisation in Russia has -een the stor+ o! tsarism re&resentin( itse.! as a mirror o! 'uro&ean )ourts -ut a.so o! an
@> B= B" B< B?
Carmen HonIaG.eI 'nrdDueI0 O*e/)ommuniIation and 8o.iti)a. Justi)e in Centra. and 'astern 'uro&e;0 in ,arahona de ,rito et a.20 Politics o$ emory0 <"A/4C2 Mikko La(ers&etI0 O8ostso)ia.ism as a ReturnP Motes on a *is)ursi4e :trate(+;0 "ast "uropean Politics and Societies 0 "?0 < 6">>>70 ?CC/>=2 3imoth+ Harton Ash0 The :ses o$ Adversity 6Me1 YorkP Random House0 ">A>70 <@A2 Hans/Christian Maner0 O*ie andauernde Ver(an(enheit;0 /steuropa0 4A0 "= 6">>A70 "=<4/4=2 Jutta :)herrer0 #e7uiem $ur den #oten /kto3er2 #uWlands Intelligen)iLa im :m3ruch *+6--*++- 6Lei&Ii(P Lei&Ii(er 9ni4ersitats4er.a(0 ">>B70 "<C/A2
3he &o1er o! memor+
<4"
inte..i(entsia under the s&e.. o! Western )i4i.isation2 B4 3he una)hie4ed so)ia. &ro(ress0 the denied re)o(nition0 and the !ai.ed &o.iti)a. re!orm -e)ame o-%e)ts o! &o.iti)a. stri!e0 nationa.ist rhetori)0 and historio(ra&h/ i)a. )ontention2 In Romania0 !or instan)e0 the nationa.ist 'uro&ean dis/ )ourse0 1ith the aim o! reinte(ration into Western )i4i.isation0 has )onsidered the )ountr+ as a OLatin is.and; in the :.a4i) sea2 B@ Eor man+ &eo&.e0 es&e)ia..+ in east )entra. 'uro&e0 the esta-.ishment o! )ommunist re(imes a!ter ">4@ )ame do1n to -ein( )ut o!! !rom Onatura.; ties 1ith the West2 In the &er)e&tion o! o&&osition e.ites0 8o.and under )ommunism had itse.! -e)ome an Ois.and; iso.ated !rom the mainstream )ourse o! &ro(ress and de4e.o&ment0 1here the transmission o! ideas had -een )om&.ete.+ -.o)ked and man+ thin(s had to -e 6re7in4ented ane12 BB 3he re)onstru)tion o! the notion o! )entra. 'uro&e in the ">A=s0 !or instan)e0 1as under&inned -+ the se.!/&er)e&tion o! dissidents in )oun/ tries su)h as CIe)hos.o4akia0 8o.and0 and Hun(ar+ as ha4in( -ein( kidna&&ed -+ the O-ar-arian 'ast; and thus iso.ated !rom 'uro&ean )i4i.isation2 Ea)in( the &arado5 o! ho1 CIe)hos.o4akia as the e)onomi)a..+ most de4e.o&ed demo)rati) )ountr+ in )entra. 'uro&e )ou.d &rodu)e the most ri(id0 dee&est/rooted0 and .on(/.i4in( )ommunism in the re(ion0 it is sa!e to ar(ue that in 8ra(ue and in other &arts o! )entra. 'uro&e the Vi)h+ s+ndrome has %ust -e(un2BC It is hard.+ sur&risin( that &ost/)ommunism has -een )hara)terised -+ simi.ar tenden)ies to a&&ro&riate the s&onta/ neit+ o! )ommuni)ati4e memor+ !or state/indu)ed &atriotism and the s+m-o.i) redu)tionism o! )o..e)ti4e memor+2 3he ne1 &o.iti)a. .eader/ shi& de!ined the e&o)h o! )ommunist ru.e as a Odark a(e; or a &ast that must -e ).ear.+ de.imited as se&arate !rom the &resent2 BA In the 1ake o! Imre Ma(+;s re-uria.0 Hun(arian o!!i)ia. &o.iti)s rea&&ro&riated this memor+ -+ su-stitutin( )i4i) in!orma.it+0 s&ontaneit+0 and so.idarit+ 1ith state/indu)ed &atrioti) .e(a.isation and the s+m-o.i) redu)tionism o! )o..e)ti4e memor+2 B> In the ,a.ti) )ountries0 :o4iet o!!i)ia. historio/ (ra&h+ had &resented the +ears ">"A/4= as an inter.ude0 so that0 !or
B4 B@ BB BC BA B>
:ee Ri)hard Wortman0 Scenarios o$ Power! yth and Ceremony in #ussian onarchy0 < 4o.s2 68rin)etonP 8rin)eton 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>@/<===72 Lu)ien ,oia0 O3he Romanian Cons)iousness Ea)ed 1ith Mationa. Ideo.o(+ and 'uro&ean :entiment;0 in 8ok0 et a.20 "uropean 2istory0 "??/442 W+dra0 Continuities0 "=?2 Ru&nik0 OWas tun mit der kommunistis)hen Ver(an(enheitQ;0 "<C2 :ee the initia. &o.i)+ o! the !irst &ost/)ommunist (o4ernment in 8o.and or the CIe)h Re&u-.i);s La1 on the I..e(a. Chara)ter o! the Communist Re(ime o! ">>"2 Mate :Ia-o0 ORitua.e der Ver(an(enheits-e1a.ti(un(;0 in Andreas 8ri-ersk+ and ,ertho.d 9n!ried0 eds20 Sym3ole und #ituale des Politischen( /st- und 0esteuropa im >ergleich 6Erank!urt am MainP 8eter Lan(0 ">>>70 "@42
<4<
e5am&.e0 the anne5ation o! 'stonia into the :o4iet 9nion 1as seen as the .e(itimate re/esta-.ishment o! :o4iet &o1er2 Con4erse.+0 the re)onstru)/ tion o! memor+ in these )ountries re!.e)ts the herita(e o! inde&endent statehood a!ter ">"A and the anne5ation -+ the Red Arm+ in ">4=2 In the ne10 &ost/)ommunist inter&retation o! histor+0 the &re/1ar inde&end/ en)e &eriod is0 on the )ontrar+0 o! (reat im&ortan)e2 It is no .on(er the &re/1ar era0 -ut the &eriod o! :o4iet ru.e0 that is 4ie1ed as an unnatura. inter.ude that de.a+ed the natura. de4e.o&ment o! the )ountr+2 C= 31o &ro&ositions )an -e made 1ith a 4ie1 to inte(ratin( the &o1er o! memor+ into a re!.e)tion on the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+2 A !irst &ro&o/ sition ).aims to rethink the tem&ora.it+ o! &o.iti)a. e4o.ution in the stud+ o! )ommunism and &ost/)ommunism2 3he mu.ti&.i)it+ o! indi4idua. and )o..e)ti4e memories in eastern 'uro&e su((ests that the di!!erentiation -et1een &re/)ommunist0 )ommunist0 or &ost/)ommunist &asts is arti!i/ )ia. at -est2 A))e.erations o! histor+ )annot -e readi.+ a&&ro&riated !or histori)ist a))ounts o! demo)ratisation2 Communism not on.+ destro+ed memories -ut a.so &rodu)ed the )ounter/memories that )ontri-uted de)isi4e.+ to its o1n dismant.in(2 I! &ro)esses su)h as de/:ta.inisation0 the Hun(arian and 8o.ish re4o.utions in ">@B and ">A=0 or the 8ra(ue s&rin( in ">BA did not -rin( a-out demo)rati) transitions as a ne1 )onstitutiona. !orm o! (o4ernment0 their a!ter.i!e in terms o! &o.iti)a. s+m-o.ism 1as a &o1er!u. e.ement in the &o.iti)a. s&iritua.it+ o! demo)ratisation2 A se)ond &ro&osition su((ests that )ommunism 1as not on.+ a &o1er s+stem -ased on re&ressi4e institutions that )onstrained !reedom -+ means o! a tota.itarian dri4e to )ontro. the minds o! &eo&.e2 A(ainst the re&ressi4e )hara)ter o! or(anised !or(ettin(0 the mo-i.isation o! mu.ti&.e &asts at the .e4e. o! )ommuni)ati4e memor+ 1as an essentia. e.ement in the e4o.ution o! an a.ternati4e )ons)iousness0 an attem&t to (round e5isten)e in histori)it+0 truth!u.ness0 and su-%e)ti4it+2 A(ainst )ommuni/ )ati4e si.en)in(0 the demo)rati) )redentia.s o! memor+ ha4e -een -ased on truth/te..in(0 historio(ra&hi)a. inDuir+0 dra1in( histor+ .essons0 )on/ !essions0 and a)kno1.ed(ement o! shame or a))ounta-i.it+2 3his ).aim is )onsistent 1ith the )entra. &re)ondition !or the memor+ -oom in re)ent +ears0 1hi)h 1as identi!ied in the so)ia. tenden)+ to the demo)ratisation o! histor+2 Im&ortant 1a4es o! de)o.onisation su)h as o! the 3hird Wor.d0 o! minorities0 and o! the )ountries under tota.itarian ru.e ha4e !ostered an un&re)edented de4e.o&ment o! Ominorit+ memor+; as a means to re(ain the &ast as an e.ement o! identit+/!ormation2 Cha..en(in( the read+/made
C=
La(ers&etI0 O8ostso)ia.ism;0 ?A?2
3he &o1er o! memor+
<4?
and do)trina. inter&retation o! histor+ -+ )ommunists0 the stru((.e o! memor+ a(ainst !or(ettin( 1as )ru)ia. in the stru((.e a(ainst o&&res/ sion2C" 3he )ommunist .e(a)+ has o!ten -een asso)iated 1ith O-ad; mem/ ories as se&arate !rom or o&&osed to O(ood; memories re.atin( to nationa. traditions or &re/)ommunist &asts2 As !ar as the &o1er o! memor+ re&re/ sents the &ast 1ith an e.a-orate s+m-o.isation0 the O)ommunist &ast; is not on.+ a .e(a)+ o! tota.itarian re&ression -ut a.so an e5&ression o! a demo)rati) )ons)iousness a(ainst )ommunist )o..e)ti4ism2
C"
Mi.an Fundera0 The 8ook o$ %aughter and 'orgetting 6Me1 YorkP 8en(uin0 ">A"70 ?2
"=
3he !uture that !ai.ed
3he -e.ie! that there is on.+ one rea.it+ is the most dan(erous se.!/ de)e&tion2 8au. WatI.a1i)k
3he &re)edin( )ha&ter has ar(ued that memor+ has -een a demo)ratisin( !or)e -+ makin( )ons)iousness the )entre o! resistan)e to attem&ts to maintain tota. &o1er o4er &eo&.e2 Communi)ati4e and )u.tura. memor+ maintained nationa. traditions0 de4e.o&ed )i4i) in!orma.it+0 and &re!i(/ ured &u-.i) o&inion2 In other 1ords0 the memor+ re&resentin( traumati) e5&erien)es in one;s )ountr+;s &ast )ou.d -e)ome a sour)e o! !reedom and identit+2 Whereas demo)ratisation )an -e .inked to truth!u.ness and e5istentia. re&resentation in the &ast0 one needs to -ear in mind that0 sin)e the a(e o! the demo)rati) re4o.utions in the .ate ei(hteenth )entur+0 the emer(en)e o! demo)rati) &o.iti)s has -een asso)iated 1ith a uto&ian -ent and e5&e)tations o! a -etter !uture2 3he )ommunist e5&eriment rooted identities in an a.ternati4e !orm o! Ose)ond; rea.it+0 1hi)h 1ou.d see &o&u.ar so4erei(nt+ in the a-o.ition o! o&&ression2 It attem&ted to .e(itimise &o.iti)a. domination not -+ se)urit+0 &ro&ert+0 or .i-ert+ -ut -+ the &romise o! sa.4ation and tota. !reedom0 1hi)h )ou.d -e attained -+ the trans!ormation o! human nature and the ad4ent o! a ne1 so)iet+2 3his )ha&ter ar(ues that demo)rati) )ons)iousness under )ommunism 1as not (enerated &rimari.+ -+ &re!eren)es o! en.i(htened demo)ratsR rather0 it 1as a rea)tion a(ainst )ommunism;s ideo.o(i)a. &res)ri&tion o! tota.it+2 Re%e)tin( the uto&ian and te.eo.o(i)a. &ro%e)t o! the se)ond rea.it+ reDuired (roundin( e5isten)e in )on)rete .i!e0 not in !antasies o! sa.4ation2
3he authorit+ o! se)ond rea.it+ Identit+/!ormation has -een one o! the most en)om&assin( and in)on/ ).usi4e endea4ours in the !ra(mentation o! the &ost/)ommunist 1or.d2 Mationa.it+ )han(es in the 1ake o! territoria. reshu!!.es0 a-ru&t re4ersa.s in the )onditions o! e)onomi) and &u-.i) .i!e0 and the )o..a&se o! &o.iti)a. authorit+ in their a!termath shattered &re4ious.+ e5istin( indi4idua. and
<44
<4@
)o..e)ti4e identities2" In ana.+ti)a. terms0 identities are o!ten )onsidered as Ode&endent 4aria-.es; 1ith a 4ie1 to e5&.ainin( Oinde&endent 4aria-.es; su)h as the inte(ration o! a &o.iti)a. s+stem or demo)rati) institution/ -ui.din(2< It has -een )ommon to hi(h.i(ht the inte(rati4e as&e)t o! O'uro&ean identit+;0 Odemo)rati) identit+;0 or O)a&ita.ist identit+;2 Identit+ is taken as one o! man+ in&uts into a &o.iti)a. s+stem0 as a de.ineated set o! attri-utes o! &o.iti)a. )u.ture2 Identit+/-ased )on!.i)ts are seen as res&onsi-.e !or !ra(mentation0 distrust0 or ethni) se&aratism and thus as o-sta).es to su))ess!u. demo)rati) institution/-ui.din(2 :ome )aution is needed0 ho1e4er0 1hen identit+/!ormation is o&&osed to the interest/ -ased 1orkin( o! the s+stemi) .o(i) o! &o.iti)a. e)onom+ or &o.iti)a. re(imes2 8o.iti)a. identities in )ommunist eastern 'uro&e are0 1ith hind/ si(ht0 assumed to ha4e -een )oherent and uni!ied due to re&ression and mi.itar+ !or)e2? Like ).aims a-out identi!i)ation 1ith Odemo)ra)+; or O'uro&e;0 ho1e4er0 an+ ).aim a-out Oso)ia.ist identities; in )ommunist )ountries must -e taken 1ith )aution2 Whi.e identities in a &o.iti)a. or so)ia. s+stem in re.ati4e eDui.i-rium are )om&arati4e.+ sta-.e and thus &rior to intentions0 in situations o! e5istentia. un)ertaint+ identi!i)ations are )ontin(ent u&on the )onte5tua. intentions o! the a(ents that do the identi!+in(2 Consistent 1ith re)ent resear)h0 a &o.iti)a. anthro&o.o(+ o! trans!ormati4e e5&erien)es must (o O-e+ond identit+;24 Identi!i)ation / o! onese.! and o! others / as intrinsi) to so)ia. .i!e and rea.it+ 1i.. not ne)essari.+ resu.t in the interna. sameness and )oherent0 -ounded (rou&ness that &o.iti)a. .eaders ma+ seek to a)hie4e2 9nder )ommunism0 identi!i)ation 1as essentia..+ &ro4ided -+ de4e.o&menta. (oa.s in the &ursuit o! a uto&ia0 1hi)h in4o.4ed the )rea/ tion o! a ne1 man and the es)hato.o(i)a. e5&e)tation o! an end sta(e o! human de4e.o&ment2 3he institutiona.isation o! uto&ia )on)erned not on.+ the materia. )a&a)it+ to mono&o.ise the state and e)onomi) institu/ tions -ut a.so the )ontro. o! )ons)iousness0 .an(ua(e0 and identit+2 3hese &atterns o! identit+/!ormation re!.e)ted the .a)k o! a sense o! rea.it+ as a )entra. !eature o! )ommunism2 3he identit+ o! the 8eo&.e/as/ One 1as su&&orted -+ the identi!i)ation o! Oenemies o! the &eo&.e; and the &romise o! a &aradise a!ter the transition to O)ommunism;2 Identities
"
Mi)hae. ,ura1o+ and Fatherine Verder+0 eds20 :ncertain Transition! "thnographies o$ Change in the Postsocialist 0orld 6Lanham0 M*P Ro1man X Litt.e!ie.d0 ">>>72 < Jon '.ster et a.20 Institutional Design in Post-Communist Societies 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>A70 <4C/C=2 ? C.aus O!!e0 >arieties o$ Transition! The "ast "uropean and "ast 1erman "xperience 6Cam-rid(e0 MAP MI3 8ress0 ">>C70 C?2 4 Ro(ers ,ru-aker and Erederi)k Coo&er0 O,e+ond OOIdentit+;;;0 Theory and Society 0 <>0 " 6<===70"/4C2
<4B
under )ommunism 1ere not sta-.e0 as &atterns o! re&resentation and &o.iti)a. &ro%e)ts 1ere inherent.+ Ode!ined; -+ a dream 1or.d0 1here the dai.+ .i!e o! shorta(e0 de.usion0 and 4i)timisation 1as o&&osed to the es)hato.o(i)a. 4ision o! a -etter 1or.d2 3he &o.iti)a. authorit+ o! )ommu/ nism re.ied hea4i.+ on )om&ensatin( !or un)ertaint+ 1ith &romises o! a radiant !uture2 Communism as a &o.iti)a. re.i(ion ideo.o(i)a..+ &re/ s)ri-ed an es)hato.o(i)a. 4ision o! en(ineerin( the !uture2 3he end o! &o.iti)s im&.ied -+ Lenin;s State and #evolution 1as )onsistent 1ith the mono&o.isation o! &o.iti)a. .i!e0 the )ontro. o! kno1.ed(e0 and the )rea/ tion o! histor+ and .a12 Re4o.utionar+ messianism entai.ed states o! )ons)iousness 1here a s&.it -et1een a !irst and a se)ond rea.it+ )an -e )hara)terised as a de.i-erate desire not to understand0 as an a.ienation !rom a true meanin(!u. .i!e in order2 @ 3akin( e5am&.es !rom .iterature su)h as 3homas More;s :topia0 Cer4antes;s Don Ouixote0 and Ro-ert Musi.;s an 0ithout Oualities0 'ri) Voe(e.in ar(ued that the emer(en)e o! se)ond rea.it+ is ti(ht.+ .inked to ho1 man;s )ons)iousness is trans/ !ormed in res&onse to a )risis situation2 8eo&.e start to re!use the &er)e&/ tion o! rea.it+0 &ro%e)tin( !antasies and ima(inar+ rea.ities on to their e4er+da+ e5isten)e2 3his se.e)ti4e )ons)iousness ma+ -e)ome so)ia..+ re.e4ant on)e it attra)ts the attention o! more or .ess im&ortant so)ia. (rou&s2 9nder s&e)i!i) )ir)umstan)es a minorit+ (rou& ma+ im&ose se.e)ti4e )ons)iousness -+ !or)e in order to esta-.ish a se)ond rea.it+ as the authoritati4e !rame o! &o.iti)a. e5isten)e2 3he in!.uen)e o! se)ond rea.ities in &o.iti)s )an hard.+ -e &ro4ed em&iri)a..+ -+ measurin( the a)ti4ities o! o-%e)ti4e (i4ens su)h as0 sa+0 an e.e)tion0 a &ar.iament0 or a )onstitution2 3he Otest; )an -e attem&ted on.+ -+ sensin( the s&e.. that ima(es0 -e.ie!s0 and !antasies )ast on &hi.oso&hers0 &o.iti)a. .eaders0 and ordinar+ &eo&.e2 Mar5;s 4ision o! a ).ass.ess so)iet+ 1as re.ated to the u&rootedness o! the e)onomi) &ro)ess and the so)ia. )onditions o! his time2 ,ased on the (enera. ).aim that a.. trans!ormations in human arran(ements re.+ u&on materia. !or)e0 he ).aimed that ne1 modes o! &rodu)tion and 1a(e/ earnin( .ed to re.ationshi&s o! o&&ression in 1hi)h the 1orkers 1ere ine4ita-.+ a.ienated and ens.a4ed2 3he state as a )om&ound o! -ureau)/ ra)+0 &o.i)e0 and mi.itar+ stru)tures )rushes the &eo&.e it &retends to re&resent2 3he !antas+ as&e)t o! se)ond rea.it+ )onstru)ted -+ Mar5 is
3he )on)e&t Ose)ond rea.it+; 1as0 to m+ kno1.ed(e0 introdu)ed -+ 'ri) Voe(e.in2 Like Hirard0 Voe(e.in took Cer4antes;s *on Tui5ote as the &aradi(m o! .i4in( in a se)ond rea.it+R see 'ri) Voe(e.in0 2itler and the 1ermans0 trans20 ed20 and intro2 *et.e4 C.emens and ,rendan 8ur)e.. 6Co.um-ia and LondonP 9ni4ersit+ o! Missouri 8ress0 ">>>70 <?>/@B2
<4C
.ess -ased on ho1 the me)hanisms o! o&&ression )an -e o4er)ome and more on the !ormida-.e &redi)tion that o4erthro1in( the o.d ).ass 1i.. a-o.ish not on.+ ).asses -ut domination as su)h2 Ana.+ti)a. &s+)ho.o(+ has ar(ued that there are t1o kinds o! thinkin(2 B On the one hand0 there is the modern a)Duisition o! a dire)ted thinkin( that -oasts mo-i.it+ and dis&osa-i.it+ o! &s+)hi) ener(+0 1hi)h is (uided -+ the .o(i)a. &ursuit o! an initia. idea and is stru)tured -+ .an(ua(e2 3his thinkin( is Orea.it+/thinkin(;0 -+ means o! 1hi)h 1e imitate the su))es/ si4eness o! o-%e)ti4e.+ rea. thin(s2 *ire)ted thinkin( is the &rin)i&a. means -+ 1hi)h 1e mana(e the .a-orious a)hie4ement o! ada&tation to rea.it+0 as the ima(es inside our mind !o..o1 one another in the same stri)t.+ )ausa. seDuen)e as the e4ents takin( &.a)e outside it2 Con4erse.+0 there is a t+&e o! thinkin( that .a)ks an+ .eadin( ideas and the sense o! dire)tion emanatin( !rom them2 In this se)ond kind o! thinkin(0 intense ima(es and !ee.in(s de4e.o& a tenden)+ to sus&end )oheren)e in .an(ua(e and &ro%e)t a dream rea.it+ on to .i!e2 3he distin)tion -et1een these t1o t+&es o! thinkin( se&arates a &re/modern !rom a modern t+&e o! thinkin(2 Whi.e routine &o.iti)s tends to -e )hara)terised -+ dire)ted thinkin(0 .imina. situations are more .ike.+ to (enerate !antas+/thinkin(0 1hi)h os)i..ates -et1een haI+ -ut &o1er!u. 4isions o! the !uture and a do(mati)0 o!ten m+tho.o(ised 4ersion o! histor+2 3he denia. o! rea.it+ dra1s on ar)het+&i)a. memor+ ima(es0 1hi)h )ome to the !ore in the im&u.ses and &assions re.eased in )riti)a. e4ents2 3he+ sus&end Onorma.;0 (oa./ oriented0 rationa. Odire)ted thinkin(; and .et O!antas+/thinkin(; )ome to the !ore2 In moments o! 1ar0 so)ia. re4o.utions0 or the disinte(ration o! &o.iti)a. stru)tures0 dire)ted thinkin( is 1eakened0 as rationa. .an(ua(e and strate(i) thinkin( is di!!i)u.t to arti)u.ate2 3he !as)ination 1ith Lenin;s 1i.. &o1er has someho1 )on)ea.ed the .o(i) o! !anati) re4o.utionar+ messianism2 Its strate(i) and &ra)ti)a. im&.i/ )ations 1ere at odds not on.+ 1ith Russian so)ia. rea.it+ -ut a.so 1ith rationa. ana.+sis2 Mirrorin( 8isare4;s )ommitment to !antas+/thinkin(0 Lenin su-s)ri-ed to the ne)essit+ o! dreamin(0 a ).aim he remained !aith!u. to e4en .ater in his .i!e2 C In "><"0 he a)kno1.ed(ed that his .o(i) o! messianism had -een animated -+ un)ons)ious dream/.ike !antasies rather than an+ intentiona. )ons)iousness2 OIt 1as a !antasti) idea !or a Communist to dream that in three +ears +ou )ou.d drasti)a..+ )han(e the e)onomi) stru)ture o! our )ountr+ - - - .et us )on!ess our sinsP there 1ere man+ su)h !antas+/makers in our midst2 ,ut ho1 )an +ou -e(in a
B C
Car. H2 Jun(0 The 8asic 0ritings o$ C(1( Gung0 ed2 and intro2 Vio.et :tau- de LasI.o 6Me1 YorkP Modern Li-rar+0 ">@>70 "=/<<2 V.adimir I2 Lenin0 0hat Is to 8e DoneN 6LondonP 8en(uin0 ">A>70 <<>/?=2
<4A
:o)ia.ist re4o.ution in our )ountr+ 1ithout !antas+/makersQ; A 3o ar(ue that Lenin;s State and #evolution 1as uto&ian and not a&&ro&riate to the needs o! )onso.idatin( ,o.she4ik &o1er -ars insi(ht into the seriousness o! his re4o.utionar+ messianism2 :a.4ationism 1as not on.+ an inte(ra. &art o! Mar5ism -ut 1as !u..+ em-ra)ed -+ the ,o.she4ik re4o.utionaries 1ho de).ared the )onstru)tion o! a ne1 man0 a ne1 so)iet+0 the 1itherin( a1a+ o! the state0 and/or 3rotsk+;s Ored &aradise;2 > :e)ond rea.ities ma+ )ommand authorit+ not des&ite their haIiness -ut &re)ise.+ -e)ause o! it2 3he disastrous state o! the :o4iet e)onom+ and its ine!!i)ien)+ indu)ed man+ ana.+sts to &redi)t its non/4ia-i.it+ as a &o.it/ i)a. &o1er s+stem2 Ho1e4er0 as John Ma+nard Fe+nes remarked a!ter a short 4isit to Russia0 )on4entiona. )riti)ism )ommitted t1o mistakes2 We hate )ommunism so mu)h0 he said0 -e)ause 1e re(ard it as a re.i(ion and thus e5a((erate its e)onomi) ine!!i)ien)+2 Yet0 -ein( so im&ressed -+ its e)onomi) ine!!i)ien)+0 1e underestimate it as a re.i(ion2 "= 3he &o.iti)a. uses o! se)ond rea.it+ Mu)h &o.iti)a. thou(ht has a!!irmed human autonom+ !rom de&enden)e on m+thi)a. or meta&h+si)a. re!eren)es2 3he )om&.e5 stor+ o! the -reak 1ith a trans)endenta. sour)e o! &o.iti)a. authorit+ at the end o! the Midd.e A(es and therea!ter0 ho1e4er0 did not dis)ontinue the need !or Duasi/di4ine and in4isi-.e sour)es o! &o1er2 3he o4erthro1 o! Hod as a sour)e o! .e(itimate authorit+ )ame a.on( 1ith the redi4inisation o! &o.iti)s 1ith so)iet+ as the )o..e)ti4e or Omorta.; (od2 3he theoreti)a. !oundations o! modern &o.iti)s testi!+ to the im&ortan)e o! arrestin( e5istentia. un)ertaint+ -+ the authorit+ o! an in4isi-.e &o1er2 3his in4is/ i-.e &o1er is o! a hi(her authorit+0 emanatin( !rom natura. .a1 that &re)edes and ma+ sus&end &ositi4e .a12 Rather than )ommandin( rea/ son0 its authorit+ .ies in the s&e.. e5erted on the )o..e)ti4e ima(ination -+ m+ths and s+m-o.s2 3he s+m-o.i) sour)es o! &o.iti)a. authorit+ rest u&on the re)o(nition o! the su&eriorit+ o! those settin( the +ardsti)k -ut a.so on indi4idua.s; +earnin( !or )on!irmation o! their o1n 1orth2 An et+mo.o(i)a. inDuir+
A > "=
Tuoted in John *unn0 odern #evolutions 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">C<704B2 Andre1 Janos0 "ast Central "urope in the odern 0orld! The Politics o$ the 8orderlands $rom Pre- to Postcommunism 6:tan!ordP :tan!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <===70 "@A2 John Ma+nard Fe+nes0 OA :hort Vie1 o! Russia;0 in "ssays in PersuasionP The Collected 0ritings o$ Gohn ( Feynes0 4o.2 IU 6Me1 YorkP Ma)mi..an/Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">A470<BC2
<4>
)on!irms the ma(i)a./re.i(ious sour)e o! the term Oauthorit+;2 "" 3he Roman sour)e auctoritas re!ers to the -asis o! Au(ustus; &o1er0 1hi)h emanated !rom his e!!i)ient &resti(e as se&arated !rom his potestas0 the .e(a. &o1er2 Auctor or auctoritas are deri4ed !rom augeo0 1hi)h means in)rease0 ori(inate0 or &romote2 In Indo/Iranian the root aug- means !or)eR in :anskrit oLas/ means the !or)e o! (ods2 Ho1e4er0 augeo has another meanin( in addition to Oin)rease; in terms o! -ui.din( u&on somethin( that a.read+ e5istsP augeo0 &re)ise.+0 means to &rodu)e some/ thin( -e+ond one;s o1n -ein(0 to -rin( a-out somethin( -e+ond one;s o1n )a&a)it+2 3his is the &ri4i.e(e o! the (ods and nature 1ho &romote0 1ho )reate0 and 1ho )onstitute2 In Roman times0 authorit+ re!erred to a sa)red !or)e0 the 1ord !or 1hi)h0 due to the m+sti)a. rea.it+ o! augeo0 im&.ied the )a&a)it+ to ori(inate .i!e in nature and to )reate .a1s2 3hus0 the -earer o! authorit+ is .ess )hara)terised -+ !or)e in terms o! assurin( )om&.ian)e 1ith ru.es than -+ his )a&a)it+ o! )reatin( somethin(0 makin( somethin( ha&&en2 In a simi.ar 4ein0 Ma5 We-er made a &.ea !or the e!!i)ien)+ o! the s&iritua. in!.uen)e o! a (od that is 1orshi&&ed !rom a!ar2 In his a))ount0 it is this Oe!!e)ti4e in!.uen)e !rom a!ar; 6 'ernwirkung7 1hi)h &resuma-.+ 1as a !a)tor that &arti)i&ated in the e4o.ution o! the )on)e&t o! Yah1eh as the uni4ersa. and omni&otent Hod2 "< 3he !ounders o! modern &o.iti)a. thou(ht )ou.d not do 1ithout m+th/ i)a. )ate(ories2 Ma)hia4e..i;s )on)e&tion o! modern &o.iti)s hi(h.i(hted the need !or human a)tion to )ountera)t ne)essit+ and )ontin(en)+ -+ &o.iti)a. 4irtue2 Con!ronted 1ith the &uII.e o! ho1 to a))ount !or )on/ tin(en)+ in &o.iti)s0 1hi)h threatens to !rustrate the ho&es0 e5&e)tations0 and out)omes o! our a)tions0 he se)u.arised the ha.!/m+thi)a. &o1er o! !ortune that had to -e )ountera)ted -+ human 4irtue2 "? Ho--es;s Oindi/ 4idua.ist; !oundation o! &o.iti)a. order in the interest o! se.!/&reser4ation 1orks on the &remise o! a non/human authorit+2 3o e5&.ain ho1 a so)ia. )ontra)t )ou.d esta-.ish a so4erei(n &o1er in )onditions o! the a-sen)e o! )i4i. .a1 in the state o! nature0 Ho--es re!ers to a sa)red oath as the e5&ression o! the !ear o! that in4isi-.e &o1er0 1hi)h is the 1orshi& o! Hod2"4 Rousseau;s so.ution !or tamin( the se.!/destru)ti4e !or)e o! se.!/ .o4e 6amour propre7 resorts to &atriotism -+ the 1orshi& o! the )o..e)ti4e
"" "< "? "4
Eor a )on)ise summar+0 see *ominiDue Co.as0 Sociologie politi7ue 68arisP 89E0 <==<70 "=@/B2 Ma5 We-er0 0irtscha$t und 1esellscha$t0 ed2 Johannes Win)ke.mann0 @th edn 63u-in(enP Mohr0 ">A=70 <@42 'rnst Cassirer0 The yth o$ the State 6Me1 Ha4en and LondonP Ya.e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">4B70"@C/B=2 3homas Ho--es0 %eviathan0 ed2 Ri)hard 3u)k 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>"70 >>2
<@=
(od o! the nation2"@ 3he .e(itima)+ o! the so)ia. )ontra)t and the &o&u.ar -asis o! demo)ra)+ )onsist in the ritua. &arti)i&ation in the 4ote and the )ountin( o! ea)h 4ote2 Rousseau;s (enera. 1i.. is a m+th0 1hi)h is none/ the.ess ne)essar+ to 4indi)ate the a))e&tan)e o! a ma%oritarian 4ote2 Mar5ism &osits the &ro.etariat as the )arrier o! sa.4ation2 3he ).ass -e)omes a )o..e)ti4e redeemer ).ass 1ith an es)hato.o(i)a. e5&e)tation o! the end o! o&&ression2 Lenin;s &ro!essiona. re4o.utionaries dedi)ate their .i4es to the &ursuit o! re4o.utionar+ messianism0 dreamin( a-out the end o! &o.iti)s2"B 3he heroism o! )o..e)ti4es su)h as the nation and the ).ass -ut a.so the indi4idua. virtuB or the O1i.. to &o1er; are m+thi)a. re&resentations that re!.e)t ar)het+&i)a. -e.ie!s in humanit+2 In &rin)i&.e0 there is not mu)h di!!eren)e -et1een the su&reme sa)ri!i)e reDuired !or a )ause su)h as the ,o.she4ik &art+ or the nation0 as in -oth )ases it is the most e!!e)ti4e mo-i.isin( !or)e in a situation o! des&air2 3he modern nation/state .ar(e.+ re.ies on s+m-o.s o! heroi) 4i)tor+0 im&eria. e5&ansions0 and &hases o! e)onomi) (ro1th -ut a.so on the narrati4e im&a)t o! the m+thi)a. Dua.it+ o! the nation as an ima(ined )ommunit+2"C Histori)a..+0 the nation as the )o..e)ti4e -od+ o! the &eo&.e re&resented in the state has dra1n mu)h o! its .e(itima)+ !rom the identi/ !i)ation o! and mi.itar+ )om&etition 1ith enem+ nations2 3he sta-i.it+ o! nation/states in 1estern 'uro&e has .ar(e.+ re.ied on a &o.iti)a..+ !a-ri)ated and )u.tura..+ sustained &oo. o! s+m-o.s asso)iated 1ith re4o.utionar+ e4ents0 the )onseDuen)es o! 1ars 6su)h as .i-eration or traumati) 1ar .osses70 or the !oundin( e4ents o! )onstitutions2"A Eo..o1in( .i-era. a&&roa)hes to histor+0 -.essed a)ts o! o-.i4ion are )ru)ia. e.ements !or esta-.ishin( )onstituti4e -e(innin(s and !or(in( )o..e)ti4e identities2 *e.i-erate !or(ettin( and histori)a. error are seen as )ru)ia. to su))ess!u. nation/-ui.din(2"> As the Stunde ;ull in &ost/:e)ond Wor.d War West Herman+ su((ests0 the+ ma+ -oost the demo)rati) )redentia.s o! )ountries -+ dra1in( a ).ear .ine o4er the .e(a)+ o! the &ast and set out !or a ne1 start2 M+ths a-out nationhood0 !or instan)e0 need not -e s&e)i!i) to ethno/ )u.tura. t+&es o! )ommunities that 1ere he.d to(ether -+ tradition0 .an(ua(e0 or .iterature2 3he rise o! nationa.ism an+1here reDuires the
"@ "B "C "A ">
Jean/Ja)Dues Rousseau0 The Social Contract and Discourses0 trans2 and intro2 H2*2H2 Co.e 6LondonP *ent0 ">>?70 "4<2 A2J2 8o.an0 %enin and the "nd o$ Politics 6LondonP Methuen0 ">A472 :ee ,enedi)t Anderson0 Imagined Communities! #e$lections on the /rigin and Spread o$ ;ationalism re4ised edn 6LondonP Verso0 ">>"72 8ierre Mora0 ed20 #ealms o$ emory! #ethinking the 'rench Past 6Me1 YorkP Co.um-ia 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>B72 'rnest Renan0 OWhat Is a Mation;0 in 8ecoming ;ational! A #eader0 ed2 Heo!! '.e+ and Rona.d H2 :un+ 6Me1 YorkP O5!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>B70 4@2
<@"
as)endan)+ o! the idea o! a )hosen &eo&.e0 1hen a.. indi4idua. or )o..e)/ ti4e desire or demands must -e su-ordinated to a nationa. interest2 3he Eren)h Re4o.ution has &erha&s -een the &aradi(mati) e5am&.e o! a m+tho.o(i)a. rea.it+ that &ro%e)ted a &otentia. !uture -ased on an ur(ent ho&e !or eDua.it+ and .i-ert+2 ,e+ond the !orma.isation o! &o.iti)a. &rin/ )i&.es and stru)tures0 the tru.+ intri(uin( &oint a-out the Eren)h Re4o.ution is not so mu)h 1hat kind o! !uture it headed !or -ut that it has -een )onstru)ted -+ man+ )ommentators in terms o! a m+th o! identit+ and o! ori(in2<= :in)e this de)isi4e -reak 1ith the &rin)i&.es o! the ancien r4gime0 modern &o.iti)a. so)ieties ha4e -een )on!ronted -+ the )ha..en(e o! esta-.ishin( )onstituti4e &rin)i&.es2 Com&arin( as&e)ts o! m+th in the ori(ins o! Western )i4i.isation0 EranI ,orkenau &ostu.ated t1o &atterns o! m+th/makin(2 Eirst0 he ar(ued that m+th arose 1here &rimiti4es 1ere &ushed out o! the time.essness o! eterna. re&etition -+ a uniDue histori) ha&&enin(0 a )onseDuentia. -reak 1ith tradition and a &ro!ound sho)k to an esta-.ished order2 It does not arise 1here &rimiti4e )ommunities -e)ome mere &assi4e o-%e)ts o! inte/ (ration in the hi(h )u.ture0 -ut 1here &rimiti4es in4ade a de)a+in( hi(h )u.ture as )onDuerors2 M+th -e.on(s to the t+&e Oindire)t a!!i.iation;R it emer(es 1here a Odark a(e; inter4enes -et1een the o.der and the +oun(er )u.ture0 i2e2 -et1een that o! antiDuit+ and that o! the risin( 1estern 'uro&e2<" In the ear.+ Midd.e A(es the most im&ortant m+th/&rodu)tion ha&&ened neither amon( the &rimiti4es nor in the domain o! the o.d hi(h )u.ture -ut at the )rossroads o! the )onta)t o! t1o )ontrastin( !orms o! .i!e0 in the -order Ione2 << I! some ana.o(+ 1ith eastern 'uro&e is ).aimed0 it is -+ no means to su((est that this re(ion shou.d -e )onsidered as a .ess de4e.o&ed !orm o! &o.iti)a. )u.ture2 It is rather to su((est that ke+ a)tors ma+ a-ide -+ the se)ond rea.it+ as the+ are dra1n -+ the su&eriorit+ o! an a)kno1.ed(ed hi(h )u.ture and the sear)h !or re)o(nition2 3he se.!/ sustained &er)e&tion o! -e.ated domesti) de4e.o&ment )om-ined 1ith the stren(th o! the m+thi) )on)e&t o! Othe West; sha&ed the thou(ht o! O3hird Wor.d; re4o.utionaries su)h as :un Yat/:en or Lenin2 <?
<= <"
<<
<?
:ee Eran)Kois Euret0 Interpreting the 'rench #evolution 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">A"72 EranI ,orkenau0 "nd and 8eginning! /n the 1enerations o$ Cultures and the /rigins o$ the 0est0 ed2 and intro2 Ri)hard Loe1entha. 6Me1 YorkP Co.um-ia 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">A"70 <=B2 In the )ase o! the West0 this 1as a.on( the *anu-e and the Rhine0 1hi.e in southern 'uro&e the intensi4e Hermanisation turned Lom-ard+ and Eriau. into O-ar-ari) terri/ tor+; and thus into a main !o)us o! m+th/!ormationR see ,orkenau0 "nd and 8eginning0 <=C2 *a4id Jora4sk+0 OCommunism in Histori)a. 8ers&e)ti4e;0 American 2istorical #eview0 >>0 ? 6">>470A@"2
<@<
Re4o.utionar+ )ommunism in Russia 1as not &rimari.+ a &rodu)t o! Mar5;s uto&ia0 -ut distin)ti4e.+ en(a(ed 1ith ima(es o! 'uro&ean modernit+2 In an e)onomi)a..+ -a)k1ard so)iet+0 the state;s strate(+ o! de4e.o&ment em-ra)ed the idea o! &ro(ress and modernisation -+ a)kno1.ed(in( that 'uro&e 1as su&erior te)hni)a..+ and e)onomi)a..+2 3hus0 )ommunism emanated not on.+ !rom domesti) re4o.utionar+ desires -ut a.so !rom a .on(standin( en(a(ement 1ith the West0 1hi)h entered the )ons)iousness o! :o4iet and o! east 'uro&ean )itiIens as a )u.tura..+ im&erati4e em&ire o! the mind2 Rather than eman)i&atin( the indi4idua.0 ho1e4er0 )ommunism side.ined indi4idua. res&onsi-i.it+ and e.e4ated the )o..e)ti4e to the status o! the rea. mora. su-%e)t2 It im&osed -e.ie! in a histori)a. (oa. o! )ommunist so)iet+ emer(in( !rom a &ro(res/ si4e &attern o! &hases o! histor+2 3he &s+)ho.o(i)a. a&&ea. o! the OWest; as a se)ond rea.it+0 ho1e4er0 must not -e mistaken !or a determinate ideo.o(i)a. -e.ie!/s+stem2 8rior to the ,o.she4ik e5&eriment0 tsarist authorit+ &resented itse.! as O'uro&ean;2 It )redited itse.! 1ith the se)u.arisation o! the Russian state throu(h the introdu)tion o! .e(a. and administrati4e re!orms -ased on 'uro&ean mode.s2 :imi.ar.+0 the Russian inte..i(entsia 1as under the s&e.. o! 1hat 1as &er)ei4ed as the su&erior )i4i.isation o! the West2 ,e.ated e!!orts at modernisation in4oked the need !or the ma(i) o! O&ro).aimed rea.it+; in order to di4ert !rom Oe5istin( rea.it+;2 In Russia0 one thinks o! ho1 Hri(ori 8otemkin in "CAC de)orated the route o! the 8o.ish kin( and the Austrian em&eror 1ith !ake &ros&erous and 1e../o!! 4i..a(es2<4 Eor the idea o! &ro(ress to materia.ise0 re4o.utionaries 1ere o-.i(ed to -reak 1ith a.. &re4ious e5&erien)e and to o&en the horiIon o! e5&e)tation as a se)ond rea.it+2 3he (ro1in( (a& -et1een s&a)es o! e5&erien)es and horiIons o! e5&e)tations )an -e seen as a )entra. !eature o! modernit+2 <@ '5&erien)e and e5&e)tation are not sim&.+ mirrorin( &ast and !uture2 'a)h )ate(or+ is o! a di!!erent su-stan)e0 as e5&erien)e is )on)entrated0 1hi.e e5&e)tations are s)attered0 un)ertain2 Moreo4er0 in &o.iti)s0 &rior e5&erien)e is not sim&.+ trans.ated into e5&e)tations2 3he )ru)ia. &oint is that &o.iti)a. )han(e -ased on mo-i.isation o! &o1er and te)hno.o(+ is dri4en -+ the disso.ution o! !ormer e5&erien)e and meanin(s0 and is -ased on inse)urit+ and the !ormu.ation o! ne1 e5&e)tations2 ,i( e4ents su)h as the Crusades0 )o.onia. e5&ansion0 and the Re!ormation / -ut a.so the Eren)h Re4o.ution / testi!+ to the dis)re&an)+ -et1een s&a)es o!
Ce)i.e Vaissie0 Pour votre li3ert4 et pour la notre( %e com3at des dissidents de #ussie 68arisP Ro-ert La!!ont0 ">>>70 A>2 Reinhart Fose..e)k0 'utures Past! /n the Semantics o$ 2istorical Time 6Cam-rid(e0 MAP MI3 8ress0 ">A@70 <C=/AA2
<4 <@
<@?
e5&erien)es and ne1.+ dis)o4ered and attaina-.e horiIons o! e5&e)ta/ tions2 Whi.e the Eren)h Re4o.ution 1as &re)eded -+ en.i(htened as&ira/ tions !or human eman)i&ation0 it 1as the disru&ti4e e5&erien)e o! the e4ent that o&ened u& ne1 horiIons o! e5&e)tation that 1ere either dis/ )redited or sim&.+ ine5&ressi-.e -e!ore it2 In the &o.iti)a. rea.m0 Fant in4entedOre&u-.i)anism; toe5&ressthe ur(entneedo!humanit+toarri4e at the -est &ossi-.e state o! &o.iti)a. or(anisation2 As a )on)e&t o! mo4ement0 Ore&u-.i)anism; did !or &o.iti)a. a)tion 1hat O&ro(ress; &romised to do !or the 1ho.e o! histor+2 Whi.e Ore&u-.i); -e!ore the Eren)h Re4o.ution indi/ )ated a &o.iti)a. )ondition0 Ore&u-.i)anism; assumed a te.eo.o(i)a. Dua.it+ o! e5&e)tation0 a h+&otheti)a. !uture &o.iti)a. rea.it+ to -e anti)i&ated2 In the t1entieth )entur+0 ho1e4er0 the materia. destru)tion and mora. )atastro&he o! the Eirst Wor.d War -rou(ht a-out dee& disi..usionment 1ith te)hno.o(i)a. &ro1ess and re&u-.i)an !orms o! demo)ra)+2 3he Herman )ase sho1s ho1 se)ond rea.it+ )ou.d (ain &o.iti)a. as)enden)+ 1ith a return to m+tho.o(i)a. re&resentations o! the &ast0 e4en in o&en anta(onism to the dominant materia.ist and te)hno.o(i)a. s&irit o! the times2 *urin( the !irst ha.! o! the t1entieth )entur+0 the en)ounter o! rationa.it+/dri4en0 &ro(ress/oriented s)ien)e and m+tho.o(+/dri4en0 -a)k1ard/oriented &o.iti)s rea)hed an e5treme2 <B 3he m+tho.o(isation o! s)ienti!i) terms and their a&&.i)ation to a &o.iti)a. &ro%e)t tin(ed 1ith 1or.d/immanent es)hato.o(+ 1as )ru)ia. to ho1 the MaIis a&&.ied the term Ora)e; to &o.iti)s2 3he use o! -io.o(i)a. terms su)h as Ora)e; in a .ar(e.+ m+thi)a. and ma(i)a. sense is one im&ortant e5am&.e o! ho1 s)ienti!i) a&&roa)hes to nature )an -e su-%e)t to a ma(i)a./m+thi)a. &ers&e)ti4e on so)iet+ and ho1 s)ienti!i) terms )an -e trans!ormed into m+thi)a. terms in a di!!erent )onte5t2 <C Modern man has o4er)ome -e.ie!s in natura. ma(i) -ut has -+ no means (i4en u& the -e.ie! in a sort o! Oso)ia. ma(i);2<A :o)ia. ma(i) must not -e redu)ed to irrationa.it+0 ho1e4er0 -ut mani!ests a rationa.it+ o! its o1n0 as it is the -a)k(round )ondition !or mo-i.isin( -e.ie!s and esta-.ishin( authorit+2 :u)h an in!.u/ en)e must not -e )on!ined to the )onso.idation o! tota.itarian mo4ements in the !irst ha.! o! the t1entieth )entur+2 3he rise o! demo)rati) &o.iti)s in nineteenth/)entur+ ,ritain0 !or instan)e0 1as ti(ht.+ .inked to the )om/ &e..in( ma(netism o! dema(o(ues in their &ursuit o! &o1er2 <> '4en in modern )onditions0 so)ia. ma(i) remains &otentia..+ stron(0 -e)ause in
Cassirer0 The yth o$ the State2 Mor-ert '.ias0 The 1ermans! Power Struggles and the Development o$ 2a3itus in the ;ineteenth and Twentieth Centuries0 trans2 !rom the Herman and 1ith a &re!a)e -+ 'ri) *unnin( and :te&hen Menne.. 6Cam-rid(eP 8o.it+ 8ress0 ">>B70 ?A>/>=2 <A Cassirer0 The yth o$ the State0 <C>/A@2 <> 8eter Ha+0 The Cultivation o$ 2atred 6Me1 York and LondonP W2W2 Morton0 ">>?70 <A?2
<B <C
<@4
des&erate situations man 1i.. a.1a+s ha4e re)ourse to des&erate means2 I! reason has !ai.ed us0 there remains a.1a+s the ultima ratio0 the &o1er o! the mira)u.ous and m+sterious2 ,e.ie!s in so)ia. ma(i) are mani!est in the admiration !or O(reat )rimi/ na.s;0 1hi)h does not resu.t so mu)h !rom their re&e..ent a)tions0 -ut rather !rom the 4io.en)e to 1hi)h it -ears 1itness2 A)ts o! 4io.en)e and )rimes a)Duire heroi) or meritorious e!!e)ts 1ith ha&&+ and -ene!i)ia. )onseDuen)es !or !e..o1/)itiIens -e)ause )itiIens )onse)rate as (reat men those 1ho .i-erate a )ommunit+ o! its enemies -+ 4io.en)e2 ?= A.thou(h di)tators in tota.itarian states are amon( the most des&ised (reat )rimi/ na.s o! re)orded histor+0 .eaders su)h as Lenin and :ta.in0 -ut a.so Hit.er and Mi.o_e4i)G e5erted a )onsidera-.e s&e.. on the &u-.i) and the .eader/ shi& in demo)rati) so)ieties2 ?" Hit.er 1as a O1it)h do)tor; or Oshaman; 1ho ru.ed the Hermans not on.+ -+ e5terna. )onstraint -ut -e)ause their emotiona. atta)hment to him ser4ed as a de!en)e me)hanism a(ainst their &o1er.essness -e!ore e4ents2?< In a di!!erent -ut Duite re.ated !ashion0 :ta.in;s re4o.ution 1as not on.+ -ased on materia. and e)onomi) en(ineerin(2 :o)ia. rea.ism in the ">?=s 1as .ar(e.+ -ased on the messiani) idea o! en(ineerin( sou.s0 1hi)h es&oused the e5treme.+ su((esti4e and &o1er!u. &otentia.it+ o! in)i&ient mass &ro&a(anda -+ :o4iet )inema in the ">?=s2 Ei.ms 1ere not su&/ &osed to sho1 ho1 .i!e rea..+ is -ut ho1 it shou.d -e2 Ima(es 1ere hi(h.+ standardised as &.ots in).uded three &aradi(mati) t+&es o! &ersona.it+P the ,o.she4ik &art+ !un)tionar+0 )om&.ete.+ dedi)ated to his )auseR the :o4iet 1orker tr+in( to !u.!i. or o4er!u.!i. the a)hie4ements &ro&osed -+ the &.anR and the enem+ 1ho 1ants to sa-ota(e the 1orkin( &ro)ess2 As Mar5ist/Leninist dis)ourse )ou.d ).aim to make sense on.+ -+ retreatin( into the m+thi) dimension o! .an(ua(e0 the &ronoun)ed e.ement o! Oma(i); a&&eared in :o4iet &ar.an)e0 attri-utin( e5)e&tiona. heroi) )a&a)it+ to :o4iet .eaders2 3hus0 .eadin( :o4iet and Russian &o.iti)ians made !re/ Duent re)ourse to ma(i)a. 1ords so as to )onstru)t their )ommunit+ and the
?=
?" A!ter
?<
Heor(es :ore.0 #e$lections on >iolence 6Me1 York and LondonP Co..ier ,ooks0 ">BC70 @A2 the Muni)h A))ord o! :e&tem-er ">?A0 Hit.er;s internationa. re&utation 1as at its hei(ht2 Roose4e.t;s a&&re)iation o! :ta.in 1as -ased on the assum&tion that :ta.in;s di!!i)u.t Dua.ities / his a.oo!ness0 sus&i)iousness0 1ariness0 and disin).ination !or )o..a-/ oration 1ith others / )ou.d -e o4er)ome -+ makin( him a)ti4e.+ &arti)i&ate in the )reation o! a ne1 &ost/1ar 'uro&eR see Heor(e E2 Fennan and John Luka)s0 1eorge '( Fennan and the /rigins o$ Containment *+@@-*+@-! The Fennan-%ukacs Correspondence 6Co.um-iaP 9ni4ersit+ o! Missouri 8ress0 ">>C70 ??2 In ">>@0 :.o-odan Mi.o_e4i)G 1as sti.. a&&re)iated -+ internationa. mediators a.most 1ithout e5)e&tion as inte..i(ent and 1itt+R see Laura :i.-er and A.an Litt.e0 The Death o$ Pugoslavia0 re4ised edn 6LondonP 8en(uin ,ooks0 ">>B70 ?AB2 '.ias0 The 1ermans0 ?AC/>2
<@@
outsiders2 One )an see a -asi) eDui4a.en)e -et1een0 sa+0 Leonid ,reIhne4;s O&.ans o! the Communist 8art+; and Hor-a)he4;s Othe )onstitution;0 and -et1een either o! the !ore(oin( and ,oris Ye.tsin;s Ore!orm;2 'a)h o! these terms has ser4ed Oto dra1 a ma(i) )ir).e around the .eader and his su&&ort/ ers0 to de!ine that (rou& as a )ommunit+ o! the ri(hteous0 and to de).are others un1orth+ o! mem-ershi& in it0 e5)isin( and e5)ommuni)atin( them in the &ro)ess;2?? Second reality and identity-$ormation 3he 4i)tor+ o! demo)ra)+ in !ormer )ommunist )ountries has o!ten -een asso)iated 1ith the sheer &o1er o! Western 4a.ues and the e!!i/ )ien)+ o! demo)rati) institutions2 3hou(h it ma+ sound &.ausi-.e0 ho1/ e4er0 the idea.isation o! demo)ra)+ shou.d not -e )on!used 1ith a de.i-erate Orationa.; )hoi)e -ased on sta-.e indi4idua. &re!eren)es !or a 1e../arti)u.ated mode. o! O.i-era. demo)ra)+;2 3he identi!i)ation 1ith demo)ra)+ )annot -e )on!ined to the &s+)ho.o(i)a. attra)tion o! one entit+ 6the'ast7toasu&erim&osedmode.6theWest72Rather0itneedsto-ere.ated to the meanin(/!ormation in the situationa. .o(i) o! a)tion2 *eta)hment !rom norma. -eha4iour in a so)ia. en4ironment has -een a .on(/term &ra)ti)e in human so)ieties0 1here the &otentia. o! a di!!erent rea.it+ is !urthered -+ attem&ts to a)Duire ro.e distan)e2 An+ stron(.+ )oer)i4e sit/ uation 1i.. &rodu)e a &henomenon )a..ed Oro.e distan)e;0 or Oe)stas+;2 ?4 3he e5isten)e o! a s&here o! 1e.!are0 &ea)e0 and .i-ert+ -ehind the Iron Curtain 1ou.d &ro4ide a mode. o! identi!i)ation !or &eo&.e in eastern 'uro&e2 Consistent 1ith mimeti) theor+0 ho1e4er0 the desire !or identi/ !i)ation is not determined -+ a &re/e5istin( outside mode.R rather0 this desire )reates mode.s2 3he demo)rati) a(e o! the masses at the -e(innin( o! the t1entieth )entur+ had the &ositi4e e!!e)t o! endo1in( 'uro&e 1ith an un&re)edented 4ita.it+0 main.+ -ased on the rise o! eDua.it+ in di!!erent as&e)ts o! so)ia.0 &o.iti)a.0 and %uridi)a. .i!e2 3his OAmeri)anisation o! 'uro&e; ha&&ened as a su-)ons)ious &ro)ess o! imitation and risin( &s+)ho.o(i)a. a&&ea.2?@ As 3o)Due4i..e had a.read+ re)o(nised0 the )on/ !.i)t -et1een ri)h and &oor re4ea.s that so)ia. distan)e intensi!ies the .on(in( !or identi!i)ation and re)o(nition2 O3he heart o! man is not so
??
?4 ?@
Mi)hae. 9r-an0 O:ta(es o! 8o.iti)a. Identit+ Eormation in Late :o4iet and 8ost/:o4iet Russia;0 in Vi)toria '2 ,onne..0 ed20 Identities in Transition! "astern "urope and #ussia A$ter the Collapse o$ Communism 6,erke.e+P 9ni4ersit+ o! Ca.i!ornia at ,erke.e+0 Center !or :.a4i) and 'ast 'uro&ean :tudies0 ">>B70 "4A2 8eter L2 ,er(er0 Invitation to Sociology! A 2umanistic Perspective 6Me1 York and LondonP 8en(uin ,ooks0 ">>"70 "@B/B=2 JosV Orte(a + Hasset0 %a re3eliMn de las masas 6MadridP Casta.ia0 ">>A70 "4</42
<@B
mu)h )au(ht -+ the undistur-ed &ossession o! an+thin( 4a.ua-.e as -+ the desire0 as +et im&er!e)t.+ satis!ied0 o! &ossessin( it0 and -+ the in)essant dread o! .osin( it - - - In )ommunities o! this kind0 the ima(ination o! the &oor is dri4en to seek another 1or.dR the desire o! a)Duirin( the )om!orts o! the 1or.d haunts the ima(ination o! the &oor and the dread o! .osin( them that o! the ri)h2;?B Co..e)ti4e identities must -e )on)ei4ed in a triadi) stru)ture0 1here -et1een inside and outside .ies the -oundar+0 -et1een .e!t and ri(ht is the )entre0 -et1een &ast and !uture is the &resent2 ?C Modern nation/states &rodu)ed an inherent dou-.e -ind as the+ asked their )itiIens to !o..o1 a t1o!o.d )ode o! norms0 di4ided into the mora. )ode o! e(a.itarianism 1ith the human indi4idua. as the hi(hest 4a.ue and the ine(a.itarian Ma)hia4e..ian )ode o! &rin)es0 1hi)h sets the nation and the state as the hi(hest 4a.ue2?A *i!!erent )ommunities su)h as Croats or :er-s !e.t in)reasin(.+ atta)hed to and re&resented -+ the )ate(or+ Onation;0 a se)ond rea.it+ that -e)ame a.most the so.e )ontent o! their identit+ as o&&osed to the se)ond rea.it+ -ui.t u& -+ the anta(onist2 In the Croatian/:er-ian )on!.i)t0 nationa.isin( states su)h as Croatia 1ere &er/ )ei4ed as e5istentia. threats -+ the :er-ian nationa. minorit+ on Croatian territor+2 3heir su&&ort -+ :er-ia as the e5terna. home.and0 ho1e4er0 rein!or)ed Croatia;s &er)e&tion o! nationa.ist a((ression and )ontri-uted to the out-reak o! the 1ar2 ?> :imi.ar.+0 )ommunist .eaders 1ere in a )onstant tension -et1een the !ear o! 4i)timisation as e5&erien)ed in their &ersona. histor+ and the uto&ian (oa. o! a-o.ishin( the state and uni4ersa.isin( )ommunism2 *i!!erent re(imes in )entra. 'uro&e )rossed the thresho.d o! modern times amidst ne1.+ de4e.o&in( Oeast 'uro&ean; )onditions0 -ut 1ith de!e)ti4e OWestern/.ike; stru)tures2 'ast )entra. 'uro&e 1as a re(ion that .a+ -et1een those t1o mode.s2 4= 8re)ise.+ -e)ause o! that dua.it+0 the im&eria. (ro1th o! Russia and the !ormation o! the modern state in the West &rodu)ed in this midd.e re(ion a num-er o! 4ariant mode.s instead o! one uni!ied one0 as i! a.. the &ermutations and &ossi-.e )om-inations 1ere -ein( e5&erimented 1ith2
?B ?C ?A ?> 4=
A.e5is de 3o)Due4i..e0 Democracy in America! The Complete and :na3ridged0 < 4o.s20 trans2 Henr+ Ree4e 6Me1 YorkP ,antam C.assi)0 <===70 B@?/42 :hmue. M2 'isenstadt and ,ernhard Hiesen0 O3he Constru)tion o! Co..e)ti4e Identit+;0 "uropean Gournal o$ Sociology0 ?B 6">>@70 C</"=<2 '.ias0 The 1ermans0 "@4/B2 Ro(ers ,ru-aker0 ;ationalism #e$ramed 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>B72 Jeno :Iu)s0 O3hree Histori)a. Re(ions o! 'uro&e;0 in John Feane0 ed20 Civil Society and the State 6LondonP Verso0 ">AA70 ?<<2
<@C
A.thou(h a dominant 4ersion o! modernisation theor+ has &ortra+ed the su))ess o! demo)ra)+ in &ost/)ommunist 'uro&e as the 4i)tor+ o! Western .i-era. )a&ita.ism0 the in!.uen)e o! Western ideas in Russia0 !or instan)e0 1as rather am-i4a.ent2 I! the *e)em-rist mo4ement a!ter "A"< is )onsidered to -e the )arrier o! .i-era. and Odemo)rati); ideas0 it 1as .ar(e.+ ins&ired -+ a redis)o4er+ o! tru.+ Russian 4a.ues and -e.ie!s2 3he aristo/ )rati) e.ite in the mi.itar+ re).aimed the rene1a. o! Russian nationhood -+ &artia. re%e)tion o! the a)hie4ements o! 'uro&ean Russia as re&resented -+ auto)rati) tsarism and the :t 8eters-ur( )ourt2 4" 8arado5i)a. as it ma+ a&&ear0 :i-eria / 1ith the +outh!u. ener(+ o! its un-rid.ed &easants / 1as seen as the .and o! demo)rati) ho&e and &otentia.2 3he )onditions o! iso.ation0 &o4ert+0 and ).austro&ho-ia under :o4iet )ommunism )ou.d not -ut intensi!+ the s&e.. o! the West or 'uro&e as se)ond rea.it+2 'ast 'uro&eans and Russians sa1 themse.4es in)reasin(.+ in the )ate(ories o! eDua.s 1ith the West due to the -e.ie! that the West 1ou.d -e the !uture -oth in terms o! )ommodities and in terms o! .i-ert+2 A!ter the :e)ond Wor.d War0 8o.ish inte..e)tua.s 1ere thro1n into a dou-.e -ind -et1een a !ee.in( o! -ein( Russia;s 4i)tim and their unre/ Duited .o4e !or the West24< ,a.ti) )ountries su)h as Lithuania0 !or instan)e0 seem a.so to ha4e t1o re.e4ant Others0 :o4iet Russia and the West24? :imi.ar.+0 Centra. 'uro&eans .earnt to re!use the &ost/tota.itarian )ondition -+ tr+in( to em-ra)e a distant Oe.se1here; rea.it+2 44 3he )hroni/ )a..+ o4er-urdened net1ork o! horiIonta. sur4ei..an)e ena)ted under )ommunist ru.e o&ened u& &o)kets o! !reedom and s&heres o! rea.it+ that a..o1ed s&a)es o! &ara..e. so)ieties0 se)ond e)onomies0 or se)ond &o.ities24@ *es&ite the de.i-erate distortion o! rea.it+0 the atta)k on human di(nit+0 and the !a.si!i)ation o! histor+0 so)ia. &ressure under )ommunism &rodu)ed a ne1 t+&e o! )ounter/s+m-o.isation0 as )ommun/ ist authorities re)o(nised that the+ needed to .ea4e )ertain out.ets !or the &o&u.ation in order to attenuate the dra1n/out .e(itima)+ )risis2 3he &o1er o! the authorities re.ied u&on the desire o! the (o4erned to .ea4e the so)ia. )ommunit+ tem&orari.+0 and u&on the &rin)i&.e o! doin( nothin( that 1ou.d )ountera)t the !u.!i.ment o! this desire2
4" 4< 4? 44 4@
Or.ando Ei(es0 ;atashas Dance! A Cultural 2istory o$ #ussia 6LondonP 8en(uin ,ooks0 <==?70C</"4B2 CIesLa1 MiLosI0 Cniewolony umysH 6Frako1P Fra%o1a A(en)%a W+da1ni)Ia0 ">A>70 BB2 Ro(er *2 8etersen0 #esistance and #e3ellion! %essons $rom "astern "urope 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <=="70 <AB/C2 Mi.an Fundera0 %i$e Is "lsewhere0 trans2 !rom the CIe)h -+ 8eter Fussi 6Me1 York and LondonP 8en(uin ,ooks0 ">AB70 "CB2 Hordon :ki..in(0 Sami)dat and an Independent Society in Central and "astern "urope 6Co.um-usP Ohio :tate 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">A>70 "@C/<"A2
<@A
Cu.tura. re&resentations -et1een 'ast and West re!.e)ted the &o1er o! se)ond rea.ities -+ esta-.ishin( t1o dominant &aradi(ms2 4B When the )ommunist re(imes took &o1er0 the+ dismant.ed esta-.ished institutions0 so)ia. net1orks0 identities0 di(nit+0 and se.!/esteem0 de4e.o&in( the O&ara/ di(m o! the &risoner;2 Eor 'asterners0 Western !reedom and &ros&erit+ 1as not on.+ a (oa. to emu.ate -ut a.so in4in)i-.e &roo! that .i!e 1as 1orth .i4in(2 *es&ite the o&&ression and humi.iatin( )om&romises0 their .i!e 1as not de4oid o! 4a.ue and meanin(2 At the same time0 the e5isten)e o! )ommunism he.&ed &eo&.e .i4in( in the West to de4e.o& the O&aradi(m o! the missionar+;2 3he !ate o! the O&risoners; -ehind the Iron Curtain 1as an indis&ensa-.e sour)e o! meanin( !or Western identit+0 rein!or)in( its missionar+ Iea. to1ards the 'ast2 'astern 'uro&e;s desire to -e)ome the West;s or 'uro&e;s eDua. has &erha&s -een the most &er4asi4e0 a.-eit most 4a(ue0 rea.m o! se)ond rea.it+2 At -ottom0 the dee& disi..usionment 1ith re4o.utionar+ messianism 1as re&.a)ed -+ a &er4asi4e &er)e&tion o! a di!!erent h+&otheti)a. idea. 1or.d that ke&t a.i4e a dou-.e ima(ination in 1hi)h the !uture 1as ima(ined in terms o! &aradise2 4C In the ear.+ ">C=s0 the short/term in!.u5 o! Western (oods and the &ossi-i.it+ o! !ree tra4e. to the West in 8o.and;s e)onomi) mira).e in the mid/">C=s )reated a mira(e o! a Ose)ond 8o.and; that tem&orari.+ mar(ina.ised o&&osition mo4e/ ments2 Ho1e4er0 the Ose)ond so)iet+; !ai.ed to de4e.o& into an autono/ mous s&here o! so)ia. e5isten)e0 as it remained essentia..+ indeterminate0 -.urred0 an in/-et1een o! un!u.!i..ed and de)ei4ed -e.ie!s and desires2 OIt 1as a no/man;s .and0 1here the (o4ernin( &rin)i&.es and the ru.es o! &.a+ o! the !irst so)iet+ did not 1ork0 -ut the &rin)i&.es and ru.es o! a di!!erent t+&e o! so)ia. e5isten)e had hard.+ emer(ed2;4A 3he &o&u.ar re&resentation o! )ommunist &o1er as the enem+ o! the &eo&.e 1as rein!or)ed -+ ima(es o! a.ternati4e rea.ities su)h as the West2 3he West 1as admired !or its su&eriorit+ -ut a.so e5&e)ted to re)o(nise the dissidents; e!!ort o! se.!/e5tri)ation2 As a )onseDuen)e0 &eo&.e in the 'ast did not &ursue ).ear/)ut mode.s or institutiona.ised .o(i)s -ut 1anted to -e.on( to the OWest;0 the rea.it+ that 1as most 1ithhe.d -ut most ardent.+ desired2 O8eo&.e +earned !or Western &o.iti)a. institutions0 a Western standard o! .i4in(0 Western !reedom --- -ut not !or )a&ita.ism2;4> 3he West a&&eared to -e a set o! haI+ ima(es rather than a rationa..+
4B 4C 4A 4>
'.emer Hankiss0 O'uro&ean 8aradi(msP 'ast and West0 ">4@/">>4;0 Daedalus0 "<?0 ? 6">>470""@/<B2 Jose! :k4ore)k+0 Talkin oscow 8lues 6London and ,ostonP Ea-er and Ea-er0 ">AA70 "?B/A2 Hankiss0 O'ast 'uro&ean A.ternati4es;0 "=C/A2 JerI+ :Ia)ki0 %i3eralism A$ter Communism 6,uda&estP Centra. 'uro&ean 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>@70"<=2
<@>
)onstru)ted &o.i)+ dire)ted at out)omes2 3erms su)h Omarket;0 Odemo)/ ra)+;0 O)a&ita.ism;0 and O'uro&e; 1ere )hara)terised -+ the disso.ution o! an+ &ossi-.e su-stanti4e or semanti) meanin( and tin(ed 1ith an e5&.o/ si4e mi5 o! es)hato.o(i)a. ho&e and 4a(ueness2 As Adam Mi)hnik &ut itP OI think that 1e kno1 &re)ise.+ 1hat 1e do not 1ant0 -ut none o! us kno1s &re)ise.+ 1hat 1e do 1ant2 3here is no .an(ua(e 1hi)h )ou.d )orre)t.+ des)ri-e our as&irations - - - 3he 4a.ues 1hose &resen)e 1e sense intuiti4e.+ / and to 1hi)h 1e 1ant to -e !aith!u. / are 4a.ues e5istin( at the meetin( &oint o! di!!erent s&heres o! our human )ondition0 and hen)e the .an(ua(e in 1hi)h the+ )ou.d -e des)ri-ed )annot -e interna..+ homo(eneous2 Hen)e 1e are .ookin( !or another .an(ua(e that 1ou.d &in&oint the ine5&ressi-.e2;@= 3he &o.iti)a. ener(ies de&.o+ed in the enter&rise o! demo)ratisation -e!ore ">A> or in %oinin( the 'uro&ean 9nion in eastern 'uro&e 1ere dri4en -+ a )o..e)ti4e ima(ination0 in).udin( uto&ian e5&e)tations and Othou(ht!u. 1ishin(; a-out 1hat .ies ahead2 @" Whi.e di!!erent mo4ements o! dissiden)e in 'uro&e (rounded su-%e)ti4it+ in )ommunit+ e5&erien)es intent on re)o4erin( .i!e in truth0 the s&irit o! the nation0 or human di(nit+0 se)ond rea.ities 1ere in!.uentia. markers o! )ertaint+2 3he e4o.u/ tion o! su-%e)ti4it+ took di!!erent sha&es0 o!ten in!.uen)ed -+ romanti) m+ths0 -ut a.so -+ 4i)timisation and )o..e)ti4e !ear2 Man+ o! these &ro/ )esses &rodu)ed &o1er!u. se)ond rea.ities de&endent on traumati) e5&e/ rien)es in the &ast and )u.tura. memor+2 Eor Adam Mi)hnik0 !or instan)e0 his 8o.ishness and the identi!i)ation 1ith the 8o.ish nation0 i2e2 1ith the 1eak0 -eaten0 and humi.iated0 1as the )ore o! his identit+2 @< In sma.. )ountries su)h as Lat4ia0 nationa. sur4i4a. 1as stron(.+ re.ated to an e5istentia. !ear o! a su-stantia. Russian minorit+2 A!ter ">>=0 the need !or se.!/a!!irmation made the (o4ernment o&t !or an ethni) rather than a re&u-.i)an de!inition o! )itiIenshi&0 -ased on &ro!i)ien)+ in the Lat4ian .an(ua(e2@? Another t+&e o! ima(ination 1as at &.a+ in Yu(os.a4ia2 3he out-reak o! 1ar -et1een :er-ia and Croatia o1ed a (reat dea. to &er)e&tions o! e5istentia. threat (enerated in a media 1ar throu(hout the ">A=s0 1here
@= @" @< @?
Adam Mi)hnik0 Polskie pytania 68arisP NesI+t+ Litera)kie0 ">AC70 4</4 6m+ trans.ation72 Lauren)e Whitehead0 Democratisation! Theory and "xperience 6O5!ordP O5!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <==<70 <?>2 Adam Mi)hnik0 Dia3eH nas)ego c)asu2 Pu3licystyka ) lat *+6<-*++@ 6Warsa1P MieIa.eYna o!i)+na 1+da1ni)Ia0 ">>@70 ?>?2 Mi.s MuiInieks0 OLat4iaP Ori(ins0 '4o.ution0 and 3rium&h;0 in Ian ,renner and Ra+ 3aras0 eds20 ;ations and Politics in the Soviet Successor States 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>?70 "A<2
<B=
inte..e)tua.s and &u-.i) dis)ourse en(a(ed in the so)ia. )onstru)tion o! ima(inar+ enemies2@4 'mir Fusturi)a;s !i.m e&i) O9nder(round; )a&/ tured ho1 in the &er)e&tions o! Yu(os.a4s the :e)ond Wor.d War had not ended and ho1 the &otentia. o! -ein( threatened e5istentia..+ -+ ethni) enemies &re!i(ured the 1ars in the ear.+ ">>=s2 3his !i.m has as its &rota(onists t1o :er-ian !riends 1ho !i(ht the Herman o))u&ation !rom their -ase in an under(round -unker in to1n2 One o! the t1o !riends .ea4es their hideout and rea.ises that the 1ar has ended2 Ho1e4er0 he kee&s on su((estin( to the other one / 1ho remained in the -unker 1ith a -un)h o! &artisans / that the 1ar has not +et !inished2 Eor t1o de)ades or so0 this (rou& o! anti/!as)ist !i(hters !or the !reedom o! Yu(os.a4ia kee&s adherin( to the i..usion o! .i4in( in 1ar/.ike )onditions2 :ettin( the 1ar e5&erien)es o! the ear.+ ">>=s in Croatia and ,osnia in the 1ider &er/ s&e)ti4e o! Yu(os.a4ia;s histor+ in the t1entieth )entur+0 Fusturi)a;s !i.m is a &o1er!u. a..e(or+ a-out ho1 the )onso.idation o! Yu(os.a4 )ommu/ nism re.ied u&on the se)ond rea.it+ o! en)ir).ement -+ enemies2 3he deta)hment !rom se)ond rea.it+ under )ommunism sho1s t1o di4er(ent trends2@@ 3he Hreat Eather.and War had !eatures o! a nationa. re4o.ution as !ar as it reinitiated the !o)us on the im&eria. .e(a)+ and !urther .ed to a retraditiona.isation and &ra(matism0 )ausin( the ).osure o! its histori)a. horiIon2 3he domesti) ).osure )oin)ided 1ith in)reasin( e5&osure a-road0 as the (.o-a. )om&etition demanded more )om&.e5 and inno4ati4e strate(ies in a &eriod 1hen sta(nation and interna. )ontra/ di)tions in the &o1er stru)ture intensi!ied2 Rather than an o-%e)ti4e !or)e o! &o.iti)a. e4o.ution0 retraditiona.isation 1as stron(.+ tin(ed 1ith m+tho.o(i)a. )onstru)tions o! rea.it+2 ,oth the &o.iti)a. .eadershi& and a )onsidera-.e &art o! the &o&u.ation 1ere aroused -+ the attra)tion o! )ommodities and the ma(i) o! )a&ita.ism0 1hi)h )ast a s&e.. o4er east 'uro&ean so)ieties2 3he so)ia. di!!usion o! demo)rati) )ons)iousness 3he &o.iti)a. anta(onism in the Co.d War .ar(e.+ )on)ea.ed the !a)t that the non/attaina-i.it+ o! the )ommodities and &o.iti)a. .i-erties o! the West e5erted s+m-o.i) &o1er as a marker o! )ertaint+2 In the .an(ua(e o! so)ia. anthro&o.o(+0 !or su-stantia. &arts o! &eo&.e in the 'ast0 the OWest; 1as
@4 @@
:.a4enka *raku.i)G0 OInte..e)tua.s as ,ad Hu+s;0 "ast "uropean Politics and Societies0 "?0 < 6">>>70<C"/C2 Johan Arnason0 The 'uture that 'ailed! /rigins and Destinies o$ the Soviet odel 6LondonP Rout.ed(e0 ">>?70 <"</"@2
<B"
asso)iated 1ith the sa)redR it 1as seen as a kind o! &aradise0 -ut 1as a.so marked -+ &rohi-ition as it em-odied the O).ass enem+;2 Marked dis&ar/ ities strike the o-ser4er not 1hen )onditions are 4er+ uneDua. -ut rather 1hen e4er+thin( is near.+ on the same .e4e.2 3hus0 the desire !or eDua.it+ tends to -e)ome more insatia-.e in &ro&ortion to the )om&.eteness o! eDua.it+2@B 3o)Due4i..e;s remarks on (ro1in( eDua.it+ )an a.so -e a&&.ied to the ardent Duest o! 'asterners !or -ein( eDua. 1ith the West2 3he return to 'uro&e 1as an)hored in the West;s ro.e as an em&ire o! the mind in the 'astern &er)e&tion0 -ased on (enuine.+ heart!e.t emotions and dee&.+ he.d idea.s2 :e)ond rea.ities 1ere a.so )reated throu(h e5)han(es o! (oods0 throu(h a )ommuni)ati4e and emotiona. en(a(ement 1ith the Western 1or.d2 In terms o! )onsum&tion0 )a&ita.ism renders desire )on/ )rete and s&e)i!i) -+ o!!erin( s&e)i!i) / i! e4er/)han(in( / (oods to satis!+ it2 ,+ )ontrast0 so)ia.ism aroused desire 1ithout !o)a.isin( it0 and ke&t it a.i4e -+ de&ri4ation2@C 3he emer(en)e o! demo)rati) )ons)iousness under )ommunism )an -e seen in the )onte5t o! &rohi-ition and non/)ommuni)ation2 3he intense desire o! O-e)omin( .ike the West; 1as rein!or)ed -+ the )entra. as&e)t o! &rohi-ition0 1hi)h itse.! 1as a dire)t )onseDuen)e o! ideo.o(i)a. and so)ia. )ontro. as 1e.. as o! non/)ommuni)ation2 Reminis)ent o! 'mi.e *urkheim;s distin)tion -et1een the &ro!ane and the sa)red 1or.d0 the t1o 1or.ds are not on.+ di!!erentR the+ are a.so ).osed !or ea)h other2@A 3he &rodu)tion o! an idea. )oin)ides 1ith the de!inition o! the sa)red out o! a moment o! e!!er4es)en)e2 A-o4e the rea. 1or.d o! the &ro!ane there -e)omes su&erim&osed another 1or.d that0 a.thou(h on.+ e5istin( in the mind0 is attri-uted a hi(her di(nit+ and -e)omes an idea. 1or.d2@> 3his )om&.ete Otherness reDuires iso.ation and non/ attaina-i.it+ as the sa)red is )hara)terised -+ an e5traordinar+ )onta(ion2 It shou.d -e stressed that 'ast and West here are not to -e understood as di!!erent (eo(ra&hi)a. &.a)es2 :o4iet )ommunism sa1 itse.! as )om&etin( 1ith the mode. o! Western modernit+ !or su&eriorit+2 A.thou(h Westerners )onsidered east )entra. 'uro&e to -e outside 'uro&e0 8o.es0 CIe)hs0 :.o4aks0 or Hun(arians 1ou.d see themse.4es as -ein( -et1een O'ast; and OWest;2 Ha4in( -een !or)ed to -e)ome &art o! the 'astern -.o) due to un!ortunate histori)a. )ir)umstan)es0 the+ had a stron( desire to -e.on( to and -e re)o(nised -+ the OWest;2
@B @C @A @>
3o)Due4i..e0 Democracy in America0 BB42 Fatherine Verder+0 0hat 0as Socialism and 0hat Comes ;extN 68rin)etonP 8rin)eton 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>B70 <A2 'mi.e *urkheim0 %es $ormes 4l4mentaires de la vie religieuse 68arisP Tuadri(e/89E0 ">>=70 4@?/>2 *urkheim0 %es $ormes 4l4mentaires de la vie religieuse0 B=</?2
<B<
In the *urkheimian tradition0 the re&resentation o! the sa)red does not to.erate &ro!ane thou(hts and makes the anta(onism -et1een sa)red and &ro!ane a &s+)ho.o(i)a. and so)ia. !a)t2 Whi.e demo)ratisation in eastern 'uro&e undou-ted.+ o1es somethin( to the sheer &o1er o! the West as a rea.m o! !reedom0 it 1ou.d -e an o4ersim&.i!i)ation to s&eak a-out the West as a Oso)ia. !a)t;2 It is im&ortant to re)a.. that &ersonhood in )om/ munist so)ieties rested &rimari.+ on their em-eddedness in so)ia. re.a/ tions0 not on their autonom+2 Rea.it+ !or a so)ia.ist O&erson; 1as 4er+ di!!erent !rom the autonomous0 se.!/a)tua.isin(0 &ossessi4e indi4idua. )hara)teristi) o! )a&ita.ism0 as not on.+ so)ia.ist &rodu)tion and &ro&ert+ re.ations -ut a.so a.. !a)ets o! dai.+ .i!e 1ere de&endent on an indi4idua.;s a-i.it+ to mo-i.ise )onta)ts2B= In this 4ein0 dissident a)tion 1as mu)h .ess dri4en -+ a )o..e)ti4e.+ sustained so)ia. !a)t0 -ut rather )om&osed resist/ an)e as indi4idua. a)ts o! de!ian)e 1hi)h 1ere di!!used amon( )itiIens -+ e5am&.e and imitation2 In a 1ide.+ ne(.e)ted -ut re)ent.+ redis)o4ered so)io.o(i)a. tradition0 Ha-rie. 3arde ar(ued that imitation re.ies u&on the )o..e)ti4e s&iritua. dis&osition o! other1ise indi4idua..+ )entred monads2B" In other 1ords0 the s&atia. dis&ersion o! a &u-.i) is )om-ined 1ith s&iritua. &ro5imit+2 As trans!ormations in the domains o! s)ien)e0 .a10 art0 e)onom+0 or &o.iti)s su((est0 trans!ormation o! )ons)iousness )an -e (enerated at s&atia. and tem&ora. distan)e2 An anti/tota.itarian )ons)iousness )annot -e im&osed throu(h a )o./ .e)ti4e entit+ su)h as the state or a O)i4i. so)iet+;0 -ut reDuires s&e)i!i) indi4idua.s that (i4e e5&ression to 1hat some ha4e re)o(nised2 In this 4ie10 e4ents and the e5&erien)es o! monads are the e5istentia. (round to the so)ia. 1or.d2 OI! 1e .ook at the \human] so)ia. 1or.d0 the on.+ one 1e kno1 !rom the inside0 1e see the a(ents0 the humans0 mu)h more di!!er/ entiated0 mu)h more indi4idua..+ )hara)terised0 mu)h ri)her in )ontinu/ ous 4ariations0 than the (o4ernmenta. a&&aratus0 the s+stem o! .a1s and -e.ie!s0 e4en the di)tionaries and the (rammars 1hi)h are maintained throu(h their a)ti4ities2; B< An+ so)ia. a)ti4it+ must -e .inked to the &s+)ho.o(i)a. and -odi.+ a)ti4ities0 to the )o/o&eration o! a (reat man+ other indi4idua.s2 Ear !rom mere &s+)ho.o(ism0 the stud+ o! so)ia. !a)ts )an on.+ )on)ern a)ts that testi!+ to the inter)onne)tion o! menta. atti/ tudes and a)tions -+ Ointer/menta. &s+)ho.o(+;2 3he )onne)ti4it+ o! mind0 imitation0 and a)tion in Ointer/menta. &s+)ho.o(+; must -e to Othe
B=
B" B<
Fatherine Verder+0 O8ri4atiIation as 3rans!ormin( 8ersons;0 in :orin Antohi and V.adimir 3ismaneanu0 eds20 8etween Past and 'uture 6,uda&estP Centra. 'uro&ean 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <===70 "AA2 :ee Ha-rie. 3arde0 %es lois de limitation 68arisP :eui.0 ">>?72 Tuoted in ,runo Latour0 OHa-rie. 3arde and the 'nd o! the :o)ia.;0 in 8atri)k Jo+)e0 ed20 The Social and Its Pro3lems 6LondonP Rout.ed(e0 <=="70 "<<2
<B?
so)ia. s)ien)es 1hat the stud+ o! the )e.. is to the -io.o(i)a. s)ien)es;2 B? Hreat s)ienti!i) theories su)h as those o! Me1ton or *ar1in 1ere &re&ared -+ the a))umu.ation o! )ount.ess tin+ !a)ts0 1hi)h )onstitute in some sense the or(anisms o! 1hi)h those (eniuses are the sou.s2 Le!t to itse.!0 a monad )an do nothin(2B4 A )inemato(ra&hi) a..e(or+ -+ the Russian !i.m dire)tor Andrei 3arko4sk+ i..ustrates ho1 indi4idua..+ e5&erien)ed ima(es make u& the 1ho.e o! the &i)ture2 OOne has to 1ork out a &rin)i&.e 1hi)h a..o1s !or !i.m to a!!e)t &eo&.e indi4idua..+2 3he OOtota.;; ima(es must -e)ome some/ thin( &ri4ate - - - 3he -asi) &rin)i&.e / as it 1ere0 the mains&rin( / is0 I think0 that as .itt.e as &ossi-.e has a)tua..+ to -e sho1n0 and !rom that .itt.e the audien)e has to -ui.d u& an idea o! the rest0 o! the 1ho.e - - - And i! one .ooks at it !rom the &oint o! 4ie1 o! s+m-o.s0 then the s+m-o. in )inema is a s+m-o. o! nature0 o! rea.it+2 O! )ourse it isn;t a Duestion o! detai.s0 -ut o! 1hat is hidden2; B@ 3arko4sk+ here re%e)ts the idea that ima(es sho1n are uneDui4o)a. and restri)ted to one o-%e)ti4e inter&ret/ ation2 One must a..o1 !or the &ossi-i.it+ that an ima(e a!!e)ts &eo&.e indi4idua..+ -+ de.i-erate.+ redu)in( the e5&.i)it &arts0 the o-%e)ts that are sho1n0 thus (i4in( the audien)e a ma5imum ran(e !or a)Duirin( the truth!u. side o! rea.it+2 Eor the Russian inte..i(entsia0 the ima(es o! Western modernit+ and its &otentia. -ene!its !or Russia )onstituted a mora. &ur&ose that su&&orted their &ra)ti)a. a)tion o! stru((.e a(ainst the tsarist re(ime2 In the )om&.e5 &ro)esses o! de/:ta.inisation and the sma.. re4o.utions in eastern 'uro&e0 notions o! the enem+ 1ere re)ast0 (eneratin( a di4idin( .ine -et1een (ro1in( dissiden)e and )ommunist authorities2 *emo)ratisation de&ended on a )om&.e5 and )ontin(ent &ro)ess o! de)onstru)tion and re)onstru)tion o! the &o.iti)a. s+m-o.ism o! )ommunism0 1hi)h 1as intert1ined 1ith the uto&ian ur(e !or Odemo)ra)+; as re&resentin( a state o! !u.. !reedom2 Mu)h as the arti)u.ation o! )ommunist &o1er re.ied u&on the e5&erientia. -asis o! Os+m-o.i) stru)tures; su)h as the 8eo&.e/as/ One0 the anti/!as)ist m+th0 or dissiden)e0 an inDuir+ into the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+ needs to tra)e the moda.ities o! the disen(a(ement !rom this )o..e)ti4e s+m-o.ism2 In this sense0 the m+th o! an ori(ina..+ Ohumanist Mar5ism;0 su&&osed.+ -etra+ed -+ Lenin and :ta.in0 he.&ed the )riti)a. Mar5ists o! east )entra.
B? B4 B@
Ha-rie. 3arde0 /n Communication and Social In$luence0 ed2 3err+ M2 C.ark 6Chi)a(oP 9ni4ersit+ o! Chi)a(o 8ress0 ">B>70 "?A2 Tuoted in Latour0 O3he 'nd o! the :o)ia.;0 "<C2 Andrei 3arko4sk+0 Time 0ithin Time! The Diaries *+5,-*+6- 6London and ,ostonP Ea-er and Ea-er0 ">>470 B@2
<B4
'uro&e / the Ore4isionists; / !ormu.ate their re%e)tion o! )ommunism2 BB :o.idarnoG)G;s !undamenta.ist menta.it+ in ">A= and ">A" ma+ seem indeed in)onseDuentia. !or -rin(in( do1n the )ommunist re(ime2 3he on)e a)).aimed identit+ o! :o.idarnoG)G soon disinte(rated and -e)ame a m+th2 A!ter the )o..a&se o! the )ommunist enem+0 the se)ond rea.it+ o! the m+th o! :o.idarnoG)G -e)ame the )entre o! O1ars at the to&;0 1here )ontention a-out the a&&ro&riation o! :o.idarnoG)G;s Oherita(e; 1as essen/ tia. to the disinte(ration o! the mo4ement2 Yet it 1as not the unit+ o! the m+th as an arte!a)t0 -ut the &ersistent ho&e 4oi)ed and &ra)tised -+ the indi4idua. .i!e/)ondu)t o! )ount.ess indi4idua.s in the under(round0 1hi)h 1as )ru)ia. !or the sur4i4a. o! :o.idarnoG)G;s s&irit2 BC Indi4idua.ism in Russia has emer(ed as a rea)tion to stron(.+ )o..e)ti/ 4ist0 and thus ).ear.+ i..i-era.0 !orms o! or(anisation2 8ra)ti)es o! dis/ simu.ation in the :o4iet 9nion did not )reate a &ri4ate0 .et a.one Odemo)rati);0 indi4idua.2 In order to a)hie4e indi4idua. !reedom0 &ra)ti/ )es o! dissimu.ation or ada&tation 1ere dri4en -+ e5terna. )onstraints0 not -+ interna. !or)es2 3he s&irit o! to(etherness 1as em-odied in !ami.+ ties and the inte(rit+ o! the narod0 1hi)h dre1 on so3ornost as &erha&s the ma%or distin)ti4e e.ement o! Russian )i4i.isation2 So3ornost deri4es !rom so3or0 meanin( di!!erent thin(s su)h as O)athedra.;0 O)oun)i.;0 and Othe (atherin( o! &eo&.e &re4ious.+ s)attered;2 So3ornost as )ommunitarian &redis&osition emer(ed stron(.+ in &atterns o! re&resentation in perestroika and marked mu)h o! the &o.iti)a. dis)ourse in the Con(ress o! 8eo&.e;s *e&uties and :u&reme :o4iet -oth in the .ate :o4iet 9nion and the Russian Con(ress o! 8eo&.e;s *e&uties2 BA Erom the &ers&e)ti4e o! .i-era. demo)ra)+ as an institutiona.ised s+stem o! &o1er0 the )ommuna. so3ornost tradition )an -e seen as &otentia..+ im&edin( demo)ra)+ as an institutiona.ised )on!.i)t o! interests2 3he arti)u.ation o! the O&o1er o! the &o1er.ess; )an a&&ear as a &ro)ess o! inter/menta. &s+)ho.o(+0 1here an indi4idua. ethi)s o! re%e)tin( the )onta(ion o! a s+stemi) .o(i) is di!!used in the in!ra&o.iti)s o! the hidden s&here2 A.thou(h the hidden is )on)ea.ed !rom the &u-.i)0 it )an -e e5istentia..+ re&resentati4e o! a &eo&.e;s rea.it+2 :o.Ihenits+n;s &o.iti)a. in!.uen)e0 !or instan)e0 1as not rooted in some e5).usi4e &o.iti)a. &o1er he &ossessed as an indi4idua. -ut Oin the e5&erien)e o! those mi..ions o!
BB
V.adimir 3ismaneanu0 'antasies o$ Salvation! Democracy& ;ationalism& and yth in PostCommunist "urope 68rin)etonP 8rin)eton 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>A70 <B2 BC Jan Fu-ik0 The Power o$ Sym3ols Against the Sym3ols o$ Power! The #ise o$ Solidarity and the 'all o$ State Socialism in Poland 69ni4ersit+ 8arkP 8enn :tate 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>470 <@C2 BA Mar)ia A2 Wei(.e0 #ussias %i3eral ProLect! State-Society #elations in the Transition $rom Communism 69ni4ersit+ 8ark0 8AP 8enn :tate 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <===70 4<4/@2
<B@
(u.a( 4i)tims 1hi)h he sim&.+ am&.i!ied and )ommuni)ated to mi..ions o! other &eo&.e o! (ood 1i..;2 B> 3he &ro%e)t o! re%e)tin( se)ond rea.it+ 1as -ased on the )ount.ess a))ounts o! truth -+ s)attered indi4idua.s and 1as taken u&0 re!.e)ted u&on0 and arti)u.ated -+ outstandin( indi4idua.s2 Without e5&erien)in( the a-surdit+ o! &ost/tota.itarianism0 no ethi)s o! a .i!e in truth )ou.d ha4e -een de4e.o&ed in order to o4er)ome the domination o! the a-surd2 3he Oindi4idua.ism; o! dissiden)e 1as a dire)t res&onse to the ritua.isti) .o(i) )reated -+ the se)ond/rea.it+ re(ime o! )ommunist &o1er2 It 1as an attem&t to o4er)ome )onta(ion 1ith its o1n a-surdit+2 3he on.+ &ossi-.e 1a+ to do this 1as to s&iritua..+ unite in a )ommunit+ o! the shattered and in a truth!u. .i!e in the hidden s&here2 *ri4en -+ mora. &er!e)tionism and ethi)a. indi4idua.ism0 dissiden)e tried to mo-i.ise &eo&.e not at the .e4e. o! )o..e)ti4e ima(ination a-out one de!inite (oa. !or so)iet+0 -ut instead ho&ed to ins&ire the indi4idua.;s )are o! the sou.2 Ha4e.0 !or instan)e0 &ut the im&ortan)e o! nationa. -e.on(in( at the same .e4e. as the -e.on(in( to humanit+2 O3o me0 m+ CIe)hness is a (i4en0 a.on( 1ith the !a)t that I am a man0 or that I ha4e !air hair0 or that I .i4e in the t1entieth )entur+2; C= CIe)hos.o4ak )ommunism did not )o./ .a&se as a resu.t o! &ressure !rom )i4i. so)iet+ -e)ause there 1as &ra)ti)a..+ no )i4i. so)iet+2 It did not )o..a&se as a resu.t o! dissident a)ti4it+0 either2 C" Rather0 the di!!usion o! an a.ternati4e )ons)iousness rein%e)ted indeter/ mina)+ in the so)ia. -od+ o! )ommunist so)ieties2 3he 4er+ nature o! 4a(ue0 &otentia..+ a../en)om&assin(0 and dream/ .ike ima(es o! the )ommunist uto&ia )ontained the &ossi-i.it+ o! their disso.ution and the radi)a. )han(e o! meanin(2 Hermann ,ro)h )a&tured 4er+ 1e.. that demo)ra)+ as a )i4i.isin( !or)e )an -e identi!ied in its ne(ati4e0 anti/t+ranni)a. !un)tion2 Writin( in ">4C0 he ar(ued that0 as .on( as demo)rati) )ons)iousness is a.i4e0 it a&&ears as an attem&t to -rea)h the atomisation o! indi4idua.s under tota.itarianism0 to o4er)ome the &assi4it+ )reated -+ t+ranni)a. ru.e0 and to )reate the indetermina)+ o! a)tion2 3hus0 e4en i! demo)ra)+ did not e5ist0 it 1ou.d -e o&&osite to tota.itarian ru.e2C< :in)e the modern t+&e o! tota.itarian ru.e is not %ust a &o.iti)a. re(ime -ut in its ).aim !or tota.it+ -e)omes a so)ia. !or)e0 the
B>
C= C" C<
VaG).a4 Ha4e.0 O3he 8o1er o! the 8o1er.ess;0 in John Feane0 ed20 The Power o$ the Powerless! Citi)ens Against the State in "astern "urope 6LondonP Hut)hinson and Co20 ">A@70B=2 Tuoted in A4ieIer 3u)ker0 The Philosophy and Politics o$ C)ech Dissidence $rom Pato?ka to 2avel 68itts-ur(hP 9ni4ersit+ o! 8itts-ur(h 8ress0 <===70 <@@2 3u)ker0 C)ech Dissidence0 "C=2 Hermann ,ro)h0 Fommentierte 0erkausga3e0 ed2 8au. Mi)hae. LutIe.er0 4o.2 UI0 Politische Schri$ten 6Erank!urt am MainP :uhrkam&0 ">CA70 <CA2
<BB
re/esta-.ishment o! demo)ra)+ mi(ht reDuire its tota.isation in terms o! re/edu)atin( so)iet+ 1ith a 4ie1 to )onstituti4e &rin)i&.es2 *emo)ratisation0 there!ore0 has to a)kno1.ed(e the &o1er o! )ount.ess indi4idua.s 1ho denoun)e the sa)ri!i)ia. .o(i) o! )ommunist &o1er2 Whereas ,o.she4ik )ommunism -esto1ed a )atastro&hi) ru&ture u&on so)iet+0 !o..o1ed -+ &ermanent re4o.ution0 the &ro)ess o! demo)rati) resistan)e set out to o4er)ome the sa)ri!i)ia. .o(i) o! 4io.en)e -+ denoun/ )in( dou-.ethink0 the ritua.isti) e.imination o! enemies0 and the !antasies o! re4o.utionar+ messianism2 A.ternati4e 4isions o! so)iet+ -ased on the a&&ea. to mora. %usti)e0 human di(nit+ and a .i!e in truth 1ere )riti)ised !or the .a)k o! rea.isti) o&tions !or re!orm2 3he 4isionar+ .o(i) o! u.timate ends that a&&ears ina&&ro&riate to the .o(i) o! the modern state must -e seen as utter.+ unrea.isti)2 Eo..o1in( 8ato)Wka;s de4astatin( assessment o! CIe)h e.ites0 Ha4e. mani!ested his &ro!ound disdain !or the &ro4in)ia. &o.iti)a. tradition o! OCIe)h rea.ism; that did not !urther CIe)h inde&end/ en)e -ut rather &rodu)ed nationa. humi.iation su)h as in ">?A0 ">4A0 and ">BA2C? *emo)rati) &re!eren)es are not (enerated in the en.i(htened mind 1hose &ruden)e and ethi)s o! res&onsi-i.it+ re!.e)t the insi(ht into o-%e)/ ti4e !or)es su)h as modernisation or a O)i4i. so)iet+; tradition2 3he !or/ mation o! demo)rati) )ons)iousness has to take into a))ount the se)ond rea.it+ o! m+tho.o(i)a. )onstru)tions0 in so !ar as this is an emoti4e stand/ ard to %ud(e a )han(in( rea.it+ and &ro4ide markers o! )ertaint+2 C4 I! demo)ratisation is redu)ed to an e5o(enous mode. deri4in( !rom Western mode.s o! indi4idua.ism and .i-era. 4a.ues0 the si(ni!i)an)e o! 4a.ues )reated under di!!erent )u.tura. )onditions (ains as)endan)+ o4er the meanin(s atta)hed to e5&erien)es2 :u)h meanin(s o! demo)ra)+0 ho1e4er0 under )ommunism dre1 on idea.ised e5&e)tations0 tin(ed 1ith es)hato.o(i)a. 4isions o! a state o! !u.. !reedom2 H+or(+ FonraGd sa1 :o.idarnoG)G;s une5&e)ted 4i(our and &o&u.arit+ as a )on!irmation that Odemo)ra)+ is on our mindsP it is 1hat 1e )ra4e the most -e)ause it is 1hat 1e .a)k the most0 in e4er+ s&here o! a)ti4it+0 in our e)onom+ and )u.ture as mu)h as in &o.iti)s / and es&e)ia..+ in those areas 1here 1e meet !a)e to !a)e and )an .ook in the e+e the &eo&.e 1ho make the de)isions in our name and order us to )arr+ them out;2C@ *is&ositions o! a)tors .ar(e.+ de&end on mo4ements o! en(a(ement and deta)hment2 Ho1 trans!ormations o! )ons)iousness 1ork in mae./ strom s)enarios )an -e i..ustrated -+ Mor-ert '.ias;s readin( o! 'd(ar
C? C@
3u)ker0 C)ech Dissidence0 "="/<2 Fonred0 OAnti&o.it)s;0 "4<2
C4
3ismaneanu0 'antasies o$ Salvation0 <B2
<BC
A..an 8oe;s short stor+ OEishermen in the Mae.strom;2 CB In this ta.e0 a !ishin( -oat sai.ed -+ t1o -rothers is su)ked into the a-+ss o! an enor/ mous 1hir.&oo.2 3he o.der -rother0 immo-i.ised -+ !ear0 is dra1n into the mae.strom2 3he +oun(er -rother0 e5er)isin( more se.!/)ontro.0 o-ser4es the o-%e)ts -ein( dra1n into the a-+ss and noti)es )ertain re(u.arities in their &ro)ess2 His strate(+ o! sa.4ation re.ies on stud+in( )are!u..+ ho1 the mae.strom s1a..o1s u& o-%e)ts2 3he de)isi4e .ink is not -et1een the !isherman and the o-%e)ts disa&&earin( -ut in the in/-et1een in4isi-.e -ond o! in4o.4ement or deta)hment2 *eta)hment !rom the o-%e)ts in terms o! not .ookin( at them is not the ri(ht &ro)edure -e)ause in this )ase the o-ser4er !ai.s to (ain the insi(ht in the 1orkin(s o! the me)hanism2 Con4erse.+0 too .on( an in4o.4ement 1ith the o-%e)ts 1ou.d &re4ent the o-ser4er !rom a)tin( and disen(a(in( !rom this &otentia..+ dead.+ !as)ination2 In e5istentia. un)ertaint+ and in the a-sen)e o! (enuine e.ites that )an -e )reati4e in &ea)e!u. )onditions0 !reedom is not (i4en or .e(a..+ (uar/ anteed2 In Jan 8ato)Wka;s terms0 !reedom reDuires true drama to -e a)ted out2 Ereedom does not -e(in a!ter dramati) e4ents / on.+ on)e the stru((.e is )on).uded / -ut has its &.a)e &re)ise.+ 1ithin it2 CC 3hose e5&osed to e5treme situations o! !or)e are !ree in that the+ understand not -+ mere o-ser4ation o! !a)ts -ut -+ an e5istentia. o&tion to o4er)ome demora.isation and des&air2 3he .i4ed e5&erien)es o! e5treme situations su)h as 1ar0 re4o.ution0 or other e5istentia. disru&tions make the so.id/ arit+ o! the shaken a&&ear0 the so.idarit+ o! those 1ho are )a&a-.e o! understandin( 1hat .i!e and death are a.. a-out0 and so 1hat histor+ is a-out2 3he 1ork o! su-%e)ti4it+ has -een a 1ork o! eman)i&ation -ased on -reakin( the ritua.ised .o(i) o! res&ondin( to 4io.en)e 1ith 4io.en)e and on o4er)omin( the )o..e)ti4ist rationa.it+ o! se)ond rea.ities2 What a&&ears to -e a !uti.e and &o1er.ess attitude -e!ore an ina.tera-.e &o.iti)a. stru)ture at a (i4en moment in time 1as a rationa. res&onse in the means/ to/end )onte5t o! the situation2 3he haIiness o! the 4isions a.ternati4e to a dominant &o.iti)a. s+stem must not )ause them to -e dis)arded as unrea.isti)2 3he arti)u.ation o! dissiden)e 1as not on.+ 1ish!u. thinkin( -ut must -e taken as an author/ itati4e !orm o! &o1er that &ro4ided !or orientation0 !or markers o! )er/ taint+2 3he e5&erientia. -asis o! the &o.iti)s o! dissiden)e 1as not a ).ass o! inte..e)tua.s 1ith dis&ositions a&&ro&riate to &art+ &o.iti)s or e.e)tora. )om&etition2 Rather0 it 1as -ased on the insi(ht that an+ rea.isti)
CB CC
Mor-ert '.ias0 Involvement and Detachment 6O5!ordP ,.a)k1e..0 ">AC70 4A2 Jan 8ato)Wka0 2eretical "ssays in the Philosophy o$ 2istory0 ed2 James *odd 6Chi)a(o and La :a..eP O&en Court0 ">>B70 "??/C2
<BA
resistan)e 1ou.d reDuire dismant.in( the authorit+ o! se)ond rea.it+ as the -edro)k o! )ommunist &o1er2 What )ou.d -e seen as 1ish!u. thinkin(0 ho1e4er0 ma+ )ommand authorit+ &re)ise.+ -e)ause o! the a-sen)e o! the &o.iti)a. rationa.it+ o! &ro!essiona. &o.iti)ians2 In the em&t+ s&a)e o! &o1er0 4ision and rea.ism are not o&&osites -ut tend to )oa.es)e2 3o dis)ard dissident &o.iti)s in eastern 'uro&e or the indi(enous )ommuni/ tarian idea. o! so3ornost as inadeDuate to the demands o! a 1orkin( demo)rati) s+stem is to em&t+ demo)ratisation o! its histori)a. and anthro&o.o(i)a. roots2
""
*emo)ra)+ as a )i4i.isin( &ro)ess
3o O!raternise; 1ith another &erson did not0 ho1e4er0 mean that a )ertain &er!orman)e o! the )ontra)t0 )ontri-utin( to the attainment o! some s&e)i!i) o-%e)t0 1as re)i&ro)a..+ (uaranteed or e5&e)ted --- 3he )ontra)t rather meant that the &erson 1ou.d O-e)ome; somethin( di!!erent in Dua.it+ 6or status7 !rom the Dua.it+ he &ossessed -e!ore --- 'a)h &art+ must thus make a ne1 Osou.; enter his -od+2 Ma5 We-er
8ro-.ems o! demo)rati) essentia.ism 3he t1o &re)edin( )ha&ters ha4e ar(ued that the e5&erien)e o! )ommu/ nism has -een )ru)ia. !or the histori)a. )om&osition o! meanin(s o! demo)ra)+2 *emo)rati) attitudes de4e.o&ed durin( the resistan)e o! te)hniDues o! )ommunist &o1er that su-ordinated indi4idua. !reedom to the )o..e)ti4ist .o(i) o! tota. ima(es a-out the &ast and the !uture2 3his !ina. )ha&ter )ontrasts su)h an e5&erientia. a&&roa)h 1ith the &o&u.ar and 1ide.+ &ro&a(ated idea o! Odemo)rati) )onso.idation;2 *is)ourses o! demo)rati) )onso.idation su-ordinate .o(i)s o! e5&erien)es to .o(i)s o! out)ome2 3heir e&istemo.o(i)a. -asis rests u&on a de.i-erati4e !i.ter a))ordin( to 1hi)h )ommunism and demo)ra)+ 1ere .o(i)a..+ (enerated )ate(ories0 )hara)terised -+ non/)ommuni)ation and radi)a. anta(o/ nism2 In this 4ie10 the 4a.ues and the s+stemi) !eatures o! )ommunist and demo)rati) re(imes seemed in)om&ati-.e -e)ause situationa. &rem/ ises 1ere .e!t .ar(e.+ unmentioned2 3his )ha&ter &uts !or1ard the h+&othesis that the situationa. &remises o! Oun)onso.idated; moments o! un)ertaint+ are )ru)ia. !or understandin( the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+ as a &ro)ess o! meanin(/!ormation2 In theories o! demo)rati) transition0 )onso.idation is assumed to ha4e !ai.ed 1hen 4io.en)e or in)i4i.it+ endan(ers the &rote)tion o! the three thin(s an+ so)ia. order that is em-odied in a state is su&&osed to &rote)tP .i!e0 &ro&ert+ or other materia. .i!e )han)es0 and .i-ert+2 Erom an e5&erientia. &ers&e)ti4e0 ho1e4er0 demo)ratisation )an -e !o..o1ed throu(h histori)a. e4ents that .i-era. demo)rati) theor+ 1ou.d )onsider )oterminous 1ith

<C=
the !ai.ure o! )onso.idation2 Whi.e demo)rati) essentia.ism tries to tame un)ertaint+ and 4io.en)e throu(h demo)rati)a..+ sha&ed institutions0 this )ha&ter ar(ues that the histori)a. !oundations o! demo)ra)+ de4e.o& under )onditions o! the a-sen)e o! )onstitutiona. (uarantees and o! demo)rati) O4a.ues;2 Instead0 demo)ratisation reDuired a s&e)i!i) t+&e o! su-%e)ti4it+0 )a&a-.e o! inter&retin( the e5istentia. )ondition o! &eo&.e under o&&ression and o! attri-utin( meanin( to e5&erien)es o! 4io.en)e and in)i4i.it+2 Res&ondin( to the need to de!ine the &o.iti)a. distin)ti4eness o! a demo)rati) re(ime0 the histori)a. e4o.ution o! the Co.d War sha&ed a )onsensus o4er O1hat demo)ra)+ is;2 " 3his essentia.ist tem&tation has )on)ei4ed o! demo)ra)+ as a )om&.e5 set o! o&erati4e (uide.ines that rest on ru.es o! &ruden)e0 not on dee&.+ in(rained ha-its o! to.eran)e0 mod/ eration0 mutua. res&e)t0 !air &.a+0 readiness to )om&romise0 and trust in &u-.i) authorities2 3he ar(ument im&.ies that )i4i) institutions and )i4i/ .it+ ha4e emer(ed as a resu.t o! a .on( and uninterru&ted &eriod o! demo)rati) sta-i.it+2 A))ordin( to this 4ie10 demo)ra)+ institutiona.ises Onorma.;0 .imited &o.iti)a. un)ertaint+2 3hus0 a )i4i) )u.ture is the &rodu)t o! institutions 1hose )om&.e5 sets o! ru.es kee& )onsent )ontin(ent0 1hi.e the &ruden)e o! a)tors kee&s un)ertaint+ -ounded2 3his essentia.ism ad4o)ates ).osure and dismisses the so)ia. &ro)esses0 )u.tura. !oundations0 and histori)a. s&e)i!i)it+ o! east 'uro&ean )ountries !or )ha..en(in( the tota.itarian nature o! )ommunism2 8res)ri-in( O1hat demo)ra)+ is;0 the .i-era. )onsensus denies the &ossi-i.it+ o! an inDuir+ into demo)ratisation -e!ore the -reakdo1n o! )ommunism on t1o main (rounds2 On the one hand0 the s+stem o! )ommunist &o1er &re4ented &eo&.e outside the hi(her e)he.ons o! the ru.in( &art+ !rom en(a(in( in institutiona.ised )on!.i)t a-out &o1er2 On the other0 these )ountries .a)ked demo)rati) e5&erien)e and )i4i) )u.ture -e)ause the )ommunist s+stem o! &o1er e5).uded the esta-.ished demo)rati) (ame o! re&resen/ tati4e demo)ra)+2 Wh+ has the idea o! demo)rati) trans!ormations as &ro)esses o! meanin(/!ormation not -een thematised in theories o! demo)ratisationQ 3he rise o! :o4iet )ommunism and its attem&t to tota. su-%u(ation o! !reedom to a (oa. o! histori)a. de4e.o&ment has shi!ted the interest !rom the e(a.itarian im&u.se o! the or(anisation o! &o&u.ar 1i.. to1ards the &romotion o! the (uarantees o! .i-ert+ throu(h )onstitutiona. (o4ern/ ment2 3he O&ro)edura.; a&&roa)h to demo)ra)+ )riti)ised a&&roa)hes
"
8hi.i&&e C2 :)hmitter and 3err+ L+nn Far.0 OWhat *emo)ra)+ Is - -- and Is Mot;0 in Larr+ *iamond and Mar) E2 8.attner0 eds20 The 1lo3al #esurgence o$ Democracy0 <nd edn 6,a.timoreP Johns Ho&kins 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>B70 4>/B<
<C"
su)h as Madisonian or &o&u.isti) demo)ra)+ as a method0 1hi)h s&e)i!ies a set o! (oa.s to -e ma5imised2 < On the )ontrar+0 the &o.+ar)ha. mode. o! demo)ra)+ !o..o1ed a des)ri&ti4e method -+ 1hi)h demo)rati) nations as mem-ers o! a ).ass are )om&ared 1ith a 4ie1 to the )hara)teristi)s the+ ha4e in )ommon2 A!ter the )o..a&se o! )ommunism0 there is stron( e4iden)e that the &ro)edura. a&&roa)h / des&ite numerous 4ariations and nuan)es / has itse.! ado&ted an attitude -+ 1hi)h it ma5imises a set o! (oa.s2 3his ma5imisation o! (oa.s is not a-out a s&e)i!i) ideo.o(i)a. tenet su)h as a4oidan)e o! !a)tions or &o&u.ar so4erei(nt+2 Rather0 it su-ordinates )u.tura..+ and histori)a..+ s&e)i!i) meanin(s o! demo)ra)+ to .o(i)a..+ (enerated )ate(ories2 3his s&irit o! Oma5imisation; is re!.e)ted in 4arious attem&ts to a&&.+ a )he)k.ist o! indi)es a))ordin( to 1hi)h Russia;s demo)ra)+0 !or instan)e0 a&&ears to -e in)om&.ete0 &artia.0 or derai.ed2 ? A se.!/de).ared minima.ist a&&roa)h to demo)ra)+ a))e&ts the di4ersit+ o! Ostartin( &oints; -ut sti.. &ostu.ates the need !or )on4er(en)e on the e.e)tora. standard and a minimum standard o! e)onomi) 1ea.th2 4 Whi.e it is minima. in )ontent 6the mere &ossi-i.it+ o! )han(in( (o4ernments )an a4oid -.oodshed70 it is Oma5ima.ist; in !orm0 settin( (oa.s that are seen as essentia. in order to )on4er(e on a uni4ersa..+ 4a.id demo)rati) standard2 A &rominent ).assi!i)ation su((ested that a )onso.idated demo)ra)+ as the !orm o! (o4ernan)e in a state 1ou.d reDuire !i4e autonomous0 -ut inter)onne)ted0 arenas2 @ :u)h )onditions are a !ree and .i4e.+ )i4i. so)iet+ as 1e.. as a re.ati4e.+ autonomous and 4a.ued &o.iti)a. so)iet+2 Moreo4er0 there shou.d -e the ru.e o! .a1 !or the sake o! ensurin( .e(a. (uarantees !or )itiIens; !reedoms and inde&endent asso)iationa. .i!e2 Eina..+0 there must -e a state -ureau)ra)+ usa-.e -+ the ne1 demo)rati) (o4ernment and an institutiona.ised e)onomi) so)iet+2 *ri4en -+ a -e.ie! in the eDui.i-rium o! a )onstituted &o.iti)a. order0 this set o! arenas and their inter)onne)tion de!ines demo)ra)+ as the on.+ (ame in to1n -+ im&osin( a .o(i)a. )onstru)tion as the startin( &oint o! demo)ratisation2 Cu.tura.
< ?
4 @
Ro-ert A2 *ah.0 A Pre$ace to Democratic Theory 6Chi)a(o and LondonP 9ni4ersit+ o! Chi)a(o 8ress70 B?2 :te&hen White0 #ussias ;ew Politics! The anagement o$ a Postcommunist Society 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <===70 <C@/A<R Mi)hae. M)Eau.0 #ussias :n$inished #evolution! Political Change $rom 1or3achev to Putin 6Itha)a and LondonP Corne.. 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <==<70 ??A/C"R :te4en M2 Eish0 Democracy Derailed in #ussia! The 'ailure o$ /pen Politics 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <==@72 Adam 8rIe1orski0 OMinima.ist Con)e&tions o! *emo)ra)+P A *e!ense;0 in Ian :ha&iro0 ed20 Democracys >alue 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>>70 <?/@@2 Juan LinI and A.!red :te&an0 Pro3lems o$ Democratic Transition and Consolidation! Southern "urope& South America and Post-Communist "urope 6,a.timore and LondonP Johns Ho&kins 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>B70 C/"?2
<C<
resour)es su)h as memor+0 identit+0 or s+m-o.s are seen as de&endin( on institutiona. arran(ements 1ithout anthro&o.o(i)a. or histori)a. dimen/ sions o! their o1n2 Cate(ories su)h as O)i4i. so)iet+; or the Ostate; are made u& o! a 4ariet+ o! re.ati4e.+ autonomous se)tors and !ie.ds0 1hose rea. di!!erentiation )an 4ar+ !rom one so)iet+ to another2 *emo)ra)+ is em&tied o! the histori)a..+ (ro1n 1e- o! meanin(s0 memor+0 &s+)ho.o(i)a. attra)tion0 and re&resentations2 In su)h a 4ie10 demo)rati) )onso.idation 1ou.d reDuire a de(ree o! so)ia. unanimit+ that is Duite unrea.isti) e4en in the )onte5t o! esta-.ished demo)ra)ies2 In another 4ie10 the )om/ munist .e(a)+ as undemo)rati) (o4ernment and anti/modern t+&e o! ru.e is )onsidered to -e so )ontradi)tor+ to the essentia.s o! demo)ra)+ that the start o! demo)ratisation in ">>= is )on)ei4ed as Odemo)ratisation -a)k1ards;2B 3here is a tem&tation to .o(i)a..+ )onstru)t arenas in a O&attern/state; as 1e.. as to ).assi!+ &o.iti)a. &redis&ositions o! states a))ordin( to O)i4i.; and Oun)i4i.; .e(a)ies2 Cu.ture/oriented a&&roa)hes to demo)rati) de4e.o&/ ment ha4e ).aimed that 4ariations in demo)rati) out)omes )an -e e5&.ained -+ the a4ai.a-i.it+ o! di!!erent de(rees o! )u.tura. )a&ita.2 3he rei!i)ation o! )i4i. so)iet+ as )ausa. o! demo)ra)+ is )entra. to Ro-ert 8utnam;s 1ork on Ita.+0 1hi)h tra)ed the )onditions o! demo)ra)+ -a)k to )i4i) &arti)i&ation in &u-.i) a!!airs and the intera)tion o! )itiIens as eDua.s0 -ased on mutua. trust and res&e)t2 C Whi.e this 4ie1 de!ined a )i4i) .e(a)+ o! northern Ita.+ as the &re)ondition o! demo)rati) de4e.o&ment0 it ).aimed that southern Ita.+ had -een dominated !or )enturies -+ a Ho--esian eDui.i-rium o! !ear0 an5iet+0 and dan(er0 1hi)h th1arted )o/o&erati4e out)omes2 In a simi.ar 4ein0 the tenden)+ to di)hotomise Russian histor+ -et1een )ontinuit+ and )han(e has )o.oured mu)h o! the 1ork on authoritarianism and demo)ra)+2 3he idea o! ).aimin( a .on(/ standin( e5isten)e o! )i4i. so)iet+ as an a.ternati4e &o.iti)a. )u.ture -e!ore and a!ter ">"C rei!ies histor+ in another 4ersion o! )u.tura. determinism0 1hi)h dis)o4ers demo)rati) )redentia.s in an idea. that is )enturies o.d2 A A(ainst this tenden)+ to dis)o4er roots o! demo)ra)+ in an essen)e o! )u.ture0 e5&.i)it.+ &o.iti)a. &ers&e)ti4es do1n&.a+ histori)a. and )u.tura. !a)tors -+ hi(h.i(htin( the im&ortan)e o! indi4idua. )hoi)es o! a)tors in
B C A
Ri)hard Rose and Mei. Munro0 "lections 0ithout /rder! #ussias Challenge to >ladimir Putin 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <==<70 4"/B=2 Ro-ert 8utnam0 Ro-ert Leonardi0 and Ra!!ae..a Manetti0 aking Democracy 0ork! Civic Traditions in odern Italy 68rin)etonP 8rin)eton 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>?70 "CC/A2 Je!!re+ W2 Hahn0 OContinuit+ and Chan(e in Russian 8o.iti)a. Cu.ture;0 8ritish Gournal o$ Political Science0 <" 6">>"70 ?>?/4<"R Mi)o.ai 8etro0 The #e3irth o$ #ussian Democracy! An Interpretation o$ Political Culture 6Cam-rid(e0 MAP Har4ard 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>@72
<C?
the autonomous moment o! the &o.iti)a.2 3he )om&.ete disa&&earan)e o! the )oer)i4e )ommunist &o1er s+stem .ea4es a ta3ula rasa0 1hi)h (i4es rise to attem&ts at Odemo)ra)+ !rom s)rat)h;2 > 3his !oundationa.ist ).aim a-out the autonomous moment o! the &o.iti)a. is &ro-.emati)0 as it &resu&&oses that en.i(htened e.ites are endo1ed 1ith &re!eren)es that are in a))ordan)e 1ith a dehistori)ised Western mode. o! demo)rati) institutions and .i-era. 4a.ues2"= :u)h institutiona. )hoi)es reDuire -ein( in tune 1ith demo)ra)+ as an institutiona. arran(ement0 i2e2 to a)t a&&ro/ &riate.+ 1ith re(ard to dominant mode.s and 4a.ues o! re&resentati4e demo)ra)+ as 1e.. as 1ith their &ro)edura. determinants that e5&ress su)h 4a.ues2 I! su)h institutiona. )hoi)es are not a&&ro&riate to the e5&e)ted out)ome o! the &ro)edura. determinant o! a demo)rati) Omode.;0 demo)ra)+ )an -e re(arded as Oderai.ed;2 "" In this 4ein0 the .a)k o! re)i&ro)a. a))ounta-i.it+ is res&onsi-.e to a .ar(e e5tent !or the &oor Dua.it+ o! Russian demo)ra)+2 Whi.e this 4ie1 assi(ns mu)h autonom+ to indi4idua. )hoi)es0 it essentia.ises the moment o! the &o.it/ i)a. )hoi)e in .ate ">>"0 1hi.e o&en.+ dis)ardin( )u.tura.0 histori)a.0 or so)ia. in!.uen)es2 Whi.e there is a )ase to ar(ue that Russia )ou.d ha4e -een 8o.and -ut it a.so )ou.d ha4e -een ,e.arus0 this %u5ta&osition im&.ies )om&ara-i.it+ a))ordin( to standards o! .i-era. demo)ra)+0 not 1ith re(ard to histori)a. arti)u.ation o! meanin(s o! demo)ra)+2 A !urther0 more d+nami)0 &ers&e)ti4e on )onso.idation .ooked at &o.it/ i)a. re(imes as a )om&osite o! &artia. re(imes2 "< Conso.idation0 there!ore0 )ou.d -e seen as a &ro)ess 1here-+ so)ia. re.ations )an -e)ome so)ia. stru)tures re.+in( on &atterns o! intera)tion0 1hi)h -e)ome so re(u.ar in their o))urren)e0 so endo1ed 1ith meanin(0 so )a&a-.e o! moti4atin( -eha4iour0 that the+ -e)ome autonomous in their interna. !un)tionin( and resistant to e5terna..+ indu)ed )han(e2 Erom this &ers&e)ti4e0 )on/ so.idation 1ou.d not on.+ re!er to the sta-i.isation o! a sin(.e O.i-era./ )om&etiti4e; &o.iti)a. arran(ement -ut 1ou.d a.so im&.+ a &ro)ess o! on(oin( trans!ormation that 1ou.d not &re).ude !urther &o.iti)a.0 so)ia.0 and e)onomi) e5tensions o! )itiIenshi&2 In su)h a 4ie10 )onso.idation )ou.d in).ude a 1ide 4ariet+ o! &otentia. re(ime su-/t+&es in a !ine.+ tuned 1a+ 1ithout &retendin( that e4er+-od+ 1i.. ado&t the same ru.es or norms2 Eurthermore0 one )ou.d )on)ei4e o! )onso.idation as the e5&ansion o! demo)rati) 6or0 1here the term does not !it0 o! !air0
:te4en M2 Eish0 Democracy $rom Scratch 6:tan!ordP :tan!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>@72 Hiuse&&e *i 8a.ma0 To Cra$t Democracies! An "ssay on Democratic Transitions 6,erke.e+P 9ni4ersit+ o! Ca.i!ornia 8ress0 ">>=70 ?@2 "" Eish0 Democracy Derailed in #ussia2 "< 8hi.i&&e :)hmitter and Mi)o.as Hui.hot0 OErom 3ransition to Conso.idation;0 in Mi)he. *o-r+0 ed20 Democratic and Capitalist Transitions in "astern "urope0 "?"/4B2
> "=
<C4
-ar(ainin(0 )o/o&erati4e0 &arti)i&ator+7 &ra)ti)es outside the narro1 s&here o! &o.iti)a. &arties and .e(is.ati4e/e5e)uti4e re.ations2 In a simi.ar 4ein0 re)ent &ro&ositions su((ested a d+nami) mode. o! )onso.idation0 1hi)h 1ou.d shi!t attention !rom &ro)edura. reDuirements in a (i4en set o! )onstitutiona..+ (uaranteed !rame1orks to the )arriers o! demo)rati) de4e.o&ment2 :u)h a mode. o! )onso.idation su((ests the im&ortan)e o! a determined set o! e.ites0 the Osta!!;0 1ho en!or)e demo)rati) institutions2 An+ s+stem o! &o1er )an -e)ome )onso.idated on.+ as !ar as this sta!! ensures that ru.ers and ru.ed -eha4e in 1a+s )om&ati-.e 1ith0 and ori/ ented to1ards0 the &er&etuation o! !orma. institutiona. ru.es2 "? 3he histori)a. ).osure o! demo)rati) )onso.idation threatens to de&o/ .iti)ise &o.iti)s0 as it im&oses .i-era. monism as the meanin( o! ">A>2 "4 It assumes a )on4er(en)e on uni4ersa..+ a&&.i)a-.e 4aria-.es su)h as !ree e.e)tions0 e)onomi) &er!orman)e0 and re)i&ro)a. a))ounta-i.it+2 In this 4ein0 the ).aim a-out the se.!/en!or)in( stren(th o! demo)ra)+ rests u&on the assum&tion that a.. the re.e4ant &o.iti)a. !or)es !ind it -est to )ontinue to su-mit their interests and 4a.ues to the un)ertain inter&.a+ o! the institutions2"@ Ho1e4er0 this institutiona.isation o! demo)rati) Oun)er/ taint+; is )onne)ted to a hi(h .e4e. o! )ertaint+ a-out the en!or)ement o! .a1s a(ainst su-4ersi4e attem&ts and un)i4i. &ra)ti)es2 3his is &re)ise.+ 1hat &o.iti)a. so)ieties su)h &ost/re4o.utionar+ Russia a!ter ">"C and &ost/:e)ond Wor.d War eastern 'uro&e0 -ut a.so some &ost/)ommunist states su)h as the Russian Eederation0 .a)k2 Whi.e the )riteria o! demo/ )rati) )onso.idation are in tune 1ith the 1orkin(s o! a )onstituted s+stem o! &o1er0 the+ en)ase the )ontin(ent nature o! &o.iti)s in .o(i)a..+ (enerated and )u.tura..+ deterministi) mode.s o! -eha4iour0 4a.ues0 and &ro)edures2 3he+ -urden so)ia. inDuir+ 1ith a .o(i) that a.. -ut ru.es out the ha&haIard and )ontin(ent )hara)ter o! a )on)e&t;s histori)a. arti)u.ation2 3heoreti)a..+0 )onso.idation &ostu.ates di!!erent sets o! essen)es that &re/e5ist histori)a. a)tion and thus den+ endo(enous sour)es o! demo/ )ratisation2 Whi.e the de!initions o! demo)ra)+ and their attri-utes 4ar+0 the mode. o! the Western demo)rati) state is esta-.ished as a tota.it+ o! thou(ht0 1hi)h de/demo)ratises the &ost/)ommunist e5&erien)e2 In a manner reminis)ent o! !ormer anta(onisms in the Co.d War0 demo)ra)ies
"?
"4 "@
:te&hen '2 Hanson0 O*e!inin( *emo)rati) Conso.idation;0 in Ri)hard *2 Anderson0 et a.20 eds20 Postcommunism and the Theory o$ Democracy 68rin)etonP 8rin)eton 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <=="70 "4"2 Je!!re+ C2 Isaa)0 Democracy in Dark Times 6Itha)a and LondonP Corne.. 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>A72 Adam 8rIe1orski0 Democracy and the arket! Political and "conomic #e$orms in "astern "urope and %atin America 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>"70 <B2
<C@
are thus se&arated into O(ood; and O-ad;2 "B :u)h essentia.ism im&.ies that &o.iti)a. trans!ormations are someho1 rooted in a-stra)t0 ahistori)a. !oundations2 3hese in).ude the )onstitutiona..+ (uaranteed set o! ru.es a))ordin( to 1hi)h demo)ra)+ is the on.+ (ame in to1n2 :imi.ar.+0 it &resu&&oses indi4idua.ism as the sour)e o! autonomous0 Odemo)rati); )hoi)es2 Eina..+0 demo)ra)+ -e)omes a (oa. o! de4e.o&ment0 sustained -+ the 4a.ues and &ro)edures &ro&er to .i-era. !orm o! demo)ra)+2 *emo)rati) essentia.ism im&oses demo)rati) 4a.ues (enerated in a s&e/ )i!i) histori)a. )onte5t at the e5&ense o! the su-%e)ti4it+ o! meanin(s o! demo)ra)+2 3his tenden)+ to o4erdetermination has de&o.iti)ised the &o.iti)s o! trans!ormation in a t1o!o.d manner2 Eirst0 it has redu)ed )om&.e5 so)i/ eties to mono.ithi) terms and )ondemned them to Onon/demo)ra)+; -e)ause the+ a..e(ed.+ had the O1ron(; e5&erien)es2 :u)h O1ron(; e5&e/ rien)es are &resented as a histori)a. )ausa.it+0 1hi)h 1i.. in!.uen)e !uture s+stemi) arran(ements in a (i4en &o.iti)a. )u.ture2 Eor instan)e0 CIe)hos.o4akia;s demo)rati) re(ime -et1een the t1o 1or.d 1ars and -et1een ">4@ and ">4A 1as &romisin( !or demo)rati) de4e.o&ment0 1hi.e the Russian Osham )onstitutiona.ism; a!ter ">=@ and the a-orti4e demo)ra)+ in ">"C rein!or)ed ).aims a-out the )ontinuit+ o! author/ itarian &o.iti)a. )u.ture in &ost/)ommunist Russia2 :u)h statements esta-.ish )ausa. .inks -et1een the dis&ositions o! a)tors in Russia -e!ore ">"C and in CIe)hos.o4akia -e!ore ">4A not on the (rounds o! the meanin(s atta)hed -+ &eo&.e to e4ents at the timeR rather0 the -asis !or %ud(ements on demo)rati) )redentia.s is the 4a.ues atta)hed to the une5/ &e)ted e4ent o! the )o..a&se o! )ommunism2 A (ood i..ustration o! 1h+ the+ are untena-.e is the Herman )ase2 With hindsi(ht0 the su))ess o! the Eedera. Re&u-.i) a!ter ">4> &ro4ed the su&eriorit+ o! &ost/">4> Herman demo)ra)+ as o&&osed to the ne(ati4e e5&erien)e o! demo)ra)+ in the Weimar re&u-.i)2 I! the dis&ositions o! e.ites -e!ore and a!ter ">4> in West Herman+ are )om&ared to that -e!ore and a!ter ">A> in 'ast Herman+0 ho1e4er0 the )u.tura. herita(e o! Weimar Herman+;s demo)rati) e5&eriment 1ith its attendant asso)ia/ tiona. .i!e and )i4i) initiati4es su&&orted the )reation o! )o..e)ti4e identi/ ties a!ter ">4@ and thus )om&ensated !or the materia. destru)tion in the 1ar2 Whi.e West Herman+ a!ter ">4> 1as )hara)terised -+ a de4astated
"B
:ee the s&e)ia. issueP O3he Tua.it+ o! *emo)ra)+ in 8ost/Communist 'uro&e;0 ed2 *erek :2 Hut)heson and '.ena A2 Foroste.e4a0 Gournal o$ Communist Studies and Transition Politics0 <= 6Mar)h <==470 "R Leonardo Mor.ino0 OOOHood;; and OO,ad;; *emo)ra)iesP Ho1 to Condu)t Resear)h into the Tua.it+ o! *emo)ra)+;0 Gournal o$ Communist Studies and Transition Politics0 <=0 " 6<==470 @/<C2
<CB
e)onomi) in!rastru)ture and materia. &o4ert+0 the )u.tura. .e(a)ies o! a sense o! )ommunit+0 so)ia. trust0 and nationa. identi!i)ation 1ere )ru)ia. in re-ui.din( a &ros&erous market e)onom+2 On the )ontrar+0 the re.ati4e materia. 1ea.th and inta)t in!rastru)ture in &ost/)ommunist 'ast Herman+ a!ter ">A> 1ere a))om&anied -+ a .a)k o! so)ia. )ohesion0 distrust0 and shattered identities2"C :e)ond0 Duite simi.ar to the em&iri)a. theorisation o! demo)ra)+ a!ter the :e)ond Wor.d War as a narro1 )anon o! em&iri)ist methods0 the do)trine o! Odemo)rati) )onso.idation; has &ur(ed &o.iti)a. inDuir+ and the idea o! demo)ra)+ itse.! o! its s&e)u.ati4e and 4isionar+ im&u.ses2 "A 3he !un)tiona./des)ri&ti4e !eatures o! a )onstitutiona. !orm are rei!ied in a 4ariet+ o! .o(i)a..+ deri4ed mode.s that )onstrain e5&erien)e to their normati4e reDuirements2 3he 4i)tor+ o! .i-era. demo)ra)+ has -e)ome a tota.it+ at the .e4e. o! thou(ht0 (rantin( demo)rati) )redentia.s .ar(e.+ to the e5terna. .e(a./rationa. e5er)ise o! (o4ernment and thus de&ri4/ in( &o.iti)s o! its e5istentia.0 s+m-o.i)0 and anthro&o.o(i)a. (round2 3his entai.s the dan(er that an+ de4iant !orms are re(arded as de!e)t/ i4e0 authoritarian0 or semi/di)tatorshi&s0 -ut the ).osure o! the &o.it/ i)a. s&a)e at the .e4e. o! restri)tin( a.ternati4es a.so )omes do1n to de/demo)ratisation23he disa&&ointmentand nosta.(iao! &ost/)ommunist inte..e)tua.s are not so mu)h due to their a..e(ed uto&ianism2 Rather0 &aradi(ms o! transitions and )onso.idation ha4e en)ased &o.iti)a. de4e./ o&ment in .o(i)a. )onstru)tions that essentia..+ de&o.iti)ise and o&&ose demo)rati) se.!/)onstitution2 3he dramati) e4o.ution o! )ommunism is at odds 1ith the assum&tion o! the most &o1er!u. Otheories; o! demo)ra)+ that !ai. to satis!a)tori.+ e5&.i)ate the re%e)tion o! authoritarianism in Russia2 "> 3his a))ounts !or ,arrin(ton Moore;s stru)tura./e)onomi) h+&othesis Ono -our(eois0 no demo)ra)+; as 1e.. as !or e)onomisti) theories su)h as Adam 8rIe1orski;s that set a +ardsti)k !or the de4e.o&ment o! demo)ra)+ in terms o! a minimum ran(e o! e)onomi) (ro1th2 I! demo)ra)+ 1ere de&endent on the &rereDuisites o! &o.iti)a. )u.ture a.on( the .ines set out -+ Ha-rie. A.mond and :idne+ Ver-a0 se4en hundred +ears o! tsarist auto)ra)+ and se4ent+ +ears o! :o4iet &o1er 1ou.d not -e !a4oura-.e &re)onditions2 Eina..+0 ar(uments stressin( )i4i) )ommunities and asso)iationa.ism in
"C "A ">
C.aus O!!e0 >arieties o$ Transition! The "ast "uropean and "ast 1erman "xperience 6Cam-rid(e0 MAP MI3 8ress0 ">>C72 Isaa)0 Democracy in Dark Times0 ?A/>2 8hi.i& H2 Roeder0 O3he Re%e)tion o! Authoritarianism;0 in Anderson0 et a.20 Postcommunism0 ">/<<2
<CC
)i4i. so)iet+ su)h as those &ut !or1ard -+ Ro-ert 8utnam are not )om&ati-.e 1ith the &o.iti)a. rea.it+ o! :o4iet so)iet+2 3he emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+ Whi.e dis)ourses o! demo)rati) )onso.idation &resu&&ose some de(ree o! )i4i.it+ and )i4i) attitudes0 this -ook has ar(ued that demo)rati) as&ira/ tions resu.t !rom the histori)a. )reati4it+ o! trans!ormati4e e5&erien)es2 A )i4i.isationa. &ers&e)ti4e understands O1a4es o! demo)ratisation; as a seDuen)e o! trans!ormati4e e5&erien)es and their s+m-o.isations2 Erom su)h a &ers&e)ti4e0 the in)i4i.it+ in re4o.utions and 1ars must not -e taken as the !ai.ure o! demo)rati) )onso.idation0 -ut it is there 1here the roots o! demo)rati) su-%e)ti4it+ are to -e .ooked !or2 At -ottom0 the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+ has -een an on(oin( and0 -+ de!inition0 &otentia..+ end.ess &ro)ess o! ho1 emotions are mastered as a res&onse to 4io.en)e2 3he &o.iti)a. e4o.ution o! )ommunism )an -e a&&roa)hed 1ith a !o)us on situations that e!!e)t turns o! su-%e)ti4it+2 :u)h turns o! su-%e)ti4it+ are not resu.ts o! &re!eren)es de4e.o&ed throu(h re!.e)tion and rationa.it+ -ut arise !rom rea)tions o! indi4idua.s to 4io.ent disru&tions2 :o4iet )ommu/ nism as a &o.iti)a. enter&rise o! human eman)i&ation 1as su))ess!u. -e)ause o! its (ri& on the )o..e)ti4e ima(ination o! se)ond rea.it+2 Ho1e4er0 it !ai.ed .ar(e.+ -e)ause indi4idua. resistan)e mo-i.ised emo/ tions asso)iated 1ith their o1n &ast su)h as memor+0 di4ersit+0 and so.idarit+ on a so)ia. s)a.e2 3he )onseDuen)es o! su)h &ro)esses o! iden/ ti!i)ation 1ere mani!o.d and )om&.e52 3he+ in4o.4ed the (roundin( o! su-%e)ti4e identit+ in mora. &er!e)tionism0 in a .i!e in truth -ut a.so in the &o1er!u. a.ternati4e rea.it+ o! the West or the emotiona. a&&ea. o! nationa. a..e(ian)e or )u.tura. traditions2 Eurthermore0 this shi!t in indi4idua. dis&ositions reDuires the di!!usion o! e5istentia. attitudes and an ethi) o! indi4idua. .i!e/)ondu)t0 1hi)h made &eo&.e !ee. re&resented e5istentia..+2 ,e!ore demo)rati) &re!eren/ )es )an -e 4oi)ed in )o..e)ti4e re!.e)tion0 &ressure (rou&s0 or a)ts o! 4otin(0 the 1orthiness o! indi4idua.s as eDua. and !ree in a so)ia. )om/ munit+ must -e re)o(nised2 *emo)ra)+ is not -ased on autonomous &re!eren)es -ut has -een a histori)a..+ )om&.e5 &ro)ess 1here &assions are )he)ked -+ indi4idua. -eha4iour as a res&onse to 4io.en)e2 ,e!ore !oundin( e.e)tions )an -e or(anised0 the+ must -e a))e&ted at .east -+ moderates amon( !ormer &o1er in)um-ents and the )itiIenr+ as a .e(iti/ mate means o! attri-utin( &o1er2 ,e!ore a )i4i) )u.ture -e)omes a distin)ti4e e.ement o! a demo)rati) s+stem0 one needs to .ook at )i4i.isin( &ro)esses0 1hi)h usua..+ &resu&&ose &re/&o.iti)a.0 un)onso.idated0 and underdetermined situations2 3here!ore0 the )i4i.isin( &ro)ess needs to
<CA
en(a(e 1ith situations that .i-era. demo)rati) theor+ and mu)h o! )om/ &arati4e &o.iti)s 1ou.d )onsider )oterminous 1ith the !ai.ure o! )onso./ idation2 Whi.e theories o! )onso.idation im&ose demo)ra)+ as a so)ia. end and a !i5ed &oint in the strate(+ o! modernisation0 demo)ratisation in eastern 'uro&e has not -een a &ro)ess o! a))ommodation aimed at O)on/ so.idation;2 Rather0 it has )onsisted o! a seDuen)e o! !.uid )on%un)tures0 1hose )onso.idation o))urred throu(h &ro)esses o! s+m-o.isation and meanin(/!ormation2 In a simi.ar 4ein0 the )ha..en(e o! demo)ratisation a!ter )ommunism has -een the re/esta-.ishment o! so)ia. -onds -et1een )itiIens and the state0 mutua. trust0 and )i4i.isationa. )om&eten)e2 <= 0aves o$ democratisation Momentous &o.iti)a. trans!ormations su)h as the Eren)h and O)to-er Re4o.utions and the :e)ond Wor.d War dee&ened the insi(ht into the )onta(ious nature o! re(ime t+&es and (a4e rise to )on)e&tua.isations su)h as tota.itarian demo)ra)+2 <" *istin(uishin( -et1een t1o t+&es o! demo)ra)+0 .i-era. and tota.itarian0 Ja)o- 3a.mon .o)ated the essentia. di!!eren)e -et1een the t1o s)hoo.s o! demo)rati) thou(ht not in the a!!irmation o! the 4a.ue o! .i-ert+ -+ the !ormer and its denia. -+ the .atter2 Rather0 he su((ested that it 1as in their di!!erent attitude to &o.iti)s2 Whi.e the .i-era. a&&roa)h assumes &o.iti)s to -e a matter o! tria. and error a..o1in( !or )on!.i)t0 the tota.itarian demo)rati) s)hoo. takes its de&arture !rom a so.e and e5).usi4e truth in &o.iti)s2 It assumed a .a1/.ike .inka(e -et1een the Eren)h and the O)to-er Re4o.utions0 1here the &ros&e)ti4e sa.4ation &ro).aimed -+ re4o.utionaries 1ou.d !or(e the uni4ersa.ised !aith that .a+ at the !oundations o! the tota.itarian :o4iet demo)ra)+2 3his inter&retation ri(ht.+ identi!ied the moment o! the dis/ em-odiment o! monar)h+ in the Eren)h Re4o.ution as the )rossroads o! t1o 4ersions o! demo)ra)+2 3his 4ie10 ho1e4er0 1as sti.. (uided -+ the essentia.ism o! &redetermined !orms o! demo)ra)+0 .i-era. or tota.itarian0 1hi)h are the mo4in( !or)es o! histor+2 Con)e&tua. determinism and out)ome/.o(i) ha4e eDuated notions o! a .e(a)+ o! the &ast 1ith a di)hotom+ o! a -a)k1ard and a !or1ard mo4e/ ment2 3he natura. meta&hor o! 1a4es o! demo)ratisation i..ustrates the sudden0 s1ee&in(0 and o4era.. )hara)ter o! &o.iti)a. )han(e durin( a
<= <"
8iotr :Itom&ka0 Trust! A Sociological Theory 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <===72 Ja)o- L2 3a.mon0 The /rigins o$ Totalitarian Democracy 6LondonP :e)ker X War-ur(0 ">@<70@?@2
<C>
determined &eriod o! time2 << 3his meta&hor has remained 4er+ &o&u.ar2 :ome o! the most remarka-.e 1orks on the end o! )ommunism and its a!termath ha4e studied the tida. 1a4es o! nationa.ism as )ru)ia. to the disinte(ration o! the :o4iet 9nion or ha4e addressed the &ro%e)t o! &ost/ )ommunism as re-ui.din( the shi& on the o&en sea2 <? In Ma)hia4e..i;s ).assi)a. meta&hor o! $ortuna0 the e5&erientia. -asis o! histori)a. )ontin/ (en)+ )an -e .ikened to Othose ruinous ri4ers 1hi)h0 1hen the+ (et an(r+0 !.ood the &.ans0 ruin the trees and the -ui.din(s0 take earth !rom this &art and &ut it e.se1hereP e4er+one !.ees -e!ore them0 a.. +ie.d to the im&etus0 1ithout -ein( a-.e to -ar it an+1here;2 <4 3here!ore0 an+ su-stantia. ana.+sis o! the )han)es !or demo)ra)+ and market )a&ita.ism in eastern 'uro&e must inter&ret the mae.strom itse.!0 and that means (ras&in( the )u.tura.0 &o.iti)a.0 and e)onomi) Oinheritan)e; o! !ort+ +ears o! Leninist ru.e2<@ 3heories o! demo)rati) )onso.idation tr+ to tame or so.idi!+ this mae.strom -+ &ositin( some essentia. !eature su)h as indi4idua. autonom+0 demo)rati) &re!eren)e0 or the rationa.it+ o! a di4ision o! .a-our that remains una!!e)ted -+ the tida. 1a4e o! the mae.strom2 *e!inin( demo)ra)+ as an institutiona.ised .o(i) e5o(enous to )ommu/ nist 'uro&e rei!ies it as a de4e.o&menta. (oa. (uided -+ ahistori)a. !or)es su)h as modernisation0 state )entra.isation0 or e)onomi) .i-era.isation2 3he de4e.o&menta. &ers&e)ti4e remains !aith!u. to a di)hotomi) ).assi!i/ )ation o! !or1ard/mo4in( 1a4es o! demo)ratisation and -a)k1ard/ mo4in( re4erse 1a4es2 *es&ite a))e&tin( the mu.ti&.i)it+ o! &aths or sta(es0 the (oa. o! a .i-era. !orm o! demo)ra)+ su-%e)ts a)tion to ).assi/ !i)ator+ s)hemes o! t+&o.o(i)a. mode.s2<B It is the normati4e mode. o! !u.. &o.iti)a. demo)ra)+0 (enerated outside the histori)a. )onte5t and arti!i/ )ia..+ se&arated in .o(i)s o! )ausa.it+ and out)ome0 not the histori)a. arti)u.ation o! demo)ra)+ as an e5&erien)e0 a 1ork o! )ons)iousness0 and s+m-o.isation0 that remains the a5is o! ana.+sis2 A de4e.o&menta. &ers&e)ti4e 1orks on the -asis o! &re/e5istin( (oa. 4a.ues and the assum&/ tion that &o.iti)a. ideo.o(ies su)h as )ommunism or .i-era.ism tra4e. throu(hout time and histor+2 Erom su)h a &ers&e)ti4e0 )onso.idation is o-stru)ted on)e an e.e)tora. re(ime a-uses indi4idua. and (rou& ri(hts
<<
Joe Eo1eraker0 OWa4es o! *emo)ra)+;0 in 8au. ,arr+ C.arke and Joe Eo1eraker0 eds20 "ncyclopedia o$ Democratic Thought 6London and Me1 YorkP Rout.ed(e0 <=="70 C=@/>2 <? Jon '.ster0 et a.20 Institutional Design in Post-Communist Societies 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>A7R Mark ,eissin(er0 ;ationalist o3ili)ation and the Collapse o$ the Soviet State 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <==<72 <4 Mi))o.oS Ma)hia4e..i0 The Prince0 trans2 and ed2 An(e.o M2 Code4i..a0 et a.2 6Me1 Ha4en and LondonP Ya.e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>C70 >"2 <@ Jo1itt0 The ;ew 0orld Disorder0 <=>2 >>72
<A=
and thus !ai.s to dee&en .e(itima)+ on a mass .e4e.2 ConseDuent.+0 man+ &ost/)ommunist )ountries ha4e -een )on!ronted 1ith the (.oom+ &i)ture o! remainin( )hroni)a..+ un)onso.idated2 <C Eina..+0 demo)ra)+ ma+ not on.+ -e redu)ed in its &o.iti)a. Dua.it+ o4er time0 it ma+ e4en e!!e)ti4e.+ disa&&ear0 not mere.+ throu(h -reakdo1n or o4erthro1 -ut a.so throu(h more insidious &ro)esses o! de)a+2 Erom a de4e.o&menta. &ers&e)ti4e0 su)h re4erse 1a4es are not assessed 1ith re(ard to the !ormati4e &o1er o! e5istentia. un)ertaint+0 -ut )onsidered as !ai.ures o! )onso.idation2 <A Con4erse.+0 a &ers&e)ti4e on demo)ra)+ as a )i4i.isin( &ro)ess is .o(i/ )a..+ distin(uished !rom a de4e.o&menta. &ers&e)ti4e on demo)ra/ tisation2 *emo)ra)+ as a &ro)ess o! meanin(/!ormation re!.e)ts the su-stanti4e meanin( o! the )i4i.isin( &ro)ess0 1hi)h re!ers to the e.imi/ nation o! 4io.en)e !rom human re.ations2 <> Wa4es o! demo)ra)+ )annot -e )on!ined to an out)ome Oa!ter; )ommunism -ut ha4e to -e &ro-.emat/ ised 1ith re(ard to the !.uidit+ o! )riti)a. %un)tures0 the 4io.ent mani!es/ tations o! in)i4i.it+0 and their s+m-o.isations2 *emo)ra)+ as a &ro)ess o! meanin(/!ormation needs to en(a(e 1ith the -ound.essness o! a)tion0 1here in)i4i.it+ threatens and un)ertaint+ th1arts assum&tions a-out out)omes2 I! there is an Oessen)e; to demo)ra)+0 then it )an -e the Duestion a-out 1hat makes &eo&.e denoun)e ).aims to tota. &o1er0 resist des&oti) and una))ounta-.e ru.e0 and su-mit de)ision &ro)esses a-out .e(itimate &o1er to the s)rutin+ o! &u-.i) o&inion and the ensuin( a)t o! 4otin(2 ,e!ore demo)ra)+ -e)omes a s+stem in 1hi)h a.. &.a+ers &.a+ a))ordin( to the ru.es0 ho1e4er0 the &eo&.e in the )ommunit+ need to trans!orm their s&irit2 In his theor+ o! the )i4i.isin( &ro)ess0 Mor-ert '.ias stressed the im&ort/ an)e o! understandin( the &art &.a+ed -+ net1orks o! interde&enden)e and re)i&ro)it+2?= 3he (ro1in( )om&etition and in)reasin( .on(/term interde&enden)e 1ith others 1ere !a4oura-.e to (reater )ontro. o! a!!e)ts and emotions2 3he de4e.o&ment o! se.!/)ontro. and )om&etition !or
<C
<A
<> ?=
:ome authors &redi)ted as the most &ro-a-.e out)ome a O&rotra)ted.+ OOun)onso.idated demo)ra)+;;;R see 8hi.i&&e C2 :)hmitter and 3err+ L+nn Far.0 O3he Con)e&tua. 3ra4e. o! 3ransito.o(ists and Conso.ido.o(istsP Ho1 Ear to the 'ast :hou.d 3he+ Attem&t to HoQ;0 Slavic #eview0 @?0 " 6">>470 "A@2 3homas Carothers0 O3he 'nd o! the 3ransition 8aradi(m;0 Gournal o$ Democracy0 "?0 " 6<==<70@/<"R Mi)hae. M)Eau.0 O3he Eourth Wa4e o! *emo)ra)+ and *i)tatorshi&P Mon)oo&erati4e 3ransitions in the 8ost)ommunist Wor.d;0 in Mi)hae. M)Eau. and Fathr+n :toner/Weiss0 eds20 A$ter the Collapse o$ Communism 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <==470 @A/>@2 Ar&ad :Iako.)Iai0 OCi4i.iIation and Its :our)es;0 International Sociology0 "B0 ? 6<=="70 ?B>/AB2 Mor-ert '.ias0 :R3er den Pro)ess der Civilisation0 < 4o.s2 6Erank!urt am MainP :uhrkam&0 ">>472
<A"
in!.uen)e amon( )ourt.+ ru.in( (rou&s at the outset o! modernit+ 1as a &aradi(mati) )ase o! a )i4i.isin( &ro)ess2 Ado&tin( '.ias;s 1ork as a methodo.o(i)a. a&&roa)h to so)ia. and &o.iti)a. rea.it+0 it is &ossi-.e to attune the (reat di4ide -et1een tota.itarianism and demo)ra)+ to )riti)a. e4ents and their s+m-o.isations2 3he )on)e&t o! !i(uration )on4e+s the notion o! a d+nami) net1ork o! interde&enden)ies -et1een indi4idua. or )o..e)ti4e a)tors2 A !i(urationa. a&&roa)h to the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+ shou.d -ear in mind the )om&.e5 emotiona. in4o.4ements o! )o..e)ti4e identit+/!ormation2 It undermines an+ assum&tion o! di4ision or &o.ar/ isation -et1een iso.ated indi4idua.s 1ithin so)iet+2 A))ordin( to '.ias0 indi4idua.s are not homo clausus -ut homines aperti2 3here is no OI; 1ithout a O+ou;0 no Ohe; or Oshe; 1ithout a O1e; or O+ou;2 :een in this )onte5t0 the rationa.isation o! 4io.en)e assumes an indi4idua. and )o..e)ti4e dimen/ sion0 )onsistin( o! a &s+)ho.o(i)a. and so)ia. rea.it+ at the same time2 In modern demo)ra)ies0 the rationa.isation o! emotions is e5tended and (enera.ised2 :o is the rationa. e5er)ise o! 4io.en)e2 Mono&o.ies o! 4io.en)e0 !ormer.+ he.d -+ kin(s0 &rin)es0 or territoria. ru.ers0 -e)ome the &ro4in)e o! )onstitutiona. (o4ernments and .e(a. -ureau)ra)ies2 Re.ations -et1een master and s.a4e0 -et1een kin(s and su-%e)ts0 -et1een an im&eria. &o1er and su-ordinate sate..ites0 or -et1een a hi(her and a .o1er )i4i.isation must not -e )on!ined to the anta(onism -et1een t1o ).osed &arts2 3he e4o.ution o! demo)ra)+ -oth as a s+stem o! (o4ernment in 'uro&e and as a &o.iti)a. 4a.ue that he.d &arts o! the e.ite and the &o&u.a)e under its s&e.. shou.d -e seen as re.+in( u&on the dua.it+ o! mora. )odes2 Whi.e the mora. )ode is e(a.itarian in )hara)ter / 1ith Oman;0 the human indi4idua.0 as its hi(hest 4a.ue / the nationa.ist )ode deri4ed !rom the Ma)hia4e..ian )ode o! &rin)es and !euda. &o1er2 It is ine(a.itarian in )hara)ter0 &uttin( the )o..e)ti4it+ / state0 )ountr+0 nation / in the &osition o! the hi(hest 4a.ue2 ?" 3he de4e.o&ment o! su)h a dua. and inherent.+ )ontradi)tor+ )ode o! norms has -een )hara)teristi) o! trans!ormation o! states !rom aristo)rati)/d+nasti) into demo)rati) in the Western 1or.d2 *emo)ratisation &ro)esses in modern &o.iti)s 1ere the e5&ression o! ho1 s+m-o.s !or a )o..e)ti4it+ -e)ame !o)a. &oints !or the emotiona. -ondin( o! &ersons to this )o..e)ti4it+2 3he )han(e in the &attern o! &eo&.e;s Ous/and/them !ee.in(s;0 o! identi!i)ation and e5).usion0 1as a &rimar+ )ondition !or the de4e.o&ment o! nationa.ist sentiments0 4a.ues0 and -e.ie!s2?< 3he nation 1as )hara)terised -+ shared and )o..e)ti4e.+
?" ?<
Mor-ert '.ias0 The 1ermans! Power Struggles and the Development o$ 2a3itus in the ;ineteenth and Twentieth Centuries 6Cam-rid(eP 8o.it+0 ">>B70 "@4/@2 '.ias0 The 1ermans0"44/C2
<A<
re)o(nised attitudes su)h as trust0 se.!/restraint0 and mutua. res&e)t2 Whi.e the &o1er &o.iti)s des)ri-ed -+ Ma)hia4e..i &resented the &o.i)+ o! unrestrained se.!/interest as the &rin)i&.es !or ru.ers o! states0 se.!/ interest 1as e5&anded in modern nation/states2 Me4erthe.ess0 modern demo)rati) states &ursue &o1er &o.iti)s 4er+ mu)h a.on( Ma)hia4e..i;s .ines0 thou(h not in the name o! &rin)e.+ se.!/interest -ut in the name o! a nation2 Whi.e so4erei(nt+ in monar)hies !o)used on !ee.in(s o! inter&er/ sona. .o+a.t+ and atta)hment0 modern nation/states in the 1ake o! the Eren)h Re4o.ution re.ied to a mu)h hi(her de(ree on atta)hments to s+m-o.s o! the )o..e)ti4it+2 3his )o..e)ti4it+ itse.! 1as endo1ed 1ith a Onuminous e5isten)e o! its o1n outside and a-o4e the indi4idua.s 1ho !ormed it / 1ith a kind o! ho.iness !ormer.+ asso)iated main.+ 1ith su&erhuman -ein(s;2?? ,o.she4ik &o1er reDuired an un)onditiona. su-ordination o! the indi/ 4idua. to the mora. )ode o! the )o..e)ti4e that 1as the )ore o! a rationa..+ desi(ned One1 so)ia.ist man;2 Ada&tin( the 'n(.ish ma5im Om+ )ountr+0 ri(ht or 1ron(;0 3rotsk+ stressed that histor+ did not &ro4ide another 1a+ to &ro4e the )orre)t .ine than to (o 1ith and throu(h the &art+2 I! the di)tatorshi& o! the &ro.etariat ).aimed the ru.e o! the &eo&.e as a )o..e)ti4e -od+0 the te)hniDues o! )ommunist &o1er a.. -ut e.iminated the in!.uen)e o! the O&eo&.e; on &o.iti)a. )hoi)es2 Mass mo-i.isation in &ost/re4o.u/ tionar+ and :ta.inist Russia 1as intended rather in the )onser4ati4e sense o! kee&in( the ideo.o(i)a. ).aim on a so)iet+ 1ithout di4ision a.i4e2 3he a-so.ute .oss o! indi4idua.it+ is -est do)umented in the )on!essions o! the a))used &art+ !un)tionaries in the Mos)o1 sho1 tria.s2 3he di)tatorshi& o! the &ro.etariat su-ordinated the mora. )ode o! the indi4idua. to the ido.atr+ o! the )o..e)ti4e2 3he s+m-o.ism o! identi!i)ation o! the enem+ or the anti/!as)ist m+th rein!or)ed the &ra)ti)es o! )ommunist &o1er -+ 1hi)h the )o..e)ti4e 1as (i4en the )a&a)it+ to dis)i&.ine and )ontro. the :o4iet/t+&e indi4idua.2 3his Oend o! &o.iti)s; as a &ra)ti)e o! tota.itarian re(imes &arado5i)a..+ )an a.so -e a&&.ied to the he(emon+ o! the .i-era. mode. o! demo)ra)+0 1hi)h )ame to &enetrate the Western 1or.d as the s+m-o.i) stru)ture that maintained the Co.d War2 *e/:ta.inisation disso.4ed the do(ma o! )ommunism;s &ro).aimed ine4ita-i.it+ and )ame to !o)us on the means !or )reatin( a so)ia. en4ironment 1ith a stron(er em&hasis on materia. re1ards0 so)ia. &resti(e0 and u&1ard mo-i.it+2 *es&ite its anti/&o.iti)a. attitude0 dissiden)e in eastern 'uro&e 1as rea.isti)0 as it reoriented &o.iti)a. emotions a1a+ !rom a -ias on se)ond rea.it+ to1ards the
??
'.ias0 The 1ermans0 "4B2
<A?
memories o! indi4idua. &asts0 !rom 1hi)h to dra1 the so.idarit+ o! a nation 1ith the 1eak and humi.iated2 3he &o1er o! memor+ and the re%e)tion o! uto&ia &ro4ided !or e5istentia. re&resentation that shi!ted attention !rom the )o..e)ti4e ima(ination o! the O!uture to )ome; or the (reatness o! a ).ass or nation to1ards a more indi4idua.ised and &resentoriented a&&roa)h to the )ommunit+2 Democracy and su3Lectivity Eo..o1in( methodo.o(i)a. indi4idua.ism0 demo)ra)+ as a )onstitutiona. !orm de&ends on re!.e)ti4e &re!eren)es0 1hi)h o))ur interna..+0 1ithin ea)h indi4idua.;s head and not &rimari.+ in an inter&ersona. settin(2 ?4 3his 4ie1 raises the im&ortan)e o! interests as a dis)i&.ined0 so&histi/ )ated0 and rationa. &ursuit o! ad4an)in( one;s o1n &o1er0 in!.uen)e0 and 1ea.th2 O'm&iri)a.; a&&roa)hes see re&resentati4e demo)ra)+ as institu/ tiona.ised )om&etition !or e.e)tora. 4otes -+ &ro!essiona. &o.iti)ians 1ho are (uided -+ indi4idua. se.!/interest and the re&resentation thereo! on the a((re(ate .e4e. o! &art+ &o.iti)s2 3r+in( to dis)riminate -et1een so)ia.ism and demo)ra)+0 Jose&h :)hum&eter;s Orea.ist; theor+ o! demo)/ ra)+ dis)arded the idea o! a &u-.i) (ood em-odied in a (enera. 1i..2 3he (enera. 1i.. is manu!a)tured not -+ reason -ut -+ a&&ea.s to the su-)on/ s)ious0 1hi)h makes the thinkin( o! norma. )itiIens a!!e)ti4e and e5tra/ rationa.0 mena)in( 1ith ominous )onseDuen)es su)h as indu.(in( in dark ur(es or &a4in( the 1a+ !or radi)a. (rou&s2 Instead0 he (rounded his 4ision o! demo)ra)+ as a &o.iti)a. method in a s&e)i!i) rationa.it+ a))ord/ in( to 1hi)h on.+ the di4ision o! .a-our -et1een the &eo&.e and its re&resentati4es / 1hi)h &resu&&oses the insu.ation o! (o4ernors !rom !i)k.e &u-.i) o&inion / )an &romote the .on(/term interest o! the state2?@ 3his 4ie1 o! em&iri)a. demo)ra)+ as rooted in the &o.iti)a. rationa.it+ o! a di4ision o! .a-our e)hoes the de4e.o&ment o! interest as an indi4idua..+ -ased )he)k to the &assions0 1hi)h 1as )ru)ia. !or the e5&ansion o! modern )a&ita.ism2 3he idea o! autonom+ as the indi4idua.;s )a&a)it+ to a)t on the -asis o! se.!/interest in the !rame o! )onstitutiona..+ (uaranteed ).aims and ri(hts is at the -asis o! the 1orkin(s o! re&resentati4e demo)ra)+2 3he )i4i.it+ and &ruden)e o! institutiona. demo)ra)+ is -ased on se.!/interested &o./ iti)ians 1hose a))e&tan)e o! the ru.es o! the (ame (uarantees &redi)t/ a-i.it+ o! institutiona.ised )on!.i)t2 Li-era. )a&ita.ism is .ar(e.+ sustained
?4 ?@
Ro-ert '2 Hoodin0 #e$lective Democracy 6O5!ordP O5!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <==?70 C2 Jose&h A2 :)hum&eter0 Capitalism& Socialism& and Democracy0 @th edn 6LondonP Heor(e A..en X 9n1in0 ">CB70 <@C/B?2
<A4
-+ indi4idua. se.!/interest0 1hi)h is a )ru)ia. )ondition !or markets to !un)tion2 A))ordin( to A.-ert Hirs)hman0 )a&ita.ist -eha4iour 1as not on.+ a des&erate sear)h !or indi4idua. sa.4ation0 as ar(ued -+ Ma5 We-er2 It a.so o1ed mu)h to an eDua..+ des&erate sear)h !or a 1a+ o! a4oidin( so)iet+;s ruin0 &ermanent.+ threatenin( at the time -e)ause o! &re)arious arran(ements !or interna. and e5terna. order2 ?B In a .i-era. 4ie10 markets are so)ia. settin(s 1here )onsumers nurture their amour propre 6se.!/.o4e7 -+ a !o)us on the amour de soi0 the radi)a. &ursuit o! (enuine se.!/interest2 It is this indi4idua. se.!/interest that a4oids the mena)e o! )onta(ion 1ith the &ossi-.e disinte(ration o! markets in &ani) and disorder2 A &o.iti)a. anthro&o.o(+ o! trans!ormati4e e5&erien)es is )riti)a. o! the onto.o(i)a. sta-i.it+ o! human se.!/interest2 Rather0 it maintains the &ri/ ma)+ o! su-%e)ti4it+ in the -ound.essness o! a)tion0 1hi)h de)ides 1hether &eo&.e su))um- to mimeti) 4io.en)e or 1hether the+ are a-.e to a4oid re)i&ro)it+ and a)hie4e re)on)i.iation and &ea)e2 Rousseau;s im&ortant distin)tion -et1een amour de soi in the h+&otheti)a. &re/so)ia. state o! nature and amour propre as )ontaminated -+ so)ia. order and (enerated out o! en4+0 desires0 and &assions .a)ked the anthro&o.o(i)a. insi(ht that in histori)a. rea.it+ the !ormation o! (enuine se.!/interest )annot -e deta)hed !rom the -odi.+ &assions and 4io.en)e2 3he )ru)ia. &oint is that the autonom+ o! indi4idua.s in institutiona.ised settin(s o! )onstituted &o1er is not on.+ )onstrained0 -ut a.so a)ti4e.+ sha&ed -+ so)ia. e5&erien)es and re&resentations thereo!2 In su)h situations0 -ounded un)ertaint+ )an -e threatened -+ the -ound.essness o! a)tion0 and )ontin(ent )onsent )an de(enerate into the )o..e)ti4e .o(i) o! !or)ed )onsent in a &erse)utin( )ro1d2 *emo)rati) institutions themse.4es )an !a.. &re+ to )onta(ion 1ith &assions2 '4en esta-.ished demo)ra)ies )an -e)ome &re+ to this .o(i) o! annihi.atin( the enem+ -+ a.. means 1hen the+ are e5istentia..+ threatened2 3he demo)rati) institutions o! Athens )ondemned :o)rates to death2 3he Oram&ant .i-era.ism; )hara)teristi) o! the M)Carth+ era sho1ed ho1 demo)rati) institutions )an turn into the &erse)utin( )ro1d0 !or)in( the a))used to make )on!essions o! )o..e)ti4e (ui.t0 su((estin( one (reat and uniDue enem+ to the &eo&.e o! the 9nited :tates2?C Inter&retin( demo)ra)+ as a )i4i.isin( &ro)ess does not &res)ri-e a te.eo.o(+ o! histori)a. e4o.ution2 Rather0 the &o.iti)a. &ra)ti)es de4e.o&ed throu(hout the )i4i.isin( &ro)ess o! modernit+ )an e!!e)ti4e.+ undermine and e4entua..+ re4erse this 4er+ )i4i.isin( &ro)ess2 3he su-stan)e that
?B ?C
A.-ert O2 Hirs)hman0 The Passions and the Interests 68rin)etonP 8rin)eton 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">CC70 "?=2 C.aude Le!ort0 %a complication( #etour sur le communisme 68arisP Ea+ard0 ">>>70 <4/?42
<A@
en(enders demo)ra)+ as a )i4i.isin( !or)e is di!!erent !rom 4aria-.es de!ined -+ standard a))ounts o! em&iri)a. theories o! demo)ra)+2 MaIism and the Ho.o)aust are -oth (ood e5am&.es o! ho1 the te)hniDues and essentia. 4a.ues o! modernit+ and )u.ture )an -e mo-i.ised a(ainst the )i4i.isin( &ro)ess0 on)e .e(a. and mora. )onstraints -reak do1n2 ?A 9n)ertaint+ ma+ -e -ounded in a &o.iti)a. s+stem -ut e5&erien)es o! e5istentia. un)ertaint+ and &ro%e)ts o! se)ond rea.it+ )an make !antas+ &o.iti)s the authoritati4e !rame o! order and the -asis o! rea.it+2 3his is ho1 the &o.iti)isation o! .i!e s+m-o.ised the identi!i)ation o! enemies on the -asis o! Ora)e; in MaIism and o! the O&ro.etariat; in )ommunism2 I! rh+thms o! the )i4i.isin( &ro)ess )an -e )hara)terised as the -a.an)e -et1een the &ro(ressi4e restri)tion o! 4io.en)e and the intensi!i)ation o! the ro.e o! )ons)ien)e in human -eha4iour0 then the &ro)ess o! the -reak/ do1n o! su)h )i4i.isin( resu.ts )an -e seen as a de)i4i.isin( &ro)ess2 ?> *emo)ra)+ as a )i4i.isin( &ro)ess0 there!ore0 su((ests that the )onditions o! the )i4i.isin( &ro)ess )an turn a(ainst themse.4es2 Whi.e the demo)rati) moment in ">A> disso.4ed the anta(onisti) dis/ tin)tion -et1een the OWest; as the har-our o! demo)rati) ri(hts and sta-i.it+ and the O'ast; as -a)k1ard and .a)kin( demo)rati) e5&erien)e0 the 4i)tor+ o! Western/st+.e demo)ra)+ meant not on.+ !reedom0 sta-i.it+0 and di(nit+ -ut a.so the &o.iti)isation o! -are .i!e in the eru&tions o! un&re)edented 4io.en)e0 un)i4i. 1ar0 and ethni) ).eansin(2 4= Amon( the man+ dramas o! &ost/)ommunism0 the Yu(os.a4 1ars and es&e)ia..+ the ,osnian )atastro&he must -e seen as s+m-o.isin( the dark sides o! demo)ra)+2 Je!!re+ Isaa) hi(h.i(hted !our meanin(s that are s+m-o.ised -+ the ,osnian )atastro&he2 ,osnia )an -e taken as &aradi(mati) !or a &ro!ound )risis )ha..en(in( internationa. re.ations and se)urit+ -ut a.so de!+in( Western demo)ra)ies2 Eurthermore0 ,osnia is not on.+ a re&roa)h to demo)ra)+ -ut a.so in some 1a+ its !uture0 -e)ause massi4e e5&u.sion not on.+ !rom there -ut a.so !rom numerous other &.a)es threatens Western demo)ra)ies 1ith immi(ration2 ,osnia a.so stands !or the )risis o! demo)rati) humanism0 as the kno1.ed(e a-out 1hat 1as ha&&enin( did not ena-.e Westerners to &re4ent it2 Eina..+0 ,osnia is the s+m-o. o! -oth mass 4io.en)e and the im&ossi-i.it+ o!
?A
?>
4=
:ee the t1o ma%or attem&ts to a))ount !or the so)ia. &re)onditions that !a)i.itated the rise o! MaIi Herman+ and the Ho.o)austP N+(munt ,auman0 odernity and the 2olocaust 6Itha)aP Corne.. 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">A>70 and '.ias0 The 1ermans2 Ar&ad :Iako.)Iai0 O*e)i4i.isin( 8ro)esses and *isso.ution o! Order 1ith Re!eren)e to the Case o! 'ast 'uro&e;0 &a&er &resented at the Mor-ert '.ias Centenar+ )on!eren)e0 ">>C0 ,ie.e!e.d0 C/A2 John Feane0 #e$lections on >iolence 6LondonP Verso0 ">>B7R Isaa)0 Democracy in Dark Times2
<AB
)om&ensation2 Rather than im&.+in( that ,osnia -e.on(s to the nondemo)rati) &art o! the 1or.d0 this &ro4es ho1 mar(ina. demo)ra)+ has remained a.so in the heart o! 'uro&e2 9n.ike the out-reak o! ethni) 4io.en)e0 the )i4i.isin( e!!ort in eastern 'uro&e 1as &rior to the institutiona. (uarantees o! )i4i.it+ in demo)rati) s+stems2 3he &o.iti)s o! dissiden)e 1as a )ru)ia. !a)tor !or the renaissan)e o! the )on)e&t o! )i4i. so)iet+ as a trai.-.aIer o! the .ar(e.+ non/4io.ent )o..a&se o! )ommunist re(imes2 A re.ated ).aim su((ests that demo)ra)+ )an &otentia..+ tame or &re/em&t out-reaks o! in)i4i.it+2 In John Feane;s 4ie10 demo)rati) e!!orts to )onstitutiona.ise &o.iti)a. &o1er and O)i4i.it+ &o.iti)s; are sustained -+ anti/4io.en)e )am&ai(ns or &ea)e mo4ements2 4" 3his attem&t to think Odemo)rati)a..+ a-out 4io.en)e; su((ests that 4io.en)e )an -e demo)ratised throu(h the &u-.i) a))ounta-i.it+ !or the means o! 4io.en)e2 3he )i4i.isin( !eatures o! demo)ra)+ rest u&on the sta-i.it+ o! the institutiona.ised .o(i) o! modern .i-era. demo)ra)ies 1here attitudes and -eha4iour &atterns are im&er4ious to the irru&tion o! Oin)i4i.it+;2 A.thou(h there is a .e(itimate )ase !or )i4i. so)iet+ as the -earer o! .i-ert+ a(ainst the me)hani)a. a&&.i)ation o! ma%oritarian &o.i/ ti)s0 the anta(onism -et1een institutiona. demo)ra)+ and 4io.ent in)i4i/ .it+ is !.a1ed !rom an e5&erientia. &ers&e)ti4e2 *is)ussin( it at .en(th0 Feane misinter&rets mimeti) 4io.en)e as a Onatura.; and Odee&/seated &redis&osition; in e4er+ indi4idua.2 4< 3he under.+in( assum&tion is that demo)rati) )onstitutiona.ism 1ith its &rin)i&.e o! the ru.e o! .a1 is !un/ damenta. !or kee&in( &assions and in)i4i.it+ in )he)k2 What is Onatura.;0 ho1e4er0 is not the indi4idua. &redis&osition to 4io.en)e2 Rather0 mimeti) )onta(ion 1ith a &ro&ensit+ to )+).es o! 4en(ean)e and 4io.en)e threatens 1hen the -oundaries o! .a1 and )i4i.it+ ho.d no .on(er2 Human a((res/ si4eness arises as a so)ia..+ (enerated re.ationa. &ro)ess and not as an innate attri-ute o! mankind2 4? It is the so)ia. ma(i) o! 4io.ent a)ts0 not the normati4e im&erati4e o! &reser4in( .e(a. ends0 that )an -e )onsidered as the !oremost moti4ation !or .a1;s interest in a mono&o.+ o! 4io.en)e2 44 *emo)ratisation as a &ro)esso! meanin(/!ormation -e.ies the Oo-%e)ti4e; &o.iti)a. out)omes o! )riti)a. e4ents2 3he &re!eren)es and dis&ositions o! dissidents 1ere not inherent.+ demo)rati) in terms o! re)o(nisin( and
4" 4< 4?
44
John Feane0 >iolence and Democracy 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <==470 >=2 Feane0 >iolence and Democracy0 A2 Mor-ert '.ias0 OVio.en)e and Ci4i.iIationP 3he :tate Mono&o.o+ o! 8h+si)a. Vio.en)e and its In!rin(ement;0 in John Feane0 ed20 Civil Society and the State 6LondonP Verso0 ">AA70 "CC/A2 Wa.ter ,en%amin0 #e$lections! "ssays& Aphorisms& Auto3iographical 0ritings 6Me1 YorkP :)ho)ken ,ooks0 ">AB70 <A=/"2
<AC
&.a+in( a))ordin( to the ru.es o! the on.+ (ame in to1n2 ,e!ore the de.i-er/ ation a-out )onstitutiona. ru.es and norms and &rior to the re)o(nition o! a )onstitutiona. a)t0 a demo)rati) s&irit needs to )on4e+ !reedom as e5isten/ tia..+ re&resentati4e0 somethin( that reDuires e5&erien)es o! )ommunities o! !ate and the trans!ormation o! )ons)iousness2 Histori)a..+0 the emer(en)e o! &o&u.ar )ons)iousness as -ein( demo)rati) 1as marked -+ the &er!ormati4e s+m-o.isation o! the &eo&.e;s sa)ri!i)e !or the attainment o! !reedom in a )ommunit+2 :in)e 8eri).es; s&ee)h to the Athenians in 4?= ,C or A-raham Lin)o.n;s Hett+s-ur( address in "AB?0 this theatri)a. dimension o! demo/ )ratisation has -een ti(ht.+ .inked to the dramati) settin( o! 1ar or re4o.u/ tion2 8eri).es; s&ee)h &raised the Athenian &eo&.e !or .i4in( a !orm o! (o4ernment that did not emu.ate the institutions o! its nei(h-ours -ut itse.! 1as a mode.0 a &aradi(m to -e imitated2 In the Hett+s-ur( address0 Lin)o.n identi!iedthe&eo&.e asthe-asis0 the a)tor0 andthe-ene!i)iar+ o!demo)rati) (o4ernment2 3he theatri)a.it+ o! orator+ &er!orman)e 1as not re.ated to .e(a. (uarantees -ut to the so)ia..+ traumati) e5&erien)es o! the su&reme sa)ri!i)e o! (i4in( u& one;s .i!e !or one;s !e..o1 )itiIens in the )ommunit+2 ,oth s&ee)hes are eu.o(ies to honour the 1ar dead in either the in)i&ient 8e.o&onnesian 1ar or the -att.e o! Hett+s-ur( in the Ameri)an Ci4i. War2 3hese e5am&.es o! rhetori)a. a!!irmations o! demo)rati) )redentia.s o! a nation )ame !rom the o!!i)ia. sta(e !rom 1hi)h those in authorit+ s&eak to those 1hose &u-.i) a!!airs the+ 1ant to (o4ern2 I! these !amous e5am/ &.es o! &er!ormati4e s+m-o.isation o! the demo)rati) )redentia.s o! a &o.iti)a. )ommunit+ re.ated to )ases that had demo)rati) &ra)ti)es -e!ore the+ a)tua..+ named them as su)h0 eastern 'uro&e &resents someho1 the o&&osite )ase2 Whereas the &eo&.e as a &o.iti)a. su-%e)t is re.ati4e.+ un)ontested in the Hreek or the Ameri)an e5am&.es0 in man+ east 'uro&ean )ountries the )onstitution o! the &eo&.e as a &o.iti)a. su-%e)t has -een a task !or &o.iti)a. s+m-o.ism and m+th/makin(2 3he theatri/ )a.it+ o! 4arious dramati) so)ia. o))urren)es in eastern 'uro&ean .i!e 1as )hara)terised -+ -e.ated state/!ormation0 1ars0 and re4o.utions0 mass e5&u.sions0 and !orei(n domination2 3erritoria. -oundaries 1ere un)er/ tain and the &eo&.e as a &o.iti)a. su-%e)t 1as more o! a &ro%e)t than a rea.it+2 *emo)ratisation as a &ro)ess o! meanin(/!ormation must take into a))ount the in!ra&o.iti)s o! the o&&ressed and do1ntroddenR the &o1er o! the 1eak or the &o1er.ess ma+ threaten the &o.iti)a. s+m-o.ism that an authoritarian or tota.itarian re(ime has ere)ted2 4@
4@
James :)ott0 Domination and the Art o$ #esistance 6Me1 Ha4en and LondonP Ya.e 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">>=7R VaG).a4 Ha4e.0 O3he 8o1er o! the 8o1er.ess;0 in John Feane0 ed20 The Power o$ the Powerless! Citi)ens Against the State in "astern "urope 6LondonP Hut)hinson and Co20 ">A@70 <?/>B2
<AA
As O.e( Fharkhordin sho1ed0 )i4i. so)iet+ )annot -e )on!ined to Western 4ersions that rest on ethi)a. .i!e in 8rotestant or Catho.i) )on(re(ations2 Rather0 there has -een a Russian 4ersion o! )i4i. so)iet+ that re.ied on Orthodo5 Christianit+ and ad4o)ated non/mi.itaristi) and )i4i.ised .i!e24B It aimed at de!endin( indi4idua.s !rom state en)roa)h/ ments on their .i-erties and its main !eature 1as to stri4e to entire.+ su&&.ant the se)u.ar state and its use o! the means o! 4io.en)e -+ makin( )hur)h/-ased means o! in!.uen)e the -asis o! a.. se)tors o! human .i!e2 Whi.e the :o4iet )o..e)ti4e0 to a )ertain e5tent0 de!ended an indi4idua. a(ainst atta)ks o! his or her immediate -osses0 it 1as un!ree in t1o !undamenta. as&e)ts2 3he o!!i)ia. )o..e)ti4es 1ere )reated -+ de)isions !rom a-o4e0 and 1ithin the or(anisation the indi4idua. had no !reedom and hard.+ an+ de!en)e a(ainst denun)iation or terror2 In 4ie1 o! an in)reasin(.+ un)i4i. &ost/)ommunist Russian so)iet+0 1here the 1eak state de&ends on a .ar(e num-er o! semi/&u-.i) or utter.+ &ri4ate entities that use 4io.ent methods to kee& norma. .i!e (oin(0 it seems that an idea o! )i4i. so)iet+ -ased on asso)iationa. .i!e that o&&oses or )ontro.s the state is di!!i)u.t to attain2 A &ro%e)t o! -ui.din( )i4i. so)iet+ on the Orthodo5 mode. 1ou.d not !a4our a strate(+ o! stren(thenin( the state -+ mono/ &o.isin( 4io.en)e -ut rather 1ou.d &romote the di!!usion o! )i4i.0 non/ 4io.ent 1a+s o! .i!e -+ re.+in( on net1orks o! !riendshi&2 Whi.e this seems idea.isti) and dan(erous in &ra)ti)e0 it a)kno1.ed(es the endo(e/ nous )onditions o! net1orks o! !riendshi&s and the )u.tura.0 domesti) roots o! the )i4i.isin( &ro)ess2 Civilising violence Va.ua-.e 1ork on )i4i. so)iet+ has re)o(nised the )onne)tion -et1een a stron( )i4i. so)iet+ and the a4oidan)e o! 4io.en)e2 4C Its !undamenta. &oint is that institutiona..+ )ra!ted &o.iti)a. demo)ra)+ (enerates s&a)es o! )i4i.it+ that a))ount !or dua. autonom+ and inde&endent de.i-eration2 Erom a .i-era. &ers&e)ti4e0 )i4i.it+ under tota.itarian ru.e remains un)u./ ti4ated2 'm&iri)a. demo)rati) theor+ has thus made a )ase !or )onsiderin( )i4i) )u.ture as a &rodu)t rather than a &rodu)er o! demo)ra)+2 4A Hen)e0 on.+ a demo)rati) )i4i. )u.ture )an &otentia..+ tame or &re/em&t out/ -reaks o! in)i4i.it+2 An+ de!inition o! O1hat demo)ra)+ is;0 ho1e4er0
4B 4C 4A
O.e( Fharkhordin0 ain Concepts o$ #ussian Politics 6Lanham0 M*P 9ni4ersit+ 8ress o! Ameri)a0 <==@70 4"/B@2 Lauren)e Whitehead0 Democratisation! Theory and "xperience 6O5!ordP O5!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 <==<70 A"R Feane0 >iolence and Democracy2 :)hmitter and Far.0 OWhat *emo)ra)+ Is --- and Is Mot;0 @A2
<A>
seems to -e !.a1ed i! demo)rati) trans!ormations are re.eased !rom out)ome/oriented .o(i)a. )onstru)tions and attuned to the e5&erientia. -asis o! their s+m-o.i) arti)u.ation2 3he )i4i.isin( &ro)ess is not )on(ruous 1ith the &ursuit o! a demo)rati) idea. -ased on a-stra)t notions o! indi4idua.ism0 autonom+0 or a &re/ e5istin( )i4i) )u.ture2 Indi4idua. se.!/)onstraint is not a time.ess )ate(or+ -+ 1hi)h &o.iti)a. -eha4iour )ou.d -e mode..ed0 -ut )an -e serious.+ a!!e)ted in e5istentia. )risis2 In a &er)e&ti4e ana.+sis o! the in!.uen)e o! e)onomi) thou(ht on the )urrent &o.iti)a. &hi.oso&h+ o! .i-era.ism0 Jean/ 8ierre *u&u+ has sho1n ho1 ma%or e5&onents o! .i-era. thou(ht s+stem/ ati)a..+ a4oid )on!rontin( the rea. mena)e o! )onta(ion0 disorder0 and sudden -reakdo1ns o! )a&ita.ist markets su)h as in mass &ani)s2 4> As he ar(ued0 markets )ontain the )ro1d and the &otentia. disinte(ration into &ani) as the autonom+ o! indi4idua. se.!/interest is mena)ed -+ the )onta(ion in the re)i&ro)it+ o! emotions2 Markets endo(enous.+ contain the me)hanism that threatens them most2 't+mo.o(i)a..+ ri)h0 the dou-.e meanin( o! Oto )ontain; is more than %ust a 1ord (ameR it simu.taneous.+ )onnotes in).usion and e5).usion2 3he market )ontains the )onta(ion o! &ani) in t1o 1a+s2 Whi.e the market im&edes &ani) !rom -reakin( out due to the &ursuit o! se.!/interest0 the interest/-ased .o(i) o! the market disso.4es in the out-reak o! &assions su)h as in &ani)s at sto)k markets or ram&ant in!.ation2 In this 4ein0 Adam :mith;s )on)e&t o! se.!/.o4e in).udes the re)i&ro)it+ o! &assions and interests2 Con)erned 1ith the O(reat mo- o! mankind;0 i2e2 1ith the -eha4iour o! the a4era(e &erson0 :mith de!ined se.!/interest as the )ra4in( !or honour0 di(nit+0 res&e)t0 and re)o(nition2 I! the .o(i) o! se.!/interest in markets &re4ents the un)ontro..ed out/ -reak o! emotions0 the situationa. &remises o! e5istentia. un)ertaint+ ma+ )ause &ani) on)e order disso.4es and mimeti) &assions -reak .oose2 Erom this &ers&e)ti4e0 the se.!/asserti4eness o! .i-era. demo)ra)+ as a s+stem -ased on essentia.s su)h as indi4idua.ism and se.!/interest )annot -e deta)hed !rom the &otentia. !or )onta(ion -+ )riti)a. e4ents or re4o.u/ tionar+ situations2 3he )ru)ia. &oint is that0 des&ite the &o.iti)a. anta(o/ nism and the mi.itar+ )on!rontation o! the Co.d War0 demo)ra)+ has emer(ed not a(ainst -ut 1ithin )ommunism2 't+mo.o(i)a..+0 emer(en)e re!ers to risin( !rom a .iDuid -+ 4irtue o! -uo+an)+2 Com-inin( the Latin roots ex 6out7 and mergere 6to di&0 sink70 Oemer(en)e; su((ests that the ne1 has -een )ontained -+ the o.d !rom 1ithin 1hi)h it rose2 3he re.ated noun Oemer(en)+; 1ith the meanin( o! Oun!oreseen o))urren)e; su((ests its
4>
Jean/8ierre *u&u+0 %i3eralisme et Lustice sociale 68arisP Ca.mann/LV4+0 ">><70 ?<>2
<>=
re.atedness to un)ertaint+2 Eo..o1in( the s+m-o.isations o! )riti)a. e4ents and the &ro)esses o! meanin(/!ormation0 it )an -e ar(ued that threats o! )onta(ion 1ith 4io.en)e ha4e -een )entra. to o4er)omin( )ommunism -+ a s&e)i!i) t+&e o! su-%e)ti4it+2 Ideas a-out the essen)e o! demo)ra)+ as a method o! )han(in( (o4ern/ ments determine O1hat demo)ra)+ is;2 *urin( the Co.d War0 .i-era. demo)ra)+ 1as !undamenta..+ o&&osed to )ommunism2 'ssentia.ist ar(uments0 ho1e4er0 ha4e to !a)e the histori)a. !a)t that the &otentia. !or )onta(ion 1ith )ommunism not on.+ threatened a mi.itar+ )on!ronta/ tion -ut0 at the .e4e. o! )ommuni)ation and &enetration0 rein!or)ed the .i-era. )on)e&tion o! demo)ra)+2 3his is 1h+ it )an -e )ontended that demo)ra)+ )ontained )ommunism in a dou-.e sense0 -oth in terms o! se&aration and in).usion2 In most strai(ht!or1ard terms0 this is the stor+ o! the Co.d War0 throu(hout 1hi)h demo)rati) )ountries &ro4ided an e!!e)ti4e stron(ho.d a(ainst the mi.itar+ e5&ansion o! :o4iet )ommunism2 3he &rima)+ o! the mi.itar+ )on!rontation in the Co.d War !o)used so mu)h on the e5terna.isation o! the other s+stem as Oe4i.; that the interna. dri4es 1ere a.. -ut o4er.ooked2 3he main threat to Western demo)ra)+ 1as not an imminent :o4iet atta)k -ut the &oor )ondition o! 'uro&ean &ost/1ar e)onomies and the so)ia. and &o.iti)a. insta-i.it+ resu.tin( !rom this2 3he &o.i)+ o! )ontainment 1as .ar(e.+ -ased on the ar(ument that it ser4ed the e)onomi) interests o! the 9nited :tates and 'uro&e2 Containment &o.i)+ 1as a su))ess!u. attem&t to a4oid the )onta(ion o! Western e)onomies -+ )ommunism2 *emo)ra)+ )ontained )ommunism a.so in the se)ond0 in).usi4e0 sense2 An+ serious assessment o! the )ontest -et1een demo)ra)+ and )ommunism must !a)e the !a)t that -e!ore mono&o.isin( the &o.iti)a. s&a)e in Russia and eastern 'uro&e0 :o4iet )ommunism )ontained a t+ranni)a. im&u.se that mer(ed 1ith the demo)rati) )onditions o! mo- ru.e2 3o the e5tent that the demo)rati) a(e 1as &ro&itious !or a tota.itarian t+&e o! &o.iti)a. domination0 the rea.it+ o! )ommunist &o1er mena)ed Western demo)ra)ies 1ith )onta(ion2 3he threat to the O)i4i.ised; Western 1or.d durin( the Co.d War )onsisted in the &otentia. )onta(ion o! essentia.s o! demo)ra)+2 3hus0 )ontainment &o.i)+ not on.+ Oe5terna.ised; e4i. -ut a.so 1as a res&onse to the re4o.utionar+ and e(a.itarian nature o! demo)ra)+ as &rone to disso.4e se.!/interest in the &ani) and disorder )hara)teristi) o! )ro1d &s+)ho.o(+2 3his ).aim )annot -e O&ro4ed; -ut it mi(ht -e su&&orted -+ e4iden)e a-out ho1 .i-era. demo)ra)+ desi(nated itse.! as an a-so.ute a.ternati4e2 3he Co.d War 1as not on.+ a stru((.e a(ainst tota.itarianism0 -ut 1as a.so &rimari.+ a de!en)e o! the .i-era. mode. o! demo)ra)+ as a uni4ersa. 4a.ue2 A))ordin( to Louis HartI;s stud+ o! the .i-era. tradition
<>"
in the 9nited :tates0 demo)ratisation in that )ountr+ em&hasised the resu.t o! re4o.ution on indi4idua. O!reedom;2 3o)Due4i..e;s )entra. insi(ht / that it 1as the 9nited :tates; (reat ad4anta(e that it did not ha4e Oto endure a demo)rati) re4o.ution; / has -een a.. -ut !or(otten2 @= In the a-sen)e o! the need !or a so)ia. re4o.ution !or the sake o! &o.iti)a. eman)i&ation0 this demo)rati)a..+ -orn )ountr+ had .itt.e sensiti4it+ to so)ia. (rie4an)es and their &o.iti)a. )onseDuen)es2 3he &s+)ho.o(i)a. herita(e o! a nation O-orn eDua.; &rodu)ed .i-era. a-so.utism as a !rame o! mind0 1hi)h in a 1ar o! ideo.o(ies 1ou.d ha4e t1o automati) e!!e)tsP it ham&ers )reati4e a)tion a-road -+ identi!+in( the a.ien 1ith the uninte..i(i-.e0 and it ins&ires h+steria at home -+ (eneratin( the an5iet+ that uninte..i(i-.e thin(s &rodu)e2 3he a((ressi4e anti/)ommunism o! the 9nited :tates in the a-sen)e o! a )on)rete mi.itar+ )on!rontation 1ith the :o4iet 9nion 1as -ased on the &er4asi4e !ear o! )onta(ion 1ith the disease o! )ommunism2 @" 3he !ear o! )onta(ion -e)ame mani!est in the h+steria o! the ORed :)are;0 1hen M)Carth+ism made .i-era. a-so.utism a tota.it+ a(ainst the mena)e o! tota.itarianism2 3he !ear o! the )onta(ion -+ the OOther; has -een )on/ stituti4e !or the re&resentations o! )ommunism in the West as the Oe4i. em&ire; as 1e.. as !or the as)endan)+ o! the West as an em&ire o! the mind in )ommunist )ountries2 When the nation rises to an irrationa. anti/ )ommunist !renI+0 it re&.ies to the same instin)t0 1hi)h tends to a.ienate it !rom Western demo)rati) (o4ernments that are Oso)ia.ist;2 When it ).oses do1n dissent0 it ans1ers the same im&u.se that ins&ires it to de!ine du-ious re(imes e.se1here as Odemo)rati);2 3his is the &e)u.iar .ink that a .i-era. )ommunit+ !or(es -et1een the 1or.d and the domesti) &i)tureP its a-so.ute &ers&e)ti4e0 its OAmeri)anism;2@< Western demo)ra)ies under the .eadershi& o! the 9nited :tates 1ere en(a(ed not on.+ in a stru((.e !or s&heres o! &o.iti)a. in!.uen)e or e)o/ nomi) and mi.itar+ as)endan)+2 *emo)ra)+ 1as a.so turned into a &re/ s)ri&ti4e idea.0 standin( !or a mora..+ su&erior a.ternati4e )i4i.isationa. truth and sour)e o! authorit+2 3he ossi!i)ation o! the Co.d War )on!irmed Fennan;s intuition that the Ameri)ans had !ai.ed in their e!!ort to a4oid )onta(ion 1ith the 4irus o! tota.itarianism2 3he .on( &ost/1ar stru((.e a(ainst the :o4iet 9nion and its a..ies 1ou.d e4en 4indi)ate the a.i(nment
Louis HartI0 The %i3eral Tradition in America 6Me1 YorkP Har4est0 ">@@70 ?@2 Arno.d 3o+n-ee0 OLookin( ,a)k Ei!t+ Years;0 in Ro+a. Institute o! Internationa. A!!airs0 ed20 The Impact o$ the #ussian #evolution *+*5-*+-5! The In$luence o$ 8olshevism on the 0orld /utside #ussia 6O5!ordP O5!ord 9ni4ersit+ 8ress0 ">BC70 "/?"2 @< HartI0 The %i3eral Tradition in America0 <A@2
@= @"
<><
1ith the demo)rati) )am& o! una-ashed di)tatorshi&s su)h as those in Indonesia0 :outh Forea0 3ai1an0 :outh Vietnam0 and Chi.e2 3he Co.d War 1as a.so a stru((.e o4er the &o.iti)a. o1nershi& o! the notion o! demo)ra)+ and a))ounts !or its sa.ien)+ a)ross the 1or.d2 @? Whi.e -e!ore ">"C the 9nited :tates had &romoted re4o.utionar+ mo4ements o! nationa. .i-eration0 a!ter the rise o! ,o.she4ism the ma%or/ it+ o! Ameri)ans re(arded anti/Russian attitudes as a -ad(e o! res&e)t/ a-i.it+2 Whi.e t1o 1or.d 1ars a(ainst Herman mi.itarism 1ere !o..o1ed0 in the !irst )ase0 -+ Ameri)an iso.ationism and0 in the se)ond0 -+ West Herman+;s inte(ration in the Western 1or.d0 ,o.she4ism 1as shunned .ike an in!e)tious disease2 Whi.e the !ear o! )onta(ion -et1een Western demo)ra)ies and the )ommunist hemis&here 1as -ased on h+&otheti)a. assum&tions0 it shou.d not -e !or(otten that demo)ra)+ at the end o! the :e)ond Wor.d War in other &arts o! 'uro&e 1as !ar !rom -ein( O)on/ so.idated;0 i! an+ measure o! )om&arison is a&&.ied2 Hi4en the stron( )ommunist &arties in Eran)e and Ita.+0 !or instan)e0 !ears o! their &oten/ tia. 4i)tor+ in e.e)tions 1ere 4er+ rea.2 3he threat o! )onta(ion 1ith the tota.itarian enem+ rein!or)ed a uni/ 4ersa. a&&ea. o! the 4a.ues o! .i-era. demo)ra)+2 3he Oim&eria. modern/ isation; o! )ommunist &o1er as a &ra)ti)e )on)ea.ed the a-so.utism o! .i-era.ism at the .e4e. o! s+m-o.i) re&resentation2 ConseDuent.+0 !orms o! so)ia.ist demo)ra)+ )ou.d -e re!ormed on.+ -+ .i-era.isation -e!ore -ein( institutiona..+ trans&osed into .i-era. t+&es o! demo)ra)+2 3his is remi/ nis)ent o! Car. :)hmitt;s &oint that 1a(in( 1ars in the name o! humanit+ is not 1ar !or the sake o! humanit+2 Rather0 a state )an usur& the uni4ersa. )on)e&t o! humanit+ !or the &ur&ose o! se.!/identi!i)ation 1ith humanit+0 &ea)e0 %usti)e0 &ro(ress0 or )i4i.isation0 thus den+in( these to the enem+ or mi.itar+ o&&onent2@4 3he &otentia.it+ o! )onta(ion -et1een the t1o re(imes a..o1s the )on%e)ture that )ommunism )ontained demo)ra)+2 Here0 the e5).usi4e meanin( rests u&on the understandin( that )ommunism &re4ented re&/ resentati4e &ar.iamentar+ institutions and a )onstitutiona..+ (uaranteed !rame1ork o! ru.e o! .a1 !rom -ein( esta-.ished as a (o4ernmenta. &ra)ti)e2 ,+ disso.4in( the Constituent Assem-.+ in Januar+ ">"A and -+ th1artin( &art+ )om&etition and !ree e.e)tions a.most e4er+1here in eastern 'uro&e0 the ,o.she4iks )ontained demo)ra)+2 Yet0 )ommunism a.so )ontained demo)ra)+ in a se)ond0 in).usi4e0 meanin(2 3he &o.iti)a.
@? @4
John *unn0 Setting the People 'ree! The Story o$ Democracy 6LondonP At.anti) ,ooks0 <==@70"@C/A2 Car. :)hmitt0 The Concept o$ the Political 6Chi)a(oP 9ni4ersit+ o! Chi)a(o 8ress0 ">>B70 @42
<>?
s+m-o.ism o! )ommunism im&osed a ).ass/-ased mode. o! tota.it+ in the 8eo&.e/as/One0 1hi)h 1ou.d a&&ro&riate tota. )ontro. o4er so)iet+0 set its .a1s0 rede!ine its &ast0 and &redi)t its !uture2 Communism a&&eared in O-a)k1ard; and Ounderde4e.o&ed; )ountries and .asted !or .on(er than the MaIism and !as)ism0 not .east -e)ause it es&oused demo)rati) 4a.ues and tended to a4oid rather than seek internationa. 1ar2 It insisted that the 4io.ent re)astin( o! so)iet+ 1as the 1a+ to a)hie4e (enuine .i-ert+0 eDua.it+0 and !raternit+ 1hi.e )at)hin( u& 1ith the 1or.d .eaders o! industria. de4e.o&ment2 A.thou(h the se.!/assessment o! )ommunist re(imes as &eo&.e;s demo)ra)ies 1as o!ten ridi)u.ed0 )ommunism -eDueathed s+m-o.s su)h as the di)tatorshi& o! the &ro.etariat or the transition to )ommunism as 1e.. as an un!u.!i..ed desire !or demo)ra)+2 3he a-sen)e o! &o.iti)a. demo)ra)+ as an institutiona.ised .o(i) o! the .i-era. t+&e must not -e redu)ed to a (enera. ).aim a-out eastern 'uro&e;s undemo)rati) tradition2 Communist .eaders ).aimed to em-od+ true demo)ra)+P not -e)ause o! a su-stantia. )ontri-ution to &o.iti)a. demo)ra)+0 -ut -e)ause this ).aim 1as &art o! the e5istentia. stru((.e !or .e(itimisin( &o1er domesti)a..+ and !or a)hie4in( interna/ tiona. re)o(nition2@@ 3his se.!/assessment as true demo)ra)+ and the simu.taneous .e(itima)+ )risis 1as not sim&.+ meanin(.ess -ut !ormed the -a)k(round -e!ore 1hi)h )ommunism;s dou-.e -ind as a ruth.ess &o1er s+stem and its &o.iti)a. s+m-o.ism o! the 8eo&.e/as/One in a transition to )ommunism )oa.es)e2 3he &re)ondition !or demo)ratisation under )ommunism 1as the de4e.o&ment o! a mora. )ode that rein!or)ed the e(a.itarian 4a.ue o! the human -ein( and the res&e)t !or -are .i!e a(ainst the sa)ri!i)ia. and ritua.isti) .o(i) o! )ommunist &o1er2 Ho1 )ou.d indi4idua. mora. )odes o4er)ome the ritua.isti) )ommunist ma)hiner+ o! 4io.en)e and 4en(e/ an)eQ Anti/&o.iti)s in eastern 'uro&e &ursued a meanin(!u. .i!e -+ o4er/ )omin( the distortion o! rea.it+ throu(h indi4idua. a)ts in e4er+da+ rea.it+2 3he startin( &oint !or a di4or)e !rom the .o(i) o! )on!ormism is the de)ision to sto& .+in(2 @B 3he attem&t to o4er)ome the )orru&tion o! e4er+da+ .i!e in )ommunist rea.it+ )ame do1n to the desire !or the Odestati!i)ation; o! the so)ia. rea.it+ )reated -+ )ommunist &o1er2 O,e)ause &o.iti)s has !.ooded near.+ e4er+ nook and )rann+ o! our .i4es0 I 1ou.d .ike to see the !.ood re)ede2 We ou(ht to de&o.iti)ise our .i4es0 !ree them !rom &o.iti)s as !rom some )onta(ious in!e)tion2;@C 3his distin)tion
@@ @C
Le!ort0 %a complication0 "=>2 Ha4e.0 The Power o$ the Powerless0 4? H+or(+ FonraGd0 Antipolitcs! An "ssay0 trans2 !rom the Hun(arian -+ Ri)hard '2 A..en 6:an *ie(o/Me1 York/LondonP Har)ourt ,ra)e Jo4ano4i)h0 ">A470 <<>2
@B
<>4
-et1een t1o di!!erent dimensions0 t1o se&arate s&heres0 dis)onne)ted anti/&o.iti)s !rom (o4ernment2 As an a)t o! se.!/de!en)e0 an+ &ressure e5erted -+ anti/&o.iti)s is )on!ined to its )u.tura. and mora. stature a.one0 renoun)in( an+ e.e)tora. .e(itima)+2 Mu)h as the e!!i)ien)+ o! the sa)ri!i)ia. rite in &re/modern so)ieties de&ended on the unanimous &arti)i&ation o! e4er+-od+ in the )ommun/ it+0 re&resentati4e demo)ra)+ 1orks not due to a s&e)i!i) su-stan)e0 -ut on the -asis o! the &arti)i&ation o! the &u-.i) in the ritua. o! e.e)tions2 *emo)ra)+ is a ritua. o! &arti)i&ation in 1hi)h su-stantia. issues su)h as the &o&u.ar 1i.. are s+m-o.i)a..+ )ru)ia. !or maintainin( &o&u.ar so4er/ ei(nt+ as ena-.in( the di4ision o! .a-our o! e.ites )om&etin( !or &o1er2 Ho1e4er0 1hen this 4er+ so4erei(nt+ is su&&osed to mani!est itse.! in the a)t o! 4otin(0 the su-stan)e o! &o&u.ar 1i..0 so)ia. so.idarities0 and )i4i) identities is disso.4ed2 In the un)ertaint+ o! the demo)rati) de)ision0 num-ers re&.a)e su-stan)e in the mathemati)a. e5er)ise o! )ountin( 4otes2@A ,e!ore Odemo)rats; res&e)t &o.iti)a. ri(hts0 )i4i. .i-erties0 and )onstitu/ tiona. )onstraints0 ho1e4er0 the+ must o4er)ome the in)i4i.it+ o! 4io.en)e2 Whi.e the normati4e &res)ri&tions o! demo)rati) essentia.s are use!u. to re(u.ate the 1orkin(s o! )onstituted s+stems o! &o1er0 the e5&erientia. -asis o! demo)ratisation as a &ro)ess o! meanin(/!ormation &oints to ho1 the demo)rati) s&irit is asserted throu(h the s+m-o.isation o! o!ten trau/ mati) e5&erien)es2 ,e!ore humans institutiona.ise )on!.i)t in order to a4oid ki..in( ea)h other0 4io.en)e and in)i4i.it+ must -e o4er)ome -+ -reakin( ).aims to tota. &o1er and the sa)ri!i)ia. .o(i) o! e.iminatin( enemies2 3he ha..mark o! dissiden)e !rom the )ommunist .o(i) o! &o1er 1as rooted in attitudes and -eha4iour that 1ere (rounded in indi4idua. su-%e)ti4it+0 seekin( to )ondu)t a .i!e in Duest o! truth0 in a meanin(!u. re.ation to the 1or.d2 3he under(round a)ti4ities o! dissi/ den)e -+ means o! the hidden trans)ri&t e5erted )onstant &ressure0 mu)h as a -od+ o! 1ater mi(ht &ress a(ainst a dam2 @> 3he amount o! &ressure 4aries a))ordin( to the de(ree o! shared an(er and indi(nation -ut a.so the de(ree to 1hi)h &arts o! the hidden trans)ri&t .eak throu(h and in)rease the &ro-a-i.ities o! a )om&.ete ru&ture2 ,rea)hin( the ritua.isti) and sa)ri!i)ia. .o(i) o! )ommunism reDuired re%e)tin( the identi!i)ation o! the enem+0 and the tota.isin( s+m-o.ism o! se)ond rea.it+2 Whi.e these &ro)esses o! meanin(/!ormation -e)ame di!!used into the so)ia. -od+0 the sha&in( o! the )o..e)ti4e &s+)ho.o(+ o! )itiIens re.ied u&on indi4idua. a)ts2 Mu)h as the Christian do)trine demanded tru.+ aristo)rati) Dua.ities
@A @>
C.aude Le!ort0 "ssais sur le politi7ue 68arisP :eui.0 ">AB70 ?=2 :)ott0 Domination and the Art o$ #esistance0 ">B and <">2
<>@
!or sa.4ation0 true demo)ra)+ reDuires the aristo)ra)+ o! the mind2 B= *issiden)e0 truth/te..in(0 and )ommunitarian 1a+s o! e5&erien)in( demo/ )rati) attitudes e5erted )onsidera-.e &ressure a(ainst the dams o! re&res/ sion0 -reakin( these dams and enterin( the &u-.i) s&here in &ea)e!u. re4o.utions2
B=
Ma5 We-er0 "conomy and Society! An /utline o$ Interpretive Sociology0 ed2 -+ Huenther Roth and C.aus Witti)h 6,erke.e+P 9ni4ersit+ o! Ca.i!ornia 8ress0 ">CA70 B?<R 3homas Mann0 OVom Iukun!ti(en :ie( der *emokratie;0 in "ssays0 ed2 Hermann FurIke and :te&han :ta)horski0 4o.2 IV 6Erank!urt am MainP Eis)her0 ">>@70 <<C2
Inde5
A(am-en0 Hior(io "" Akhmato4a0 Anna "CA A.-ania C<0 "4C0 "@=0 "B< A.-anians "C? Foso4o <?= A.e5ander III0 3sar @< A.e5ei II <=? A.mond0 Ha-rie. <CB Ameri)an Constitution A0 "@0 CA a)t o! !oundation o! "? !athers o! the "@0 @? Ameri)an Re4o.ution >=0 <<C ana.+ti)a. &s+)ho.o(+ C40 <4C anti/!as)ist m+th "@</B0 <??0 <A< as s+m-o.i) stru)ture "@A0 >>0 "A"0 "A40 <=@0 <>?0 <>4 Arendt0 Hannah "?0 ?>0 BB0 "B? Aristot.e ?0 "C0 "=@ Armia Fra%o1a "4B Au(ustine0 :aint "C Austria "?A0 "?> ,a-e.0 Isaak "CA ,a-eu!0 Hra))hus >= ,akunin0 Mikhai. B? ,a.)ero1i)I &.an <=B ,ateson0 Hre(or+ 4@ ,e.arus "4<0 <C? ,em0 JoGIe! "BA ,ene_0 'd4ard "4?0 "4B ,entham0 Jerem+ A" ,eria0 La4renti "B@ ,o.she4ik&o1er<@0<C0@A/B<0">40<4A0<A< rise o! """/?B ,o.she4iks <"0 440 @?0 @A/B<0 B40 B>0 ""@0 "<<0"<B0"4>0<<A0<@40<>< and the &easantr+ "<<R see Russia ,o.she4ik &art+ as a se)t ?C as ).ass enemies 4C dou-.e -ind -et1een )om&etin( demands @A/B< stru((.e !or )onso.idation o! &o1er @A/B<
tri)kster nature o! ,o.she4ik .eadershi& A=0A"0"@" ,o.tanski0 Lu) @@ ,orkenau0 EranI <@" ,osnia <A@/AB ,osnians <=? 1ar e5&erien)es in <=?0 <B= ,rest/Lito4sk "<A0 "?" treat+ o! ""? ,reIhne40 Leonid <@@ ,reIhne4 era "CC ,ro)h0 Hermann <B@ ,u%ak0 N-i(nie1 "AB ,ukharin0 Miko.ai C<0 "CA ,u.(ako40 Mikhai. "CA ,u.(aria "4@0 "4B0 "C?0 <="0 <=<0 <"< &ur(es in "@= round/ta-.e in ">? trauma o4er !ai.ed in)or&oration o! Ma)edonia "?> ,uonarroti0 Ei.i&&o Mi)he.e >= Capitalism& Socialism& and Democracy AC CeauKes)u0 Mi)o.ae "B?0 "CC0 <=C0 <<> Cer4antes0 Mi(ue. de <4B Charter CC @@0 "C"0 "AB0 ">@R See CIe)hos.o4akia Che)hn+a "AC0 <=? Cheka "< China ??0 "B< Chur)hi..0 Winston "@?0 "@B0 < demo)ra)+ as <A0 />@ theor+ o! <A= )i4i.isin( 4io.en)e <AA/>@ C.a+0 Lu)ius "@A C.ementis0 V.adimir "@=
<>B
Inde5
Co.d War <"0 <@0 <C0 A?0 A@0 ><0 "?C/B"0 "A>0<="0<C40<A<0<A>0<>=0 <>"0<>< arti)u.ation o! <@ as tota. e5terna.isation o! e4i. "@A &o.iti)a. anta(onism in <B= )o..e)ti4isation "<=0 "<40 "<@0 "<A0 "?@0"?> Comin!orm "4>0 "@= anti/Comin!ormist &ur(e "@= )ommunism <?<0 <4<0 <>=0 <>? as an enter&rise in meanin(/!ormation "?<R see meanin(/!ormation as a One1 )i4i.isation; ""C as &o.iti)a. re.i(ion0 <C0 @A0 B</C0 "<A0 "?C0<4B -reakdo1n o! ">?0 <"> )o..a&se o! "0 ?0 ??0 @@0 @A0 CB0 A?0 A@0 AA0 "=?0"B<0"AC0"A>/<"B0 <<=0 <4=0 <C"0<C@ )o..e)ti4e s+m-o.ism o! "AA demo)ra)+ as )ontainin( <>= demo)ra)+ as emer(in( 1ithin <A> desire to !or(et a-out ">4 disso.ution o! ">4 emer(en)e o! C0 ">4 e5&erientia. -asis o! 40 <>/"=C !ear o! )onta(ion 1ith "=4 histori)a. e4o.ution o! C0 >>0 <"40 <?4 in CIe)hos.o4akia <4" in eastern 'uro&e "4"/@" .e!to4ers o! ">" .e(a)+ o! A40 ">?0 <<=0 <4?0 <C< m+thi) time/dimensions under <<> m+thi)a. !oundations o! CC &ost/ AA0 ">"0 <"=0 <<=0 <<<0 <?A0 <4"0 <4<0<A@ &ro-.ematisation o! "/<A re4o.utionar+ 4C0 <@< :o4iet B>0 "<<0 "<40 "?A0 "4=0 "@?0 "CC0 "A>0<<A0<B"0<CC0<>= transition to C?0 C40 <4@0 <>?R See transition )ommunist &o1er C>0 A=0 A"0 ""?0 "B40 "A=0"AB0<<=0<<A0<@A0<BB0 <BA0 0<C?0<A<0<>=0<><0<>? )ha..en(es to <<0 <@0 A<0 "B</40 "BC0 <"B0<<= )onstituti4e !oundations to @A te)hniDues o! C"0 A<0 "==0 <A< theorisation on A@ Comte0 Au(uste B? )on)e&tua. histor+ <@ Con(ress o! 8eo&.e;s *e&uties ">B0 <=A0 <B4 Russian <B4
<>C
Conrad0 Jose&h """ )ons)iousness "?0 "B0 <40 ?<0 ?B0 ?>0 B40A>0>C0>>0"=<0"B?0<">0 <4B0<C> a.ternati4e <4<0 <B@ anti/tota.itarian <B< )i4i) <4 )o..e)ti4e <0 <<=0 <4?0 <440 <B"0<B@0<BB e5&erientia. -asis o! <C !ormation o! @=/C histori)a. <<<0 <<A0 <?" indi4idua. <<"0 <?4 intentiona. @"0 <4C interna. trans!ormations at .e4e. o! @= m+thi)a. <?= nationa. "??0 "?A0 <<B0 <?B ne1 states o! B0 C o! a s&.it -et1een !irst and se)ond rea.it+ <4BR see alsose)ond rea.it+ o! heroi) indi4idua.s 44 o! the masses <4 &o.iti)a. <C0 ""B &o&u.ar "== &o1er o! <A re.+in( u&on e5&erien)es o! )ommunities o! !ate "> re4o.utionar+ @A ru&ture o! e.ite 4 se)ond dimension o! @"0 @< se.e)ti4e <4B se.!/ A<0 >4 so)ia. di!!usion o! demo)rati) <B= trans!ormation o! B0 @B0 <<?0 <B<0 <BB0<AC t1o stru)tures o! @" )onstituent &o1er >0 ""0 "<0 "B0 >?0 <"@ am-i4a.en)e o! >? &ermanent re4o.ution as s+m-o.isin( "" )onstituted &o1er A0 >0 ""0 "<0 <"B0<A4 s+stem o! "A? O)onstitutiona. moment; e5&erientia. -asis o! the <"4/"B )onstituti4e &o.iti)s B !ai.ure o! CB/A< stru)tura. 1eakness o! )ommunism and !ai.ure o! @A )ontainment &o.i)+ o! "@B/>0 <>= )ounter/re4o.ution 440 @?0 ""<0 "<B0 "4@0<?@ :ta.inism as <"R see also :ta.inism
<>A
Inde5
-et1een the 1ars <C@ Charter CC @@0 "C"0 "AB0 ">@ )o..a&se o! )ommunism in <B@ Oh+&hen de-ate; in <?C memories o! re4o.ution in <<< Mo4em-er ">A> in <=> odsun in "4? &ath o! norma.isation a!ter ">BA "BC &ost/">BA "BC :o4iet inter4ention in "C" traumati) e5&erien)es in histor+ "?> t1o rea.ities in ">BA @4 4e.4et re4o.ution in <=BR See re4o.ution *ar1in0 Char.es <B? demo)ra)+ Ameri)an >= an)ient "=" and -are .i!e as hi(hest 4a.ue "</"? and disso.ution o! Omarkers o! )ertaint+; "= and su-%e)ti4it+ <A?/AA and do)trine o! Odemo)rati) )onso.idation; <0 <A0 AA0 0 <C<0 <CC0 <C> and the em&t+ s&a)e o! &o1er "=/"" as Oa))ident o! histor+; < as an ur(ent ho&e "=< as -+/&rodu)t o! Western )i4i.isation "=B as )i4i.isin( !or)e "=C0 <B@0 <A4 as )i4i.isin( &ro)ess />@R see also )i4i.isin( &ro)ess as de4e.o&menta. (oa. <0 ">0 AA0 <C=0<C> as eDui4a.ent to the (ood so)iet+ in o&eration "=4 as &res)ri&ti4e idea. <>" as &ro)ess o! meanin(/!ormation <</C0 <"C/>@R see also meanin(/!ormation as ritua. o! &arti)i&ation <>4 as s+m-o. <=> as transhistori)a. 4a.ue "" as on.+ (ame in to1n AC0 <C"0 <C@ at 1ar >< Athenian "=@0 <A40 <AC O)ausa.it+; o! @ )i4i. so)iet+ and <C< )i4i.it+ as &rodu)t o! demo)ra)+ <AA ).assi)a. do)trine o! B<0 >? )on)e&tua. )on!usion and disarra+ a-out ? )onso.idation o! AA0 ">" )onstitutiona. >40 >C0 "?> )onstitutiona. !oundation o! modern "" dark sides o! "?0 <A@ dire)t "<?
)riti)a. e4ents <C0 4<0 <4C0 <AB0 <A> a)tion in 4"0 4? and their s+m-o.isations "@/<<0 "=>/<"B0 <A"0 <>=R see also s+m-o.isation -ound.essness o! !.uidit+ o! 44/@= in/de&th studies o! 4= mode..in( &o1er o! 44/@= &o.iti)a. a)tors in @? s+m-o.s o! <<4R see also )riti)a. e4ents under )ommunism <<"/< )riti)a. %un)tures B0 C0 ?>0 4? )ontentious meanin(s o! <<= !.uidit+ o! <A= Croatia "4B0 <@B0 <@> OCroatian; <@B Croatian 9sta_a <?< Croatian/:er-ian )on!.i)t <@B )u.t o! the .eader B<0 C4 )u.ture ""0 "B0 "A0 <B0 B<0 B40 BA0 "=B0 "@40 <""0 <4@0 <@"0 <BB0 <A@ a.ternati4e &o.iti)a. )u.ture in Russia <C< as a !a)tor o! &o.iti)s in eastern 'uro&e A@ authoritarian &o.iti)a. ">= authoritarian &o.iti)a. )u.ture in Russia A@0 <<=0 <C@ )i4i. <C=0 <CC )u.ture/oriented a&&roa)hes to demo)ratisation <C< demo)ra)+ as de&endent on &rereDuisites o! &o.iti)a. <CB demo)ra)+ as rooted in an essen)e o! <C< demo)rati) >< !orms o! autonom+ in :o4iet 9nion and im&ermea-i.it+ o! "?@ !oundation o! )u.ture "B nationa.isation o! "4< o! .ies <<A &o.iti)a. )u.ture in eastern 'uro&e and Russia "=? &o.iti)a. )u.ture o! dissiden)e "A< &o1er o! <<@ Russian &o.iti)a. <?A :o4ietisation o! "4> t1o )u.tures in &ost/1ar West Herman+ <?" CIe)h Re&u-.i) <=40 <"<0 <4" CIe)hos.o4akia 4A0 "?A0 "4"0 "4A0 "@=0 "B=0 "B?0 "BC0 "C"0 "A<0 "A@0 "AB0 <=B0 <""0 <"B0 <<A0 <?@0 <4=0 <4"0 <C@ ">4@ in "4? ">BA in @40 "=<0 "BC
Inde5
demise o! s+m-o.s o! <=4/"" emer(en)e o! 40 <</A0 <4<0 <B?0 0 <CC/>@ em&iri)a. theories o! AC em&iri)a. theorisation a!ter :e)ond Wor.d War <CB essen)e o! >> essentia.s o! <C<0 <A4 e5&erientia. -asis o! 40 <>/"=C O!rom s)rat)h; <C? (.o-a. )on4er(en)e o! AA histori)a. )om&osition o! meanin(s o! R see also meanin(/!ormation idea.ised ima(es o! "C4 identities 1ith <4@ ideo.o(i)a. di4ide -et1een .i-era. and &eo&.e;s "B" im&eria.ist >" in America ? in )ommunist 'uro&e "=? in eastern 'uro&e -e!ore ">A> A4 in Russia <C"R see also Russia Lenin;s )ritiDue o! &ar.iamentar+ CB .i-era.R see .i-era. demo)ra)+ Lin)o.n;s ).assi)a. s+nthesis o! >40 >A .inka(e -et1een Athenian and modern "=@ ma5ima.ist a&&roa)h to <C" meanin( o! demokratiia durin( Russian Re4o.ution "?< meanin(s in histor+ o! )on)e&t o! "== meanin(s o! <</A0 A>0 "==/C ">40 <"B0 <BBR see also meanin(/!ormation minima.ist a&&roa)h to <C" mirrored o&&osition -et1een )ommunism and <40 A? Onon/demo)ra)+; 40 <C@ normati4e mode. o! !u.. &o.iti)a. <C> ori(ins o! ?< out)ome o! &o.iti)a. ">? &arado5 o! modern "? &eo&.e;s >"0 >?0 "=40 "4"0 "@40 "B" &o.+ar)ha. mode. o! <C" &ost/">4> Herman <C@ &re)onditions !or )onso.idated demo)ra)+ <C" &ro-.ematisation o! "/<A O&ro)edura.; a&&roa)h to <C= Orea.ist; theor+ o! <A? re4o.utionar+ >" so)ia. "? :o4iet CB0 "?<0 <CA s&iritua. !oundations o! "B< s+m-o.i) arti)u.ation o! <4 s+m-o.i) !oundations o! <0 <"4
<>>
s+m-o.s o! <A0 ">40 <=4/""R see also s+m-o.s Otheories; o! demo)ra)+ <CB tota.itarian >"/<0 "?" t1o t+&es o! ><0 <CA uto&ian ur(e !or @@0 <B? 4a.ues o! re&resentati4e <C? 1a4es o! <A= Western/t+&e mode.s o! " demo)rati) determinism roots o! A4/A> demo)rati) essentia.ism <0 /CC demo)rati) trans!ormations "0 40 <"0 <C0 AC drama o! A>/>? e5&erientia. -asis o! <A> demo)ratisation <0 @0 B0 "@0 ">0 <"0 <<0 <B0 <A0 @@0 @B0 BA0 A40 AA0 >=0 >40 >@0 >B0 "==0 "?C0 "@A0 "BB0 ">?0 ">40 ">B0 <=>0 <"?0 <">0 <??0 <4<0 <440 <@>0 <B<0 <B?0 <BA0 />@ as a (oa. o! de4e.o&ment AA as histori)a. !or)e ">= as &ro)ess o! mo4ement to1ards an undetermined out)ome "=4 as resu.t o! &eo&.e;s memories <"B O)entra. 'uro&e; as s+m-o. o! <"= !our roads o! "=?0 <"< in the West AA0 >4 o! meanin(s o! demo)ra)+ <""/"4 &o.iti)a. s&iritua.it+ o! <4<R see also &o.iti)a. s&iritua.it+ &o.iti)a. s+m-o.ism o! <??R see also &o.iti)a. s+m-o.ism so)ia. !oundations o! A? s+m-o.s o! <"= 1a4e6s7 o! AA0 <CC/A? Ye.tsin and ">B de/:ta.inisation A<0 "="0 "B4/B0 "A@0 ">?0 <<A0<??0<4<0<B?0<A< a!ter ">@B "BB !irst <"0 "B@0 <<4 in the :o4iet 9nion << si.ent "B4 s&ontaneous "B= *e1e+0 John A? di)tatorshi& o! the &ro.etariat 440 @?0 C=0>C0""@/<<0 "<?0 "?"0 "?<0 ">40<A< as re&resentationa. &rin)i&.e "< as s+m-o. o! )ommunism <"0 <C0 BB0 B>0 C=0<>? *i.the+0 Wi.he.m B
?==
Inde5
inter/1ar &eriod in "?C memor+ in &ost/)ommunist <?"0 <4< nationa. )ommunism in "@<0 "C@R see also nationa. )ommunism MaIi o))u&ation o! "4" &eo&.e;s demo)ra)ies in "=4 &.anned e)onom+ in &ost/1ar "4= &o.iti)a. identities in )ommunist <4@ &ur(es in "@= re(ime )han(e in ">@ re4o.utions in ">A> ?" :e)ond Wor.d War in "?C/4" :o4iet in!.uen)e into "?C :o4iet mi.itar+ e5&ansion into "4A/> 4io.en)e and retri-ution in &ost/1ar "44 '.ias0 Mor-ert <BB0 <A" )on)e&t o! dua./!ront strata 4> )onstitution o! &o.iti)a. su-%e)ts throu(h e5&erien)e B indi4idua.s as homines aperti <A" theor+ o! the )i4i.isin( &ro)ess <A=/" 'man)i&ation 8ro).amation o! "AB? >= emer(en)e o! the O&eo&.e; >?/"== em&t+ s&a)e o! &o1er 40 <C0 ?<0 4"0 4<0 ><0>B0>A0>>0"=<0"B40">?0 <<40 <BAR see also &o1er 'n(e.s0 Eriedri)h C= 'n.i(htenment "C0 B=0 >=0 >" and notions o! demo)ra)+ A> and )onstru)tion o! eastern 'uro&e A4 'stonia "4>0 <4< e4ents/that/mode. 4>0 <<? memor+ in <?AR see also memor+ re4o.utions as 4> e5istentia. re&resentation <"0 <<0 BA0 A=0 <"B0<440<A? and dissiden)e "A? disinte(ration o! B> memor+ and <4= the 8eo&.e/as/One and A< e5&erien)e6s7 <"0 <?<0 <B? and )onstitution o! &o.iti)a. su-%e)ts B and demo)rati) trans!ormations A?/"=C and !ormation o! )ons)iousness @=/C and non/4io.en)e "AB and trans!ormations under )ommunism <"4 )ommunist @0 "=C )om&arati4e t+&o.o(+ o! 0 "4= !un)tions o! <<4R see also em&t+ s&a)e o! &o1er .a)k o! demo)rati) ">"
dissiden)e 40 <40 <@0 <B0 A<0 "C<0 "C?0 "C40 "CB0"CC0"A=/A40 "AC0 <<"0 <@>0 <B?0<BC0<AB0<>40<>@ anti/)ommunist "== arti)u.ation o! "B</AA0 <<=0 <BC as e5istentia..+ re&resentati4e <"BR see also e5istentia. re&resentation as &ro)ess o! meanin(/!ormation <4 as Duest !or meanin( <A as s+m-o.i) stru)ture <B? )i4i.isationa. e!!ort o! "AA demo)ratisin( e!!ort o! >> e5&erientia. -asis o! "C?0 <BC herita(e o! <=@ in eastern 'uro&e >A0 <BA0 <A<R see eastern 'uro&e Oindi4idua.ism; o! <B@ .a)k o! re4o.utionar+ uto&ia <4 &o.iti)s o! "A< Russian "AC di4ision o! t1o 1or.ds "@"/> in Co.d War <C *%i.as0 Mi.o4an "C> *o-r+0 Mi)he. "40 4< *osto+e4sk+0 E+odor ?" dou-.e/-ind theor+ 4@/C *raku.i)G0:.a4enka<"= dua. &o1er 4?0 @40 >@0 >B0 ""</"@0 "<<R see &o1er *u-)Wek0 A.e5ander "C= *u&u+0 Jean/8ierre <A> *urkheim0 'mi.e <B"0 <B< *IerIhinsk+0 Ee.iks "0 "B=0 ">40 ">A0<=<0<=@0<""0<<=0<<"0 <<C0 <?40<@"0<@C0<@A0<B?0<C40 <CA0 <AB0<AC0<>=0<>< ">A> in ">< a!ter )o..a&se o! )ommunism <=> and Western historio(ra&h+ A4 anti/&o.iti)s in >>0 <>? -a)k1ardness in <=4 )arni4a. o! re4o.ution in ">@ )ha..en(es to )ommunist &o1er in "B</4 )ommunist m+ths o! 1ar in "@4 )onstitutions in <"4 )u.ture as !a)tor o! &o.iti)s in A@ demo)ra)+ and market )a&ita.ism in <C> dissiden)e in >A0 <BA0 <A<R see also dissiden)e e)onomi) re!orms in ?4 esta-.ishment o! )ommunist ru.e in "4"/@" histor+ o! state/!ormation in 4B ima(es o! the West in "A?
Inde5
.imina. <C0 @=0 @>0 >@ .i4ed/throu(h @=0 <<? .o(i)s o! ?A/4" m+th as o-%e)ti!i)ation o! so)ia. C@ O)to-er Re4o.ution as on(oin( ""C o! ">A> <"" o! -a)k1ardness in Russia C? o! -reakdo1n o! )ommunism ">< o! )ommunities o! !ate ">0 "AB0 <<40 <AC o! demo)rati) trans!ormations A?/"=C o! de/:ta.inisation "BB o! disso.ution o! order "C o! Odou-.in( o! the se.!; "CA o! e5istentia. un)ertaint+ <A@ o! !or(ettin( <A> in CIe)hos.o4akia <=B o! state disinte(ration in eastern 'uro&e "?A o! 4i)timhood under tsarism ""C o! 4i)timisation 4@/4B o! 1ar in eastern 'uro&e "4" o! 1ar in Russia !rom O-e.o1; "B= &o.iti)a. anthro&o.o(+ o! trans!ormati4e 4/A0 <4@0 <A4R see also &o.iti)a. anthro&o.o(+ &ost/)ommunist <C4 &rima)+ o! histori)a. e4ents as <<= re4o.utionaries and &re4ious <@< re4o.utions as .imina. >@ se)u.arisation o! re.i(ious B4 :o.idarnoG)G as )ommunit+ "== s&a)e o! <@</? su-%e)ti4it+ o! 4"R see alsosu-%e)ti4it+ s+m-o.isation o! ">/<<0 <CC s+m-o.isation o! 1ar "B= s+m-o.isations o! re4o.utionar+ "C? the &o.iti)a. as C trans!ormati4e B0 <B0 <"40 <<40 <CC traumati) "B0 <B0 4"0 "?>0 "B?0 <<B0 <<C0 <440<@>0<AC0<>4 e5&erientia. -asis o! histor+ >>0 <C> !antas+ thinkin( <4C Eier.in(er0 NdeneWk "4? Eirst Wor.d War B@0 ""<0 ""?0 ""40 ""@0 ""C0"<C0"?A authorit+ 4a)uum a!ter 4? &o&u.ation (ro1th in Russia -e!ore "<C radi)a.isation o! the masses a!ter "?> re4o.utionar+ messianism in Russia -e!ore B@ tsarism at the out-reak o! ""4 E.ora0 Joa)him o! B?
?="
!.uid )on%un)tures "@0 <C0 4=0 4<0 @@0 @B and their s+m-o.i) Ostru)tures; "4R see also s+m-o.s means/to/end )onte5t o! @C seDuen)e o! <CA Eou)au.t0 Mi)he. B0 A" )onstitution o! &o.iti)a. su-%e)ts throu(h e5&erien)e B histor+ as introdu)in( dis)ontinuit+ in our -ein( C Eran)e 4B0 ""<0 <>< )onstitutiona. &ro)ess -et1een "CA> and "C>""@ demo)ratisation in AA esta-.ishment o! .i-era. demo)rati) re(ime in "=B Ja)o-ins in ""C memor+ in &ost/1ar <?> m+th o! an anti/!as)ist <?> &ost/1ar &ur(es <?> so)ia. re4o.ution in ?? 3hird 'state in BA Vi)h+ rV(ime in <?> 1ork o! memor+ in <?> Eren)h Re4o.ution >0 ?"0 440 @?0 B"0 A>0 >=0 >"0"<B0"A>0<<C0<@"0<@<0 <@?0 <CA0<A< Heminder ,edri)h "@= Heor(ia <"< Herman+ C@0 AA0 >?0 "=40 ""40 "?C0 "4=0 "4<0"4@0"4B0"@B0"@A0"A@0 "C40 <=C0<<?0<C@ anti/!as)ist m+th in <?< )omin( to terms 1ith &ast in <?" distin)tion -et1een O(ood; and Oe4i.; "=B di4ision o! "?C dua. &o1er in 4?R see also dua. &o1er 'ast "@@0 "B@0 "CB Eedera. Re&u-.i) o! "@@0 <?" O!or(otten; Ho.o)aust in <<C mass mo-i.isation in 'ast <=C memor+ in &ost/1ar <?= memor+ o! Aus)h1itI in <<C MaIi B@0 ><0 "440 "4@0 "@C0 "@A0 "C4 &ost/)ommunist 'ast 4A0 "@@0 "@A0 "B@0 <?"0<CB0<>< &ost/1ar West "4C0 <<C so)ia.ist traditions o! "@@ Weimar BA West "@A0 "B@0 <?>0 <@=0 <C@0 <>< Hett+s-ur( address >40 <AC Hheor(hiu/*e%0 Hheor(he "@4 Hierek0 'd1ard "A4
?=<
Inde5
in!ra&o.iti)s in "A@0 <B4R see also in!ra&o.iti)s in 8o.and "CB resistan)e in "=C truth!u. .i!e in <B@ hidden trans)ri&t "A@0 <>4 Hirs)hman0 A.-ert "A40 <A4 Hit.er0 Ado.! "4"0 "4C0 <@4 anti/!as)ist m+th in 'ast Herman+ <?? anti/Hit.er )oa.ition "B= atta)k on :o4iet 9nion in ">4" "@B demands !or .i4in( s&a)e in the 'ast "?A Ho--es0 3homas "C/"A0 <4> Ho--esian eDui.i-rium o! !ear <C< indi4idua.ist !oundation o! &o.iti)a. order <4> %eviathan ""0 "A se.!/&reser4ation as !oundation o! &o.iti)s "? Ho.o)aust <<C0 <?>0 <A@ Horth+0 Mik.oG "4C re(ime o! "4> Ho5ha0 'n4er "4C Hun(ar+ "<>0 "?A/>0 "440 "4B0 "4C0 "B=0 "B@0<<@0<?@0<4" authorit+ 4a))um in ">@B "C< ).ea4a(e -et1een state and so)iet+ "BC )ontinuin( .e(itimation )risis o! )ommunist &o1er "B? )ontinuit+ in )onstitutiona. order a!ter ">A><"B demo)rati) -reakthrou(h in ">A> <=B dissiden)e in "A" e)onomi) )risis a!ter Eirst Wor.d War "?> e.ites durin( :e)ond Wor.d War "4A memories o! ">@B re4o.ution <<<0 <<@0 <?@ mora. )o..a&se o! authorit+ -e!ore ">@B"BA ne(otiated re4o.ution in <=C0 <=> &o.iti)a. demo)ra)+ a!ter ">A> ">< &o.iti)a. re&ression in ear.+ ">@=s "4>0 "BC &re/">A> <?@ &ur(es a!ter :e)ond Wor.d War "4>0 "@= re4o.ution o! ">@B 4?0 4>0 @40 "=<0 "BC/C=R see alsore4o.ution round/ta-.e in ">?0 <""R see alsoround/ ta-.e &a)ts :o4iet in4asion in "A@ 1ar a..ian)e 1ith MaIi Herman+ "4B 1ar e)onom+ in "4" HusaGk0 Husta4 "AC identi!i)ation o! the enem+ <B0 BC/C<0 "<@0 "@40<4@0<A<0<A@0<>4
Hirard0 RenV "B/"A0 <4BR see also mimeti) theor+ glasnost ">=0 ">40 ">@0 ">>0 <"B Hnosti)ism s&iritua.it+ B?0 "@A s+m-o.s o! B4 HomuLka WLad+sLa1 "BA Hor-a)he40 Mikhai. "=<0 "AC0 ">@0 ">B0 ">C0">A0<=@0<=C0<=>0<@@ and the 9nion treat+ ">A )ommitment to non/4io.en)e "A@ )u.tura. re4o.ution ">@ era ?C0 <=? perestroika "=<0 "BB0 ">=0 ">4/C0 <""0 <"B0<B4 &o.i)+ o! non/inter4ention "B<0 "A@ &ro(ramme o! demo)ratisation "BB0">B rise to &o1er in ">A@ "BB Ii(Ia( &o.i)ies in ">>= and ">>" ">A Hork+0 Ma5im A" Hreat ,ritain "4@0 <@? demo)ratisation in AA Hreat Eather.and War <"0 C40 "@40 "B=0 "CC0<<C0<?A0<B= Hreat 3error 4C0 C"0 "<40 "<@0 "<A0 "?@0 "?B0"4=0<<A Hree)e an)ient ""0 A>0 >"0 "=B Hrossman0 Vasi.+ AB0 "<@ HroIa0 8etru "@= Hu.a( "4"0 "AC0 <B4 a!ter ">4@ "4A de&ortations o! entire &o&u.ations into <<A 1a4e o! .i-erations !rom "B@ 1ulag Archipelago "?B0 "@4 manus)ri&t o! :o.Ihenit+n;s "AB ha3eas corpus A)t o! "BC> "" HaG)ha0 'mi. "4B HartI0 Louis <>= Ha4e.0 VaG).a4 AB0 "A"0 "A<0 "AB0 <=@0 <B@0<BB He(e.0 Heor( Wi.he.m Eriedri)h "? .e(a)+ <=" &eriodisation o! histor+ B? se&aration o! state and re.i(ion B= hidden s&here "A"0 "AA0 <?@ and )onstitution o! su-%e)ti4it+ "A<R see also su-%e)ti4it+ and &o1er o! &o1er.ess <?@ and &o1er o! 4oi)e "A@ and 8ra(ue s&rin( "C=
Inde5
identit+/!ormation <44/B and se)ond rea.it+ <@@/B= Indonesia <>< in!ra&o.iti)s <AC in the hidden s&here "A@0 <B4R see also hidden s&here inter/di4idua.it+ 4C inter/menta. &s+)ho.o(+ <B<0 <B4 Ita.+ >?0 "?C0 <C<0 <>< Isaa)0 Je!!re+ <A@ I4an IV20 3sar <?A James0 Wi..iam @B Ja&an >?0 "?C0 "@? Jesus "A Fa GdaGr0 JanoG "B?0 "B> en.i(htened des&otism o! "C? restoration a!ter ">@B "B> Fant0 Immanue. <@? .e(a)+ <=" reason as !oundation o! &o.iti)s "? un/so)ia. so)ia-i.it+ "C Feane0 John <AB Fennan0 Heor(e E2 "@C0 <>" and )ontainment &o.i)+ "@CR see also )ontainment &o.i)+ and s&iritua. )hara)ter o! Co.d War "@A )a-.e o! ">4B "@C Ferensk+0 A.e5ander ""?0 ""> Ferensk+ (o4ernment ""> Fe+nes0 John Ma+nard 4=0 "?>0 <4A Fharkhordin0 O.e( <AA Fhrush)he40 Mikita C"0 "B4/BB0 "CC FisI)Iak0 CIesLa1 "C? FoLako1ski0 LesIek "C> Fonred0 H+or(+ "C?0 <=@ and ethi)s o! non/4io.en)e "A" Forea :outh <>< 1ar in "B" Forni.o40 La4r ""> Foso4o 4?0 BA0 "C40 <?= Fossuth0 La%os "BA Fosto40 3rai)ho "@= Fundera0 Mi.an "A?0 <"> Fusturi)a0 'mir <B= Lat4ia <@> armed resistan)e a!ter ">4@ "4> 4a.ue s+stems o! Lat4ians "4> LaIar0 8rin)e <?= Le!ort0 C.aude @4 )onstitution o! &o.iti)a. su-%e)ts throu(h e5&erien)e B
?=?
demo)ra)+ and em&t+ s&a)e o! &o1er "= distin)tion -et1een la politi7ue and le politi7ue A ne1 s)ien)e o! &o.iti)s "4 Lenin0 V.adimir I2 ?@0 ?C0 @<0 C40 CC0 >C0 ""A0"">0"<=0"<<0"<?0"<A/?@0 "C>0">@0<@40<B? and ,o.she4ik &art+ B> and di)tatorshi& o! &ro.etariat C=0 ""C0 "<? and end o! &o.iti)s <4B and (o4ernment o! :o4iets @? and ne)essit+ o! dreamin( <4C and &ro!essiona. re4o.utionar+ B?0 <@= A&ri. theses ""B as tri)kster A" )ritiDue o! &ar.iamentar+ demo)ra)+ CB )u.t o! CB initiation in re4o.utionar+ !i(ht a(ainst tsarism @< .e(a)+ ">4 Leninist ideo.o(+ BCR see also Mar5ism/ Leninism mauso.eum o! <?A mis%ud(ements o! "<A mumm+ o! <=? re4o.utionar+ messianism o! B@ State and #evolution "<<0 "<>0 <4A su-%e)ti4it+ o! ?@R see alsosu-%e)ti4it+ theor+ o! :o4iet re(ime as ma%orit+ ru.e >C 4o.untarism o! ?C0 """0 "<<0 <4C .i-era. a-so.utism <>" .i-era. demo)ra)+ AC0 "==0 "=40 "C40 "A<0 <"?0<B40<C?0<A> as a de4e.o&menta. (oa. "> as a t+&e o! (o4ernment @? as an a-so.ute a.ternati4e <>= )onso.idatin( A? dis&ositions a&&ro&riate !or @@ essen)e o! >@ mode. o! ">@0 <@@ monism o! AA &ro)edura. <"" 4a.ues o! <>< 4i)tor+ o! A>0 <CB0 <A@ Li(a)he40 Ye(or "BB Likha)he40 *mitri "AC .imina.it+ and !antas+ thinkin( <4C and esta-.ishment o! )ommunist ru.e "@" )entra. 'uro&e as .imina. )ate(or+ <"= in &ost/re4o.utionar+ Russia "<C irru&tion o! )risis as "4 .imina. e5&erien)e <C0 @=0 @>0 >@ o!:e)ondWor.dWarineastern'uro&e"4= &ermanent A"
?=4
Inde5
humanist <B? Mar5ism/Leninism <"0 BC0 C40 "<<0 "<B0 "CC0">"0">B0">> di)tatorshi& o! the &ro.etariat in C= dis)ourse o! <@4 do(ma o! B< &hi.oso&h+ o! histor+ in B4 sa)ri!i)ia. .o(i) o! A= Mauss0 Mar)e. @40 >@ MaIo1ie)ki0 3adeusI "== M)Carth+ism <>" meanin( .ines o! <<< meanin(/!ormation <C0 ">40 <C= demo)ra)+ as a &ro)ess o! <</C0 <"C/>@R see alsod emo)ra)+ demo)ratisation as &ro)ess o! <A0 <AB/C0 <>4 dissiden)e as &ro)ess o! <4 e4ent o! @" histori)a. e4ents as e5&erien)es o! <<= in e5istentia. un)ertaint+ "B" in situationa. .o(i) o! a)tion <@@ &ro)esses o! <CA0 <>=0 <>4R see also s+m-o.isation meanin(s Odemo)ratisation; o! <""/"4 in Russian Re4o.ution "?</?? o! demo)ra)+ <</A0 A>0 "==/C0 ">40 <"B0 <BBR see also demo)ra)+ o! :e)ond Wor.d War "@>/B" Meier0 Christian <=C memor+ "@40 "@@0 <?C0 <C<0 <CC am-i4a.en)e o! <<<0 <<@/?A and )ommunism <<< ar)het+&i)a. ima(es o! <4C as -oth &reser4ati4e and trans!ormati4e <?> as re&resentin( mu.ti&.e &asts <<"/@ a4ai.a-i.it+ o! <?" -oom <<C0 <4< )o..e)ti4e <<=0 <<40 <?=0 <?"0 <??0 <?4 )o..e)ti4e nationa. <<4 )ommuni)ati4e <40 <<@0 <?=0 <??0 <?40 <?@0<?B0<4"0<4< )ommuni)ati4e and )u.tura. <44 )ommunities o! <<4 )ontested <4= )u.tura. <40 "==0 <<<0 <?"0 <@> demo)rati) user o! <?A/4? destru)tion o! <<A0 <<> dou-.e memor+ in &ost/1ar 8o.and <?< !ra(mentation o! <?=/? !ra(mented and se.e)ti4e "@@ !reeIin( memor+ o! :e)ond Wor.d War "@4
Lin)o.n0 A-raham >=0 >40 >A0 <AC Lithuania "4>0 <<@ )i4i. 1ar in "4= de).aration o! so4erei(nt+ in ">>= 4?0 ">C dou-.e -ind -et1een Russia and West <@C 4a.ue s+stem in "4> .o(i) o! a&&ro&riateness ?B0 ?C0 ?A/4"0 <"B o! )ausa.it+ ?</?40 ">" o! e5&erien)e R see also e5&erien)e o! heroism ?4/?B0 ">< o! out)ome ?"/4"0 4C0 @C0 """0 ">=0 ">@0<CA situationa. .o(i) o! a)tion ?A/4"0 "B"0 <=>0<<<0<@@ situationa. .o(i) o! 1ar!are "@B .ustration in &ost/)ommunist states <== L4o40 8rin)e Heor(i '2 "?@ Ma)edonia "?> Ma)hia4e..i0 Mi))o.oS <40 "=@0 <4>0 <A< -rokenness o! &o.iti)a. rea.it+ 4" $ortuna <C> Ma)hia4e..ian )ode o! &rin)es <@B0 <A" re&u-.i)anism @? virtu B ?@ Ma)&herson0 C2,2 >> Ma(na Carta >B Ma.enko40 Heor(ii "B4 Mande.stam0 Osi& "CA Mann0 3homas "0 "=B Mao0 3se/tun( "" Marsha.. 8.an "4A0 "@A0 "@> markers o! )ertaint+ C0 <?0 @>0 "B<0 ">40 <==0<4=0<@>0<BB0<BC disso.ution o! "= Mar50 Far. "?0 ?@0 CC0 "<?0 <4B and destru)tion o! ineDua.ities o! &o1er "<? and di)tatorshi& o! &ro.etariat >C and re4o.utionar+ ).ass C= and re4o.utionar+ situation "=B histori)a. materia.ism B? Omodest; "C> &aradi(m o! ine4ita-i.it+ o! )ommunism AA &hi.oso&h+ o! histor+ B40 AA &ro.etariat as a )o..e)ti4e redeemer ).ass BB s)ienti!i) theor+ o! histor+ B?0 BB uto&ia o! <@< Mar5ism B?0 B40 BB0 A>0 "CA0 "A=0 <4A0 <@= O)reati4e; "C>
Inde5
(enerationa. <?= histori)a. <"? in ,a.ti) )ountries <4< in eastern 'uro&e <?" in Herman+ and Eran)e <?> indi4idua.it+ o! <<4 institutes o! nationa. <4= Je1ish <?> mani&u.ation o! C?0 <<@ Ominorit+; <4< mo-i.isation o! <??/A o! "?A> in :er-ia "0 <?= o! Aus)h1itI in Herman+ <<C o! de!eat "4@ o! Imre Ma(+ <?@ o! the re4o.utions in eastern 'uro&e "=< o! :o.idarnoG)G e5&erien)e "CB0 <?B o! Vi)h+ rV(ime <?> o!!i)ia. in &ost/1ar Yu(os.a4ia "@@ &o.iti)a. <<=0 <<?0 <?" &o.iti)a. s+m-o.ism o! <<= &o.iti)a. uses o! <<" &o&u.ar 4A0 >> &o1er o! C0 <">/4?0 <A? re&resentin( traumati) e5&erien)es <<B0 <44 re4o.utionar+ <<" so)ia. <40 <A0 "==0 <<<0 <<?0 <<B0 <?" s&.it -et1een )ommuni)ati4e and )o..e)ti4e <?" su-4ersi4eness o! <<" s+m-o.i) redu)tionism o! )o..e)ti4e <4" West Herman &ost/1ar histor+ o! <?> memor+ re(ime <<? Menshe4iks "??0 "?40 "?@ Mi)hae.0 Fin( "@= Mi)hnik0 Adam @<0 "C?0 <?B0 <@> Miha%.o4ih0 *ra`a "@= Miko+an0 Anastas "B4 Mi.o_e4i)G0 :.o-odan <?=0 <@4 MiLosI0 CIesLa1 AB mimeti) theor+ "B0 "C0 4B0 <@@R see also Hirard0 RenV anthro&o.o(+ o! 4io.en)e "A mimeti) 4io.en)e <AB modernisation <"0 B40 ">=0 <C> as (oa. o! de4e.o&ment ?0 ?" as o-%e)ti4e !or)e o! histori)a. de4e.o&ment 4>0 <BB -e.ated <@< demo)ra)+ as de4e.o&ment (oa. o! <CA im&eria. modernisation o! )ommunist &o1er <?@0 <><
?=@
modernisation in Russia -e!ore Eirst Wor.d War B@ theor+ o! A@0 <@C MontesDuieu0 Char.es de A0 B= Moore0 ,arrin(ton ?<0 <CB More0 3homas <4B Musi.0 Ro-ert <4B m+th6s7 <"0 <@0 ?@0 @>0 <=>0 <@"0 <@? a-out ">A> <"" a-out nationhood <@= ana.o(+ o! so)ia. )ontra)t theor+ 1ith ).assi)a. m+ths "A and !ounders o! modern &o.iti)a. thou(ht <4>0<@= and ori(ins o! Western )i4i.isation <@" and :o.idarnoG)G "=< )onstitutiona. m+ths in :o4iet 9nion CA0 "?? de/m+tho.o(isation -+ Hos&e.s "A eastern 'uro&e as West;s m+thi)a. Oother; A4 e4ents o! ">A> as m+thi)a. <"= e5)u.&ator+ "@</B human autonom+ !rom <4A m+thi) )on)e&t o! OWest; <@" m+thi).an(ua(eo!Mar5ism/Leninism<@4 m+thi)a. !oundations o! )ommunism CC m+th/makin( <AC m+tho.o(isation "@</@B m+th/&rodu)tion in Midd.e A(es <@" o! a histori)a. mission o! the :o4iet &eo&.e <=? o! anti/!as)ism <" "@</@B o! anti/!as)ism in Eran)e <?> o! ,o.she4ik Re4o.ution <" o! humanist Mar5ism <B? o! market e)onom+ in Russia a!ter ">>" <=A o! Russia;s sin(u.arit+ <?A o! s)ienti!i) terms "@ re(iona. m+ths in Mo4(orod <"? rem+tho.o(isin( the Russian state <=? ritua.ised sa)ri!i)e as the !oundation o! )u.ture "A romanti) m+ths o! nationa. re4i4a. in eastern 'uro&e "C@ :o4iet m+tho.o(+ o! &o1er B< tsarist m+th o! so)ia. monar)h+ B> m+tho.o(i)a. )onstru)tions o! rea.it+ <C0 C</CB
?=B
Inde5
as Omode.; !or Hun(arian re4o.ution "BA )on!usion -et1een 4i)tor+ and de!eat a!ter the :e)ond Wor.d War in "4@0 "4B )+).es o! )ontention in <<? eastern "4< e)onomi) mira).e in <@A e4ents o! O)to-er ">@B in "BA e5termination o! Je1s in "44 martia. .a1 in "BC memories o! the re4o.ution in <?@ menta.it+ o! es)hato.o(i)a. re.ati4isim o! :o.idarnoG)G in "C@ &ermanent re4o.ution in "A40 <?B &o.iti)a. demo)ra)+ in ">< 8o&e John 8au. II in "C< &ost/1ar resett.ement in "4< re4o.ution in ">A= 4>0 "BC0 <4< round/ta-.e in ">?0 ">A0 <"" se.!/.imitin( re4o.ution in "=<0 "C"0 "CB0">A :o.idarnoG)G ?C0 4?0 4>0 @@0 >>0 "=<0 "C</B0 "AB0 ">@0 ">>0 <=@0 <"@0 <"B0<<@0<?<0<?B0<B4R see also :o.idarnoG)G :o4iet ru.e in "C4 unit+ o! the nation in "C4 1eakness o! )ommunists in "@? &o.iti)a. anthro&o.o(+ 4/A0 <4@0 <A4R See e5&erien)e &o.iti)a. re.i(ion ,o.she4ik s&iritua.it+ as "<A )ommunism as <C0 @A0 B</C0 "<A0 "?C0<4B &o.iti)a. s&iritua.it+ @>0 B< and mo-i.isation o! human -ein(s @> as a sour)e o! &o1er B= o! ,o.she4ik &o1er @40 @A/B< o! demo)ratisation <4< &o.iti)a. s+m-o.ism <40 B<0 CC0 A<0 <=>0 <<<0<4<0<AC a.ternati4e A< o! )ommunism <A0 @A/A<0 "B>0 <B?0<>< o! demo)ratisation <?? &o.iti)a.0 the B"0 >@0 ">"0 <=A0 <"?0<C? as e5&erien)e C distin)tion -et1een la politi7ue and le politi7ue A so)ia. eDua.it+ in moment o! >? 8o&e John 8au. II 6Faro. Wo%t+La7 "C< 8o&itI0 Heinri)h <? 8osI(a+0 Imre <?@ 8otemkin0 Hri(ori <@<
Ma(+0 Imre "B@0 <=<0 <?@ re-uria. o! <=C0 <4" nationa. )ommunism in eastern 'uro&e "@<0 "C@ in Yu(os.a4ia "C4 nationa. :ta.inism in Romania "CB0 "CC Me1 ')onomi) 8o.i)+ BC0 CC0 "?>0 <<A Me1ton0 Isaa) <B? Mi)ho.as II0 3sar ""4 MietIs)he0 Eriedri)h B non/4io.en)e as Orationa.; res&onse to )ommunism "A40 "AB as s+non+mous !or CIe)hos.o4ak &eo&.e ">> ethi)s o! "A" Hor-a)he4;s )ommitment to "A@ Mo4(orod <"? Mo4otn+G0Antondn"C= Or-aGn0 Viktor <=C or(anised !or(ettin( <@0 "4C0 "@@0 <<=0 <<"0<<40<<A0<?=0<?<0<??0 <?40 <?B0<4< demo)rati) <"4 Or1e..0 Heor(e AB0 "B<0 <?4 out)ome .o(i)R see also.o(i) o! out)ome 8aine0 3homas "@ 8a.a)h0 Jan "C" 8aris Commune o! "AC" >" 8asternak0 ,oris "CA 8ato)Wka0 Jan ">0 "?C0 <BB0 <BC 8atraK)anu0Lu)reKiu"@=0"@"0"CC perestroika "=<0 "BB0 ">=0 ">4/C0 <""0 <"B0 <B4R see also Hor-a)he40 Mikhai. and demo)ratisation "BB as )u.tura. )han(e "=< &ro.i!eration o! s+m-o.s in ">4 re-irth o! )i4i. so)iet+ under ?C 8eri).es <AC &ermanent re4o.ution <BB in one )ountr+ "<</?B0 "@"0 <<A in &ost/1ar 8o.and "A40 <?B o! )ommunism <<A 3rotsk+;s )on)e&t o! "" 8eskare4 "CA 8eter I20 3sar 4B 8etro0 Mi)o.ai <"? 8isare40 *mitri B@0 <4C 8oe0 'd(ar A..en <BC 8o.and 4A0 "=<0 "<>0 "?A0 "4<0 "4?0 "440 "4A0"B=0"BC0"C40"C>0"AB0 "><0 <=40<=>0<"<0<"B0<<@0<4"0 <C? Ore4o.ution !rom a-o4e; in ?C
Inde5
?=C
&o1er CB0 >@0 <""0 <@= anthro&o.o(i)a. !orms o! )on)e&t o! <? so)ia. as&e)t o! inner &art+ "?= as o-%e)ti4e !or)e to )ontro. -eha4iour " :ta.in;s "<@R see also Hreat 3error auctoritas as the -asis o! Au(ustus; <4> 8utin0 V.adimir <=?0 <?A ,entham;s &ano&ti)on as meta&hor o! identit+/!ormation and the Russian modern A" state <?A ,o.she4ik @A 8utnam0 Ro-ert <C<0 <CC ,o.she4ik te)hniDues o! &o1er as th1artin( so)ia-i.it+ C/"4 Tuinet0 'd(ar > -ound.essness o! human >@ )ha..en(es to )ommunist "B</4 Ra%k0 LaGsI.o Rades)u (o4ernment "@= )harisma as s&iritua. @> RaGkosi0 Ma G "@=0 "BC )ommunism as a )onstituted s+stem o! @A Gt+aGsA"0"BA )ommunism as re.+in( on a-so.utist >? re4o.ution6s7 <<0 ?"/@C0 C"0 "BB/C?0 )ommunist m+tho.o(+ o! B< ">40<=C o! )ons)iousness <A a(e o! demo)rati) re4o.ution >= )onstituent >0 ""0 "<0 "B0 >?0 <"@ Ameri)an A> demo)ra)+ as )onstituted s+stem o! >> as )on%un)tura. stru)tures 4= disso)iation o! s&iritua. !rom tem&ora. B" as e4ents/that/mode. 4> disso.ution o! auto)rati) >> as .imina. e5&erien)es >@ dua. 4?0 @40 >@0 >B0 ""</"@0 "<< em&t+ as o-%e)ts o! histori)a. de4e.o&ment ?< s&a)e o! see em&t+ s&a)e o! &o1er autonom+ o! Hun(arian re4o.utionaries He(e.;s state as a-so.ute B= in ">@B >> interna. &o1er and the need !or ,o.she4ik <"0 @?0 BC0 C"0 C?0 >A0 """0 ""> +ardsti)ks <? )arni4a. o! ">@ in4isi-.e sour)es o! <4A/> )on!is)ated <4=R see also Romania Mar5anddestru)tiono! ineDua.itieso! "<? )u.t o! re4o.utionar+ .eader CB o! data/settin( <? )u.tura. ">@ o! Hnosti) s&iritua.it+ "@A demo)rati) "=0 A>0 "=40 ">40 <>" o! memor+ C0 <<@R see also memor+ dissiden)e and .a)k o! re4o.utionar+ o! mira)u.ous and m+sterious <@4 uto&ia <4 o! se)ond rea.it+ <@A0 <@> dou-.e/re%e)ti4e re4o.utions o! ">A> ">A o! s+m-o.s A<0 "C<0 <=>0 <B= e5&ansion o! the )ommunist C"0 A= o! &o1er.ess "A"/A0 <?@0 <B4 Ee-ruar+ Re4o.ution in Russia ">"C 4?0 o! 1eak <AC 4A0@40>40>B0"="0""<0""?0 &eo&.e as sour)e o! "B ""@0""> &ro&het as &aradi(m o! )harismati) @> Eren)hR see also Eren)h Re4o.ution :o4iet A" !rom O-e.o1; in 8o.and ">A= ?CR see also s+stems o! )onstituted @< 8o.and tota. "B0 <440 <A=0 <>4 Hreat Eather.and 1ar as nationa. <B= Western st+.e o! B" Hun(arian <"0 4?0 @40 ">@0 <?@ in 8ra(ue s&rin( >>0 "C=/"0 "C?0 ">@0 <?@0 CIe)hos.o4akia <=> <?C0<4< in eastern 'uro&e @0 <<0 "BC0 ">40 <<" in &ro!essiona. re4o.utionar+ B?0 <@= Hun(ar+ ">@B and 8o.and in ">A= 4> &ro4isiona. (o4ernment Janus/.ike )hara)ter o! "= Oim&eria.ist; ""B Lenin as de4oted !i(hter !or @< in 8o.and ">4@ "@? .i-era. ">4 in Russia ">"C ""</"? memories o! <<"0 <<<0 <?@0 <?C 1eakness o! the ""A modern "= 8rIe1orski0 Adam <CB nationa. <" &ur(es ne(otiated in Hun(ar+ and 8o.and <=> a!ter )ommunism <<< O)to-er @0 <"0 <@0 C40 CB0 CC0 A?0 >"0 """0 in ,o.she4ik &art+ ""C ""<0""B0">=0<<<0<?40<CA in eastern 'uro&e "4A/@< o! ">=@ in Russia B@0 >C0 ""<0 ""4/"@ o! in &ost/1ar :o4iet 9nion "4A ">A> in eastern 'uro&e ?"0 ">=0 ">A /ld #egime and the #evolution ?
?=A
Inde5
8eo&.es; Courts in "4B &o.iti)s o! )ommemoration o! "A4A in <<@ &ost/1ar &ur(es in "@=0 "@" Osto.en; re4o.ution in <4= time/&er)e&tions in )ommunist <<> Roose4e.t0 Erank.in *2 "@?0 "@B0 <@4 Rousseau0 Jean/Ja)Dues >0 "?0 "=@ amour de soi and amour propre <A4 )i4i. re.i(ion CA idea o! demo)ra)+ "A m+th o! the (enera. 1i.. <@= &arado5 o! so4erei(nt+ >0 >> 1orshi& o! the nation <4> Russia ?0 <"0 4B0 B@0 A40 "="0 "=?0 "=B0 "<40 "?@0<=A0<<=0<4=0<C< am-i4a.en)e o! in!.uen)e o! Western ideas in <@C as Onorma.; )ountr+ <?A as em&ire or nation/state ">@ as 'uro&e;s dou-.e "=B authoritarian &o.iti)a. )u.ture in <C@ ,o.she4ism in BB )i4i. so)iet+ in <AA )i4i. 1ar in 4C0 ""C0 "?= ).ass anta(onism @? )ommunist m+ths o! the 1ar in "@4 )ommunist &o1er in < Constituent Assem-.+ in ">"A "<>0 "??/@ )ontest -et1een Russia and West 4B )ontinuit+ o! authoritarian &o.iti)a. )u.ture in &ost/)ommunist <C@ *e)em-rist mo4ement in <@C de).aration o! so4erei(nt+ in ">>= 4?0 ">C0<"= demo)ra)+ in <C"R see also demo)ra)+ demo)ratisation in A40 A@ disinte(ration o! Russian em&ire a!ter ">"C"?A dissiden)e in "AC e)onomi) -a)k1ardness in ?@ e)onom+ in &ost/re4o.utionar+ "?= Ee-ruar+ re4o.utionR see re4o.ution !ra(mentation o! memories in <?? herita(e o! &re/ and &ost/re4o.utionar+ <"4 histor+ o! Westernisation in <4= im&eria. .e(a)+ in <?A indi4idua.ism in <B4 industria. 1orkers in ""B initiatin( e5&erien)e o! ,o.she4iks in "@" inte..i(entsia in @=0 B?0 CB0 <@<0<B?
re4o.ution6s7 6)ont27 out)omes o! <= &ea)e!u. <>@ &ermanent ""0 <C0 C>0 >C0 ""<0 "<</?B0 "@"0<<A0<BB 8o.ish @40 <=@ &o.iti)a. ??0 4A &ro.etarian ""C re.i(ious B" re4o.ution o! "A4A in Hun(ar+ <=B re4o.utionar+ )ons)iousness @A re4o.utionar+ demo)ra)+ >" re4o.utionar+ 4io.en)e "< re4o.utionisin( &o1er o! -e.ie!s << :e)ond Wor.d War as so)ia. "?C se.!/de)e&tion o! re4o.utionaries ?> se.!/.imitin( "=<0 "C"0 "CB0 ">AR see also 8o.and sma.. @0 "=<0 <4=0 <B? so)ia. <C0 ??0 ?>0 "<=0 "??0 "?C/4"0 <<C0 <4C0<>" so)ia.ist ?C0 <4C :o.idarnoG)G 4?0 "A"R see also :o.idarnoG) G :ta.in;s re4o.ution !rom a-o4e "<40 "<C0 <@4 State and #evolution "<<0 "<>0 <4A2 See Lenin0 V.adimir I2 s+m-o.s o! <=4 the )onstitution o! &o1er in a A unintended )onseDuen)es o! ?> uninterru&ted "" 4arieties o! re4o.utions in &ost/1ar 'astern 'uro&e "BB/C? 4e.4et ">40 ">>0 <=B0 <"B 4o.)ani) theor+ o! 4< re4o.utionar+ terror """0 "C4 Re4o.utionar+ Cate)hism B@ re4o.utionar+ ).ass ?<0 C=0 >C re4o.utionar+ messianism B<0 B40 B@0 C?0"<?0"<A0<4B0<4C0<4A0 <@=0 <@A0<BB o! ,o.she4ik )ommunism B4 re4o.utionar+ situation B0 C0 "@0 ??0 4"0 4?0 C?0"=B0<A> re4o.utionar+ out)ome ?? re4o.utionar+ terror "<?/A re4o.utions o! "CA> and ">"C A> as introdu)in( Odemo)rati) &o.iti)s; "? Romania "?A0 "@=0 "B<0 "B?0 "C?0 "CC0 <=C0<"< as Latin is.and in the :.a4i) sea <4" CeauKes)u;s 2istory o$ <<> )ommunist &art+ in "@= end o! CeauKes)u <=C nationa. :ta.inism in "CB0 "CC
Inde5
introdu)tion o! market e)onom+ a!ter ">>"<=A .i-era. )on)e&tion o! demo)ra)+ in "?? .i!e e5&e)tan)+ in <=4 .o1/)a.i-re Dua.it+ o! demo)ra)+ in <C? memor+ o! the Hreat Eather.and War in <<C0<?A messianism in B4 m+th o! Russian mission <=? narodniki "<" nationa. s+m-o.s in <?A nihi.ism in B< nineteenth )entur+ B4 O)to-er Re4o.utionR see re4o.ution Orthodo5 Chur)h in "AC o4er)omin( -a)k1ardness in C? 8am+at <=< &atrioti) dis)ourse in &ost/)ommunist <?C &o.iti)a. .i-era.ism in &ost/)ommunist <== &o.iti)a. sense o! 4i)timisation <=?0 <?? &o.iti)s o! memor+ in <<C &ost/re4o.utionar+ BC0 B> &ost/re4o.utionar+ trans!ormation o! rura. "<C &re/re4o.utionar+ B?0 B@0 CB red terror in "@ re%e)tion o! authoritarianism in <CB re.ations 1ith 8o.and "C4 rem+tho.o(isin( the state in <=? re4o.utionar+ )ommunism in <@< #ossiia as u&rootin( #us "?? sham )onstitutiona.ism o! tsarist "?? so3ornost in Russian )i4i.isation <B40<BA so)ia. &o.arisation in re4o.utionar+ B> so)ia. re4o.ution in ?? so)ia.ism in "<< s&iritua.it+ and )u.ture in <?? :ta.inist B< :ta.inist &ast in <4= state a-so.utism in 4B state .i-era.ism in <"? state o&&ression in B? state/!ormation in 4B0 <@B su&er/&residentia.ism in <"? s+m-o.isation o! &o1er -+ ru.ers in @= te)hniDues o! se.!/.e(itimisation o! tsarist authorit+ in <@< tota.itarian ru.e in >< traditiona. &attern o! de4e.o&ment in 4B0A4 t1o so)ieties in @4
?=>
un)i4i. &ost/)ommunist so)iet+ in <AA 1ar a(ainst 8o.and in "><= and "><""<> 1eakness o! state in <"? Westernisation o! ""B Russian Re4o.ution ?"0 ?@0 >C0 "="0 """/?B0 <<" t1o .i4es o! the <?@ Russians sense o! 4i)timisation a!ter 4i)tor+ in ">4@"4A sa)ri!i)ia. .o(i) <40 <B0 ?A/4" o! )ommunist &o1er <<0 <<=0 <BB0 <>?0<>4 o! the identi!i)ation o! the enem+ "<@ sa)ri!i)ia. .o(i) o! Mar5ism/Leninism A= :ah.ins0 Marsha.. @4 :akharo40 Andrei "AC :)hmitt0 Car. >?0 <>< )on!.i)t as !oundation o! &o.iti)s "? :)hum&eter0 Jose&h A2 AC0 <A? :)ott0 James "A@ se)ond rea.it+ <4B0 <@B0 <A< and !antas+ &o.iti)s <A@ and identit+/!ormation <@@/B= and sear)h !or re)o(nition -+ hi(her )u.ture <@" and trans!ormation o! )ons)iousness in )risis situations <4B authorit+ o! <@0 <44/A0 <@?0 <BA )o..e)ti4e ima(ination o! <CC )ons)iousness o! a s&.it -et1een !irst and <4B demo)rati) )ons)iousness and re%e)tion o! <440 <B@ deta)hment !rom under )ommunism <B= en)ir).ement -+ enemies as <B= 'uro&e as <@C0 <@A horiIon o! e5&e)tation as <@< in the Croatian/:er-ian 1ar <@B m+tho.o(i)a. )onstru)tions as <BB o! )ommunist &o1er <B@ o! the m+th o! :o.idarnoG)G <B4 &o.iti)a. uses o! <4A/@@ &o1er and de)onstru)tion o! C s+m-o.ism o! <A0 <>4 OWest; as <@< :e)ond Wor.d War @0 <"0 4A0 AC0 "=40 "?C0 "440"4@0"4C0"4A0"@<0"@40 "@B0 "@>/B<0 "BB0 <=<0 <=40 <<"0 <<40 <<B0<<A0<?<0<??0<?@0<4=0 <@=0 <@C0<B=0<C40<CB0<CA0<>< a-sen)e o! a &ea)e treat+ a!ter "4= am-i4a.ent herita(e o! "@>0 <<"
?"=
Inde5
)on4er(en)e 1ith )ommunist .eaders at round/ta-.e ">A !undamenta.ist menta.it+ o! <B4 menta.it+ o! es)hato.o(i)a. re.ati4ism "C@ o&&osition in 8o.and @@ round/ta-.e in ">A> "BC0 "C<0 "A= se)ond rea.it+ o! m+th o! <B4R See se)ond rea.it+ s+m-o.i) &resen)e a!ter ">A" "CB 1arsattheto&andthedisinte(rationo!<=@ :o.Ihenits+n0 A.e5ander AB0 ""<0 "C>0 "A@0 "AB0"AC0<<A0<B4 :outh A!ri)a <"4 :outh Vietnam <>< :o4iet 9nion C<0 CB0 "=40 "4<0 "4@0 "4A0 "@=0"@"0"@?/B0 "B<0 "B?0 "B40 "BC0 "CC0"C>0"A@0"AB0"A>0">@/A0 <?@0 <B40<>" anne5ation o! 'stonia <4< as anti/!as)ist -u.1ark "?B )o..a&se o! ?"0 A@0 ">B0 <=?0 <"?0 <C> demo)rati) )redentia.s o! CB demo)rati) renaissan)e in "=< de/:ta.inisation in see de/sta.inisation Herman in4asion o! @"0 "@B im&a)t o! the :e)ond Wor.d War "4<0 "4A0<?@ internationa. &resti(e a!ter ">4@ "4" Fhrush)he4;s s&ee)h on the Cu.t o! 8ersona.it+ and its )onseDuen)es "B4 .i-era.isation &ro)ess in "=? non/a((ression &a)t 1ith Herman+ "C4 &ea)e!u. resistan)e in "AB perestroikaR see alsoH or-a)he40 Mikhai. &ost/1ar e5&ansion o! "4C &ra)ti)es o! dissimu.ation in <B4 &redi)tions a-out &otentia. )o..a&se o! "A> resistan)e mo4ements in 4? ritua.ised e4ents in 4> :ta.in;s re4o.ution !rom a-o4e "<40 "<C tides o! nationa.ist mo-i.isation in the .ate ">C 4u.nera-i.it+ a!ter ">4@ "@? 1ar &ani) in the ear.+ ">@=s "@> :ta.in0 Jose&h <"0 4C0 C=0 C"0 C?0 >A0 ""<0 "<@0"?@0"?B0"?>0"4"0"4C0 "@=0 "@?0"@40"@B0"B=0"B?/B0 "BA0 "C40"CC0"CA0"AB0">@0<<A0 <@40 <B?0<A< and :o4iet demo)ra)+ CB )o..e)ti4isation "<=0 "<40 "<@0 "<A0 "?> )u.t o! CB0 "B@ death o! AB0 "="0 "B40 "B@ industria.isation "<@0 "?> &aranoia o! "@"
:e)ond Wor.d War 6)ont27 as a so)ia. re4o.ution <C0 "?C/4" dea.in( se.e)ti4e.+ 1ith the histor+ o! <<> dua. &o1er stru)tures a!ter 4? emer(en)e o! &eo&.e;s demo)ra)ies a!ter "@4 e5&erientia. rea.it+ o! "@@ !irst de/:ta.inisation durin( "B@ massa)re o! Je1s in Jed1a-ne durin( <?< in eastern 'uro&e as a .imina. e5&erien)e "4= the !as)ist enem+ a!ter C< Yu(os.a4 1ar dead durin( <?< se.!/.imitin( re4o.utionR see also: o.idarnoG)G0 re4o.ution0 8o.and :er-ia "C40 <="0 <=? and Montene(ro <"< as e5terna. home.and <@B )o..e)ti4e !ears o! annihi.ation in <=" !ear o! Hreat :er-ian restoration a!ter ">4@"@@ Memorandum <=" nationa.ist !ee.in(s in <?< num-er o! 1ar dead in :e)ond Wor.d War <?< &o&u.ar memor+ o! "?A> <?= resistan)e a(ainst 3ito;s .eadershi& "C4 1ar a(ainst Croatia <@B0 <@> :e1e.. Wi..iam H2 "40 44 :ie+eSs0 'mmanue. Jose&h > :imeon :aksko-ur((otski <=< situationa. .o(i) o! a)tion ?A/4"0 "B"0 <<<0 <@@R see also.o(i) :ko)&o.0 3heda ?? :.a Gnsk+G0Rudo.!"@= :.o4akia <=40 <"< and h+&hen de-ate in ">>< <?C &o.iti)s o! )ommemoration o! "A4A in <<@ :.o4ak minorit+ in CIe)hos.o4akia a!ter ">4@"4? 1ar a..ian)e 1ith MaIi Herman+ "4B :.o4enia0 &o.iti)a. demo)ra)+ in ">< :mith0 Adam <A> :o)rates <A4 so.idarit+ o! the shaken ">0 @"0 "=C0 <BC :o.idarnoG)G ?C0 4?0 4>0 @@0 "=<0 "C</B0 "AB0">@0">>0<=@0<"@0<"B0 <<@0 <?<0 <?B0 <B4R see also 8o.and and demo)rati) uto&ianism "=? and (eneration o! ne1 s+m-o.s "C@ and tradition o! demo)ra)+ o! (entr+ "=< as s+m-o. o! .i-ert+ <=@ as 4ia-.e )ounter/e.ites in eastern 'uro&e ">> autonom+ o! >>
Inde5
&o.i)+ o! so)ia.ism in one )ountr+ "<A &ost/1ar o-%e)ti4es "4A &o1er stru((.e 1ith 3rotsk+ "?"R see also 3rotsk+0 Leon re4o.ution !rom a-o4e "<40 "<C s&.it 1ith 3ito "@=0 "@@0 "C4 terror a!ter ">4@ "4" :ta.inism B<0 BC0 C?0 AB0 "?B0 "B40 "BC0 "C@0"CB0"C> as )ounterre4o.ution <" as !or1ard/.ookin( and &ro(ressi4e "?B -ui.din( o! C= :ta.inist nature o! 3ito;s ru.e "@= 4i)tims o! <?C su-%e)ti4isation 6podmiotowoSU7 o! 8o.ish so)iet+ "A" and the re%e)tion o! )ommunist ru.e <<? )i4i. resistan)e in eastern 'uro&e as &ro)esses o! "=? o! 8o.ish so)iet+ in :o.idarnoG)G re4o.ution <@> o! so)iet+ as a )i4i.isin( e!!ort "AA su-%e)ti4it+ "B0 <40 A?0 "B= a.ternati4e )ons)iousness and <4< and demo)ra)+ <A?/A and memor+ <<" and &o1er o! s+m-o.s "=? and situationa. &remises sha&in( ima(es0 -e.ie!s0 and attitudes "=? as truth o! one;s o1n (esture @@ as 1ork o! eman)i&ation !rom ritua.isti) 4io.en)e <BC dissiden)e and )onstitution o! "CB0 "A= dissiden)e as !orm o! &o.iti)a. "B? e4o.ution o! in eastern 'uro&e <@> hidden s&here and )onstitution o! "A< o! e5&erien)e 4"0 @BR see also e5&erien)e o! Lenin ?@ o! meanin(s o! demo)ra)+ <C@ o! &ursuin( a truth!u. .i!e "AA &rima)+ o! in -ound.essness o! a)tion <A4 re4o.utions in eastern 'uro&e "=< roots o! demo)rati) <CC shi!ts in durin( &o.iti)a. e4o.ution o! )ommunism "=? to O)ra!t demo)ra)ies; ?@ :un Yat/:en <@" s+m-o.6s7 ""0 "@0 ">0 <=0 <"0 4A0 @>0 BC0 >?0 >A0"=40"<A0"<>0"?=0"?40 "@>0 "B"0"CC0">>0<=?0<">0<?40 <4C0 <@=0<B?0<C<0<>? >/"" as a <<? a(ainst )ommunism "C< A.. :ou.s *a+ in ">4= in Lithuania <<@ and Ameri)an )onstitution CA
?""
and )ounter/s+m-o.s in perestroika and glasnost ">4 and emotiona. -ondin( o! &ersons to )o..e)ti4it+ <A" and e5istentia. re&resentation in ">A> <"B and !ormation o! &o.iti)a. )ons)iousness ""B and Eren)h Re4o.ution <A< and Joa)him o! E.ora B? and memor+ <?> and s&e.. on )o..e)ti4e ima(ination <4A as re&resentin( &o.iti)a. so)iet+ <" asso)iated 1ith re4o.utionar+ e4ents <<@ a4ai.a-i.it+ o! )ommunities o! !ate as <<4 ,osnia as <A@/B demise o! s+m-o.s o! demo)ra)+ <=4/"" dramati) &er!orman)e and <AC durin( :o.idarnoG)G &eriod in 8o.and <<@ 'uro&e0 demo)ra)+0 market as <"= !un)tion o! re.i(ious B= herita(e o! Mo4(orod <"? FH, as "C> .ustration as <== ma(i) &o1er o! s+m-o. Odemo)ra)+; <=> memories as markers o! )ertaint+ <?> modern re4o.utionar+ ideo.o(ies and the in!.uen)e o! Hnosti) B?0 B4 nationa. <@0 "CB0 <?40 <?A ne1 s+m-o.s o! ">A> ">4 non/4io.en)e in eastern 'uro&e as "AB o! a)ti4e )itiIenshi& and demo)rati) ho&es <"" o! )ommunist &o1er "BA o! )riti)a. e4ents <<4 o! demo)ra)+ <A0 ">40 <=4/"" o! end o! )ommunism <"B o! heroi) 4i)tor+ and modern nation/state <@= o4er)omin( 4io.en)e -+ s+m-o.isation o! enemies <B 8a.a)h;s se.!/immo.ation as "C" 8eo&.e/as/One as a s+m-o.i) stru)ture <"0A<0<B? &o1er o! <"B &rodu)tion o! s+m-o.s under )ommunism @ Red :Duare in Mos)o1 and mu.ti&.e s+m-o.s o! Russian &o.iti)a. )u.ture <?A re.i(ious 4>R see also 8o.and return to 'uro&e as "A? :akharo4 as "AC :o.idarnoG)G as "CB s+m-o.i) !un)tion o! anti/semitism in &ost/)ommunist so)ieties <=<
?"<
Inde5
&artisan e5&erien)e "4@0 <?< s.o(an o! O-rotherhood and unit+; <?B s&.it 1ith :ta.in "@=0 "@@0 "C4 s+m-o.i) &o1er o! the death o! "C@ 3ka)he40 8etr B@ 3o)Due4i..e0 A.e5is de B=0 "A>0 <@@0 <B" a-sen)e o! demo)rati) re4o.ution in 9nited :tates <>" Democracy in America ? ne1 s)ien)e o! &o.iti)s "4 &hi.oso&hi)a. anthro&o.o(+ o! ? so)ia. demo)ra)+ "? 3o.sto+0 Leo B? tota.itarianism ?0 BB0 A?0 AC0 ><0 "==0 "?@0 "@B0"@C0"@A0<B@ a-surdit+ o! &ost/ <B@ as mirror ima(e o! .i-era. re(imes AB as ni(htmare C4 as set o! or(anisationa. methods AB a4oidin( )onta(ion 1ith "@>0 <>" Co.d War as a stru((.e a(ainst <>= Oe4i. em&ire; o! "@C O!rom -e.o1; AC .i-era. a-so.utism as a tota.it+ a(ainst <>" m+th o! <" &ost/ "A< :o4iet A"0 "<@ s+stemi) anta(onism -et1een demo)ra)+ and :o4iet "=4 theor+ o! A@0 AB transition6s7 ">"/?0 ">A and un)ertaint+ <A0 ?"/@CR see also un)ertaint+ as )ate(or+ that measures out)omes in histor+ ">< as reDuirin( a theor+ o! Oa-norma.it+; ">" demo)rati) <4< e.ite/!o)used a))ounts o! ">? &aradi(m o! transition as de/&o.iti)isin( e5&erien)e <CB to )ommunism C?0 C40 <4@0 <>?R see also )ommunism to demo)ra)+ ">"R see also demo)ra)+ un)ertaint+ in demo)rati) ">" transitiona. %usti)e ">A/<=4 transitiona. un)ertaint+ enemies0 ).eansin(0 and &urit+ ">A/<=4 3rotsk+0 Leon ""0 <"0 BC0 C=0 ""<0 ""A0 "?"0"CA0<A< &o1er stru((.e 1ith :ta.in "?"R see also :ta.in0 Jose&h Ored &aradise; <4A theor+ o! &ermanent re4o.ution CA0 "?" 3ruman0 Harr+ "@C O3ruman do)trine; "@A
s+m-o.6s7 6)ont27 s+m-o.i) &o1er o! the &o&u.ar mo-i.isation a(ainst the :o4iet in4asion in CIe)hos.o4akia ">BA "C" s+m-o.i) &resen)e o! :o.idarnoG)G a!ter ">A""CB s+m-o.i) re&ertoire o! the re4o.utions in ">@B and ">A= "C< the West as <?? 3ito;s death as "C@ s+m-o.i) Ostru)ture; A<0 <B?0 <A< !.uid )on%un)tures and their "4 s+m-o.i) arti)u.ation << s+m-o.i) redu)tionism o! )o..e)ti4e memor+ <?"0<4" s+m-o.isation ""0 ">/<<0 <40 <C0 "@<0 "B=0 "AA0<=?0<=>0<4?0<C>0<A= a)ts o! as trans!ormin( meanin(s o! s+m-o.s <= and &o.iti)s o! identit+/!ormation in &ost/ )ommunist so)ieties <4= )riti)a. e4ents and their "@/<<0 "=>/<"B0 <A"0 <>=R see also )riti)a. e4ents o! ">A> and ">>" <=> o! a heroi) .eader <=< o! )entra. 'uro&e as a )u.tura. s&a)e "A? o! Oone &eo&.e; in 'ast Herman+ <=C o! re4o.utionar+ e5&erien)es in eastern 'uro&e "C?0 <<? o! the Co.d War "B" o! the identi!i)ation o! the enem+ <A@ o! traumati) e5&erien)es <>4 o&&osition -et1een (ood and e4i. as ">A &er!ormati4e <AC &ro)esses o! <CA0 <>=0 <>4R see also meanin(/!ormation re4o.utions and a)ts o! C :Ik.arska 8oreb-a "@? 3ai1an <>< 3a.mon0 Ja)o- >"0 <CA 3arde0 Ha-rie. de <B< 3arko4sk+0 Andrei <B? 3i..+0 Char.es ?<0 ?? 3iso0 JoIe! "4C 3ito0 Josi& ,roI C<0 BA0 "4>0 "@=0 <"<0 <?< and )i4i. 1ar "@@ anti/Comin!ormist &ur(e "@= )am&ai(n a(ainst "BA death o! "C40 "C@0 <?B !unera. o! "C@ methods o! )onso.idatin( &o1er "@= Mos)o1/inde&endent seiIure o! &o1er <?B
Inde5
tsarism @?0 B?0 CB0 ""4/"@0 ""C0 "?<0 <@C0<CB and re4o.ution o! ">=@ ""4 ideo.o(i)a. &i..ars o! orthodo5+0 a-so.utism0 and nationa.it+ C4 im&eria. modernisation under <?@ re4o.utionar+ stru((.e a(ainst @< se.!/re&resentation as a mirror o! 'uro&ean )ourts <4= 3urner0 Vi)tor @= 9kraine "<>0 "4</4 )i4i. 1ar in 1estern "4= e5termination o! the &easantr+ and o! inte..e)tua. e.ites in the "CA oran(e re4o.ution in <"" &artisan mo4ement in "44 re/!oundation o! demo)ra)+ in the <"" resistan)e mo4ements in 1estern 4? :o4ietisation o! the "?@0 "4< 9krainian Li-eration Arm+ 69krains;ka 8o4stans;ka Armi%a7 "4?0 "44 un)ertaint+ <A0 ?"/@C0 ""?0 "<A0 "AA0 ">"0 ">?0<<> and -ound.essness o! a)tion >@ as !.uid )on%un)tures <C as th1artin( assum&tion a-out out)omes <A= -ounded <A4 )ommunities o! !ate and e5istentia. <BC Ode(ree; o! un)ertaint+ and &o.iti)a. out)omes ">< disso.ution o! markers o! )ertaint+ C0"= e5istentia. 40 <=0 "4=0 ">@0 <4@0 <4A0 0<A=0<A@0<A> e5&erientia. -asis o! "B" in a!termath o! :e)ond Wor.d War "@?0 "@B0"@A in re4o.utions B0 ?"/@C institutiona.isation o! demo)rati) ">"0 <C=0<C4 interna. &o1er and the need !or markers o! )ertaint+ <? .i4ed/throu(h un)ertaint+ in re4o.utions or 1ars <<? .o(i) o! situationa. 4> memor+ and <<< methodo.o(i)a. norma.isation o! ?< o! demo)rati) de)ision <>4 &o.iti)s as rea.m o! >= re4o.utionar+ &hases o! ?B s+m-o.isations as makin( sense o! "> theorisin( ?> transitiona. <A0 ">A
?"?
9nited :tates AA0 >=0 "=B0 "4@0 "4C0 "@C0 "@A0"@>0"BB0<A40<>=0<>< as ne1 order o! the a(es CA .i-era. tradition in <>" order o! e(oism in >= 9to&ia @@0 B<0 A"0 "=?0 "=@0 "A?0 ">=0 <<=0 <4B0<@<0<@>0<B?0<B@ institutiona.isation o! <@0 <C0 C</?0 <<>0 <4@ re%e)tion o! <A? re4o.utionar+ <4 Ver-a0 :idne+ <CB 4io.en)e B0 <B0 ?<0 4"0 4C/>0 @@0 A"0 A@0 <="0 <@40<CC0<>4 and )i4i.isin( &ro)ess <A=0 <A@ anthro&o.o(+ o! "AR see also mimeti) theor+ -ene!i)ia. )onseDuen)es o! <@4 ,osnia as s+m-o. o! mass <A@ )o..e)ti4e 4"0 >? )ro1d 4io.en)e 440 @40 >B )+).es o! 4io.en)e and dou-.e -inds 4B )+).e o! 4io.en)e in the :o4iet 9nion o! the "><=s "4= demo)rati) identit+ and o4er)omin( ritua.isti) <A !ormation o! se.!/interest throu(h <A4 in re4o.utions and transitions ?< interna.isation o! 4io.en)e in :o4iet )ommunism CA0 "<4 in4isi-.e )auses ?? man;s su-ordination to state 4io.en)e "> mimeti) ">0 <A40 <AB o! tota.itarian state as o-%e)t o! m+sti)a. 1orshi& "<@ o4er)omin( the in)i4i.it+ o! <>4 o4er)omin( -+ s+m-o.isin( enemies <BR see alsos+m-o.s re)i&ro)it+ o! 4"0 <BC re4o.utionar+ 4io.en)e @@0 "<B sa)ri!i)ia. .o(i) o! <BB thinkin( Odemo)rati)a..+; a-out <AB Voe(e.in0 'ri) @A0 <4B and Hnosti)ism B0 B? )onstitution o! &o.iti)a. su-%e)ts throu(h e5&erien)e B )risis and se)ond rea.it+ <4B ne1 s)ien)e o! &o.iti)s "4 s+m-o.isation o! e5&erien)es and sear)h !or meanin( "> Vo%4odina BA0 "C4 WaLgsa0 Le)h <=@0 <=B as s+m-o.i) !i(ure o! :o.idarnoG)G <=@
?"4
Inde5
Ye.tsin0 ,oris ">B0 <=A/"=0 <@@ identit+/!ormation and the Russian state <?A &o.iti)a. )hoi)es -+ <"? 1ar in Che)hn+a "AC Yu(os.a4ia 4C0 C<0 "?>0 "4@0 "4>0 "@@0 "B<0"BA0"C40"C>0<"<0<?<0 <?B0<B= anti/!as)ist stru((.e in <?< -rotherhood and unit+ in &ost/">4@ BA disinte(ration o! 4C0 <?<0 <?B esta-.ishment o! )ommunism in "4" !ra(mentation o! memories in <?<0<?B o&enness to1ards 1est "C? &o.iti)a. O&.ura.ism; in "C4 :e)ond Wor.d War in "4@ :o4iet 9nion as enem+ o! C< 1ars in e5/ <="0 <=? Nhdano40 Andrei "@? Nhuko40 Heor(i "@4 N+u(ano40 Hennadi <??
1ar )ommunism @?0 ""C0 "<>0 "?= WatI.a1i)k0 8au. <44 We-er0 Ma5 @0 @B0 @>0 Ointerna. states; as &s+)ho.o(i)a. im&u.ses !or a)tion B= )ate(ories o! .eadershi& A= )harisma as s&iritua. &o1er @> )onstitution o! &o.iti)a. su-%e)ts throu(h e5&erien)e B ethi) o! )a&ita.ism as a sear)h !or indi4idua. sa.4ation <A4 s&irit o! )a&ita.ism B0 @> Wo%t+La0 Faro.R see also 8o&e John 8au. II 1or.d )ommunism 40 "@?R see also )ommunism W+).i!!e0 John >4 Uo5e0 Fo)Ki "@= Yako4.e40 A.e5ander "BB Ya.ta a))ords o! "@? s+stem o! "A"

Communism and The Emergence of Democracy

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Communism and The Emergence of Democracy

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Communism

Communism and the 'mer(en)e o! *emo)ra)+

Communism and the 'mer(en)e o! *emo)ra)+

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

3o Mathieu and Cassia

Acknowl edgement s " Communism and demo)ra)+ / a &ro-.ematisation

Communism and demo)ra)+ / a &ro-.ematisation

Communism and the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+

Communism and demo)ra)+ / a &ro-.ematisation

Communism and the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+

Rusto10 O3ransitions to *emo)ra)+;2

Communism and demo)ra)+ / a &ro-.ematisation

Communism and the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+

Communism and demo)ra)+ / a &ro-.ematisation

"4 "@ "B

Communism and the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+

"C "A ">

Communism and demo)ra)+ / a &ro-.ematisation

Communism and the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+

<4 <@ <B

Communism and demo)ra)+ / a &ro-.ematisation

<C <A <>

Communism and the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+

A(am-en0 2omo Sacer0 <C/>2

Communism and demo)ra)+ / a &ro-.ematisation

Communism and the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+

Communism and demo)ra)+ / a &ro-.ematisation

Communism and the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+

Communism and demo)ra)+ / a &ro-.ematisation

Communism and the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+

Communism and demo)ra)+ / a &ro-.ematisation

Communism and the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+

Communism and demo)ra)+ / a &ro-.ematisation

Communism and the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+

Communism and demo)ra)+ / a &ro-.ematisation

Communism and the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+

Communism and demo)ra)+ / a &ro-.ematisation

Communism and the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+

Eou)au.t0 OMietIs)he0 Henea.o(+0 Histor+;0 A"/>2

Communism and demo)ra)+ / a &ro-.ematisation

Communism and the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+

3he e5&erientia. -asis o! )ommunism and demo)ra)+

Re4o.utions0 transitions0 and un)ertaint+

3he e5&erientia. -asis o! )ommunism and demo)ra)+

Re4o.utions0 transitions0 and un)ertaint+

3he e5&erientia. -asis o! )ommunism and demo)ra)+

Re4o.utions0 transitions0 and un)ertaint+

3he e5&erientia. -asis o! )ommunism and demo)ra)+

Re4o.utions0 transitions0 and un)ertaint+

3he e5&erientia. -asis o! )ommunism and demo)ra)+

3homas C2 :)he..in(0 ">CA70"A/">2

acro3ehavior 6Me1 YorkP W2W2 Morton0

Re4o.utions0 transitions0 and un)ertaint+

"> <= <"

3he e5&erientia. -asis o! )ommunism and demo)ra)+

Re4o.utions0 transitions0 and un)ertaint+

3he e5&erientia. -asis o! )ommunism and demo)ra)+

<B <C <>

Re4o.utions0 transitions0 and un)ertaint+

3he e5&erientia. -asis o! )ommunism and demo)ra)+

Re4o.utions0 transitions0 and un)ertaint+

3he e5&erientia. -asis o! )ommunism and demo)ra)+

Re4o.utions0 transitions0 and un)ertaint+