Forces and moments

Hint: If you are not familiar with the physical concept of forces and moments, reference is made to any elementary physics textbook (chapter classical mechanics, forces, moments). The shadowgraphs have shown that the flowfield in the vicinity of a bullet most generally consists of laminar and turbulent regions. The flowfield depends in particular on the velocity at which the bullet moves, the shape of the bullet and the roughness of its surface, just to mention the most important factors. The flowfield obviously changes tremendously, as the velocity drops below the speed of sound, which is about 1115 ft/s (340

m/s) at standard atmospheric conditions.

The mathematical equations, by means of which the flowfield parameters (for example pressure and flowfield velocity at each location) might be determined are well known to the physicist as the Navier-Stokes equations. However, having equations and having useful solutions for these equations are entirely different matters. With the help of powerful computers, numeric and practically useful solutions to these equations have been found up to now only for very specific configurations. Because of these computational restrictions, ballisticians all over the world consider bullet motion in the atmosphere by disregarding the specific characteristics of the flowfield and apply a simplified viewpoint: the flowfield is characterized by the forces and moments affecting the body. Generally those forces and moments must be determined experimentally, which is done by shooting experiments and through wind tunnel tests. Generally, a body moving through the atmosphere is affected by a variety of forces. Some of those forces are mass forces, which apply at the CG (center of gravity) of the body and depend on the body mass and the mass distribution. A second group of forces is called aerodynamic forces. These forces result from the interaction of the flowfield with the bullet and depend on the shape and surface roughness of the body. Some aerodynamic forces depend on either yaw or spin or both. A summary of the most important forces affecting a bullet's motion through the atmosphere is shown in the table below. As an example, another table gives the magnitude of forces for a typical military bullet. Table: Forces, affecting a bullet's movement through the air

Forces
Mass Forces

Requires Remarks
Yaw Spin

Gravity Coriolis Force Centrifugal Force Aerodynamic Forces Drag Lift (Cross-wind Force) Magnus Pitch Damping Transversal Magnus

N N N

N N N

responsible for bending of trajectory usually very small small; usually included in gravity

Y Y Y Y Y

N N Y Y Y

major aerodynamic force responsible for side drift very important for stability usually very small, important for stability usually very small

Mass forces
The most simple "ballistic model", considering only the force of gravity important force can be found in any elementary physics book. , was discovered by Galileo Galilei (1590). A discussion of this

As we intend to study the movement of bullets on earth, we have to consider its rotation. However, Newton's equations of motion are only valid in an inertial reference system - which either rests or moves with constant speed. As soon as we consider bullet motion in a reference frame bound to the rotating earth, we have to deal with an accelerated reference frame. But we can compensate for that - and still use Newton's equations of motion - by adding two additional forces: The centrifugal force and the Coriolis force .

Wind force and overturning moment

Let us consider the most general case of a bullet having a yaw angle . By saying so, the ballistician means that the direction of motion of the bullet' s CG deviates from the direction into which the bullet's axis of symmetry points. Innumerable experimental observations have shown that an initial yaw angle at the muzzle of a gun is essentially unavoidable and is caused by perturbations such as barrel vibrations and muzzle blast disturbances.

For such a bullet, the pressure differences at the bullet's surface result in a force, which is called the wind force. The wind force seems to apply at the center of pressure of the wind force (CPW), which, for spin-stabilized bullets, is located in front of the CG. The location of the CPW is by no means stationary and shifts as the flowfield changes.

The figure

schematically shows the wind force F1, which applies at its center of pressure CPW.

The wind force

For a bullet, moving at velocity v, having a yaw angle , the flowfield pressure differences result in a net force which is called the wind force F1. This force seems to apply at the centre of pressure CPW of the wind force, which, for spin-stabilized bullets, is located in front of the centre of gravity CG. The location of the CPW depends on the flowfield conditions and varies as the velocity decreases. Two forces FW and F2, applying at the CG, which mutually neutralize, can be added to the wind force (see next figure ).

Adding two forces to the wind force

For a bullet, moving at velocity v, having a yaw angle , the flowfield pressure differences result in a net force which is called the wind force F1 (see also previous figure ). This force seems to apply at the centre of pressure CPW of the wind force, which, for spin-stabilized bullets, is located in front of the centre of gravity CG. For fin-stabilized bullets the CPW is located behind the CG. The location of the CPW depends on the flowfield conditions and varies as the velocity decreases. Two forces FW and F2, applying at the CG, which mutually neutralize, can be added to the wind force. The forces F1 and F2 form the overturning moment MW (see next figure ).

The overturning moment

The forces F1 and F2 (see previous figure overturning moment Mw (see ).

) form a free couple, which is said to be the aerodynamic moment of the wind force or simply

The overturning moment

Abbreviations
cM eW MW Overturning moment coefficient, cM(B, Ma, Re, ) Unit vector Overturning moment

Explanation
The point of the longitudinal axis, at which the resulting wind force F1 appears to attack is called the centre of pressure CPW of the wind force, which, for spin-stabilized bullets is located ahead of the CG. As the flow field varies, the location of the CPW varies as a function of the Mach number. Due to the non-coincidence of the CG and the CPW, a moment is associated with the wind force. This moment MW is called overturning moment or yawing moment (see figure ). For spin-stabilized projectiles MW tends to increase the yaw angle and destabilizes the bullet. In the absence of spin, the moment would cause the bullet to tumble.

This moment tries to rotate the bullet about an axis through the CG, perpendicular to the axis of symmetry of the bullet. The overturning moment tends to increase the angle of yaw . The force FW, which applies at the CG can be split into a force, opposite to the direction of the movement of the CG (the direction of the velocity vector v), which is called the drag force FD or simply lift. or simply drag and a force, perpendicular to this direction, which is called the lift force FL

As shown in another figure

Adding two forces to the wind force

For a bullet, moving at velocity v, having a yaw angle , the flowfield pressure differences result in a net force which is called the wind force F1 (see also previous figure ). This force seems to apply at the centre of pressure CPW of the wind force, which, for spin-stabilized bullets, is located in front of the centre of gravity CG. For fin-stabilized bullets the CPW is located behind the CG. The location of the CPW depends on the flowfield conditions and varies as the velocity decreases. Two forces FW and F2, applying at the CG, which mutually neutralize, can be added to the wind force. The forces F1 and F2 form the overturning moment MW (see next figure ).

 it is possible to add two forces to the wind force, having the same magnitude as the wind force but opposite directions. If one let those two forces attack at the CG, these two forces obviously do not have any effect on the bullet as they mutually neutralize. Now let us consider the two forces F1 and F2. It can be shown that this couple is a free vector, which is called the aerodynamic moment of the wind force or, for short, the overturning momentMW. The overturning moment tries to rotate the bullet around an axis, which passes through the CG and is perpendicular to the bullet's axis of form, just as indicated in the figure .

Summary: The wind force, which applies at the center of pressure, can be replaced by a force of the same magnitude and direction plus a moment. The force applies at the CG, the moment turns the bullet about an axis running through the CG. This is a general rule of classical mechanics (see any elementary physics textbook) and applies for any force that operates at a point different from the CG of a rigid body. You may proceed one step further and split the force, which applies at the CG, into a force which is antiparallel to the direction of movement of the CG plus a force, which is perpendicular to this direction. The first force is said to be the drag force FD or simply drag, the other force is

the lift force FL or lift for short. The name lift suggests an upward directed force, which is true for a climbing airplane, but which is generally not true for a bullet. The direction of the lift force depends on the orientation of the yaw angle. Thus a better word for lift force could be cross-wind force, an expression which can be found in some ballistic textbooks. Obviously, in the absence of yaw, the wind force reduces to the drag force.

So far, we have explained the forces, how the wind force and the overturning moment effects.

are generated, but we haven' t yet dealt with their

Drag and lift apply at the CG and simply affect the motion of the CG. Of course, the drag retards this motion. The effects of the lift force will be met later. Obviously, the overturning moment tends to increase the yaw angle, and one could expect that the bullet starts tumbling and become unstable. This indeed can be observed when firing bullets from an unrifled barrel. However, at this point, as we consider spinning projectiles, the gyroscopic effect comes into the play, causing an unbelievable effect.

The gyroscopic effect can be explained and derived from general rules of physics and can be verified by applying mathematics. For the moment we simply have to accept what can be observed: due to the gyroscopic effect, the bullet' s longitudinal axis moves aside towards the direction of the overturning moment, as indicated by the arrow in the figure .

The gyroscopic effect

The overturning moment MW tends to rotate the bullet about an axis, which goes through the CG and which is perpendicular to the plane of drag, the plane, formed by the velocity vector v and the longitudinal axis of the bullet. In the absence of spin, the yaw angle would grow and the bullet would tumble.

If the bullet has sufficient spin, saying if it rotates fast enough about its axis of form, the gyroscopic effect takes place: the bullets longitudinal axis moves into the direction of the overturning moment, perpendicular to the plane of drag. This axis shift however alters the plane of drag, which then rotates about the velocity vector. This movement is called precession or slow mode oscillation.

As the global outcome of the gyroscopic effect, the bullet's axis of symmetry thus would move on a cone's surface, with the velocity vector indicating the axis of the cone. This movement is often called precession. However, a more recent nomenclature defines this motion as the slow mode oscillation. To complicate everything even more, the true motion of a spin-stabilized bullet is much more complex. An additional fast oscillation is superimposed on the slow oscillation. However, we will return to this point later.

Spin damping moment

Skin friction at the projectile's surface retards its spinning motion. However, the angular velocity of the rotating bullet is much less damped by the spin damping moment than the translational velocity, which is reduced due to the action of the drag force.

The spin damping moment

Abbreviations
cspin MS Spin damping moment coefficient; cspin(B,Ma.Re) Spin damping moment

Explanation

Skin friction at the bullet's surface retards its spinning motion. The spin damping moment (also: roll damping moment) is given by the above formula. The spin damping coefficient depends on bullet geometry and the flow type (laminar or turbulent). As will be shown later, this is the reason why bullet's, which are gyroscopically stable at the muzzle will remain gyroscopically stable for the rest of their flight.

Magnus force and Magnus moment

Generally, the wind force is the dominant aerodynamic force. However, there are numerous other smaller forces but we want to consider only the Magnus force, which turns out to be very important for bullet stability.

With respect to the figure , we are looking at a bullet from the rear. Suppose that the bullet has right-handed twist, as indicated by the two arrows. We additionally assume the presence of an angle of yaw . The bullet's longitudinal axis should be inclined to the left, just as indicated in the previous drawings.

The Magnus effect

In the figure above, a bullet is viewed from behind and is assumed to have right-handed twist. Additionally, the bullet should have an angle of yaw , its longitudinal axis should be inclined to the left. Then there is a component of the flowfield velocity vn, perpendicular to the bullets axis of symmetry. Due to bullet spin and air molecules adhering to the bullets surface, the flowfield in the vicinity of the bullet becomes asymmetric. Air stream velocity and the rotational velocity of the body subtract at point A and add at point B (see above figure). However, according to Bernoullis rule (see any elementary physics book), this coincides with a pressure difference. A higher pressure at A and a lower pressure at B give rise to a downward directed force, which is called the Magnus force FM .

Due to this inclination, the flowfield velocity has a component perpendicular to the bullet's axis of symmetry, which we call vn. However, because of the bullet's spin, the flowfield turns out to become asymmetric. Molecules of the air stream adhere to the bullet's surface. Air stream velocity and the rotational velocity of the body add at point B and subtract at point A. Thus one can observe a lower flowfield velocity at A and a higher streaming velocity at B. However, according to Bernoulli's rule (see elementary physics textbook), a higher streaming velocity corresponds with a lower pressure and a lower velocity with a higher pressure. Thus, there is a pressure difference, which results in a downward (only in this diagram!) directed force, which is called theMagnus force FM (Heinrich Gustav Magnus, *1802, died 1870; German physicist).

The Magnus force

Abbreviations
cMag eM FM Magnus force coefficient; cMag(B,Ma,Re,,) Unit vector Magnus force

Explanation
The Magnus force FM arises from an asymmetry in the flow field, while the air stream against a rotating and yawing body interacts with its boundary layer and applies at the CPM (see figure ).

The Magnus force

For the whole bullet, the Magnus effect (which arises from the boundary layer interaction of the inclined and rotating body with the flowfield) results in the Magnus force FM which applies at its centre of pressure CPM. The location of the CPM varies as a function of the flowfield conditions and can be located either behind or ahead of the CG. The figure above assumes that the CPM is located behind the CG. Experiments have shown that this comes true for a 7.62 x 51 FMJ standard Nato bullet at least close to the muzzle in the high supersonic velocity regime.

Depending on the flow field, the CPM may be located ahead or behind the CG. The Magnus force vanishes in the absence of rotation and in the absence of a yaw angle. The Magnus force is usually very small and mainly depends on bullet geometry, spin rate, velocity and the angle of yaw. In exterior ballistics, the above expression is used for the Magnus force.

This explains, why the Magnus force, as far as flying bullets are concerned, requires spin as well as an angle of yaw, otherwise this force vanishes.

If one considers the whole surface of a bullet, one finds a total Magnus force, which applies at its instantaneous center of pressure CPM (see figure ).

The Magnus force

For the whole bullet, the Magnus effect (which arises from the boundary layer interaction of the inclined and rotating body with the flowfield) results in the Magnus force FM which applies at its centre of pressure CPM. The location of the CPM varies as a function of the flowfield conditions and can be located either behind or ahead of the CG. The figure above assumes that the CPM is located behind the CG. Experiments have shown that this comes true for a 7.62 x 51 FMJ standard Nato bullet at least close to the muzzle in the high supersonic velocity regime.

The center of pressure of the Magnus force varies as a function of the flowfield structure and can be located behind, as well as in front of the CG.

The magnitude of the Magnus force is considerably smaller than the magnitude of the wind force. However, the associated moment, the discussion of which follows, is of considerable importance for bullet stability. You can repeat the steps that were followed after the discussion of the wind force. Again, you can substitute the Magnus force applying at its CP by an equivalent force, applying at the CG, plus a moment, which is said to be the Magnus moment MM .

The Magnus moment

Abbreviations
cMp eMM MM Magnus moment coefficient; cMp(B,Ma,Re,,) Unit vector Magnus moment

Explanation
As the Magnus force applies at the CPM, which does not necessarily coincide with the CG, a Magnus moment MM (see figure ) is associated with that force. The location of the centre of pressure of the Magnus force depends on the flow field and can be located ahead or behind the CG. The

Magnus moment turns out to be very important for the dynamic stability of spin-stabilized bullets. For the Magnus moment, the above expression is used in exterior ballistics.

This moment tends to turn the body about an axis perpendicular to its axis of symmetry, just as shown in the figure

The Magnus moment

The Magnus force, which applies at its centre of pressure CPM can be substituted by a force of the same magnitude and direction, which applies at the CG, plus a moment, which is said to be the Magnus moment MM longitudinal axis of the bullet. This moment tries to rotate the bullet about an axis, perpendicular to the

However, the gyroscopic effect also applies for the Magnus moment and the bullets axis will be shifted into the direction of the moment. Thus, as far as the conditions of the figure above are valid, the Magnus moment will have a stabilizing effect as it tends to decrease the angle of yaw . It can be easily shown that this is only true, if the centre of pressure of the Magnus force CPM is located behind the CG. The Magnus force destabilizes the bullet and increases the angle of yaw, if its centre of pressure is located ahead of the CG, which may come true in a specific velocity regime.

However, the gyroscopic effect also applies for the Magnus force. Remember that due to the gyroscopic effect, the bullet's nose moves into the direction of the associated moment. With respect to the conditions shown in the figure , the Magnus force thus would have a stabilizing effect, as it tends to decrease the yaw angle, because the bullet's axis will be moved opposite to the direction of the yaw angle.

Yawing motion

This figure schematically visualizes the general angular motion of a spin-stabilized bullet close to the muzzle. Imagine that the CG of the bullet is fixed at the centre of a co-ordinate system and that the bullet approaches an observers eye. Then its tip moves on a helical path (as indicated by the curved line) into the direction of the arrows. At muzzle exit (t=0) the yaw angle can be small, but increases to a maximum of approximately 1, then decreases again to almost zero. Note that the magnitude of successive maximum yaw angles is less than its predecessors, as the bullet in the drawing is assumed to be dynamically stable (the maximum yaw angle decreases as the bullet continues to move on).

 A similar examination shows that the Magnus force has a destabilizing effect and increases the yaw angle, if its center of pressure is located in front of the CG. Later, this observation will become very important, as we will meet a dynamically unstable bullet, the instability of which is caused by this effect.

Two arms model of yawing motion

We have now finished discussing the most important forces and aerodynamic moments affecting a bullet's motion, but so far we haven't seen what the resulting movement looks like. For the moment we are not interested in the trajectory itself (the translational movement of the body), but we want to concentrate on the body's rotation about the CG. The yawing motion of a spin-stabilized bullet, resulting from the sum of all aerodynamic moments can be modeled as a superposition of a fast and a slow mode oscillation and can most easily be explained and understood by means of a two arms model (see reference [4]).

Imagine looking at the bullet from the rear as shown in the figure

Two arms model

The simple two arms model adequatly describes the yawing motion of spin-stabilized bullets, resulting from the action of all aerodynamic moments. The yawing motion can be understood as a superposition of a fast and a slow oscillation, often called nutation and precession. Imagine to look at the bullet from the rear. The slow mode arm CG to A should be hinged at the CG and rotates with the slow mode frequency. Consequently A moves on a circle around the CG (the red circle). The fast mode arm A to T, where T is the bullets tip, should be hinged at A and rotates with the fast mode frequency. Thus, T rotates on a circle about A. CG to T is the projection of the bullets longitudinal axis. An animation of the two arms model is shown in the figure below.

One additionally has to consider that the fast mode frequency exceeds the slow mode frequency (which is true in the animation) and the arm lengths CG to A and A to T are continuously shortened (which is not true in the animation) if the bullet is dynamically stable.

Let the slow mode arm CG to A rotate about the CG with the slow mode frequency. Consequently point A moves on a circle around the center of gravity. Let the fast mode arm A to T rotate about A with the fast mode frequency. Then T moves on a circle around point A. T is the bullet's tip and the connecting line of CG and T is the bullet's longitudinal axis. This simple model adequately describes the yawing motion, if one additionally considers that the fast mode frequency exceeds the slow mode frequency, and the arm lengths of the slow mode and the fast mode are, for a stable bullet, continuously shortened.

With respect to the figure imagine looking at a bullet approaching an observer's eyes. Then the bullet's tip moves on a spiral-like (also described as helical) path as indicated in the drawing, while the CG remains attached to the center of the circle. The bullet's tip periodically returns back to the tangent to the trajectory. If this occurs, the yaw angle becomes a minimum.

Example: Magnitude of forces

The table below shows the magnitude of some forces - as multiples of the force of gravity FG - for the M80 bullet (7.62 x 51 NATO) at standard air density ( = 1.25 kg/m3). M80 bullet Mass [g] Calibre [mm] Force Coriolis FC/FG Centrifugal FZ/FG Ma = 2.5 0.013 0.003 7.62 x 51 Nato 9.45 7.82 Ma = 0.6 0.003 0.003

Drag FD/FG Lift FL/FG (=1)

70.2 9.4

1.7 0.4

In the table above, the relative magnitude of the lift force appears to be relatively large. This is due to the fact that an angle of yaw of 1 has been assumed. If a bullet flies stable and the transient yaw has been damped out, the maximum yaw however is much smaller than 1 and consequently the lift force is also much smaller.

Summary
Bullets fired from handguns follow general rules of physics and behave like gyroscopes. The angular motion of these bullets can be understood as a superposition of two oscillations, most easily be demonstrated by a two arms model. Practically all handgun bullets are statically stable, many pistol and revolver bullets even have excessive static stability. However, dynamic stability is not automatically guaranteed. Some bullets are dynamically unstable at the moment they leave the muzzle, others may loose dynamic stability during flight after being decelerated. At the moment no reliable method exists, except experimentation, to foresee dynamic bullet instability, especially at long ranges. Some highly sophisticated computerized procedures (numerical solutions to the Navier-Stokes equations) to attack these problems are just being developed by ballistic researchers.

Acknowledgements
I want to thank Prof. Dr. J.G. Hauck, Dresden for reviewing the manuscript and his most valuable suggestions to improve this document. The experimental determination and evaluations of the yawing motion of various spin-stabilized handgun bullets were carried out at the German army proving ground WTD91 in Meppen. I have to thank this organization for leaving me the reports containing those unique and extremely valuable results. The long-range Doppler tracking radar measurements of the 7.62 x 51 NATO bullet were made available to me by WEIBEL equipment, Gentofte, Denmark. I also want to thank all readers of this article for their suggestions and support.

References
[1] Nennstiel, R., AFTE Training Seminar, 5.6.-9.6.1995, San Diego, CA USA [2] Nennstiel, R., "How do bullets fly?", AFTE Journal, Vol.28, No.2, April 1996, S.104-143 [3] Nennstiel, R., "EBV4 User's Manual", Exterior Ballistics for the PC, Wiesbaden, Germany, 1995. [4] Farrar, C.L., Leeming, D.W., Military Ballistics - A Basic Manual, Brasseys Publisher Limited, Headington Hill Hall, Oxford OX3 0BW, England, 1983. [5] Giles M.J., Leeming D.W., "An Aerodynamic Model for Unstable Projectiles", Proc. of the 11th Int. Symp. on Ballistics, Brussels, May 9 - May 11, 1989. [6] Piddington, M.J., "Aerodynamic Characteristics of the 7.62 mm Nato Ammunition", BRL MR 1833, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, USA, 1967. [7] McCoy, R., Modern Exterior Ballistics, The Launch and Flight Dynamics of Symmetric Projectiles, USA

The end.

Below are all of the formulae and details just in case I missed one above.

The force of gravity

Abbreviations
ej FG Unit vector, opposite to the direction of the acceleration of gravity The force of gravity

Explanation
The force of gravity is proportional to the mass of the projectile and the local acceleration of gravity. The force is directed towards the center of the earth and attacks at the CG. The force of gravity is responsible for the bending of the trajectory.

The centrifugal force

Abbreviations
FZ Centrifugal force

Explanation
The figure above shows a cut through the globe. The formula gives the components of the centrifugal force in an xyz - reference frame, the y -axis being antiparallel to the force of gravity. The y - component of the centrifugal force can be regarded as a correction of the force of gravity, the other components are generally neglected in ballistics because of their smallness.

The Coriolis force

Abbreviations
Fc v Coriolis force Velocity vector with respect to xyz - coordinate system Vector of the angular velocity of the earths rotation with respect to xyz - coordinate system.

Explanation
The magnitude of the fictitious Coriolis force is so small that it is usually completely neglected and - as a rule of thumb - only has to be considered in ballistics for ranges of 20 km or more (artillery shells).

The drag force

Abbreviations
cD FD Drag coefficient Drag force

Explanation
The drag force FD is the component of the force FW in the direction opposite to that of the motion of the centre of gravity (see figure ). The force FW results from pressure differences at the bullet's surface, caused by the air, streaming against the moving body. In the case of the absence of yaw, the drag FD is the only component of the force FW .

The drag force is the most important aerodynamic force. Given the atmosphere conditions p,T,h, the reference area A and the momentary velocity vw, the drag force is completely determined by the the drag coefficient cD .

The lift force

Abbreviations
cL eL FL Lift coefficient; cL(B,Ma.Re,) Unit vector Lift force

Explanation
The lift force FL (also called cross-wind force) is the component of the wind force FW in the direction perpendicular to that of the motion of the center of gravity in the plane of the yaw angle projectile even in the absence of wind. . The lift force vanishes in the absence of yaw and is the reason for the drift of a spinning

The overturning moment

Abbreviations
cM eW MW Overturning moment coefficient, cM(B, Ma, Re, ) Unit vector Overturning moment

Explanation
The point of the longitudinal axis, at which the resulting wind force F1 appears to attack is called the centre of pressure CPW of the wind force, which, for spin-stabilized bullets is located ahead of the CG. As the flow field varies, the location of the CPW varies as a function of the Mach number. Due to the non-coincidence of the CG and the CPW, a moment is associated with the wind force. This moment MW is called overturning moment or yawing moment (see figure ). For spin-stabilized projectiles MW tends to increase the yaw angle and destabilizes the bullet. In the absence of spin, the moment would cause the bullet to tumble.

The spin damping moment

Abbreviations
cspin MS Spin damping moment coefficient; cspin(B,Ma.Re) Spin damping moment

Explanation
Skin friction at the bullet's surface retards its spinning motion. The spin damping moment (also: roll damping moment) is given by the above formula. The spin damping coefficient depends on bullet geometry and the flow type (laminar or turbulent).

The Magnus force

Abbreviations
cMag eM FM Magnus force coefficient; cMag(B,Ma,Re,,) Unit vector Magnus force

Explanation
The Magnus force FM arises from an asymmetry in the flow field, while the air stream against a rotating and yawing body interacts with its boundary layer and applies at the CPM (see figure ). Depending on the flow field, the CPM may be located ahead or behind the CG. The Magnus force vanishes in the absence of rotation and in the absence of a yaw angle. The Magnus force is usually very small and mainly depends on bullet geometry, spin rate, velocity and the angle of yaw. In exterior ballistics, the above expression is used for the Magnus force.