Educational Technology & Society 3(4) 2000 ISSN 1436-4522

Student Modelling in an Intelligent Tutoring System for the Passive Voice of English Language
Maria Virvou Department of Informatics, University of Piraeus 80, Karaoli and Dimitriou St., Piraeus 185 3 , !reece mvirvou"unipi.#r $el% &301 1 ''() *a+% &301 11' (3 Dimitris Maras Department of ,omputer Science, University of -t.ens 30, Panepistimiou St., -t.ens 10( /), !reece ea#le"at..fort.net.#r $el% &301 5//8/8' Victoria Tsiriga Department of Informatics, University of Piraeus 80, Karaoli and Dimitriou St., Piraeus 185 3 , !reece vtsir"unipi.#r $el% &301 1 '131 *a+% &301 11' (3

ABSTRA T $.is paper descri0es an intelli#ent multimedia tutorin# system for t.e passive voice of t.e 1n#lis. #rammar. $.e system may 0e used to present t.eoretical issues a0out t.e passive voice and to provide e+ercises t.at t.e student may solve. $.e main focus of t.e tutor is on t.e student2s error dia#nosis process, 3.ic. is performed 0y t.e student modellin# component. 4.en t.e student types t.e solution to an e+ercise, t.e system e+amines t.e correctness of t.e ans3er. If t.e student2s ans3er .as 0een erroneous it attempts to dia#nose t.e underlyin# misconception of t.e mista5e. In order to provide individualised .elp, t.e system .olds a profile for every student, t.e lon# term student model. $.e student6s pro#ress and .is7.er usual mista5es are recorded to t.is lon# term student model. $.is 5ind of information is used for t.e individualised error dia#nosis of t.e student in su0se8uent sessions. In addition, t.e information stored a0out t.e student can also 0e used for t.e resolution of an arisin# am0i#uity, as to 3.at t.e underlyin# cause of a student error .as 0een. !ey"ords# Intelli#ent $utorin# System, 9ultimedia, Student 9odellin#, 1rror Dia#nosis, :an#ua#e :earnin#

$% Introduction $.is paper descri0es an intelli#ent tutorin# system for t.e domain of t.e passive voice of t.e 1n#lis. #rammar for !ree5 students. $.ere is increasin# interest in t.e use of computer; assisted lan#ua#e instruction, especially in cases 3.en t.e lan#ua#e tau#.t is not t.e mot.er ton#ue of t.e students <=os and van de Plassc.e 1)) > ?eift 1))8> Kunic.i5e et al. 1))8@. $.e need for tutorin# systems t.at may provide individualised support to errors is even #reater 3.en students are tau#.t more t.an one forei#n lan#ua#es simultaneously, as is very often t.e case for !ree5 students. ?o3ever, as 9urp.y and 9c$ear <1))/@ point out, many pac5a#es of computer assisted lan#ua#e learnin# fall s.ort 3.en it comes to providin# t.e learner 3it. individualised teac.in# and fle+i0le feed0ac5. $.erefore, t.e multimedia tutor t.at 3e .ave developed .as 0een 0ased on Intelli#ent $utorin# Systems <I$Ss@. In t.is 3ay, t.e system com0ines an attractive multimedia interface and adaptivity to individual student needs. Indeed, many researc.ers <e.#. 9c!ra3 1)) @ point out t.at t.e inte#ration of -I tec.nolo#ies and .ypermedia may offer 0etter support to students t.an any of t.ese alone. $.e Passive Aoice $utor complies 3it. t.e arc.itecture of most I$Ss, 3.ic. consists of t.e domain 5no3led#e, t.e student modeller, t.e advice #enerator and t.e user interface <?artley and Sleeman 1)/3> =urton and =ro3n 1)/(> 4en#er 1)8/@. $.e main focus of t.e system descri0ed is on t.e student modellin# component and especially on t.e error dia#nosis process. $.e facility of individualised error dia#nosis is particularly important for students, 3.o can 0enefit from advice tailored to t.eir pro0lems. -s Ba#ata <1))/@ notes, computer;assisted lan#ua#e instruction, in conCunction 3it. contemporary natural lan#ua#e processin# tec.nolo#y, .olds out t.e promise of unlimited, immediate feed0ac5 pinpointed to t.e specific #rammatical errors made 0y t.e student. ?o3ever, t.e underlyin# cause of a mista5e may 0e difficult for a tutorin# system to spot. *or e+ample, ?ollna#el <1))1> 1))3@ ma5es an important distinction 0et3een t.e underlyin# cause or #enotype of an error and t.e o0serva0le manifestation or p.enotype of t.e error. In addition, 9itrovic et al. <1))(@ ar#ue t.at am0i#uity may 0e a pro0lem, since t.ere may 0e different e+planations of o0served incorrect user6s actions. In t.e case of t.e passive tutor, error dia#nosis is performed 0y a s.ort term and a lon# term student model <Dic. 1)/)> 1)83@. $.e s.ort term student model is responsi0le for analysin# t.e student6s mista5es in t.e current session. En t.e ot.er .and, t.e lon# term model of eac. student contains information a0out previous mista5es or correct 5no3led#e of t.e student. $.e lon# term student model is used for am0i#uity resolution of competin# .ypot.eses a0out errors. *or e+ample, if a student .as 0een recorded to .ave 0een prone to spellin# mista5es, t.en t.e system may use t.is piece of information for t.e interpretation of a mista5e 0y favourin# t.e cause of 3ron# spellin# rat.er t.an lac5 of #rammar 5no3led#e at some points of t.e interaction. In t.is 3ay 3e ac.ieve a 0i; directional interaction 0et3een t.e lon# term and t.e s.ort term student model for t.e 0enefit of more individualised error dia#nosis and .elp to t.e student. $.e Passive Aoice $utor uses a cate#orisation of common student mista5es, so t.at it may identify t.e cause of a particular error. $.e cate#orisation .as resulted from an empirical study t.at involved 0ot. students and teac.ers. In addition, t.is empirical study, provided information a0out t.e 5ind of e+ercises to 0e encoded into t.e system, as 3ell as t.e underlyin# teac.in# strate#y to 0e follo3ed 0y t.e Passive Aoice $utor.

$.e domain representation of t.e Passive Aoice $utor contains 5no3led#e a0out .o3 to convert a sentence from one voice to anot.er and 5no3led#e a0out prere8uisite #rammatical concepts, suc. as t.e conCu#ation of ver0s, irre#ular ver0s, etc. In addition, t.e system is capa0le of constructin# dynamically ne3 e+ercises for t.e student to solve. $.is means t.at it incorporates syntactic and semantic 5no3led#e concernin# t.e 3ords t.at may constitute a meanin#ful sentence. ?ence, t.e system is a0le to s.o3 a 3ide ran#e of ne3 e+amples to students and to perform error dia#nosis in ne3 e+ercises. $.e ultimate o0Cective for educational soft3are is t.at it s.ould 0e educationally 0eneficial and it is e+actly in suc. environments t.at it is important to trac5 .o3 usa0ility contri0utes <or not@ to educational #oals <Fones et al. 1)))@. $.erefore, in t.is researc., 3e .ave evaluated t.e error dia#nosis and advice #eneration components of t.e Passive Aoice $utor, so as to ensure t.at t.e system can 0e useful and effective in .elpin# students learn.

&% Related 'or( $.e pro0lem of teac.in# a lan#ua#e t.rou#. a computer assisted approac. is very si#nificant and .as attracted a 3ide interest from t.e community of 0ot. educators and computer scientists. 4it. re#ard to second lan#ua#e learnin# I$Ss concerned 3it. formal aspects of natural lan#ua#e, ,.anier et al. <1))'@ distin#uis. t3o types of systems% com utational-e!!o!" and ea!ly dee e! analy"i" "y"tem". ,omputational;errors systems, on t.e one .and, .ave a lar#e lin#uistic covera#e, 0ut dept. limited error analysis procedures. En t.e ot.er .and, early systems 3it. deeper error analysis .ave a narro3 lin#uistic covera#e 0ut a 8uite e+.austive description of t.e possi0le errors, 3.ic. may .ave occurred in t.eir domain. $.e Passive Aoice $utor is a system 3it. deeper error analysis similar 3it. ot.er systems suc. as t.e 1n#lis. $utor <*um et al. 1))'@, t.e AP' <Sc.uster 1)8(@, and Spen#els <=os and van de Plassc.e 1)) @. In t.is section 3e .i#.li#.t t.e difference of our approac., as compared to t.ese t.ree systems t.at are representative of systems 3it. deeper error analysis. 1n#lis. $utor is an intelli#ent system, 3.ic. comprises a Aer0 !eneration 1+pert. $.is e+pert is devoted to tense #eneration and is capa0le of solvin# fill;in e+ercises. 1ac. e+ercise consists of one or more sentences in 3.ic. some ver0s .ave to 0e conCu#ated into t.e appropriate tenses. In t.e 1n#lis. $utor, student modellin# is 0ased on a met.odolo#y called 0ac53ard model tracin#. $.is met.odolo#y is used to analyse t.e reasonin# process of t.e student 0y reconstructin# step 0y step and in reverse order t.e c.ain of reasonin# t.at s7.e .as follo3ed in #ivin# .is7.er ans3er. In order to do t.is, 0ot. correct domain specific 5no3led#e and a catalo#ue of stereotyped mal;rules is used. $.ere is also a meta;0u# li0rary t.at descri0es #eneric 3ays of alterin# correct 5no3led#e and is used in cases 3.ere t.e catalo#ue of mal; rules is insufficient for t.e e+planation of t.e student6s 0e.aviour. Ene advanta#e of t.e Passive Aoice $utor a#ainst t.e 1n#lis. $utor is t.at it contains stereotyped mal;rules for more t.an one levels and types of 5no3led#e. *or e+ample, it .as mal;rules concernin# typos, spellin# mista5es, ver0 transformation errors, etc. In 0ot. systems, multiple .ypot.eses may 0e #enerated if an error occurs. ?o3ever, t.e .ypot.eses resolution in t.e case of t.e Passive Aoice $utor is performed usin# t.e lon#;term student model, a component 3.ic. does not e+ist in t.e 1n#lis. $utor. *urt.ermore, our system .as also t.e a0ility to construct dynamically ne3 e+ercises for t.e student to solve.

Ene ot.er system t.at focuses on error dia#nosis is AP'. AP' is an I$S t.at is aimed at teac.in# 1n#lis. to Spanis. people. $.e specific domain of interest in AP' is 1n#lis. ver0al constructions formed from a ver0 plus particle or ver0 plus prepositional p.rase. $.e system apart from modellin# t.e #rammatical concepts of t.e 1n#lis. lan#ua#e models t.e Spanis. lan#ua#e as 3ell. $.e t3o #rammar models are used in t.e process of t.e error analysis. AP' first uses t.e 1n#lis. #rammar model in order to parse a student6s ans3er. In t.e case t.at t.ere is an error t.at cannot 0e reco#nised usin# t.is model, t.e system tries to perform t.e parsin# usin# t.e Spanis. model of #rammar. In t.is 3ay, t.e system is a0le to reco#nise errors t.at are related to t.e mot.er ton#ue of students. $.e Passive Aoice $utor is similar to AP' in t.at it contains e+plicit representations of fre8uent errors of !ree5 students, 3.ic. are due to t.e influence of t.eir mot.er ton#ue. In addition, t.ere are e+plicit representations of errors t.at are due to t.e influence of ot.er forei#n lan#ua#es <e.#. *renc.@ t.at a !ree5 student may learn at t.e same time as 1n#lis.. ?o3ever, a limitation of AP' is t.at its dia#nostic value seems to 0e minimal, since it allo3s no representation of t.e students6 mista5es and misconceptions. In t.e case of t.e Passive Aoice $utor, on t.e ot.er .and, a personal lon# term model is .eld for every particular student, allo3in# t.e system to provide more individualised tutorin# and dia#nosis. *inally, a system t.at 0ears a lot of similarities to t.e Passive Aoice $utor is Spen#els. Spen#els is a 5no3led#e;0ased tutor for t.e conCu#ation and spellin# of 1n#lis. ver0s. $.e system is addressed to Dutc. students 3.o .ave an elementary spellin# 5no3led#e of 1n#lis.. $.e domain 5no3led#e consists of morp.olo#ical rules, suc. as% infinitive & s ;G t.ird person, sin#ular of present tense <e.#. tal5s@ infinitive & ed ;G past tense <e.#. tal5ed@. It also contains spellin# alternation rules t.at are used to alter t.e standard morp.olo#ical rules <e.#. y ;G ie> suc. as try ;G tried@. Spen#els contains ei#.t 0u# classes% 1@ syntactic 0u#s, '@ over#eneralisations of a formula application, 3@ application of a morp.olo#ical mal;rule, @ application of a 0u##y spellin# rule, 5@ typos, (@ analo#y 0u#s, /@ compound 0u#s, and 8@ miscellaneous 0u#s. It uses a fuHHy set t.eory to model t.e de#ree to 3.ic. a student masters a feature or rule and it presents a s.ort overvie3 of t.e student6s performance at t.e end of eac. session. $.e Passive Aoice $utor .as a 3ider domain and 0u##y 5no3led#e t.an Spen#els. $.e domain of Spen#els <ver0 transformation@ is covered in its prere8uisite #rammatical concepts. $.e passive voice #enerates several .ypot.eses a0out possi0le student errors at many levels. Similarly to t.e Passive Aoice $utor, Spen#els also forms a lon# term student model. ?o3ever, in Spen#els t.e lon# term student model is only used to s.o3 to t.e student a s.ort overvie3 of .is7.er performance. In contrast, t.e Passive Aoice $utor uses t.e lon# term student model to refine .ypot.eses a0out possi0le student errors, as 3ell as to s.o3 a pro#ress report to t.e student.

)% Architecture of the Passive Voice Tutor $.e arc.itecture of t.e Passive Aoice $utor follo3s t.e main line of Intelli#ent $utorin# Systems <I$S@ arc.itectures. It is 3idely a#reed t.at t.e maCor functional components of an I$S arc.itecture are t.e domain 5no3led#e, t.e student modeller, t.e advice #enerator and t.e

user interface <?artley and Sleeman 1)/3> =urton and =ro3n 1)/(> 4en#er 1)8/@. In t.is section 3e 3ill 0riefly descri0e t.e domain 5no3led#e, t.e advice #enerator and t.e user interface, 3.ile t.e student modellin# is descri0ed in detail in Section . $.e domain 5no3led#e of t.e Passive Aoice $utor consists of procedures concernin# t.e conversion of a sentence from active into passive voice and vice versa, a voca0ulary of 1n#lis. 3ords used in t.e construction of e+ercises, t.e semantic relations of t.e 3ords of t.e voca0ulary and procedures and rules a0out prere8uisite #rammatical concepts. $.e domain 5no3led#e of t.e Passive Aoice $utor is responsi0le for performin# t.e follo3in# tas5s%

Parsin# t.e e+ercise sentence. Identifyin# t.e semantic relations.ips 0et3een t.e su0Cect, t.e ver0 and t.e o0Cect and Cud#in# 3.et.er t.e e+ercise sentence ma5es sense. $ransformin# t.e o0Cect7su0Cect of t.e active7passive sentence into t.e su0Cect7o0Cect in t.e passive7active sentence, respectively. Identifyin# t.e tense of t.e ver0 used in t.e active7passive sentence. ,onCu#atin# t.e ver0 into t.e appropriate tense in t.e passive7active sentence. $ransformin# t.e su0Cect7o0Cect of t.e active7passive sentence into t.e o0Cect7su0Cect in t.e passive7active sentence, respectively.

In order to illustrate a part of t.e transformation from t.e active into t.e passive voice of an e+ercise sentence, 3e present some PDE:E! predicates. article<I, su0CectJpassive<K@@%; article<I, o0CectJactive<K@@.

add<ver0<0e, $ense@,ver0Jpassive<participle<-@@%; ver0<-, $ense@.

add<0y, o0CectJpassive<,@@%; su0CectJactive<,@, e+plicit<,@.

$.e tas5s performed 0y t.e domain 5no3led#e of t.e Passive Aoice $utor are supported 0y a 5no3led#e 0ase t.at represents t.e voca0ulary used in t.e e+ercise sentences. *or eac. 3ord, a num0er of attri0utes are associated 3it. it. *or e+ample, in t.e case of a noun one attri0ute represents 3.et.er it is uncounta0le or not, and ot.er attri0utes concern t.e !ree5 translation of t.e noun and translations to ot.er lan#ua#es, suc. as *renc. etc. In case of a ver0, attri0utes represent 3.et.er t.e ver0 is irre#ular, alon# 3it. t.e irre#ular form of t.e past and past

participle of t.e ver0, etc. In addition, t.e 3ords included in t.e voca0ulary are related t.rou#. a semantic net, so t.at t.e system may 0e a0le to identify 3.et.er a sentence ma5es sense or not. $.e advice #enerator is responsi0le for actin# 3.en t.e user ma5es an error. In suc. case, it tries to respond in t.e most appropriate 3ay 0y informin# t.e user a0out 3.at t.e cause of t.e error .as 0een and 0y s.o3in# to .im7.er t.e relevant part of t.e t.eory. *or e+ample, if a student .as made a mista5e t.at is related to t.e use of ver0 tenses t.en t.e advice #enerator 3ill s.o3 to t.e student t.e part of t.e t.eory t.at deals 3it. t.is su0Cect. *urt.ermore, t.e advice #enerator is t.e component t.at is responsi0le for constructin# ne3 e+ercises, as 3ell as s.o3in# to t.e learner a set of #rammar pa#es on demand. *or e+ample, in one mode of function of t.e Passive Aoice $utor, t.e student creates e+ercises and t.e system is tryin# to solve t.em. $.e student may create sentences in active voice 0y selectin# su0Cects, ver0s and o0Cects from t.ree lists respectively. 4.en t.e student .as c.osen t.e 0asic elements of t.e sentence, s7.e may enric. t.e active sentence usin# certain supplementin# 3ords. Suc. 3ords include articles, pronouns, and t.e 3ords La lot ofM, La fe3M, LsomeM, LmanyM. In addition, t.e student may also c.oose sin#ular or plural form for t.e su0Cect and o0Cect as 3ell as s7.e can select a tense for t.e ver0. 4.ile constructin# an active sentence, t.e system .as t.e a0ility to semantically c.ec5 t.e created sentence, t.rou#. t.e semantic net of t.e domain 5no3led#e t.at represents t.e relations 0et3een 3ords of t.e voca0ulary. Irrespective of t.e semantic correctness of t.e sentence, t.e system transforms it into t.e passive voice 3.enever it is as5ed to. *inally, t.e user interface is 8uite important for t.is 5ind of application, 0ecause it can stimulate t.e student6s interest in learnin#. In addition, it conveys t.e functionality of a computer application to t.e user and translates t.e user6s input into a mac.ine;specific format <Plass 1))8@. $.e user interface of t.e Passive Aoice $utor, is a multimedia user interface, 3.ic. involves animations, sounds and a limited form of natural lan#ua#e so t.at it can attract t.e student6s interest in t.e su0Cect.

*% Modelling the Student !no"ledge $.e student modeller is responsi0le for preservin# t.e system6s estimation of t.e learner6s proficiency in t.e domain as 3ell as .is7.er proneness to commit errors. $.e emp.asis on t.e student modellin# component of t.e Passive Aoice $utor .as 0een put on t.e 0i;directional interaction of t3o su0;components% t.e lon# term and t.e s.ort term student model <Dic. 1)/)> 1)83> Fones and Airvou 1))1@. $.e Passive Aoice $utor constructs a student model, 3.ic. serves as a source of information t.at can 0e used for t.e interpretation of t.e student6s actions and possi0le mista5es in solvin# e+ercises. $.e student modeller c.ec5s t.e student6s ans3er a#ainst t.e e+pert6s ans3er and in a case of an error, it performs error dia#nosis. 4.ile performin# error dia#nosis, t.e student6s ans3er is c.ec5ed a#ainst t.e set of t.e erroneous versions t.at t.e system is a0le to identify. Ene important source of errors <alt.ou#. not t.e only one@ is considered to 0e t.e interference of t.e mot.er ton#ue and ot.er forei#n lan#ua#es t.at t.e student is familiar 3it.. 1rror dia#nosis is performed 0y t.e s.ort term student model.

-not.er responsi0ility of t.e student modeller is to form t.e lon# term student model. $.e lon# term student model constitutes a .istory model of t.e student6s 3ea5nesses and pro#ress. $.e lon# term student model influences t.e process of error dia#nosis. *or e+ample, if a student .as 0een recorded to .ave fre8uently made typo#rap.ic errors 0ut no #rammar errors at all, t.en in case of am0i#uity t.e former cause is favoured. In addition, as ,oo5 and Kay <1)) @ .ave s.o3n, students 0enefit from vie3in# t.eir o3n student models. $.erefore, t.is 5ind of information is used not only for refinin# t.e error dia#nosis process 0ut also for presentin# it to t.e user.

*%$% Error Diagnosis in E+ercises

-n empirical study t.at 3e conducted amon# .uman teac.ers and t.eir students s.o3ed t.at 0ot. teac.ers and students 3ere very interested in 5no3in# 3.ic. cate#ories of error individual students 3ere prone to and 3.ic. #rammatical concepts t.ey .ad mastered. $.is result 3as in accordance 3it. results from ot.er empirical studies as 3ell <e.#. =os and van de Plassc.e 1)) @. ?uman tutors also considered it important t.at t.e type of e+ercises s.ould 0e similar to t.e type used in e+am papers of state sc.ools. $.erefore, t.e student, 3.ile 3or5in# 3it. t.e Passive Aoice $utor, is #iven t.ree types of e+ercise to select from <Airvou and 9aras 1)))a@% 1. #ulti le choice e$e!ci"e"% 9ultiple c.oice 8uestions are t.e most 3idely used and .i#.ly re#arded of t.e selection;type 8uestions <!ronlund 1))'@. $.e information provided 0y t.e empirical study 3as used in order to develop a li0rary t.at .eld t.e multiple c.oice 8uestions and t.e erroneous ans3ers t.at could 0e presented to t.e student. 4.ile selectin# t.e multiple c.oice 8uestion to provide t.e student, t.e Passive Aoice $utor re8uests input from t.e student modellin# component, as to 3.at t.e main difficulties of t.e particular student are. In t.is 3ay t.e selected 8uestion is relevant to t.ose parts of t.e t.eory t.at t.e student .as 0een recorded to .ave 3ea5nesses in. *urt.ermore, t.e results of t.e empirical study .ave 0een used for t.e analysis of possi0le students6 mista5es in t.e desi#n of t.e dia#nostic component of t.e student modeller. 1ac. erroneous student6s ans3er is c.ec5ed a#ainst t.e set of t.e erroneous versions t.at t.e system stores in its 0u# li0rary. '. E$e!ci"e" %he!e the u"e! i" a"&ed to !e%!ite a "entence u"ing a""i'e 'oice% In t.is case, t.e student is #iven a sentence in t.e active voice and s7.e is as5ed to re3rite t.e sentence in t.e passive voice. -t t.is 5ind of e+ercise, t.e dia#nosis of t.e students6 mista5es is done in a more sop.isticated 3ay t.an in t.e case of multiple c.oice e+ercises. In order to reason a0out t.e correctness or t.e cause of an erroneous ans3er, t.e Passive Aoice $utor performs a restricted natural lan#ua#e processin# 3.ile parsin# t.e student6s input. $.is is due to t.e fact t.at t.e student in t.is 5ind of e+ercise .as more freedom in t.e creation of .is7.er ans3er. 3. E$e!ci"e" %he!e the u"e! i" a"&ed to !e%!ite a "entence u"ing acti'e 'oice% In t.ose e+ercises t.e user is as5ed to re3rite a sentence, #iven t.e passive voice into t.e active voice. $.e system operation in a case li5e t.is is similar to t.e one descri0ed in t.e e+ercises 3.ere t.e user is as5ed to re3rite a sentence usin# passive voice. -s =ro3n <1))/@ points out, #iven t.e advanta#es of individual, time;independent lan#ua#e testin#, computer;0ased testin# 3ill no dou0t prove to 0e a positive development in assessment

practice. $.e Passive Aoice $utor contains 5no3led#e a0out .o3 to solve an e+ercise correctly and in several faulty 3ays. $.e student modellin# component of t.e Passive Aoice $utor uses a com0ination of 0u##y and overlay tec.ni8ues to error dia#nosis <4en#er 1)8/@. =u##y procedures are related to t.e conversion of an active into a passive sentence and t.e opposite, as 3ell as to t.e prere8uisite #rammatical concepts. 1ac. one of t.ese procedures is associated 3it. a certain cate#ory of error. *or e+ample, a common mista5e t.at students seem to ma5e is t.e one illustrated in *i#ure 1. In t.is case, t.e student .as ne#lected t.e rule t.at says t.at t.e 3ord N3it.6 is used instead of N0y6 in t.e case 3.ere t.e o0Cect of t.e passive sentence is material and not an a#ent. Similarly, a 0u##y procedure associated 3it. prere8uisite #rammatical concepts may 0e t.e use of t.e suffi+ Ned6 3.ile formin# t.e past participle of an irre#ular ver0. $.e system is also a0le to identify not 5no3n procedures of transformation. *or e+ample, a !ree5 student may .ave a difficulty in understandin# t.e follo3in# conversion% (cti'e Sentence) *a""i'e Sentence) People 0elieve t.at s.e is clever. S.e is 0elieved to 0e clever.

$.is is so 0ecause t.ere is no suc. passive voice structure in t.e !ree5 lan#ua#e.

+igu!e 1, 1rroneous student6s ans3er 3.ile convertin# a sentence from active into passive voice

1rror dia#nosis is performed 0y t.e Passive Aoice $utor in t.e Solvin# 1+ercises 9ode. In multiple c.oice e+ercises error dia#nosis is simple. *or every erroneous ans3er t.at t.e student may select, t.ere is an associated misconception. $.erefore, dependin# on t.e erroneous selection t.at t.e student .as made, a correspondin# error messa#e is presented, e+plainin# t.e cause of t.e mista5e.

In t.e case of e+ercises 3.ere t.e student is as5ed to re3rite a sentence, error dia#nosis 0ecomes more sop.isticated since in t.is case t.e student is allo3ed to 0e more creative t.an in multiple c.oice e+ercises. In t.e Lre3riteM type of e+ercise t.e student is #iven a sentence in one voice <active or passive@ and is as5ed to re3rite t.e sentence usin# anot.er voice. $.e system incorporates 5no3led#e a0out .o3 to convert a sentence from one voice to anot.er correctly. ?o3ever, if t.e student6s ans3er differs from t.e system6s e+pectation t.en t.e system performs error dia#nosis. $.e cases 3.ere t.e system performs error dia#nosis result from t.e follo3in# steps of a parsin# al#orit.m% 1. $.e system counts t.e 3ords t.at constitute t.e sentence t.at t.e student .as #iven as an ans3er. $.is sentence could 0e eit.er in t.e active or in t.e passive voice. If t.e num0er of t.e 3ords in t.e student6s ans3er is different from t.e ones t.at t.e system e+pects, t.en error dia#nosis is performed. '. $.e system is parsin# t.e sentence typed, so as to verify 3.et.er one of t.e essential 3ords, L0yM or L3it.M, is present. If neit.er of t.e t3o is included in t.e student6s ans3er, t.en error dia#nosis is performed. 3. Be+t, t.e correctness of t.e form of t.e ver0 L0eM in t.e student6s ans3er is c.ec5ed. $.e system first constructs t.e correct form of t.e ver0 0ased on t.e active sentence. If t.e student6s ans3er is different from t.e one e+pected 0y t.e system, t.en error dia#nosis is performed. . In t.is step, t.e system is loo5in# for spellin# mista5es in t.e student6s ans3er. If it finds a spellin# mista5e, t.en it performs error dia#nosis. 5. *inally, t.e system performs a syntactic analysis so as to ensure t.at t.e components of t.e sentence are in t.e ri#.t order. If t.e 3ords of t.e sentence are not in t.e ri#.t order, t.en error dia#nosis is performed. 1rror dia#nosis is performed 0y matc.in# eac. identified error a#ainst t.e 0u##y 5no3led#e and correspondin# e+planations of t.e system6s 5no3led#e 0ase. In case more t.an one cate#ories of error and7or e+planations matc. t.e identified mista5e, t.en am0i#uity resolution is performed, usin# t.e priorities of t.e cate#ories of errors and t.e lon# term student model. -s ,.apelle <1))8@ points out, 3.en errors are reco#nised, t.e process of t.e learner6s self; correction is also 0elieved to 0e 0eneficial, particularly 0ecause t.e items for 3.ic. self; correction occurs may 0e t.ose for 3.ic. learners6 5no3led#e is fra#ile. $.erefore, after identifyin# a student6s mista5e and providin# a correspondin# error messa#e, t.e Passive Aoice $utor e+pects t.e student6s correction, instead of providin# t.e correct ans3er. $.e ans3er of an e+ercise may 0e presented only on t.e student6s demand.

*%&% ategories of Error and E+,lanations

,ommon student mista5es .ave 0een classified into ei#.t 0road cate#ories of error t.at may 0e reco#nised 0y t.e system <Airvou and 9aras 1)))0@. $.ese errors are associated 3it. t.e conversion of passive into active voice and vice versa and also t.e prere8uisite #rammatical concepts, suc. as irre#ular ver0s. $.e cate#ories of error are%

1. -ccidental slips -ccidental slips are occasional actions, 3.ic. are not systematic and 3.ic. t.e learner .imself7.erself can correct. *or e+ample, t.e student may .ave deleted some 3ords and may .ave for#otten to complete t.e sentence. $rivial typo#rap.ic errors are not considered as accidental slips. $.ey are completely i#nored 0y t.e system. $.erefore 3.en t.ey occur t.e system considers t.e sentence correct. *or e+ample, t.e a0sence of a fullstop at t.e end of t.e sentence, a0sence of some space 0et3een 3ords, redundant commas etc. are i#nored. '. Spellin# mista5es - spellin# mista5e occurs 3.en t.e user .as typed t.e e+pected 3ord so t.at one letter is redundant or missin# or t3o nei#.0ourin# letters .ave 0een interc.an#ed. *or e+ample, t.e student .as typed Lmat.erM instead of Lmot.erM. 3. -rticle mista5es *or e+ample, t.e user may .ave used LaM instead of LanM. . ,onversion mista5es *or e+ample, t.e user may .ave not converted t.e active ver0 L3riteM to t.e past participle L3rittenM. 5. Irre#ular ver0 mista5es *or e+ample, t.e user may .ave used t.e usual endin# L;edM to create t.e past participle of an irre#ular ver0 <e.#. s7.e may .ave typed L0uyedM instead of L0ou#.tM@. (. Boun mista5es *or e+ample, t.e user may .ave typed L0oo5M instead of L0oo5sM. /. Aer0 tense mista5es *or e+ample, t.e user may .ave typed L0eenM instead of L0ein#M. 8. Sin#ular7Plural mista5es *or e+ample, t.e user may .ave typed Lflo3ers ha" 0een put in t.e vaseM instead of Lflo3ers ha'e 0een put in t.e vaseM. 1ac. cate#ory of error <apart from accidental slips@ may also 0e associated 3it. a variety of e+planations a0out t.e possi0le cause of t.e mista5e. 1+planations .ave 0een 0ased on identified strate#ies t.at learners may use in order to simplify t.e tas5 of learnin# a second lan#ua#e <Dic.ards 1)/ @%

:an#ua#e $ransfer of Interference% $.e learner uses .is7.er previous mot.er;ton#ue <or possi0ly some ot.er forei#n lan#ua#e distinct from t.e tar#et lan#ua#e@ e+perience as a means of or#anisin# t.e second lan#ua#e. In t.e Passive Aoice $utor, t.is e+planation is associated 3it. eac. cate#ory of error, dependin# on t.e particular error. $.ere are 0u##y procedures associated 3it. t.is particular cause of an error for almost every cate#ory of error. *or e+ample, t.e spellin# mista5e LanalyseisM instead of LanalysesM is often made 0y !ree5 students for t.e plural of t.e !ree5 3ord LanalysisM, 0ecause in !ree5 t.e plural is LanalyseisM. Similarly, an e+ample of sin#ular7plural mista5e t.at may 0e attri0uted to lan#ua#e interference could 0e% L!ree5 people i" 0elieved to .ave 0een used to sunny 3eat.er.M instead of L!ree5 people a!e 0elieved to .ave 0een used to sunny 3eat.er.M $.is is so, 0ecause in !ree5 t.e translation of LpeopleM is al3ays considered sin#ular.

Ever#eneralisation of t.e tar#et lan#ua#e rules% $.e learner .as ac8uired a particular piece of lin#uistic 5no3led#e and some strate#ies 3.ic. s7.e .ad found .elpful in or#anisin# t.e facts a0out t.e tar#et lan#ua#e, 0ut applies t.em too 3idely. $.is e+planation is also associated 3it. many of t.e cate#ories of error, dependin# on t.e particular error. *or e+ample, a conversion mista5e t.at is associated 3it. t.is e+planation is% LIt is 0elieved -y eo le t.at .e committed t.e crime.M instead of LIt is 0elieved t.at .e committed t.e crime.M In t.is case, t.e a#ent s.ould not .ave 0een mentioned. ?o3ever, t.e student .as used an over#eneralisation of t.e rule for t.e conversion t.at includes t.e a#ent.

I#norance of rule restrictions% *or e+ample, in conversion mista5es a student may type% L$.e room 3as filled -y smo5e.M instead of L$.e room 3as filled %ith smo5e.M $.is error may 0e due to t.e fact t.at t.e student may not 5no3 t.e restriction t.at L3it.M is used instead of L0yM 3.en t.e o0Cect of t.e passive voice sentence stands for materials rat.er t.an a#ents.

Incomplete application of rules% Incomplete application of rules involves a failure to learn more comple+ types of structure 0ecause t.e learner finds s7.e can ac.ieve effective communication 0y usin# relatively simple rules. *or e+ample, in conversion mista5es t.e student may .ave typed% L$.e 0oo5 3as 3ritten.M instead of L$.e 0oo5 3as 3ritten 0y Fo.n Smit..M

*alse concepts .ypot.esised% $.ey may derive from faulty compre.ension of a distinction in t.e tar#et lan#ua#e. *or e+ample, ver0 tense mista5es may 0e attri0uted to t.is cause if t.e student .as not understood correctly .o3 to use ver0 tenses.

$ransfer on trainin#% 1rrors may also come from t.e influence of a teac.er and7or te+t0oo5 3riter 3.o inevita0ly emp.asises some aspect of t.e tar#et lan#ua#e and ne#lects ot.ers.

$.e lon#;term student model records .o3 often a student .as made a certain type of error and 3.at underlyin# cause 3as considered relevant. In some cases a mista5e of t.e user may 0e attri0uted to more t.an one cate#ories of error and7or e+planations. In suc. a case, an am0i#uity arises and t.e system s.ould consult t.e student6s lon#;term model in order to resolve it. *or e+ample, if a user is #iven t.e sentence% L-lice 0rou#.t flo3ersM and is as5ed to convert it to passive voice, t.e correct ans3er 3ould 0e L*lo3ers 3ere 0rou#.t 0y -liceM. ?o3ever, if t.e student types t.e sentence L*lo3ers 3ere 0rou#.t -liceM 3.ere L0yM is missin# t.en t.is mista5e may 0e attri0uted to t3o cate#ories of error. It could eit.er 0e an accidental slip or a conversion mista5e. If t.e particular student .as not previously made any conversion mista5es 0ut .as fre8uently made accidental slips t.en t.is 3ould .ave 0een recorded in .is7.er lon#;term student model. In t.is case t.e system 3ould favour t.e accidental slip as t.e most pro0a0le cause of t.e am0i#uous mista5e.

-uestion num.er

student ans"ers

System/s Suggestion

Degree of om,ati.ility "ith 0uman Tutors

System# 9y fat.er 3ill 0uy a 0oo5. $

Sentence conversion error.

&

Botice t.at in Passive Aoice 100O Student# 9y fat.er 3ill 0e su0Cect and o0Cect e+c.an#e places. 0ou#.t 0y a 0oo5. System# 9y sister reads Irre#ular ver0 error. ma#aHines. 100O Botice t.at t.e ver0 is irre#ular and Student# 9a#aHines are does not ta5e t.e suffi+ P;edP readed 0y my sister. Aer0 transformation error. System# Fim drives e+pensive cars. Botice t.at in Passive Aoice 3e use t.e past participle of t.e ver0. In suc. a case an am0i#uity arises.

) Student# 1+pensive cars are drive 0y Fim. System# ,olum0us

80O

Aer0 tense mista5e.

discovered -merica. Student# -merica is discovered 0y ,olum0us. Botice t.at in Simple Past 3e use t.e 3ords P3asP or P3ereP. $.e ver0 is not in Simple Present. $.is mista5e mi#.t 0e attri0uted eit.er to carelessness, or it could 0e a serious error.

)5O

* System# Fo.n .as painted my car. Aer0 transformation error. Incorrect form of t.e ver0 L0eM. )0O Student# 9y car .as 0e painted 0y Fo.n. System# ,at.erine cuts a flo3er. Incorrect article in su0Cect. $.e 3ords t.at 0e#in 3it. consonant 100O Student# -n flo3er is cut ta5e t.is article. 0y ,at.erine. System# 9y son 0rin#s t.e letters. Sin#ular Q Plural confusion in t.e su0Cect of t.e passive sentence. )0O Student# $.e letter is 0rou#.t 0y my son. E0Cect is missin#. Suc. an error could 0e attri0uted eit.er to )0O carelessness, or it mi#.t 0e a more serious mista5e.

System# $.e do# ate t.e stea5. 4 Student# $.e stea5 3as eaten. System# Peter 3rote a poem. 5 Student# - poem 3as 3riten 0y Peter. System# $.e .airdresser cut my .air. Student# 9y .air 3as cutted 0y t.e .airdresser.

Spellin# error. $.is mista5e mi#.t .ave 0een due to t.e student6s carelessness.

100O

Aer0 transformation error. Botice t.at t.e ver0 is irre#ular and does not ta5e t.e suffi+ P;edP

100O

$6

Ta-le 1, $utors6 error dia#nosis evaluation results

1% Evaluation of the Student Modelling om,onent $.e correctness of t.e processes of t.e error dia#nosis and advice #eneration is considered

very important for t.e overall performance of an intelli#ent tutorin# system. -s Di+ et al. <1))3@ pointed out a desi#n can 0e evaluated 0efore any implementation 3or5 .as started to minimise t.e cost of early desi#n errors. $.ey also say t.at most tec.ni8ues for evaluation at t.is sta#e are analytic and involve usin# an e+pert to assess t.e desi#n a#ainst co#nitive and usa0ility principles. $.e overall performance of t.e Passive Aoice $utor .as 0een evaluated 0y .uman tutors and students <Airvou et al. '000@. ?o3ever, .ere 3e focus on t.e presentation of t.e evaluation t.at 3as relevant to t.e student modellin# component and its contri0ution to advice #eneration. $.e evaluation met.ods employed at t.is p.ase of t.e evaluation comprised 8ualitative tec.ni8ues, suc. as 8uestionnaires <Airvou R Du =oulay 1)))> Airvou R Ka0assi '000> Airvou R $siri#a '000@. 4e compare t.e Passive Aoice $utor6s error analysis and advice #eneration 3it. t.at of 10 .uman tutors 3.o 3ere as5ed individually to #ive t.eir comments on t.e sample. $utors 3ere #iven a set of erroneous ans3ers to 8uestions relatin# to t.e domain of t.e passive voice of t.e 1n#lis. lan#ua#e, 3.ic. 3ere #enerated usin# t.e system6s domain 5no3led#e and 0u# li0rary. 1ac. one of t.e 8uestions 3as accompanied 3it. an erroneous ans3er. *or eac. 8uestion, eac. tutor .ad to evaluate t.e su##estion of t.e system concernin# t.e underlyin# misconception of t.e error. In addition, tutors 3ere as5ed 3.et.er t.ey t.ou#.t t.at t.e mista5e 3as made due to t.e student6s carelessness or if it 3as a serious error. $a0le 1 illustrates t.e analysis of a sample of t.e evaluation results. $.e first column provides t.e system6s 8uestion alon# 3it. an erroneous ans3er of a student. In t.e second column 3e s.o3 .o3 t.e Passive Aoice $utor e+plained t.e related misconception and in t.e t.ird column, 3e #ive t.e de#ree of compati0ility of t.e system6s su##estions to t.e .uman e+perts6 su##estions for eac. mista5e. $.e results of t.e evaluation s.o3ed t.at t.e Passive Aoice $utor 3as successful at ac.ievin# a .i#. de#ree of compati0ility 3it. t.e .uman e+perts6 opinion. 4e also found out t.at t.ere 3ere limitations concernin# t.e am0i#uity resolution <for e+ample in 8uestion 3@. - pro0lem 3it. t.e evaluation 3as t.at t.e .uman tutors involved in it lac5ed e+perience 3it. ot.er educational soft3are pac5a#es. In addition, due to t.e limited period of time in 3.ic. t.e evaluation of t.e system 3as conducted, t.e system6s restrictions related to temporal aspects of t.e student modellin# component could not 0e spotted 0y t.e .uman tutors. $emporal aspects may 0e related to t.e students6 pro#ress in learnin# over time or for#ettin#, etc. $.erefore, 3e plan to conduct a second p.ase of evaluation, 3.ic. is #oin# to last for a lon#er period and 3ill focus on t.e temporal aspects of t.e lon# term student model.

2% onclusions $.e Passive Aoice $utor is an educational pro#ram t.at com0ines t.e attractiveness and user; friendliness of a multimedia interface 3it. individualised .elp t.at an I$S can provide. In particular, its student modellin# component forms a s.ort and a lon# term student model for eac. user and performs error dia#nosis. $.e am0i#uity resolution of competin# .ypot.eses a0out students6 errors is 0ased on t.e lon# term student model, 3.ic. contains information a0out previous mista5es or correct 5no3led#e of t.e student. In order to perform error

dia#nosis, t.e system 0ears a detailed cate#orisation of common students6 mista5es alon# 3it. t.eir e+planations. $.e error dia#nosis process of t.e Passive Aoice $utor is especially focused on errors due to interference of t.e mot.er ton#ue of !ree5 students as 3ell as of ot.er lan#ua#es t.at t.ey may learn at t.e same time <e.#. *renc.@. !iven t.e results of t.e evaluation, of t.e student modellin# component, it is s.o3n t.at t.e e+planations t.at t.e Passive Aoice $utor can #ive are considered satisfactory. *urt.ermore, our system .as also t.e a0ility to construct dynamically ne3 e+ercises for t.e student to solve. *or eac. e+ercise, t.e system is performin# semantic analysis, so as to ensure t.at t.e provided sentence ma5es lo#ical sense. 4it.in t.e future plans of t.is researc., is t.e improvement of t.e student modellin# component of t.e Passive Aoice $utor, so t.at it may cope 3it. temporal aspects of t.e student learnin# process. $.ese temporal e+tensions 3ill include t.e modellin# of t.e fact t.at t.e student is learnin# some ne3 concepts 3.ile 3or5in# 3it. t.e Passive Aoice $utor, as 3ell as t.at s7.e may for#et some already possessed concepts after some time .as passed. In addition, t.e adaptation of t.e difficulty of t.e e+ercises provided to t.e student accordin# to .is7.er proficiency level, 3ill also 0e addressed in future releases of t.e Passive Aoice $utor.

Ac(no"ledgements $.e aut.ors 3is. to t.an5 Katerina Ka0assi for .er .elpful comments.

3% References

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