TABLE OF CONTENTS

Principles of Flight
CHAPTER 01 INTRODUcTiON Introduction to Principles of Flight Introduction to Units The SI Unit System Imperial Units and Conversion Factors Newtons Laws of Motion CHAPTER 02 AiR, THE ATMOSPHERE AND AiRSPEED

The Characteristics of Air Mass Flow and Density Variation Characteristics of the Earths Atmosphere The International Standard Atmosphere The Fundamental Origin of Aerodynamic Force Airspeed Indicated Airspeed Isolating and Measuring Dynamic Pressure The Air Speed Indicator Speeds Obtained from Dynamic Pressure

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CHAPTER 03 DEScRiBiNG AND UNDERSTANDiNG AiR FLOW Introduction Streamlines, Stream Tubes and Pathlines Patterns of Flow Basic Assumptions The Equation of Continuity and the Venturi Bernoullis Theorem Airflow Summary CHAPTER 04 AERODYNAMic FORcE Introduction Pressure and Force Two Dimensional Flow Flow Pattern Around a Cylinder Pressure Distribution Around a Cylinder The Effect of Viscosity The Aerofoil Airflow Around an Aerofoil The Cause of Accelerated Airflow on the Upper Surface Pressure Around an Aerofoil Aerodynamic Force Summary Appendix to Chapter 4 Circulation and Lift Circulation Around an Aerofoil

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CHAPTER 05 AEROfOiL PRESSURE DiSTRiBUTiON Introduction Air Flow Speed Angle of Attack Camber Effect of Angle of AoA on a Cambered Aerofoil Pressure Distribution Summary Aerodynamic Force Coefficient CHAPTER 06 INTRODUcTiON TO LifT Introduction Aerodynamic Force and the Force Coefficient Lift and the Basic Lift Equation The Lift Coefficient (CL) Coefficient of Lift Summary Using the Lift Equation IAS, Lift and CL in Level Flight CL and AOA: Slow and High Speed Aerofoils Numerical Calculations Using the Lift Equation

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CHAPTER 07

INTRODUcTiON TO DRAG Introduction Causes of Drag in 2-Dimensional Flow Drag and the Basic Drag Equation The Boundary Layer Types of Boundary Layer The Transition Point Factors Determining Boundary Layer Type The Separation Point Chapter Summary

CHAPTER 08 AiRcRAfT AXES AND THE AiRcRAfT WiNG Aircraft Frames of Reference Aircraft Axes The Aircraft Wing - Terms and Definitions Wing Taper Average Chord Aspect Ratio Sweep Angle Mean Aerodynamic Chord Rigging Angle and Angle of Incidence Washout Dihedral and Anhedral

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CHAPTER 09 THREE DiMENSiONAL FLOW Introduction Factors Influencing Flow Direction The Wingtip Vortex Factors Affecting Vortex Intensity Spanwise Flow Vortices and Downwash The Effective Airflow Lift and Induced Drag Refining our Definitions of Angle of Attack Change of Effective Angle of Attack with Span CHAPTER 10 DESiGNiNG A WiNG fOR MAXiMUM EfficiENcY Introduction Aspect Ratio Elliptical Lift Distribution Elliptical Planform Rectangular Planform Tapered wing Sweepback Washout Camber Change Wing Loading

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CHAPTER 11 AiRcRAfT DRAG Introduction Interference Drag Categories of Aircraft Drag Factors Affecting Form Drag Factors Affecting Skin Friction Drag Factors Affecting Interference Drag Parasite Drag The Parasite Drag Equation Induced Drag The Induced Drag Equation Lift and Drag Calculations Tip Modifications to Reduce Induced Drag CHAPTER 12 TOTAL DRAG AND THE DRAG POLAR Total Drag Minimum Drag Speed - VMD Speed Stability Factors Affecting the Drag Curve The Total Drag Equation Variation of CDP with CL Variation of CDI with CL The Drag Polar The Lift Drag Ratio

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CHAPTER 13 STALLiNG Introduction The Cause of the Stall Effect of the Stall on Lift and Drag The Stalling Angle of Attack Influence of Planform on the Stalling Angle Summary of Effects of Planform Shape The Deep Stall Measures to Reducing the Tip Stalling Tendency Influence of Cross-section on the Stalling Angle Factors Affecting Stalling Speed The Accelerated Stall Stalling in the Turn Stall Speed in a Pitching Manoeuvre Stalling Summary CHAPTER 14 SPiNNiNG Introduction Autorotation The Fully Developed Spin The Causes of Roll and Yaw The Effect of CG Position The Effect of Mass Distribution on Spin Characteristics Recognising and Avoiding the Spin Spin Phases and Generic Recovery Actions Spin Recovery Drill for Your Aircraft Spin Avoidance Spin Versus Spiral Dive

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CHAPTER 15 STALL WARNiNG, STALL REcOVERY AND ASSOciATED Introduction Aerodynamic Stall Warning Straight Wings Stall Warning and Characteristics - Swept Wings Stall Warning and Characteristics - Forward Swept Wings Stall Warning and Characteristics Canard Designs Artificial Stall Warning Systems Angle of Attack Sensing Warning Indications Stall Recovery EASA Regulations CHAPTER 16 LifT AUGMENTATiON Introduction Trailing and Leading Edge Flap Changing the Camber The Fowler Flap - Increasing the Surface Area Slats, Slots and Slotted Flaps Increasing the Circulation Summary of Aerodynamic Effects The Effect of Flap on the Tailplane The Effect of Flap on Tip Vortices Vortex Generators Operation of Flaps and Slats

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CHAPTER 17 GROUND EffEcTS Introduction The Cause of Ground Effect Influence of Ground Effect on Lift and the Stalling Angle Change in Pitching Moment Influence of Ground Effect on IAS Summary CHAPTER 18 CONTROL Introduction Aircraft Axes and Controls Principle of Operation Hinge Moments Aerodynamic Balances Mass Balancing Powered Controls Artificial Feel The Effect of Aircraft Controls on Angle of Attack Pitch Control Other Tailplane Considerations The Effect of Downwash Control in Yaw Fin Stall Rudder Travel Limiter Control in Roll Light and Medium Sized Aircraft Aerodynamic Damping Adverse Aileron Yaw

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Control in Roll Large Aircraft Roll-Yaw Interaction The Requirement to Trim Trimming Systems Control Authority Large Aircraft Pitch Trim Systems Combined Controls CHAPTER 19 LEVEL FLiGHT AND THE CLiMB Introduction Level Flight Turning Moments and Equilibrium Load Factor in Level Flight Climbing Factors Affecting the Climb Angle Speed for Best Angle of Climb - VX Effect of Altitude on Climb Angle Climb Calculations CHAPTER 20 DEScENDiNG AND GLiDiNG Introduction Decent and Pitch Angle in Still Air Forces in the Descent Angle of Descent Still Air Gliding Factors Affecting the Glide Angle and Endurance Summary

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CHAPTER 21 TURNiNG Introduction Load Factor Forces in a Turn Forces in a Level Turn Turn Calculations Drag and Thrust in the Turn Rate of Turn The Turn and Slip Indicator Rate of Turn Calculations TAS and Bank Angle in a Rate 1 Turn CHAPTER 22 INTRODUcTiON TO STABiLiTY AND CONTROL Introduction Stability and Control Equilibrium Stability Concepts Static Stability Trim, Controllability and Static Stability Dynamic Stability Types of Dynamic Stability Summary of Types of Stability Axes of Control and Stability The Aerodynamic Centre Moment Coefficients Key Design Influences on Stability Stick Free or Stick Fixed Simplifying Stability Problems

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CHAPTER 23 LONGiTUDiNAL STABiLiTY & CONTROL Introduction CG Location The Absolute Angle of Attack The Pitching Moment Coefficient Graphical Representation of Static Longitudinal Stability Negative and Neutral Static Longitudinal Stability Variation in Static Longitudinal Stability Design Influences on Static Longitudinal Stability Whole Aircraft Stability The Effect of CG on Longitudinal Stability The CM/Alpha Graph Longitudinal Control Trimming for Changes in IAS Effect of Elevator or Stabiliser Deflection and Trim Effect of CG Position Manoeuvre Stability Stick Force Per G Factors Affecting Manoeuvre Stability Longitudinal Dynamic Stability The Effect of Altitude and CG on Dynamic Stability

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CHAPTER 24 DiREcTiONAL AND LATERAL STABiLiTY Introduction Static Directional Stability Definitions Factors Affecting Static Directional Stability Static Lateral Stability The Cl / Graph Factors Affecting Static Lateral Stability Lateral and Directional Dynamic Stability Spiral Instability Dutch Roll Effect of Pressure Altitude on Dynamic Stability CHAPTER 25 PROPELLERS Introduction Propeller Definitions Types of Propeller Aerodynamic Forces The Aerodynamics of the Fixed Pitch Propeller Blade Twist The Aerodynamics of Variable Pitch Propellers Engine Failure The Effects of Engine Failure Reverse Thrust Propeller Efficiency

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CHAPTER 26

PROPELLER DESiGN AND PROPELLER EffEcTS Introduction Power Absorption Propeller Solidity Propeller Effects Torque Reaction Effect Slipstream Effect Asymmetric Blade Effect - P Factor Gyroscopic Effect Summary

CHAPTER 27 ASYMMETRic FLiGHT Introduction Yawing Moments Factors Affecting the Size of the Yawing Moment Failure to Stop The Yaw Achieving Equilibrium - Wings Level Method Achieving Equilibrium - Banking Method Engine Failure and Angle of Climb The Critical Engine Minimum Control Speeds Influence of Air Density on Minimum Control Speeds

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CHAPTER 28

INTRODUcTiON TO HiGH SPEED FLiGHT Introduction The Speed of Sound Mach Effects and Mach Number Local and Free Stream Mach Numbers Categorisation of High Speed Flows Wave Characteristics Normal Shock Waves Oblique Shock Waves Mach Waves Expansion Waves Wave Summary The Relationship Between CAS, TAS and Mach Number Further Effects of Altitude Change

CHAPTER 29 EffEcTS Of HiGH SPEED FLiGHT Introduction The Critical Mach Number Surface Pressure and Shock Waves in the Transonic Region The Effects of Shock Waves in the Transonic Region The Drag Divergence Mach Number Drag Centre of Pressure Effects Speed Envelope Considerations Factors Affecting the Stalling Speeds The Buffet Onset Boundary Chart Reducing the Effect of Shock Waves Thin Aerofoils

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The Supercritical Aerofoil Section Sweepback Advantages and Disadvantages of Sweepback Vortex Generators Area Ruling CHAPTER 30 AiRfRAME CONTAMiNATiON AND DEfORMATiON Introduction Ice, Frost and Snow Aerodynamic Effects of Frost, Ice and Snow Tailplane Icing Considerations by Flight Phase Heavy Rain Airframe Deformation and Damage CHAPTER 31 LiMiTATiONS Introduction Structural Strength The Manoeuvre Envelope Design Speeds Operating Speeds Gust Loads Gust Load Factor Gust Load Factor Envelope Aeroelasticity Flutter and Resonance Control Surface Flutter Aileron Reversal

CHAPTER 4: AERODYNAMIC FORCE

Introduction Pressure and Force Two Dimensional Flow Flow Pattern Around a Cylinder Pressure Distribution Around a Cylinder The Effect of Viscosity The Aerofoil Airflow Around an Aerofoil The Cause of Accelerated Airflow on the Upper Surface Pressure Around an Aerofoil Aerodynamic Force Summary Circulation and Lift Circulation Around an Aerofoil

Aerodynamic Force
Introduction

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Earlier we stated that to become, or remain, airborne an aircraft must create an aerodynamic force which opposes the force of gravity. While there is no simple and correct explanation for aerodynamic force we will use our understanding Bernoullis theorem combined with the effects of viscosity to explain how aerodynamic forces are generated. We will start by applying the Bernoulli explanation, initially to an ideal fluid flowing across a cylinder, and then to a viscous fluid flowing across a cylinder and across an infinitely long aerofoil. Well end the chapter by looking at the air flow around an aerofoil. With this in mind we need to draw a precise distinction between ideal flow and air flow:
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Ideal flow means the flow of an ideal gas. Air flow means the flow of air (the characteristic mixture of molecules that makes up our atmosphere).

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Pressure and Force

Before we look at objects in an ideal flow and in air flow, we need to establish the relationship between pressure and force. A pressure acting on a surface provides a force. The force will be greater when the surface pressure is larger and when the surface area that the pressure is acting over is bigger. This relationship is shown in the equation; Force = pressure x area However if the surface pressure acting on both sides of an object is the same, the forces created will be equal and opposite. The object will experience no net (unbalanced force) force will thus remain either stationary or will continue to move at its original velocity. If, however, there is asymmetry in the pressures acting on an object, then the forces created on either side will not be equal and opposite and a net (unbalanced force) will exist. It only takes a small pressure difference acting over a large area to produce an appreciable net force. Think of how the slight pressure difference created in your home on a windy day can produce a force large enough to slam a door. Likewise when an object is placed in a flow, an aerodynamic force will be generated if different pressures act on its opposite sides to produce a net force. The size of the force depends on:
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The size of the pressure difference between the two sides and The size of the surface area over which the pressure difference occurs.

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The overall net force acting on an object in an airflow, is called the total reaction.

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Two Dimensional Flow

The term two dimensional flow simply means that the flow can only move in two directions. In our diagrams this means left and right (along the main flow direction) and up or down. The left and right movement is, of course, initially provided by the relative speed of the flow itself. Up and down movements start to occur when an object is placed into the flow. If the object has ends to it, for example a wing complete with wing tip, then the flow can move in the third dimension as well. This is a complication we can do without for the moment, which is why we begin by considering any object placed in the flow to be of infinite length. In this way we can restrict our considerations of flow to just two dimensions. In case you are thinking that this is unfeasibly abstract, infinitely long wings are in fact modelled in wind tunnels. The engineers simply build a model where the wings extend all the way to the walls of the tunnel. For the remainder of this chapter bear in mind that we will be talking only about two-dimensional flows.

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Flow Pattern Around a Cylinder

We start by looking at the flow pattern around a very simple object a cylinder because the perfectly spherical cross-section of a cylinder is just about the simplest shape we can consider. Figure 4.1 shows the streamline pattern of an ideal flow around a cylinder. As the flow approaches the cylinder the streamlines separate, moving either up or down to flow around the cylinder. Notice that the distance between the streamlines changes. In front of and behind the cylinder the streamlines are further apart; above and below the cylinder they are closer together.
Speed and dynamic pressure increase, static pressure reduces AV A V q Ps A V

Stagnation points) V=0, q=0

Figure 4.1 Ideal flow speed and pressures around a cylinder

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From what we have learned so far we can deduce a number of important facts about the influence of the cylinder on the ideal flow.
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To preserve a constant mass flow, the speed of the flow must have increased in the areas where streamlines are closer together. It must have slowed down where the streamlines are further apart. Where the flow is faster the static pressure must have reduced (because the dynamic pressure has increased). Where the flow is slower in front of, and behind, the cylinder the static pressure must have increased.

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We can also see from figure 4.1 that at one precise point on the front of the cylinder a streamline impacts the object head on. This brings the flow to an abrupt and complete stop. All dynamic pressure is converted into static pressure. This is known as a stagnation point. There is a second stagnation point at the rear of the cylinder caused by the meeting of the separated flows. At the point nearest the cylinders surface the two flows meet head on and thus convert all their dynamic pressure to static pressure. Pressure at the Stagnation Points The stagnation points are the points on the objects surface at which the flow is brought completely to rest. At these points the dynamic pressure is zero, which means that the static pressure is at its maximum value total pressure. For this reason is it also known as the stagnation pressure. At the stagnation point the static pressure exceeds the atmospheric or free stream pressure by the value of the dynamic pressure. If the flow rate across the cylinder increases, so too will the stagnation pressure.

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Pressure Distribution Around a Cylinder

The next diagram shows the pressure distribution around the cylinder caused by the flow. We use the following conventions:
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Higher than ambient (free stream) pressure is denoted by red arrows. Lower than ambient (free stream) pressure is denoted by blue arrows. The length of the arrow indicates the approximate magnitude of the pressure differential relative to the free steam pressure. The arrow heads indicate the direction in which the resulting force acts.

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Its important to understand that the areas bounded by dotted lines do not represent the boundaries of volumes of low and high pressure around the cylinder. They are simply pressure contours indicating the magnitude of surface pressure force at any point on the cylinder.
Static pressure on surface less than atmospheric

Stagnation points (V=0)

Static pressure on surface greater than atmospheric

Figure 4.2 Cylinder surface pressure in an ideal air flow.

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The surface pressure is lowest where the streamlines are closest together at the top and bottom of the cylinder. It is highest at the stagnation points and higher than ambient in the areas where the streamlines are spaced further apart. Looking at figure 4.2 we can see that the pressure distribution around the cylinder is completely symmetrical. This means that there is no net force and thus no total reaction. Not even rearwards. Which rather strangely means that this cylinder provides no resistance to the flow. In fact it produces no aerodynamic forces at all! This phenomenon is known as the Paradox of dAlembert and is explained entirely by the fact that we are considering an ideal flow which has no friction or viscosity. In real life objects in a flow always provide some resistance. Resistance to flow is known as drag. To explain drag and many other aspects of aerodynamic force we must take account of the airs viscosity. Consequently from now on throughout this book we will be referring to air flow rather than ideal flow.

The Effect of Viscosity

At the molecular level no object no matter how well polished it is has a perfectly smooth surface. When air flows around it, molecules of gas impact the surface imperfections, lose kinetic energy to the object, and thus slow down. In an ideal gas this effect is inconsequential because it only affects the few molecules which are in direct contact with the objects surface. Immediately above this layer in an ideal flow with no viscosity the next layer of molecules slide past with no energy lost. But in real life air is viscous. The airs viscosity means that the next layer of molecules up from the surface are indeed slowed down by the slower molecules at the surface. And the layer above that and above that. Each layer is slightly slowed by the layer below it but eventually, after many layers, the influence of the lowest layer becomes negligible.
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But up to this level there is a volume of air around the surface which flows at significantly lower speed than the free stream velocity. This is known as the boundary layer and will be discussed in detail later. Its presence explains many important aerodynamic phenomenon. One of the effects of the air flows viscosity is the production of two types of drag.
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Skin Friction Drag. Skin friction drag is caused directly from friction within the boundary layer. Form Drag. Form drag is produced by the effect that viscosity has on the pattern of pressure distribution around the object.

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Because of skin friction a small proportion of pressure energy is lost in an actual air flow. This means that Bernoullis Theorem (total pressure = dynamic pressure + static pressure) is almost, but not quite, true. Nevertheless it is still an entirely valid explanation of how a pressure differential is created around an object in an airflow. Because air has viscosity the streamline flow on the rear of an object in an airflow breaks away from the surface and a wake of turbulent air is produced. In this turbulent wake the air tumbles and mixes to form a turbulent flow.

V q Ps

Wake

Figure 4.3 Turbulent wake behind the cylinder

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The dynamic pressure therefore doesnt reduce by nearly as much as it does in an ideal flow. Consequently the high pressure area which we saw behind the object in an ideal gas flow is, in reality, much weaker in an air flow. In fact it may even become an area of low pressure. Figure 4.4 shows the effect this has on the surface pressure distribution.

Surface static pressure greater than atmospheric

Force Surface static pressure less than atmospheric

Figure 4.4 Surface pressure distribution in a non ideal airflow

The pattern of pressure distribution around the cylinder is no longer symmetrical. There is now a pressure differential acting on the cylinder in the direction of the airflow. The size of this net (unbalanced) force is determined by the pressure difference between the forward and rear halves of the cylinder. The net force produced acts rearwards and is the cause of form drag. Unless we do something to alter the shape of this cylinder no amount of air flow will ever produce a total reaction which acts upwards only rearwards. Force acting upwards is what we will soon come to know as lift and, unlike drag, lift is desirable.

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The simplest way to produce an unbalanced force acting upwards would be to remove the cause of the symmetrical pressure distribution on the upper and lower halves of the cylinder. If we cut off the lower half we might get a streamline flow and pressure distribution as shown in figure 4.5
Speed and dynamic pressure increase, static pressure reduces AV A V q Ps A V

Figure 4.5 Streamline flow and pressure distribution across a half cylinder.

Now we are getting somewhere. Although we still have an unbalanced force acting rearwards (form drag) we also have an unbalanced force acting upwards. If we add the two together we get a total reaction which, although inclined rearwards, comprises upwards and rearward acting forces. In reality there are two problems to this apparently simple approach which prevent it from being a practical solution. Firstly, a half cylinder would not in practice generate any significant upward force unless it was able to induce a circulatory flow around itself more of which later. Secondly a half cylinder in the shape shown above would be an extremely inefficient way of creating an upwards force. Which is why you will never see a wing shaped like this.
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Through a long process of trial, error and experiment early pioneers developed the aerofoil section which, in its most simple form, you could imagine to be a very stretched half cylinder. Before we look at how air flow behaves around an aerofoil section we need to become familiar with its shape, design and terminology.

The Aerofoil
An aerofoil, is a shaped structure designed to produce a significant amount of force when a stream of air moves across it. The term is most commonly used to describe the shape seen in the cross-section of a wing, propeller or helicopter rotor blade, although we can describe any object which has an aerofoil section as an aerofoil. Figure 4.6 shows a cross section through a propeller blade which shows the characteristic shape of an aerofoil. This could just as easily be the cross section of a wing.

Figure 4.6 This propeller cross section is a perfect example of the aerofoil section

There is nothing particularly magical about aerofoils. Almost any object placed in a stream of flowing air will produce an aerodynamic force; you only have to stick your hand out of a car window to realise that. The special characteristic of an aerofoil is that it is very efficient at creating a relatively large force to lift (or drive) an aircraft whilst minimising its resistance to the flow.

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Aerofoil Design Aerofoils, such as the one shown above, have a very characteristic shape. The edge meeting the airflow is called the leading edge which for most general purpose aerofoils tends to be quite rounded. The rear edge is known as the trailing edge and is always sharp. The upper surface of the aerofoil is curved. The lower surface could be flat but is usually curved.
Point of maximum thickness Point of maximum camber Trailing edge

Leading edge

Leading edge radius

Chamber

Mean cambe r line Chord line

Chord

Figure 4.7 Aerofoil definitions

The leading edge is defined by the leading edge radius. On a general purpose aerofoil the leading edge radius tends to be quite large. However, as we shall see in later chapters the leading edge radius of a high speed aerofoil is much smaller, resulting in a sharp leading edge. There are a number of other key characteristics of the aerofoil, and defined terms, that you need to learn and remember.
Chord Line

The chord line is an imaginary straight line drawn between the centre of the leading edge and the trailing edge. The chord line is used as a reference line for angles.

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Chord

The chord is the distance from the leading to trailing edge measured along the chord line.
Angle of Attack

The angle of attack is the angle between the aerofoils chord line and the direction of the air flow. Angle of attack is often abbreviated to alpha or its Greek symbol a. The direction of the airflow is known as the relative air flow to emphasise that it describes the direction of flow relative to the aerofoil and not the Earth.

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Aerofoil Naming Conventions

Leading Edge TrailingEdge
Point of Maximum Thickness

Leading Edge Radius

Point of Maximum Camber

Mean Camber Line Chord Line

Chord

Aerofoil Shapes

Positively Cambered

Negatively Cambered

Bi-Convex

Symmetrical

Aerofoils and Airflow

Chor

d Lin

The Relative Airflow

Angle of Attack

Figure 4.8 The relationship between the aerofoil and the airflow

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Mean Camber Line

The mean camber line is an imaginary line half way (equidistant) between the upper and lower surfaces of the aerofoil. It is also known as the camber line.
Camber

Camber describes the distance between the mean camber line and the chord line. A highly cambered aerofoil has a greater maximum distance between the mean camber line and the chord line. Aerofoils can have identically curved upper and lower surfaces, in which case they are known as symmetric aerofoils, or they can have different curves on the upper and lower surfaces in which case they are known as asymmetric or cambered aerofoils. Note that a symmetrical aerofoil has no camber because the mean camber line coincides with the chord line. The fin and rudder often use symmetrical aerofoil sections.
Camber line

Chord line
Camber line

Chord line

Positively Cambered

Negatively Cambered

Chord line Camber line

Symmetrical
Figure 4.9 Aerofoil shapes are often categorised by their camber

On a positively cambered aerofoil the mean camber line is above the chord line. Most wings are positively cambered. A negatively cambered aerofoil is one in which the mean camber line is below the chord line.

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Thickness Chord Ratio

The thickness chord ratio (also known as the fineness ratio), is the ratio of the aerofoils maximum thickness to the length of its chord. When expressed as a percentage it is known as the thickness to chord or T/C. The aerofoil section of a low speed wing tends to have a greater thickness chord ratio.

Figure 4.10 Comparison of aerofoil thickness ratios high and low speed designs

Bearing these definitions in mind. Lets move on to see how air flows around an aerofoil.

Airflow Around an Aerofoil

Figure 4.11 shows the behaviour of air flowing round a positively cambered aerofoil. You can see from the curves in the streamlines that a large volume of air is affected by the aerofoil. The air which remains beyond the influence of the aerofoil is called the free stream flow which flows at the free stream velocity and is at free stream (atmospheric) pressure.

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Figure 4.11 Air flow around an aerofoil

Figure 4.11 is divided into six successive time frames. A short pulse of smoke (shown in blue) has been introduced at Frame a and with time moves back over the aerofoil. Compare the streamline spacing to the speed at which the smoke pulse travels over and under the aerofoil. From what we have learned so far it should be no surprise to see that the air flows faster over the upper surface where the streamlines are closer together. Furthermore, because the air over the upper surface has greater dynamic pressure we can quickly deduce that the pressure above the upper surface of the aerofoil is lower than the pressure below the lower surface.

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In fact below the aerofoil the spacing increase between streamlines tells us that the flow here has been slowed to below that of the free stream flow, giving a higher than ambient pressure underneath the aerofoil. A substantial pressure difference must therefore exist between the upper and lower surfaces, resulting in a large total reaction. There are a couple of points to note about the pattern of flow. The flow divides to flow over and under the aerofoil. The dividing line between the upper and lower flows is known as the stagnation line and is shown in bold in figure 4.11. Now look at the direction of the streamlines before the leading edge and their direction after they leave the trailing edge. The distinctive upward flow of air before the leading edge is known as upwash. The downward flowing air leaving the trailing edge is called downwash.

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The Cause of Accelerated Airflow on the Upper Surface

Air flowing around an aerofoil has to obey the laws of conservation. This means that a given volume of air which encounters an aerofoil will suffer an effective reduction in the cross-sectional area available to it. Therefore it must flow faster. Because of the sharp trailing edge the two flows, upper and lower, are effectively separated because air cant flow round the trailing edge. The curvature of the upper surface therefore cause a bigger reduction in cross sectional area available to the upper flow and to conserve its mass flow the upper flow must flow faster.

Figure 4.12 Conservation of mass flow causes a greater flow speed over the upper surface.

If you look again at Figure 4.11 youll notice that the two flows dont rejoin in the same relative position. The mass of air which has flowed over the upper surface is permanently ahead of the mass of air which flowed under the lower surface because its average speed over the aerofoil was faster.

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Pressure Around an Aerofoil

Figure 4.13 shows the pressure distribution around a positively cambered aerofoil. Note the large volume of air affected by the aerofoil. Blue denotes air at below free stream pressure. Red denotes air that is above free stream pressure. The area of lowest pressure occurs where the airflow is at its fastest. In other words it coincides with the area where the streamlines are closest together. The patterns of low pressure above and below the wing show that the lowest pressure occurs in the first quarter of the chord.
Area of Reduced Pressure

s rea I nc

ocity - Reduc ed Vel ed P ress ure

ed Reduc

Velocity - Increased Pr essure

Area of Increased Pressure

Figure 4.13 The pattern of air pressure around an aerofoil

Most of the time you dont need to think about the pattern of pressure distribution around an aerofoil. The thing that matters most is the plot of pressure differentials because it is the difference in pressures at various points on the aerofoil that provides the unbalanced force. However we will occasionally show you the actually pressure distributions so that you can better understand the huge volume of air affected by an aerofoil.

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Aerodynamic Force
The differences in surface pressure around the aerofoil create unbalanced forces at every point. If you sum all these unbalanced forces over the whole area of the aerofoil you obtain a net unbalanced force which we call the total reaction. This doesnt just take into account the pressure differentials between the upper and lower surface but also the pressure differentials between the front and rear of the aerofoil which is part of the reason why the total reaction is inclined slightly rearwards. The point of origin of the total reaction is the average point from which the forces act and is known as the centre of pressure or CP for short.
Aerodynamic total reaction

Force created over each unit area of the aerofoil

Figure 4.14 The creation of an aerodynamic force.

Because it is a vector, the total reaction can be divided into components which are perpendicular and parallel to the free stream air flow. If you are unfamiliar with this mathematical principle then refer back to Elementary Maths and Physics.

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The component which is parallel to the free stream flow, but acting in the opposite direction is known as drag the force which resists forward movement. The component which is perpendicular to the free stream flow is known as lift. We will explore both lift and drag in much further depth later.
Drag Aerodynamic total reaction Lift

Figure 4.15 The total reaction can be resolved into its two components lift and drag.

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Summary
Unlike an ideal gas, air has viscosity and consequently its flow is affected by friction. Viscosity and friction are the ultimate cause of two forms of drag: skin friction drag and form drag. When an aerofoil shape is placed in a free flowing stream of air:
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The air divides to flow above and below the aerofoil. The stagnation line is the dividing point between the two flows. A very small proportion of the air flow is brought to a complete standstill near the leading edge at the stagnation point. Relative to the free stream flow, the air flows much faster over the upper surface than under the lower surface. The static pressure acting on the upper surface is therefore much less than the static pressure acting on the aerofoils lower surface. This creates a pressure differential across the aerofoil. There is upwash ahead of the aerofoil and downwash behind it. All the forces acting on the aerofoil can be summed into a single vector representing the total reaction which originates at the centre of pressure. Lift is the component of the total reaction which is perpendicular to the free stream flow. Drag is the component of the total reaction which is parallel to the free stream flow.

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APPENDIX
Understanding the cause of circulation is beyond the scope of the EASA ATPL syllabus. So there is no requirement for you to read this appendix. For those of you who would like to gain a basic understanding please read on. Well start by going back to our most simple shape, the cylinder.

Circulation and Lift

A stationary cylinder placed in an air flow produces no lift because the decrease in static pressure above and below the cylinder is equal and opposite. We can change this situation by spinning the cylinder. Consider a spinning cylinder in a stationary flow. The minute imperfections on the surface of the cylinder cause surface roughness which catches air molecules and drags them along. The viscosity of the air means that these molecules start to drag along other molecules next to them even though they are not in direct contact with the surface. These in turn drag other molecules above them which are even further away from the surface. The net effect is that a rotating cylinder in still air causes the air around it to rotate.
Increased speed q Ps Upwash Downwash

Stagnation point
Figure 4.16 A rotating cylinder will induce rotation in the air surrounding it.
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If you now introduce an air flow across the cylinder the vortex caused by the cylinders rotation will add to the velocity of the flow above the cylinder and subtract from the velocity of the flow beneath the cylinder. Notice also that the circulatory flow has induced upwash ahead of the cylinder and downwash behind it.
Increased speed q Ps Upwash Downwash

Stagnation point
Figure 4.17 Changes in flow velocity caused by cylinder rotation

Smaller increase (or possible decrease) , in speed

The air flowing above the cylinder is flowing faster than the air flowing below the cylinder. Consequently the static pressure above the cylinder is lower than the static pressure below the cylinder. This results in an unbalanced force giving a net upwards aerodynamic force.

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The combination of this net upwards force with the net horizontal force caused by drag produces a total reaction which is inclined rearwards with respect to the free stream flow. This is called the Magnus effect.
Direction of force produced

Magnitude of surface pressure less than atmospheric

Wake

Magnitude of surface pressure greater than atmospheric

Figure 4.18 Surface pressure distribution with cylinder rotation

By adding circulation to the flow we have replicated the pattern of flow that we see around an aerofoil and have, in consequence, generated lift. So we can say that lift has been produced by inducing circulation. The Magnus effect is used all the time in real life. All professional sportsmen who kick, hit or throw balls for a living induce spin on the ball to create asymmetric aerodynamic force. This gives David Beckham his legendary curving free kick, pro tennis players their amazing curving serves, and Tiger Woods the ability to shape the curving flight of his golf ball. Unfortunately we cant generate lift efficiently on an aeroplane by rotating the wings very rapidly. An aerofoil needs to induce circulation in a different way.

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Circulation Around an Aerofoil

Weve covered one explanation for the faster flow on the upper surface. An alternative explanation which is useful because it can be mathematically modelled is the concept of circulation. Air flows more quickly over the upper surface of an aerofoil because the aerofoil has a sharp trailing edge. The sharp trailing edge sets up a circulating flow around the aerofoil which adds to the velocity of the free stream flow above the aerofoil and subtracts from the free stream velocity below the aerofoil. So why is this pattern of circulation not immediately visible to us in figure 4.11? To answer this we need to switch our frame of reference. Streamlines are a very good way of thinking about air flow from the perspective of a pilot sitting in an aircraft or an observer watching an aerofoil in a wind tunnel. Relative to both, the aerofoil is stationary and the air is flowing past it. But they dont help us to understand circulation. Rather than thinking in terms of stationary aerofoil moving air we need to look at what actually happens when an aerofoil is in flight. That is to say moving aerofoil stationary air. In this real world situation the air remains stationary until it is about to be impacted by the rapidly moving aerofoil. If we stood on the surface of the Earth, and our eyesight was ultra sharp, we would see that the air molecules are moved, up, right, down and left by the passage of the aerofoil. In this frame of reference you would see that some of the air influenced by the lower surface of the aerofoil is accelerated forwards (not slowed down as we previously described). You would also see that the air influenced by the upper surface really is accelerated backwards and downward. Figure 4.19 shows what happens.

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Figure 4.19 Circulation around an aerofoil: stationary air moving aerofoil

For the mathematically minded, these arrows are nothing more than the result of subtracting out the velocity of the air stream. Circulation starts to occur almost (but not immediately) at the point when the aerofoil starts to move. At the precise moment that air starts to flow over an aerofoil, the rear stagnation point sits on the upper surface of the trailing edge and no circulation exists. Because the rear stagnation point is on the upper surface, air from the lower surface attempts to flow around the sharp trailing edge and towards the stagnation point. If the trailing edge were infinitely sharp, the air would have to make a turn of infinitely small radius so the flow would be infinitely fast! Of course, the trailing edge is not infinitely sharp but it is very sharp. In fact, the sharper the trailing edge the faster the flow around it. Consequently the initial flow around the sharp trailing edge of an aerofoil is very fast.

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In making its very sharp turn around the trailing edge the air creates a vortex, the starting vortex, which initially, and very briefly, sits just above the trailing edge, Figure 4.20.

Stagnation Line

Stagn

ation

Line

Figure 4.20 The starting vortex

But the starting vortex cannot exist in isolation. If it did, the motion it would produce on the air would offend the principle of conservation of momentum. So to ensure that the sum total of momentum remains the same, an equal and opposite vortex must be generated. This is effected by the bound vortex - the name given to the general circulation of air around the aerofoil.

Bound Vortex

Starting Vortex

Figure 4.21 The momentum of the starting and bound vortices are exactly equal and opposite

The bound vortex is larger than the starting vortex, but its rate of circulation is slower. The result is that the momentum of the bound and starting vortices are exactly equal and opposite.
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As airspeed increases, so too does the intensity of the starting vortex. This is matched by an increase in the speed of the bound vortex. The increased circulation effectively pushes the starting vortex off the trailing edge of the aerofoil and a stable state is quickly reached in which the rear stagnation point sits on the sharp trailing edge.

Bound Vortex

Stagnation Line

Stagn

ation L

ine

Shed Vortex

Figure 4.22 The Kutta Condition

Further increases in speed or angle of attack will result in the airflow again attempting to form a vortex around the trailing edge. But this is again very quickly overcome by an increase in the speed of circulation of the bound vortex. In this way the stagnation point is always held at the trailing edge and the only visible effect of an increase in speed or angle of attack is an increase in circulation.

This stable state, in which the rear stagnation point remains attached
to the trailing edge, is known as the Kutta Condition. Put another way, the Kutta condition is a rule which states that: A body with a sharp trailing edge which is moving through a fluid will create about itself a circulation of sufficient strength to hold the rear stagnation point at the trailing edge. Circulation is caused by the effect of the sharp trailing edge which is why, despite the structural and engineering difficulties this creates, an aerofoils trailing edge is always sharp.

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