PULSES PRODUCTION STRATEGIES IN

TAMIL NADU

2000
Centre for Plant Breeding and Genetics
TAMIL NADU AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
COIMBATORE – 641 003
 CONTENTS
Page No.

Perspective of increasing Pulse Productivity in Tamil Nadu 1

Prof.Dr.S.Kannaiyan

Use of Biofertilizers for increasing Pulse Production 8

Prof.Dr.S.Kannaiyan, K.Govindarajan, K.Kumar &
K.Chendrayan

Pulses Strategy in Tamil Nadu 24

Dr.M.Subramanian

Problems and Perspectives of cultivation of Pulses and prospects 33

of summer irrigated Pulses in Tamil Nadu
Dr.C.Surendran & A.R.Muthiah

Recent Management Techniques for Rice fallow Pulses 43

Dr.S.Ramanathan

Varietal Scenario of Pulses in Tamil Nadu 53

Dr.K.Mohanasundaram

Dryland Techniques for Pulses Productivity 62

Dr.T.M.Thiyagarajan & Dr.T.N.Balasubramanian

Plant Protection Strategies in Pulses 73

Dr.Sabitha Doraisamy, Dr.K.Gunasekaran & Dr.T.Ganapathi

Management of Pod borer complex in Redgram 83

Dr.K.Gunasekaran

Recent Trends in Seed production in Pulses 91

Dr.V.Krishnasamy, Dr.V.Palanisamy & Dr.P.Srimathi

Rhizobium and Phosphobacteria : An avenue for increasing 103

Productivity of Pulses
Dr.S.Gunasekaran & Dr.D.Balachandran
Tagging Gene(s) for Mung bean Yellow Mosaic Resistance 123
In Mung bean – A Collaborative Approach with AVRDC
Dr.Manickam

Role of Pulses in Human Diets 129

Dr.A.Suseela Thirumaran & Dr.S.Kanchana

Status of Pulse milling Techniques 144

Dr.V.V.Sreenarayanan and Dr.C.T.Devadoss

Transfer of Technology for increasing pulses production 154

Dr.S.Uthamasamy and Dr.S.Palaniswamy

Proceedings and Recommendations 161

 PERSPECTIVES OF INCREASING PULSE
PRODUCTIVITY IN TAMIL NADU

Prof.Dr.S.Kannaiyan*

Pulses are the major sources of dietary protein in the vegetarian diet in
our country. Besides being a rich source of protein, they maintain soil fertility
through biological nitrogen fixation in soil and thus play a vital role in
furthering sustainable agriculture (Kannaiyan, 1999). At present globally 60
million tonnes of pulses are produced annually from 70 million hectares. The
contribution of developing countries like India, China, Brazil, Turkey and
Mexico accounts for nearly two third production India is the largest producer
with 33 per cent of global area contributing 22 per cent of the world’s
production. Normally the area under pulses in the country is around 24.38
million hectares with a production of 14.52 million tonnes. The average
productivity of the country is about 600 Kg/ha against the average global
productivity of 857 Kg/ha.

In Tamil Nadu, the total area under pulses is around 9.5 lakh ha with a
production of 4.08 lakh tons. The average productivity of pulses in the state is
around 430 Kg/ha which is far below the average productivity of the country as
well as that of the global productivity. The area under blackgram in the state is
around 4.46 lakh ha in the year 1999 with a production of 2.06 lakh tons which
accounts for an average productivity of 461 Kg/ha (Dixit et al, 2000). The
increase in area and production is attributed to the development of high yielding
and MYMV resistant varieties suitable for cultivation in rabi season in rice
fallows. The average of blackgram in the state is just above the national
average productivity of 448 Kg/ha, however, it is lesser than that recorded in
states like Bihar (694 Kg/ha), Maharastra (631 Kg/ha), Gujarat (601 Kg/ha) and
Andhra Pradesh (555 Kg/ha).

In the case of greengram the area is around 1.83 lakh ha in the year 1999
with a production of 0.696 lakh tons which works out to an average
productivity of 380 Kg/ha. It is also just above the national average productivity
of 363 Kg/ha. However, this average is lesser than that recorded in states like
Maharastra (575 Kg/ha), Punjab (605 Kg/ha), Bihar (561 Kg//ha), Andhra
Pradesh (447 Kg/ha), Uttar Pradesh (428 Kg/ha) and West Bengal (390 Kg/ha).

* Vice-Chancellor, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore

 Pigeonpea is yet another important source of vegetable protein, used
either as dhal or as green vegetable. Dry grains of pigeonpea have 20-22 per
cent protein. Green pigeonpea seeds contain 10 times more fat, 5 times more
vitamin A and 3 times more vitamin C than ordinary peas, besides they contain
numerous minerals. Pigeonpea stalks are also a major source of firewood and
live stock feed. This pulse crop is grown mostly as an intercrop between
cereals crops and plays a unique role in enriching the soil, by adding 40 Kg
Nitrogen per hectare over a given season. The deep root system of the crop
helps to recycle plant nutrients from deeper layers, and the acid secretions from
its roots increase the availability of phosphorus in the soil. Pigeonpea also
improves the physical structure of soil by enhancing water infiltration for
subsequent crops, and plays a crucial role in sustaining agriculture in rainfed,
semi arid farming systems (Arunachalam et al., 1995).

Redgram (Pigeonpea), occupies an area of around 3.47 million hectares

in India with a production of 2.77 million tonnes which accounts for a
productivity of 799 Kg/ha. In Tamil Nadu the area under redgram is about 1.40
lakh hectares with a production of 1.20 lakh tons and the productivity is 864
Kg/ha, which is higher than the average national productivity , but lower then
the productivity level of Uttar Pradesh (1134 Kg/ha), Haryana (1145 Kg/ha),
Bihar (999 Kg/ha), Gujarat (952 Kg/ha) and Punjab (880 Kg/ha). But the
productivity is lower in states like Andhra Pradesh (383 Kg/ha), Karnataka (499
Kg/ha), Madhya Pradesh (832 Kg/ha), Maharastra (681 Kg/ha), Orissa (361
Kg/ha) and Rajasthan (380 Kg/ha) compared to Tamil Nadu.

Traditional varieties of pigeonpea need about 6 to 9 months to mature,

while the improved varieties developed can be harvested in 3-4 months. Both
long duration (180 days) and medium duration (130-140 days) genotypes are
grown in Tamil Nadu under various cropping systems. Because of shorter
growing period and low moisture in soil as well as high atmospheric
temperature, the productivity is low. These abiotic stresses are further
aggravated by biotic stresses like pod borers, wilt and sterility mosaic (Singh
and Bhan, 1998). Management of these stresses can contribute to an yield
recovery of 300-350 Kg/ha. Further extension of area is possible in rabi reason
as a sole or inter crop with cereals and legumes. Under these situations the
short duration pigeonpea like APK 1 (Aruppukottai 1) and Vamban 1 can be
suitably fitted in.

APK 1 redgram matures in 95-105 days and capable of giving an

average yield of 900 and 1250 Kg/ha under rainfed and irrigated conditions
respectively. It is resistant to SMD. It is highly suited as a pure crop in
southern districts for October-November sowings as a rainfed crop in uplands.
Vamban 1 redgram is also maturing in 95-100 days and capable giving an
average yield of 850 and 1200 Kg/ha under rainfed and irrigated conditions
respectively. This variety is highly suitable for intercropping in groundnut.
Both APK 1 and Vamban 1 regrams because of their shorter duration, they can
be raised under irrigated situations as a sole crop in summer. During kharif,
under rainfed conditions the age old variety of SA 1 is to be replaced by
Vamban 2. It is resistant to sterility mosaic disease and capable giving an
average yield 1050 Kg per ha which is 20 per cent higher yield than SA 1.

The hybrid redgram COPH 2 which matures in 120-130 days, gives an

average yield of 1050 kg/ha. It is photoinsensitive and can be grown in all the
three seasons viz., Kharif, Rabi and Summer. It is suitable as an irrigated pure
crop in districts like Erode, Coimbatore, Salem and Dharmapuri and possesses
the potential to yield 1350 kg/ha under irrigated conditions.

Long duration and medium duration pigeonpeas have been cultivated as

mixed and intercrops. However, of late, shift towards monocropping with some
inputs in certain agroecological nitches has taken place. Short duration
pigeonpea (APK 1 and Vamban 1) varieties are to be grown as a pure irrigated
crop during summer in southern districts as well as in Cauvery delta zone which
will result in horizontal growth of 25000 ha and an additional production of
0.37 lakh tons can be expected annually from this new nitch. Farmers are
reluctant to grow pigeonpea because of pod borers damage (Ali, 1998) which
can be managed with integrated pest management practices as given below.

ƒ Use of pod borer tolerant varieties

ƒ Use of Pheromone traps and bird perches
ƒ Use of NPV (500 larval equivalent per hectare)
ƒ Spraying Neem seed kernel extract 5%
ƒ Spraying Endosulfan 35 EC, 1.25 lit per hectare from the third instar of
its larval stage.
ƒ NSKE 5%, Neem oil 2% and Phasalone 0.07% sprays are effective
ƒ Mechanical removal of late stage larvae is effective
ƒ IPM plot has increased the yield by 177 per cent.

Cultivation of redgram on bunds in low land areas is becoming popular.

Cultivation of BSR 1 redgram in borders of turmeric fields in Erode district will
result in additional production. Each plant can yield 1 to 1.5 Kg of green pods
per plant and first harvest can be taken up in 150 days. Green pigeonpea
contains 10 times more fat, 5 times more vitamin A and 3 times more vitamin C
than ordinary pea and also contain numerous minerals.
Pulses are vital for sustainability of our crop production systems, soil
health and above all for our food security. Greengram is the early maturing
crop and fits well with almost all cropping systems. Although, blackgram is
slightly late maturing crop compared to greengram, its utility in South Indian
diet makes it so popular and that these two crops are cultivated in more than six
million hectares i.e. more than one fourth of the total area under pulses in this
country. Because of their short duration, these crops fit well under different
cropping systems and thus have enormous potential for the future which needs
to be capitalized. It is estimated that a horizontal expansion of around 7-8
million hectares area under these crops could be possible in the country, under
new nitches of cultivation, which can add 4-5 million tons more to the total
pulse production. In order to achieve this, the critical gaps in production
technology of these crops must be suitably addressed. In coastal and semi arid
areas of Tamil Nadu, there is a possible expansion of area under blackgram and
greengram during rabi to an extent of nearly five lakh hectares especially under
rice fallow conditions.

Development of location specific agrotechniques for blackgram and

greengram in rice fallows of Tamil Nadu is the most important for the above
horizontal expansion in area.

Constraints of rice fallow cultivation and remedies

ƒ Adequate population coultn’t be maintained in blackgram and

greengram under rice fallow conditions due to improper leveling

ƒ Uncertainity in the time of sowing of blackgram and greengram. If the

sowing is delayed beyond February 15th, there is a drastic reduction in
productivity therefore sowing should be done between January 15th
and February 15th.

ƒ Terminal moisture stress under rice fallow conditions results in poor

yield.

Vamban 3 blackgram maturing in 70 days, is capable of yielding an

average of 825 and 950 Kg/ha under rainfed and irrigated conditions
respectively. It is resistant to MYMV and can be grown during kharif, rabi and
summer in all districts of Tamil Nadu except Nilgiris and Kanyakumari. K1
blackgram maturing in 70-75 days with an average yield of 700 Kg/ha is best
suited for intercropping with cotton in Southern Districts of Tamil Nadu. APK1
blackgram is also suited for intercropping in cotton. About, 50,000 hectares of
tapioca raised in Salem and Kallakurichi areas, may be utilized for
intercropping short duration blackgram and greengram. KM 2, K 851 and CO 6
greengram and TMV 1, Vamban 2 and Vamban 3 blackgram are very suitable
for this situation. CO 6 greengram maturing in 65 days, is resistant to MYMV
and gives an average yield of 850 and 1300 Kg/ha under rainfed and irrigated
conditions respectively. It is suitable for sowing in Kharif , rabi and summer
seasons in all districts of Tamil Nadu except in districts like Nilgiris and
Kanyakumari.

Pulses Management Technologies

• Pulses seeds treated with specific strains of Rhizobium increases

(favourable CN ratio is 10:1) the yield through for better nodulation and
maintenance of organic matter in the soil (Saxena and Tilak, 1999).

• All pulses can not be inoculated by a single rhizobial strain. Even in

that case particular species of Rhizobium may not possess the
efficiency for a long time. This necessitates the introduction of newer
strains to maintain the nitrogen efficiency and thereby increasing the
productivity. At TNAU newer strains were introduced for crop specific

Rhizobium Percentage of increase Host crop

in yield
COG 15 30 Green gram
COC 10 23 Black gram
CC 1 12-60 Red gram
CO Be 13 25-30 Bengal gram
COC 10 35 Cowpea

Combined inoculation
Combined inoculation of Rhizobium with phosphobacteria (Bacillus
megaterium and Pseudomonas striata) for red gram, black gram, green gram
and bengalgram increased has grain yield for maximum grain yield was
recorded by the combination of rhizobial strain with phosphobacteria with full
dose of N & P in red gram (986 kg/ha). It increased 34.70 per cent higher yield
than the uninoculated control. Dual inoculation with half dose of fertilizer gave
an yield of 880 kg/ha which is 20.22 per cent higher than control.

A bright future for vegetable soybean

Vegetable soybean can be harvested while the pod is still green with the
seed filling 80-90% of the pod. The green beans can be shelled, cooked
separately or with meat and other vegetables. They make good snack as well.
The green mochai is to be replaced by the vegetable soybean. The beans are
sweeter compared to grain soybean. The horticultural characterstics include
pod and seed colour, appearance, flavour, texture, taste, size of pod and seed
and the number of seeds per pod. At present in Coimbatore, six vegetable
soybean types of AVRDC viz., AGS 744, AGS 745, AGS 777, AGS 746, AGS
775 and AGS 797 are tried to assess their yielding ability. The highest yield of
13.8 t/ha in 88 days was obtained in Tainan district of Taiwan.

Popularisation of less known pulses to increase the production

High yielding varieties of rice bean, lima bean, sword bean, garden
lablab (avarai) and field lab lab (mochai) are to be popularised , to get more
production of pulses in the state.

Cold season pulses

Among the cold season pulses, horsegram is the most important crop
occupies about 1.23 lakh ha of marginal lands with a production of 0.53 lakh
tons. The productivity is about 431 kg/ha. In certain years for eg. in the year
1989-90, the productivity was very low in this crop i.e. 319 kg/ha, therefore
improved varieties like CO 1, Paiyur 1 and Paiyur 2 are to be grown to get
higher productivity. Bengalgram is grown only in an area of about 0.09 lakh
hectares and the productivity of this crop is high i.e. about 675 to 700 Kg/ha.
Improved root rot resistant CO 3 and wilt resistant CO 4 bengalgram are to be
grown to get higher productivity.

References

Ali, M.1998. Research, Development and Management for production of

pulses. In : IPM system in Agriculture. Vol.4. Pulses (eds.
R.K.Upadhyay, K.G. Mukerji and R.L.Rajak) Aditya Books Private
Limited, New Delhi. pp 1-40.

Arunachalam,L., S.Purushothaman, SP.Palaniappan and M.Mark Devasahayam,

1995. Relative contribution of non-monetary / low cost inputs in
redgram production. Madras Agric. J. 82(3) : 179-181.

Dixit, G.P., Tripathi, D.P., Suresh Chandra, Tewari, T.N. and J.L.Tickoo (2000)
MULL & RP Crops, varieties developed during last fifty years. AICRP
on MULL & RP, IIPR, Kanpur. pp 16.

Gurdip Singh and Livinder Khar Bhavan. 1998. Diseases of Mungbean and
Urdbean and their management. In : IPM system in Agriculture vol.4.
Pulses (eds. R.K.Upadhyay, K.G.Mukerji and R.L.Rajak) Aditya Books
Private Limited, New Delhi. pp 311-371.

Kannaiyan, S. 1999. Bioresources Technology for Sustainable Agriculture,

Associated Publishing Company, New Delhi. p.422.
Saxena, A.K. and K.V.B.R. Tilak. 1999. Potentials and prospects of
Rhizobium biofertilizer. In : Agromicrobes. (eds. M.N.Jha, S.Sriram,
G.S.Venkataraman and S.G.Sharma) pp 51-78. Todays and Tomorrow’s
Printers and Publishers, New Delhi.
 USE OF BIOFERTILZERS FOR INCREASING PULSE
PRODUCTION

S. Kannaiyan1, K. Govindarajan2, K. Kumar3 and K. Chendrayan4

Pulse crops have been an important component of agriculture since

ancient times. These leguminous plants on symbiotic association with soil
bacterium, the Rhizobium forms nitrogen fixing root nodules which are
agronomically significant as they provide an alternative to the use of energy
expensive nitrogenous chemical fertilizer. Despite the large and increasing use
of nitrogenous fertilizers in agriculture, estimates suggest that biological
nitrogen fixation contributes at least four times more nitrogen to the soil
throughout the world. On a global basis these symbiotic association between
legume and Rhizobium may reduce about 70 million tons of atmospheric
nitrogen to ammonia per annum which amounts to about 40 % of all
biologically fixed nitrogen per year (Burns and Hardy, 1975). The legumes
improve soil fertility through their nitrogen fixing ability Nitrogen fixing values
estimated for various legumes are given in Table 1.

Table 1. Estimates of nitrogen fixed by legumes (Peoples et al. 1995)

Crop Nitrogen fixed Kg /ha

Blackgram 119-140
Chickpea 23-97
Cluster bean 378-196
Cowpea 9-125
Greengram 50-66
Pigeonpea 4-200
Soybean 49-450
Peas 46

1. Vice-Chancellor, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore

2-4. Department of Agricultural Microbiology, TNAU, Coimbatore

Classification of rhizobia
 The classification of root nodulating rhizobia has been modified since
1984 and is likely to change further with more detailed studies on large number
of Rhizobium strains from a wide variety of leguminous plants. At present only
about 8-9% of the 14,000 or so known species of leguminous plants have been
examined for nodulation, and less than 0.5% have been studied relative to their
symbiotic relationship with nodule bacteria. A new system of classification was
proposed by Jordan (1984) in Bergy's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology and
in given is Table 2.

Table 2. Classification of root nodule bacteria (Jordan, 1984)

Genus Species Biovars Host legumes

Rhizobium R. leguminosarum viceae Vicia
R.leguminosarum trifolii Trifolium
R.leguminosarum phaseoli Phaseolus
R. meliloti - Medicago
R. loti - Lotus
R. fredii - Glycine
Bradyrhizobium B. japonicum - Glycine
Bradyrhizobium sp. - Gicer,cajanus,
vigna

Selection of rhizobial strains for inoculant production

A large scale screening should be carried out to identify ideal inoculant

strains for different legume crops. The criterion for selections may vary for
particular soil types like acidic, sodic, sodic-saline, saline, nitrate-, rich or
heavy metal contaminated. Based on suggestion by Brockwell et al. (1982),
and Howieson and Ewing (1986), Keyser et al. (1992) the following characters
are considered as desirable for a strains to be fit for use in commercial
inoculants.

a) Ability to form nodules and fix N2 on the target pulse crop

b) Ability to compete in nodule formation with populations of native
rhizobia present in the soil
c) Ability to fix N2 across a range of environmental conditions
d) Ability to form nodules and fix N in the presence of soil nitrate
e) Ability to grow well in artificial media, in inoculant carrier and in the
soil
f) Ability to persist in soil, particularly for annually regenerating legumes
g) Ability to migrate from the initial site of inoculation
h) Ability to colonize the soil in the absence of a legume host
i) Ability to tolerate environmental stresses.
j) Ability to fix N2 with a wide range of host genotypes
k) Genetic stability
l) Compatibility with agrochemical

Based on the above criteria, several rhizobial strains were screened for
various pulse crops through field experiment. Consequently, the following
strains of rhizobia are being employed for inoculant production at Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University.

Crop Rhizobium strains recommended

Redgram CC-1
Greengran CRM-14
Blackgram CRU-15
Bengalgram COBe-13
Soybean COS-1

Inoculant Production

Rhizobia are not very particular in their nutritional requirements.

Yeast extract mannitol (YEM) medium is employed for culturing of rhizobia.
Large scale multiplication of rhizobia can be carried out using rotary shaker or
fermentor. In shake flask culture, liquid medium in flasks is agitated by
circular motion of rotary shaker. Fermentors are used for industrial scale
production of biofertilizers. Culture vessels ranging from 5 to 1000 lit can be
used depending upon the requirement. The amount of inoculum culture to be
added into the fermentor vessel depends on the size of the fermentor, but the
ratio between the inoculum and the medium in the vessel should be maintained
at 1:2 (5% inoculum rate). The broth is continuously aerated by forcing sterile
air. Various fermentation requirements like aeration, agitation and fermentation
time vary from strain to strain. When the number of rhizobia in the liquid
medium has attained the required standard (108 -109 cells /ml), the broth should
be added to the carrier for preparation of carrier based inoculant.

The term 'carrier' is generally used for a medium, which carries the live
microorganisms. The carrier materials should be in powder form and capable of
passing through 150-212 micron (72-100 mesh) IS sieve. A good carrier should
a) have high water holding capacity
b) be non-toxic to rhizobia
c) be easy to sterilize by autoclaving
d) readily and inexpensively available
e) provide good adhesion to seed
f) have buffering capacity
g) have cation and / or amino exchange capacity

Most peat's meet these criteria and remain the favoured carrier material
for inoculants. In India, high quality peat is not available although peat-like
material of medium quality, designated as peat soil, is located in Nilgiris
However, search for alternative carrier materials continues. Based on the
research findings, lignite which is found better and is being employed as carrier
material instead of peat at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. In
manufacturing inoculants, a period of 'curing' (maturation) after the addition of
broth culture to carrier improves the quality of the product (Burton, 1976).
After curing, the inoculant is packed in polyethylene bags (high density; 0.075-
0.090 mm). Inoculants must be incubated for a week in a room with an ambient
temperature of 25 - 30° C. During this period the bacterium multiplies and
reaches to a required standard. The packets may then be stored in a cold room
(4°-15° C) till its use.

Quality control of inoculants

The quality of rhizobial incoulants is of great importance in ensuring

field performance of as well as for the commercial prospects of inoculant
industry. Basically quality means the presence of the right type of
microorganism in active form and desired members. Evaluation of inoculant
quality by entertain of viable rhizobial is an accurate index of inoculating
potential (Hiltbold et al. 1980). According to Bureau of Indian standards, the
Indian standard speritications for Rhizobium inoculants is that, it should contain
108 cells / g of carrier material at the time of manufacture and 107 cells / g
within 15 days before expiry date.

Rhizobium inoculation

Root-nodule forming bacteria although present in most of the soils, vary

in number and in their effectiveness in nodulation and nitrogen fixation. Hence,
wherever necessary, seed inoculation of legumes with effective strains of the
required rhizobia is practiced to ensure their adequate population in the root
zone. This helps to improve nodulation, nitrogen fixation, crop growth and
yield of leguminous crops which depends for their growth, not only on nitrogen
fixation biologically in their root nodules, but are known to benefit the
subsequent crops (Thompson, 1980). This is one of the scientific basis of crop
rotation. In fields lacking appropriate rhizobia pulse crops can be raised
successfully with rhizobial inoculation without resorting to large application of
inorganic nitrogen fertilizers.

The survey conducted on nodulation by pulse crops showed that in

about half the area, nodulation was poor for one reason or the other, even
though the pulse crops had been grown in that area for a long time. Inoculating
pulse crops in these areas with suitable rhizobia could improve their nodulation
/ N2 - fixing capacities, resulting in improved yield. The use of rhizobia as
biofertilizer to enhance the yield of pulse crops has been well documented by
many researchers. Different diagnostic measures to decide about inoculation
have been suggested. Inoculation should be carried out if,

a) Population density of species - specific rhizobia is low

b) The same or symbiotically related legume is not grown in the area in the
immediate past history
c) Waste - lands have to be reclaimed
d) Legume follows a non-leguminous crops in a rotation
e) Soil is poor in mineral N (nitrate)
f) Soils are acidic, alkaline and saline

Method of inoculation

The major goal of legume inoculation is to introduce efficient and

competitive strains in large numbers which can survive and establish in the
legume rhizosphere and colonize the roots promptly. Application of inoculant
to the seed surface prior to sowing is the traditional means of inoculation,
although viability of rhizobia is subject to the hazards of drying (Salena et al.
1982); fertilizer count (Kremer et al., 1982); seed coat toxicity (Materon and
Weaver, 1983); incompatible pesticide and mineral additives (Gault and
Brockwell, 1980; Skipper et al., 1980) and soil factors (Kremer and Peterson,
1983; Mahler and Wollum, 1982). There are mumerous adhesives like jugglery
or sugar, gum arabic, methyl cellose etc, for attaching inoculant to the seed
(Brockwell, 1962; Elgba and Rennie, 1984; Hoben et al., 1991). Tenacity is the
important characteristic of adhesives to ensure that inoculant is not lost from the
seed during handling and passage through sowing machinery. The adhesive
must be green from any preservative that might diminish the viability of
rhizobia. Rice gruel has been found cheap and best adhesive material and is
being recommended by Tamil Nadu Agricultural University.

The method of seed inoculation induces preparation of inoculant scurry

by adding 200 g of carrier based inoculant in 200 ml of rice gruel. This
inoculant slurry is added on the seeds and the seeds are thoroughly mixed so as
to have a uniform coating. A count of 1000 viable cells per seed is to be
attained at the time of treating the seed and quantity of culture used is
accordingly addicted (Saxena and Tilak, 1999). The seeds are spread uniformly
for drying on a gunny bag or cement floor in shade and not under direct
sunlight. When seeds are treated with fungicides, seed treatment with bacterial
inoculant is to done last.

Way to improve Rhizobium - legume symbiosis

Host related aspects

Presence of a large genotypic variability for nitrogen fixing traits like

nodule numbers, nodule mass and acetylene reduction activity per plant has
been known. Experiments conducted at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore and other places indicate that the above nitrogen fixing traits varied
with the host genotypes in various pulse crops and are given in table 4,5 and 6.

Table 3. Interaction between cultivars of redgram and Rhizobium strains

and its effect on nodule numbers
Nodule number / plant
Strains CO.5 ICPL 87 Vamban Mean
UASB 722 10.1 9.5 10.0 9.87
PT 300 13.0 13.9 12.6 13.17
JARS 70 15.2 13.3 14.3 14.33
20 kg N/ ha 7.2 6.3 6.5 6.67
Uninoculated control 6.1 5.9 5.6 5.87
Mean 10.32 9.82 9.80

Table 4. Interaction between cultivars of redgram and Rhizobium strains

and its effect on nodule weight
Strains Nodule dry weight (mg / plant)
CO.5 ICPL 87 Vamban Mean
UASB 722 17.0 16.2 14.0 15.73
PT 300 18.1 17.0 16.3 17.13
JARS 60 19.5 18.6 18.0 18.70
20 kg N/ ha 10.0 8.6 9.1 9.25
Uninoculated control 8.2 7.6 7.5 7.77
Mean 14.5 14.4 11.29

Table 5. Interaction between cultivars of greengram and Rhizobium and

its effect on nodule number
Strains Nodule (number/ plant)
PS 16 CO.5 Mean
M11 85 10.82 12.52 11.67
M6 84 15.40 16.10 15.75
GR 4 16.20 17.42 16.71
M6 65 12.80 13.25 13.03
20 kg N/ ha 7.25 8.46 7.86
Uninoculated control 5.80 6.10 5.95
Mean 11.38 12.31

Table 6. Interaction between cultivars of green gram and Rhizobium

strains and its effect on nodules dry weight
Strains Nodule dry weight (mg / plant)
PS 16 CO.5 Mean
M11 85 19.10 21.50 20.30
M6 84 22.00 19.20 20.60
GR 4 22.65 24.10 23.78
M6 65 23.70 18.40 21.05
20 kg N/ ha 16.60 13.10 14.85
Uninoculated control 10.40 11.20 14.85
Mean 19.80 17.93 10.83

Likewise, observation on the variability in nodulation between

varieties was also made in chickpea (Rupeal, 1994). It was also observed that
not only consistent low-and high nodulating plants were present within
chickpea cultivars, even non-nodulating plants occurred in normal cultivars.
Arunachalam et al (1984) found that nodule weight has good predictive value
for plant growth and yield related traits. These studies suggest a great scope
for enhancing symbiotic nitrogen fixation in legumes through host plant
selection. Another approach to improve symbiontic nitrogen fixation in pulse
crop is breeding for nitrate tolerance, as the nitrate is an inhibitor of nodulation
process in the host plant (Carroll et al., 1985).

Soil - related aspects

a) Physico -chemical parameters

Soil temperature, moisture and reaction are the important physico-

chemical parameters that influence the symbiotic nitrogen fixation in pulse
crops. Plant root exudation, growth and survival of rhizobia, root hair
formation and infection process in plants are influenced significantly by the soil
temperature. In India, the soil temperature during summer month exceeds 54°
C. This high temperature will certainly influence the above factors and
ultimately affect the efficiency of rhizobia. Since, the soil temperature under
field condition cannot be controlled, temperature tolerant strains have to be
used. Similarly, soil monisture or water stress limits not only the survival of
rhizobia but also their symbiotic association with pulse crops. Taneja et al
(1980) reported that water stress (-2 to -4 bars) resulted in decreased growth of
Rhizobium strains. Mohammed et al. (1991) reported that the salt tolerant
Rhizobium strains are more tolerant to moistore stress.

Soil reactions viz., salinity and acidity have a great impact on rhizobia
and their symbiotic activity. High concentration of salts has a detrimental effect
on host, rhizobia and their symbiosis. Salt stress decreases symbiotic efficiency
to levels below the genetic potential of host - Rhizobium association and thus
may decrease plant growth and grain yield (Singleton and Bohlool, 1983).
Levels of salinity that inhibits the growth of the individual symbionts (Subba
Rao et al., 1972). Sodium chloride concentrations that affect the symbiosis
between Rhizobium and chickpea are lower than those that affect the growth of
individual chickpea genotypes or Rhizobium spp. (Sexena and Revari 1992).
Legumes are generally more sensitive to osmotic stress than their
microsymbiont, the rhizobia. Likewise, soil acidity also found to affect the
symbiotic nitrogen fixation, limiting Rhizobium survival and persistence in soils
and reducing nodulation (Munns, 1986). Some species of rhizobia tolerate
acidity better than others. Reduction of soil acidity and associated production
of legume nodulation and N2 fixation can be achieved by liming.

Among the soil chemical factors that influence symbiotic nitrogen

fixation in pulse crops, mineral nitrogen concentration is the most important
one. In general, high soil nitrogen levels, applied or residual, reduce nodulation
and N2 - fixation. Based on several studies, nodulation and / or nitrogen
fixation was reduced by approximately 50% in different legumes, when
nitrogen concentration in root environment was between 20 and 90 mg / kg in
the growth medium. The suppression in symbiotic nitrogen fixation is
particularly due to the nitrate fraction in the root growth environment (Streeter,
1988). The exact mechanism of inhibition is not very clear. Other nutrients
affecting nodulation include P,K, Mo, Zn, Fe, Mg,, S, CO, Ca ,Cd, Mu and Cu.
Phosphorus deficiency is a factor that commonly restricts the realization of the
potential of N2 - fixation by legumes. In addition, only 30% of P is available to
the crop if applied as chemical fertilizer due to fixation in soil. Experiments
conducted at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University indicates that dual inoculation
of pulse crop with rhizobia and phosphobacteria is found to enhance 'P' uptake
by plants and consequently giving better nodulation, plants growth and yield in
various pulses crops (Table 7,8,9 and 10).

Table 7. Effect of Combined inoculation of Rhizobium and phosphobacteria

on the available "P" content of soil and "P" uptake in redgram

Treatments Available "P" mg /g soil "P" Uptake

 mg/g plant
Control 6.3 6.2
Rhizobium 7.7 8.1
Super phosphate (S.P) 9.1 11.5
Rock phosphate (R.P) 8.0 9.3
P.S.B. 1+ S.P 9.5 11.8
P.S.B. 2+ S.P 10.0 10.8
P.S.B. 1+ R.P 10.3 9.9
P.S.B. 2 10.0 10.0
P.S.B. 1 + RHI + S.P 10.9 12.9
P.S.B. 2 + RHI + S.P 11.0 11.7
P.S.B. 1+ RHI + R.P 12.3 12.3
P.S.B. 2+ RHI + R.P 12.0 11.6
CD 0.86 0.9

Table 8. Effect of Rhizobium on redgram (CO.5)

Treatments Nodule Nodule Plant Haulms Grain %

No/pl dry wt. dry wt. weight yield increase
mg/pl g.pl t/ha kg / ha overcont
Uninoculated 6.3 10.4 6.1 6.820 192 -
Rhizobium 11.3 13.6 7.6 7.017 194 1.04
(Rhiz)alone
Super phosphate (S.P) 11.0 14.5 8.0 7.233 198 3.12
Rock Phosphate (R.P) 10.0 12.8 8.4 6.953 198 3.12
Phos.1 + S.P 9.0 11.1 9.4 7.960 198 3.12
Phos.2 + S. P 11.7 13.9 9.4 8.187 214 25.50
Phos.1 + R.P 11.0 14.7 10.3 8.850 248 29.10
Phos.1 + R. P 13.3 17.3 9.9 9.510 272 41.60
Phos.1 + Rhiz + S.P 17.3 22.0 11.6 10.623 289 50.50
Phos.2 + Rhiz + S.P 17.7 25.8 11.2 10.537 311 61.90
Phos.1 + Rhiz + R.P 14.7 23.2 12.4 11.540 314 63.50
Phos.1 + Rhiz + R.P 15.7 24.0 12.4 12.123 328 70.80
SE 1.47 1.03 0.30 0.162 9.08
CD(P= 0.05) 4.31 3.07 0.91 0.481 27.08

Phos. 1 - Bacillus megatherium var. phosphoticum

Phos. 2 - Pseudomonas striata

Table 9. Effect of combined inoculation of Rhizobium and phosphobacteria

on the available P content of soil and P uptake in gereengram

Sl.No. Treatments * Available P mg /g soil P uptake mg / g plant

1. Control 6.2 5.9

2. Rhizobium (Rhiz) alone 7.3 6.8
3. Super phosphate (S.P) 8.2 11.3
 4. Rock phosphate (R.P) 8.3 8.6
5. Phos.1 + S.P 9.7 11.6
6. Phos.2 + S.P 9.4 10.6
7. Phos.1 + R.P 10.2 10.8
8. Phos.2 + R.P 10.3 9.6
9. Phos1 + Rhiz + S.P 11.6 13.3
10. Phos.2 + Rhiz + S.P 11.3 12.0
11. Phos.1 + Rhiz + R.P 12.1 11.8
12. Phos.2 + Rhiz.+ R.P 12.4 11.3
C.D 0.92 1.2

* Initial available P content = 15. 75 kg / ha

Phos. 1- Bacillus megatherium var. phosphoticum
Phos. 2 Pseudomonas striata

Table 10. Effect of Rhizobium and prosphobacteria on greengram

Treatment Nodule Nodule Plant Haulms Grain % incr.

No/Pl dry wt. dry wt. yield yield kg over
g/pl t/ha /ha conttrol
Uninoculated 13.3 16.0 1.6 2.292 479 -
Rhizobium (Rhiz) alone 21.0 22.7 2.5 2.534 561 17.1
Super phosphate (S.P) 22.3 15.3 2.3 2.396 516 7.7
Rock phosphate (R.P) 19.3 18.0 1.7 2.430 583 21.7
Phos. 1 + S.P 18.7 15.7 2.3 2.500 625 30.4
Phos. 2 + S. P 20.0 15.0 2.3 2.604 625 30.4
Phos. 1 + R. P 17.3 18.0 2.2 2.882 663 38.4
Phos. 2 + R. P 15.3 14.7 2.5 3.055 625 30.4
Phos. 1 +Rhiz+ S.P 21.0 24.7 2.6 3.021 645 34.6
Phos. 2 +Rhiz+ S.P 16.0 22.0 2.9 2.987 643 34.4
Phos. 1 + Rhiz + R.P 27.7 25.3 3.0 3.403 718 49.8
Phos. 2 + Rhiz + R.P 21.0 28.0 3.2 3.438 704 46.9
SIG NS ** ** ** **
SE 1.74 0.28 0.271
CD (P= 0.0 5.17 0.83 0.796
Among the secondary nutrients, calcium and magnesium play an
important role in legume - Rhizobium symbiosis. Among micronutrients, the
requirement of boron for nodule development is similar to that for growth of
the host. Likewise, for nitrogen fixation Mo and Co are found essential. Above
all, presence of organic matter in soil has favorable influence on the number of
rhizobia, nodulation and nitrogen fixation.

b) Soil biological parameters

Inoculated rhizobia not only must compete for limited nutrients, but
interactions with indigenous heterotrophic microbes and predators reduces the
capacity of inoculated rhizobia to maintain population densities at sufficient
levels to ensure contact with susceptible legume roots. In the rhizosphere soil,
where rhizobia are present in large numbers there is a chance for the build up
of population of rhizobial phages. Negative interaction with them may
influence the establishment of Rhizobium strain. Bdellovibrio, an intracellular
bacterial parasite of Rhizobium is capable of infecting and lysing large
population of rhizobia.

As the above mentioned factors influence the symbiotic activity

location specific rhizobial strains are identified through screening many strains
for each pulse crop. For example, the rhizobial strains CRU -15 and CC1
performed better than others in the field experiments with blackgram and
redgram respectively (Table 12). Therefore these strains are being used for the
mass production of rhizobial inoculant for blackgram and redgram.

Table 11. Testing of blackgram Rhizobium strains for effectivity

Sl.No. Rhizobium strains Grain yield (kg / ha)

1. CRU -7 608
2. CRU-15 635
3. AUBR-17 606
4. AUBR-10 628
5. UPU -11 518
6. UPU-20 506
7. BUR-9528 557
8. BUR-9533 620
9. 20 Kg N/ha 562
10. Uninoculated control 489
CD (5%) 78

Table 12. Testing of redgram Rhizobium strains for effectivity

Rhizobium strains Grain yield (kg / ha)

RA 5 720
DHA 19 730
JARS 70 690
GB 1 743
CC 1 780
 20 kg N/ ha 730
Uninoculated control 620
CD (P=0.05) -40.3

Further, the competition between indigenous microorganisms can be

manipulated. Use of fungicides and antibiotics found to enhance the probability
of rhizobial colonization. Hossain and Alexander (1984) augmented soybean
rhizosphere colonization with Bradyrhizobium japonicum by using benomyl
(a fungicide) and the antibiotics streptomycin and erthromycin. In this aspect,
an antagonistic bacterium isolated from the rhizosphere of pigeonpea on
combined inoculation with Rhizobium found to enhance nodulation and crop
yield (Table 13 ). This antagonistic bacterium inhibits the growth of several
soil bacterial and fungal isolates and not the rhizobia

Table 13. Synergistic effect of dual inoculation of Rhizobium and

antagonistic bacteria on blackgram

Treatment Nodule Nodule dry wt. Grain yield

number / / plant kg / ha
plant
Unioculated control 5.1 8.0 548
Rhizobium 20.0 30.3 670
Rhizobium + Antagonistic 24.2 38.0 728
bacteria
Antagonistic bacterium 9.0 12.0 596

Conclusion

Considerable input of biologically fixed N can be achieved in almost all

agricultural ecosystems through the activity of symbiotic associations.
Strategies are available for pulse crops to manipulate N inputs through
symbiotic nitrogen fixation. This can be achieved by changing the proportion
of plant nitrogen derived from symbiotic nitrogen fixation. Management
practices can be imposed which either increase the numbers of effective
rhizobia in soil, reduce the levels of or legumes sensitivity to soil nitrate or
enhance the potential for legume growth.

For increasing pulse crops yield through biofertilizers, the following

strategy is suggested. Most important constraints to effective exploitation of
symbiotic nitrogen fixation are

• The quality of the inoculants

• Lack of knowledge about inoculation technology for the extension
personnel and the farmers
• Effective inoculant delivery system
• Formulation of the policy to exploit symbiotic nitrogen fixation
successfully

For success of biofertilizers concerted efforts right from production,

demonstration to distribution is required. The next step is convincing and
educating the farmers regarding the benefits of these inoculants.

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 PULSES STRATEGY IN TAMIL NADU

Dr.M.Subramanian*

Pulses are not only the important food grain to supply protein which
forms part of the vegetarian diet, it is also useful in many ways. It is a rich
source of protein and possesses 2-3 times more than that of many other cereals.
The protein composition makes up the deficiency of essential amino acids in
cereals and millets. (Table 1)

Table 1. Nutrient content pulses

Nutrient / Pulses Redgram Blackgram Greengram Bengalgram Soyabean

Moisture (%) 13.4 10.9 10.1 9.9 8.1
Protein (%) 22.3 24.0 24.5 20.8 43.2
Fat (%) 1.7 1.4 1.2 5.6 19.5
Carbohydrates 57.6 59.6 59.9 59.8 20.9
(%)
Minerals (%) 3.5 3.2 3.5 2.7 4.6
Calcium (mg) 73.0 154.0 75.0 56.0 240.0
Phosphorus 304.0 385.0 45.0 331.0 690.0
(mg)
Iron (mg) 5.8 9.1 8.5 1.1 11.5
Total N (%) 3.6 4.2 3.9 3.3 6.9
Calorie value 335.0 347.0 451.0 372.0 432.0
Vitamin ‘A’ 220.0 64.0 83.0 2160.0 710.0
(mg/100 g)

Pulses enrich the soil fertility by fixing atmospheric nitrogen in the root
nodules and improves the soil structure (Asthana and Chaturvedi, 1999). The
tap root system opens the soil into deeper strata and heavy leaf protein increases
the soil organic matter and improves the soil structure. Pulses are ideal crop for
mixed, and intercropping and also serve as nutritious vegetables and fodders.
The seeds of lab lab, peas, pigeon pea and chickpeas are used as green
vegetables while mungbean, urd bean and cowpea are used as green fodders for
cattle.

* Director of Research, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore

 India, the sub continent is growing pulses in about 22.39 million ha with
a production of 14-24 million tones of pulses. This works out to an average
productivity of 1623 kg/ha (1999.) Redgram, blackgram, greengram,
bengalgram, horsegram, lentil, peas and beans, soyabeans and cowpea are some
of the important pulse crops grown in many parts of the country. Andhra
Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan,
Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh are the important States which grow the pulses in
area ranged from 9.2 (Bihar) to 51.11 lakh ha (Madhya Pradesh). (Table 2)

Table 2. State – wise area, output and yield of pulses

State Area (l/ha) Ouput (l/t) Yield (kg/ha)
Andhra Pradesh 16.10 8.38 477
Arun.P. 0.07 0.07 -
Assam 0.98 0.51 520
Bihar 9.10 7.45 671
Goa 0.10 0.08 -
Gujarat 9.20 6.64 721
Haryana 4.20 3.45 823
H.P 0.72 0.11 -
J&K 0.35 0.17 470
Karnataka 17.50 7.22 382
Kerala 0.21 0.15 800
Madhya Pradesh 51.70 35.44 719
Maharashtra 33.30 20.37 613
Meghalaya 0.03 0.03 -
Mizoram 0.04 0.07 -
Nagaland 0.08 0.14 1070
Orissa 8.50 2.26 350
Punjab 1.03 0.80 540
Rajashtan 38.00 18.45 494
Sikkim 0.07 0.06 -
Tamil Nadu 9.50 2.33 430
Tripura 0.07 0.06 924
Uttar Pradesh 28.80 26.25 672
West Bengal 2.30 1.72 -
A & N Islands 0.20 0.01 -
D & N Haveli 0.04 0.03 -
Daman, Diu 0.01 0.01 -
Delhi 0.02 0.02 -
Pondicherry 0.06 0.04 -
All India 223.90 142.44 623
 The average productivity of pulses ranged from 350 (Orissa) to 1070 kg
ha (Nagaland). This productivity is very low when compared to cereals, millets
and oilseeds. The annual production growth of pulses is estimated to be only
0.3% when compared to 2.6% in cereals. The current productivity level of
pulses is very low which could not meet the per capita requirement of pulses ie;
80 gms day as recommended by the FAO/WHO. The current per capita
availability of pulses is below 40 grams.

The requirement of protein in Indian diet has to be met through pulses

especially for the vegetarians. The country will need 30.3 million tons of pulses
by 2020 AD since the population will touch 1350 million by that time. But the
pulses production remains stagnated for about 4 decades it should be increased
through many possible approaches.

The following are the main reasons to low productivity of pulses in

India. (1) Out of 22.39 million ha, about 78% of the area is under rainfed
conditions (2) The soils where the pulse crops are grown are highly low in their
nutrition level (3) unfavourable weather conditions like eratic and uncertain
rainfall, low and high temperature and moisture stress at various crop growth
stages (4) poor soil fertility and moisture retention capacity (5) soil salinity and
alkalinity (6) the protein rich pulses crops are highly susceptible to various
pests and diseases (7) number of storage grain pests cause considerable losses
(8) lack of high yielding pest and disease tolerant pulse varieties (9) farmers
devote poor attention to the pulses cultivation (10) mostly grown as mixed
crop, intercrop, bund crop etc. (11) lack of fine tuned package practices for
pulses cultivation (12) highly susceptible to drought and water logged
conditions (13) poor storability and lack of storage facility and (14) fluctuation
in the weather conditions affect the crop very much.

Rice Fallow Pulses

Pulses are cultivated under irrigated as well as rainfed conditions. They

are cultivated in another unique ecosystem knows as ‘Rice fallow condition’.
In the residual soil moisture in this system, the pulses particularly blackgram
(Urd) and green gram (Mungbean) are broadcast, 7-10 days before the harvest
of paddy crop and allowed to germinate and grow. Since pulses are grown
under paddy stubbles the pulses crops have to survive in the residual moisture
of the soil, besides frost & mist available during the period will also provide all
comforts to grow well and yield with in 65-70 days of sowing. However, yield
recorded in this ecosystem is highly variable mostly and depends on the
management practices followed. The yield ranged from 300-500 kg/ha. This
reduced production obtained from rice fallow pulses are due to
ƒ Very low extent of cultivation
ƒ Sowing is not done at the appropriate time (Jan 15 –Feb 15)
ƒ Use of poor quality seed with low germination (farmers seed)
ƒ Poor seed and poor population
ƒ Prevalence of drought during reproductive stage
ƒ Full of weeds
ƒ Non practice of DAP spraying
ƒ High pest and disease incidence

Besides, blackgram and green gram soyabean was introduced as rice

fallow crop; but this is a highly sensitive crop to high temperature (340C)
particularly at reproductive stage. The soyabean crop develops pods with out
seeds due to high temperature if prevailed during reproductive stage. It has
caused heavy loss to the farmers, which inhibited further promotion of soyabean
area and cultivation in cauvery delta zone of Tamil Nadu.

Rice fallow area is a potential one, therefore careful and appropriate

management of pulse crops will increase the yield. There is every possibility to
expand the area of rice fallow with the pulses.

Like Rice, Cereals, Oilseeds, Millets etc., research outcome for the
benefit of increasing yield in pulses is not much. Particularly biotechnological
approach to get pulses resistant to biotic and abiotic stresses coupled with high
yield is very minimum. However, if the following recommendations are
followed the pulses production can be increased.

USE OF NEW HIGH YIELDING VARIETIES AND HYBRIDS

Redgram (Arhar, Tur, Pigeon pea) (Cajanus cajan)

It is an important pulse crop grown throughout India and gives better

yield. Research done over the years has resulted in the release of hybrid pigeon
peas ICPH8, PPH 4, CO H 1, COPH2 and AKPH 4101. Besides, long duration
(180-200 days) redgram has been reduced in their maturity period and early
maturing redgram varieties in 90-100 days viz APK1 and Vamban1 were
developed in Tamil Nadu. These can be raised as pure crop as well as inter and
mixed crop with cereals/millets/oilseeds and harvested in a shorter period. The
are also suitable for multiple cropping Besides, the longer duration redgram
varieties like SA1 & Vamban 2 as Perannial redgram BSR 1 can be raised as
intercrop and bund crop to boost productivity.

Blackgram (Urd) (Phaseolus aureus)

 Very commonly cultivated pulse crop in India as well as in Tamil Nadu.
It suffers from heavy incidence of mungbean yellow mosaic virus transmitted
by a white fly (Bemisia tabaci) However, resistant varieties like Vamban 1,
Vamban 2 and Vamban 3 blackgram varieties have been released for
cultivation. It can also be raised as inter as well as mixed crop with cereals /
millets / oilseeds. It also suits for bund cropping.

Greengram (Mungbean) (Phaseolus mungo)

It is yet another highly nutritious pulse crop popularly cultivated in

India. Tamil Nadu is also having considerable area under this pulse. It also
suffers from MYMV disease however newly released varieties like CO 6,
Paiyur 1 and Vamban 1 are tolerant to this disease. This crop can be also raised
as inter and mixed crop with cereals/millets/oilseeds and raised as bund crop.

A new variety known as ‘Pusa bold’, was recently introduced from

AVRDC, Taiwan which possesses bold seeds without any hard seeds and
matures in 50-55 days. It gives about 500 kg of yield /ha.

Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) CO1 and Paiyur 1, Horsegram

(Macrotyloma uniflorum) CO4, CO 6 Vamban 1, Vamban 2, CO2 and
Unguiculata sp; Paiyur 2 Bengal gram (Chick pea) (Cicer arietinum) CO3,
CO4 and Soyabean (Glycine max) CO1 and CO2 are other pulses crops
cultivated in considerable area in Tamil Nadu as well as in India.

Rice fallow pulses

1. Blackgram - ADT 3 and ADT 4 (65 –70 days) 750-1000 kg/ha

2. Greengram - ADT 3 (75 days) 850 kg/ha
3. Soyabean - ADT 1 (85 days) 12750 kg/ha.
RESISTANT PULSE CROPS (Chandra, 1991)

Crop varieties Resistant to

Redgram

BDN1, BDN 2 and Maruthi (KP 8863) wilt

Bahar, CO 5, Vamban 2 COPH 2 and APK1 sterility mosaic
WB 20 & DA9 Alternaria blight
CO 5 Root rot and mod
Resistant to pod fly
Chick Pea (gram)

CO 3, CO 4, Pusa 212, JG 315 Avrodhi BG 244 wilt

and ICC 32
H355 Root rot

Blackgram (urd)

CO 5 Moderately resistant
Vamban, 1, Vamban 2, Vamban 3, to powdery mildew
Pant U 19, Pant U 30, UG 18and PDU 1 Yellow mosaic
ADT 3 Leaf Crinkle

Greengram (Mung bean)

CO6, ML 267, ML 337, Pant mung 2 Yellow mosaic

Pant mung 1, and Pant mung 3 Yellow mosaic 2
macrophomina
CO4 Tip blight &
root rot

Management practices

Optimum population stand should be maintained for all pulses (33

no/m ) except redgram, which needs 11 no/m2.
2

Seed hardening for drought management and use of specific Rhizobium

(600 gr/ha) seed treatment for all pulses are highly essential.
 Phosphobacteria (600 g / ha) seed treatment for all pulses to increase ‘P’
use efficiency. Application of Trichoderma viridi (4g/kg of seed) as seed
treatment to control diseases like welt and nematode.

Application of sulphur through gypsum at 40 kg/ha increases the yield

in ‘S’ deficient soil. Integrated weed management is very essential to avoid the
competition of weeds with pulse crops and increase the yield.

Rice fallow Pulses

1. Use of improved varieties like ADT 3 & ADT 4 blackgram and ADT 3
greengram
2. Sowing / broadcasting of pulses between January 15 and February 15th
3. Use of quality picked seeds to maintain the required population
4. Foliar spray (2% DAP) twice.

Population maintenance

This is one of important criteria by which yield is affected very much.

The population ie; 33 no/m2 is fixed as an optimum population for getting
higher yield at the seed rate of 20 kg/ha, but generally the population is not
maintained due to various reasons. So to maintain the population, about 1-2 kgs
of Blackgram / greengram seeds are soaked and allowed to sprout previous day
after the harvest of paddy, the sprouted seeds are sown wherever gaps and
patches are seen.

Foliar spray

Supplementary foliar spray of 250 liters of solution / ha with the

following chemical will boost the yield of pulses.

Chemicals Blackgram Greengram

Urea 7.5kg 7.5-10 kg
DAP 1.95kg 1.9-2.6 kg
Muriak of potash 1.31 kg 1.31 – 1.75kg
Potassium sulphet 1.05 kg 50 g
Succmic acid 40 g 50 g
Teepal 125 ml 125 ml
First spray 25 DAS 25 DAS
Second spray 40 DAS 40 DAS
Preconditioning

The gunny bags are first soaked in water than excess water is removed
by squeezing. The pulse seeds are spread to a depth of 1-2 cm on the gunny bag
and covered with another moist gunny bag.

The preconditional seeds are then soaked in aqueous botanical leaf

extracts of prosopis and pungam using 1% solution each mixed with 1:1 ratio.
To prepare 1 litre of botanical extract 10 grams in each of prosopis and pungam
forest leaves are macerated in to paste separately and both put in to water and
made up the volume to 1 lit.

Soak the preconditioned seeds in this prepared solution using 1:0.3 ratio
i.e 1 kg of seeds in 300 ml of leaf extract gently stir the seeds occasionally to
have uniform absorption. After 1 hour, drain the solution and dry the seeds in
the shade.

Invigouration

Following seed hardening the seeds are treated with halogen formulation
at 3g kg-1 of seed (5 parts of pure bleaching powder : 4 parts of finally
powdered chalk powder : 1 part of arappu leaf powder mixed). This treatment
should be given to the seeds at the time of drying.

Future thrust

ƒ Development of plant types responsive to high inputs

ƒ Development of early maturing location specific pulse varieties suitable
for multiple cropping
ƒ Development of pigeonpea hybrids and efficient hybrid seed production
technologies
ƒ Application of biotechnological tool to overcome the problem on
resistant breeding particularly YMV, SMD etc., and yield stability
ƒ Development of some clones, transgenic plants marker assisted selection
should be given priority.
ƒ New source of CMS lines are to be identified through intergeneric
crosses.
ƒ Evaluation and maintenance of germ plasm
ƒ Strengthening basic research on physiological and nutritional aspects for
increasing photosynthetic efficiencies
ƒ Development of pulse varieties tolerant to various abiotic stresses (High
and low temp, drought and salt stress alkalinity and excessive moisture
etc)
ƒ Development of integrated pest and disease management practices
ƒ Strengthening the post harvest Tech.research
ƒ Efficient and effective extension methods through on farm testing and
front line demonstration for the improved varieties and technologies
ƒ Standardisation of quality seed production
ƒ Increasing the storage ability and storage facility
ƒ Well defined location specific package of practices need to be developed
for
i) Seed rate and seed treatment
ii) Population maintenance
iii) Foliar spray
iv) Irrigation schedule and methods
v) Use of biofertilizers like Rhizobium etc.,
vi) Effective but cost effective INM.

References

Asthana, A.N. and S.K. Chaturdevi, 1999. A little impetus needed. The Hindu
survey of Indian Agriculture, 1999 p.61-65.

Chandra, S. 1991. Poised for a break through the Hindu survey of Indian
Agriculture, 1991 p.73-79.
 PROBLEMS AND PERSPECTIVES OF CULTIVATION OF
PULSES AND PROSPECTS OF SUMMER IRRIGATED
PULSES IN TAMIL NADU

Dr.C.Surendran1 and Dr.AR.Muthiah2

A wide array of pulses is cultivated in India including Bengalgram,

Redgram, Greengram, Blackgram and lentil besides some minor pulses viz.,
Moth bean, Cowpea etc. The cultivation of grain legumes provides cheapest
source of plant protein. Although the production of pulses has increased to
some extent since independence the per capita availability has declined
substantially. It implies that the increase in production has not kept pace with
the growing population. The per capita availability of pulses has gone down
from 60-70g in 1950-51 to 42.00 g in 1996-97. The per capita availabiling of
total food grains has, however, gone up from 349.90g in 1950-51 to 560.00 g in
1996-97. Hence the total food grains availability has gone up mainly due to the
increased production of cereals. This has resulted in cereal - pulse imbalance in
the diet.

While the world health organisation recommends 80 g as a per capita

consumption of pulses per day and the Indian Council of Medical Research has
recommends a minimum consumption of 47g/day. The actual consumption in
India, however is much less i.e., around 30-35 g per capita per day.

Status of pulses in Tamil Nadu

The total area under pulses in Tamil Nadu fluctuated from 4.93 (1982-
1983) to 9.61 lakh hectares (1995-96) in the last two decades and the average
area is around 7.0 lakh hectares. The productivity of all the pulses put together
in the state raised from 322 (1979-80) to 492 kg/ha (1994-95) in the last two
decades and the average productivity is around 410 kg/ha.

1. Director, Centre for Plant Breeding and Genetics, TNAU, Coimbatore

2. Professor and Head, Pulses, TNAU, Coimbatore

Redgram (Cajanus cajan)

 The area of under pigeonpea in the state fluctuated from 0.60 (1980-81)
to 1.66 lakh hectares (1995-96) in the last two decades and the average area
under pigeonpea is around 1.07 lakh hectares. The productivity of pigeonpea
varied from 452 (1993-94) and 979 kg/ha (1986-87) in the last two decades and
the average productivity of pigeonpea is around 671 Kg/ha.

Blackgram (Vigna mungo)

The area under blackgram in the state varied from 1.19 (1982-83) to
3.40 lakh ha (1995-96) in the last two decades and the average area is around
2.53 lakh hectares. The productivity of blackgram was between 209 (1983-84)
and 523 kg/ha (1994-95) in the last two decades and the average productivity is
around 406 kg/ha.

Greengram (Vigna radiata)

The area under greengram in the state fluctuated from 0.19 (1982-83) to
1.63 lakh hectares (1996-97) in the last two decades and the average area under
mungbean is around 0.88 lakh hectares. The productivity also varied from 181
(1983-84) to 480 kg/ha (1996-97) in the last two decades and the average
productivity is around 394 kg/ha.

Horsegram (Macrotyloma uniflorum)

The area under horsegram fluctuated in the state from 1.95 lakh ha
(1979-80) to 1.03 lakh ha (1988-89) in the last two decades and the average
area is around 1.38 lakh hectares. The productivity was between 233 (1979-
80) and 497 kg/ha (1993-94) in the last two decades and the average
productivity is around 398 kg/ha.

Bengalgram (Cicer arietinum)

The area under bengalgram in the state fluctuated from 0.04 (1995-96)
to 0.10 lakh ha (1994-95) in the last two decades and the average area is around
0.08 lakh hectares. The productivity varied from 527 (1996-97) to 714 kg/ha
(1988-89) and the average productivity is around 628 kg/ha in the last two
decades.

Other pulses (Cowpea, Garden lablab, field lablab, French bean, Peas etc.)
 The area under other pulses fluctuated from 0.65 (1979-80) to 3.02 lakh
ha (1986-87) in the last two decades and the average area is around 1.62 lakh
hectares. The productivity was between 162 (1995-96) and 362 kg/ha (1982-
83) in the last two decades and the average productivity is around 231 kg/ha.

General constraints to pulse production in the state

ƒ Redgram, blackgram and greengram are mostly grown as rainfed crop,

that too as a mixed crop / border crop / intercrop.
ƒ Susceptibility of pigeonpea to pod borer Helicoverpa armigera and to
the diseases like wilt and sterility mosaic.
ƒ Indeterminate tall growth of pigeonpea makes the plant protection difficult.
ƒ Sowing of blackgram and greengram under rice fallow conditions if
delayed beyond February, 15th, there is drastic reduction in the
productivity in rice fallow pulses.
ƒ Poor plant stand and terminal moisture stress are the two major
constraints for rice fallow pulses viz., blackgram and greengram in
Tamil Nadu and the normal area under rice fallow blackgram is around
1.75 lakh ha and greengram is around 0.5 lakh ha in the state.
ƒ Greengram and blackgram are susceptible to mungbean Yellow Mosaic
Virus (MYMV), besides they are susceptible to powdery mildew,
cercospora leaf spot and to leaf curl virus.
ƒ Adequate population of blackgram and greengram could not be
maintained under rice fallow conditions especially due to improper
levelling.
ƒ Susceptibility of bengalgram to root rot wilt as well as to the pod borer
Helicoverpa armigera
ƒ Pulses in general do not withstand, heavy rains in October - November
and prolonged drought in July - August.
ƒ Lack of fertilizer responsive varieties in pulses
ƒ Use of poor quality seeds and non availability of quality seeds in time.
Seed Production in pulses is mostly taken up by TNAU and State
Agricultural Departments and Private seed Companies are not taking up
seed production in pulses.
ƒ Unremunarative and unstable prices for pulses
ƒ Inadequate technology transfer to farming community.
ƒ High sensitivity of pulses towards environmental flucluations
Specific problems in pulses

Cropwise and zone wise problems are listed below to enable the
scientists to develop suitable technologies for different crops and different
locations to enhance pulse production.
A. Redgram

ƒ Mainly raised as rainfed agriculture with moisture strees due to low

precipitation
ƒ Raised as intercrop in marginal and submarginal lands.
ƒ High risk factor as a rainfed crop prohibits the increase in area.
ƒ Susceptibility to diseases like wilt, sterility mosaic etc.
ƒ Susceptibility to pests like pod borer, podfly etc.
ƒ Indeterminate tall stature of cultivars makes plant protecion difficult

B. Greengram

ƒ Uncertainity in time of sowing of rice fallow crop. Sowing after the

harvest of paddy depends on release of water in Cauvery. If the sowing
is delayed for greengram beyond February 15 the yield per day is
reduced
ƒ Plant stand in rice fallow condition is not optimum
ƒ As a rainfed crop during kharif and rabi , crop yields are uncertain and
depend on unpredictable precipitation
ƒ High risk factor is susceptibility to YMV, powdery mildew, Cercospora
leaf spot and leaf curl and stemfly.

C. Blackgram

ƒ Uncertainity in time of sowing in rice fallows as sowing depends on the

paddy sowing which in turn depends on release of water in Cauvery
ƒ Optimum plant population in rice fallows can not be maintained
ƒ Yellow mosaic, powdery mildew and Cercospora leaf spot and
ƒ Stemfly and spodoptera menace.

D. Bengalgram
ƒ Root rot and wilt
ƒ Heliothis pod borer
ƒ Uncertain winter - need for early maturing varieties
PULSES PRODUCTION CONSTRAINTS ZONE WISE

I. North eastern zone (Thiruvallur, Kancheepuram, Vellore,

Thiruvannamalai and Cuddalore districts)

ƒ Mostly sown as rainfed crop

ƒ Mostly as mixed, inter and border crop
ƒ Susceptibility to YMV, pests and diseases
ƒ Pulses dot not withstand heavy rain in October - November and
prolonged drought in July - August
ƒ Heliothis on redgram
ƒ Powdery mildew, Cercospora, rust, wilt and leaf spot

II. Cauvery delta zone (Thanjavur, Nagapattinam, Tiruvarur, Trichy,

Cuddalore districts)

ƒ Damage by cyclones and floods

ƒ YMV, powdery mildew, leaf spot in blackgram and greengram
ƒ Plant stand and terminal moisture stress

III. North western zone (Dharmapuri, Salem districts)

ƒ Mostly as rainfed crop

ƒ Mostly as mixed or inter crop
ƒ Horsegram grown in vast area during rabi (September - October)
ƒ Lack of fertiliser responsive varieties and genetic variability
ƒ Poor adoption of available technical knowledge

IV. Central zone (Trichy and Pudukkottai districts)

ƒ Mostly as a mixed crop with sorghum or bajra

ƒ Disease like YMV, powdery mildew
ƒ Pests like Heliothis, pod borer etc.

V. Western zone (Coimbatore and Erode districts)

ƒ Pulses are grown under rainfed condition

ƒ Pulses are grown as a mixed crop and border crop
ƒ Lack of fertiliser responsiveness
ƒ Susceptibility to YMV and powdery mildew
ƒ Heavy incidence of Heliothis and pod borer
ƒ Failure to adopt package of practices

VI. Southern zone (Madurai, Ramnad, Sivagangai, Virudhunagar and

Tirunelveli districts)

ƒ Lesser area coverage by certified seeds

ƒ Less use of bio-fertilizers
ƒ Mostly as a rainfed crop
ƒ Poor adoption of technical knowledge
ƒ Pulses are grown with less attention
Technologies to over come constraints

In redgram, Vamban 1 is to be replaced by Aruppukottai 1 (APK 1)

which is resistant to sterility mosaic disease. It is a short duration redgram and
as an irrigated summer crop has a very good potential of yielding 1000-1200
Kg/ha. In 120-130 days maturity group CO 5 redgram can be grown in all
districts of the state.

In 180 days group, Vamban 2 redgram to replace SA 1 and CO 6. It is

resistant to sterility mosaic disease and gives an average yield of 1050 kg/ha.
CO 6 redgram being tolerant to pod borer, it can be continued in areas where
pod borer menace is a regular future.

COPH 2 , a hybrid redgram, maturing in 120-130 days is suitable for the

June-July, September-October and January - February sowings with an average
yield potential of 1050 Kg/ha.

Bund cropping

BSR 1 redgram - perennial redgram can be kept for more than two years
by ratooning. BSR 1 recommended for Kitchen garden, backyards, farm road
sides etc. The average seed yield of 750g to one Kg per plant.

IPM technologies for pod borer control

ƒ Grow varieties which are tolerant to pod borer

ƒ Use of pheromone traps to monitor emergence of adults
ƒ Use of NPV (500 larval equivalent per ha)
ƒ Spraying Neem seed kernel extract
ƒ If larvae stage is in the third instar start spraying endosulfan 35EC. 1.25
lit per hectare
ƒ NSKE 5%, Neem oil 2% and phasalone 0.07% are effective in the
ƒ management of pest complex and for higher yield
ƒ Mechanical removal of late stage larvae

Use of appropriate bacterial cultures

There is ample scope for increasing the average yield by way of using
appropriate rhizobium cultures. These cultures not only increase yield but also
upgrade fertility status of the soil. At TNAU the following newer strains were
introduced for specific crop.
 Rhizobium Yield increase (%) Crop
COG 15 30 Greengram
COC 10 23 Blackgram
CC 1 12-60 Redgram
COBe 13 25-30 Bengalgram
COC 10 35 Cowpea

Blackgram and Greengram

Mungbean yellow mosaic virus (MYMV) is the major constraint.

Vamban 3 blackgram which is resistant to yellow mosaic virus disease

and capable of giving an average yield of 775 Kg/ha and 825 Kg/ha under
rainfed and irrigated conditions respectively. It can be cultivated throughout
Tamil Nadu in the place of TMV 1, T9, Vamban 1 and Vamban 2.

CO 6 greengram which matures in 65-70 days is resistant to yellow

mosaic virus and gives an average yield of 982 Kg/ha. It can replace KM 2
greengram.

Rice fallow pulses Management

1. Use of higher seed rate to maintain adequate population

2. Foliar application of 2% DAP twice one at flowering and another 15

days after flowering results in increased yield due to well developed
seeds.
3. Foliar spraying of 0.5 per cent potassium chloride during flowering will
not allow yield loss due to water stress

Under cold season pulses, horsegram and bengalgram play an important

role in adding to the pulse production in the State. CO 1, Paiyur 1 and Paiyur 2
horsegram varieties with in 100-110 days duration and capable of giving an
average yield of 600-900 Kg/ha under rainfed conditions can also be used as
fodder pulses.

Other pulses

There are several legumes notably winged bean and ricebean hold great
promise. Both are rich sources of protein. Their protein quality is on par with
the commonly grown pulses. For example, the mean protein content of the
winged bean is about 34.2 per cent. It also contains 16-18 per cent fat in
addition to appreciable quantity of iron and calcium. All parts of winged bean
are edible. Therefore these legumes can also be cultivated to alleviate
malnutrition and hunger.

Less known pulses like limabean, swordbean, dewgram etc. can also be
popularised.

Broadening genetic base

The experience of plant breeders reveal that the genetic bases of pulses
are very narrow i.e the genetic variability is limited. Genetic base can be
broadened by extensive exploration and collection of germplasm of economic
as well as related wild species.

Summer irrigated pulses

The wide spread of north east monsoon in Tamil Nadu state, will lering
a comfortable storage of water in all reservoirs and tanks, improve soil moisture
and ground water availability. There is possibility of increasing the area under
irrigated pulses dueing this period. Monocrop concept is necessary in tank fed
areas and rice follows. The production of pulses can be improved, if thay are
judiciously introduced in cropping systems, thereby they share the advantage of
fertile lands, irrigation and other inputs.

The demand for more pulse production necessitated the strengthening of

crop improvement, to get increased output per unit area and creating new
genotypes for production in non traditional areas. This can be achieved by
combining genetic and agronomic improvement. The recent achievement in
genetic and agronomic improvement of pulse i.e. the development of short
duration pigeonpea (Redgram) can be quoted as an example. Simlarly in
blackgram and greengram MYMV resistant genotypes with early duration, and
well suited to summer irrigated situations have also been developed. Hybrid
redgram can be grown under summer irrigated situations in districts like Erode,
Coimbatore, Salem, Madurai and in other potential districts.

The following are the varieties best suited for summer irrigated situation
in different pulse crops.

Blackgram : ADT 5, TMV 1 and CO 5

Redgram : Vamban 1, Aruppukkottai 1 (APK 1) and COPH 2 hybrid
Greengram : CO 6 and KM 2
Soyabean : CO 1 and CO 2
Cowpea : CO 2 (Vegetable) CO 4 and CO 6 (grain types)
 Cultivation of blackgram as summer crop can be tried in the potential
areas like Salem, Tirunelveli, Trichy, Kancheepuram, Thiruvallur, Dindigul,
Madurai, Thoothukudi, Dharmapuri, Erode and Coimbatore Districts. The
greengram is having a chance of giving high productivity in districts like Salem,
Dindigul, Tirunelveli, Coimbatore, Erode, Thiruvallur, Kancheepuram and
Thoothukudi Districts.

Soyabean

It may be grown as a pure crop during February - March with CO 1 and

CO 2 varieties in all districts except Kanyakumari and Nilgiris.

Cowpea

It is a cosmopoliton pulse can be raised as a sole crop during February -

March in the districts like Salem, Coimbatore, Erode, Madurai, Trichy and
Tirunelveli with Vamban 2 and CO2 (vegetable) and CO 4 and CO 6 varieties
(grain types).

Particulars of varieties of different pulse crops that can be grown during

summer in Tamil Nadu.

S.No. Variety Year of Duration Yield Kg/ha

release (days) (irrigated)
Redgram
1 Vamban 1 1992 95-100 1200
2 Aruppukkottai 1 1999 95-105 1250
(APK 1)
3 COPH 2 (Hybrid) 1997 120-130 1350
Blackgram
4 CO 5 1981 70-75 1250
5 TMV 1 1979 65-70 1200
6 ADT 5 1988 70-75 1550
Greengram
7 CO 6 1999 65-70 1300
8 KM 2 1978 65-70 1150
Cowpea
9 CO 4 1983 85 1570
10 CO 6 1993 70 1500
11 CO 2 1972 90 11 tons green pods
12 Vamban 2 1998 85 10.6 tons green pods
Soybean
12 CO 1 1980 85 1600
13 CO 2 1995 75-80 1350
 RECENT MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES FOR RICE
FALLOW PULSES

Dr.S. Ramanathan*

Food is complete and balanced only when pulses, the basic ingredients
are included. Pulses are the major sources for the protein. According to
FAO/WHO’s recommendation every individual needs 85 grams of pulses/day to
meet the protein requirement but at present per capita availability of pulses is
only 40 grams/day in India. This situation warrants to produce 3 fold increase as
that of the current pulse production even to meet the minimum need.

Pulses are cultivated in about 226 lakh hectares in India with production
of 121 lakh metric tonnes build up from an average productivity of 534 kg/ha.
The per hectare productivity of pulses in India is very low when compared to
the average productivity of 1494 and 637 kg/ha in other developed and
developing countries respectively, as well as the global average pulse
productivity of 797 kg/ha.

The important pulse crops grown in Tamil Nadu are redgram,

blackgram, greengram, soybean, cowpea, bengalgram lal lab and horsegram.
They are cultivated in about 8.2 lakhs hectares with the production of 3.7 lakhs
metric tonnes. The average productivity of pulses in Tamil Nadu is about 449
kg/ha, which is very low when compared to Indian average of 534 kg/ha as well
as other pulses producing states like, Haryana (936 kg/ha), Madhyapradesh (739
kg/ha), Uttarpradesh (795 kg/ha), Gujarat (572 kg/ha) etc. The low productivity
of pulses is attributed to reasons as detailed below :

1. Lack of high yielding varieties

2. Pulses are given secondary importance due to their low productivity
3. Mostly cultivated as mixed, inter or border crop
4. Cultivated in marginal lands and grown as rainfed crops
5. Very minimum management
6. Pulses are not able to with stand prolonged drought/water stagnation
7. Susceptible to pests and diseases
8. Poor keeping quality
9. Lack of storage facilities

* Director, Tamil Nadu Rice Research Institute, Aduthurai

 Recently protein famine is threatening the developing and under
developed countries. To meet its requirement pulses, the rich protein crops need
to be improved. Tamil Nadu ranks 10th in terms of area and 11th in terms of
production at All India level. Current estimated (1998-99) total production of
pulses in Tamil Nadu is 3.52 lakh metric tonnes. Since the annual requirement
of pulses for our state is 11 lakh tonnes, the balance is being met form the
neighbouring states. While such is the present scenario, the area under pulses
should be increased with high yielding varieties, in order to obtain self
sufficiency in pulse production.

It is evident that the area under pulses has been increased during the
period and productivity has also been increased form 322 kg/ha (1979-80) to
490 kg/ha (1996-97) (Table 1). The increase in productivity is attributed to the
combined effect of improved crop varieties with efficient crop management
practices.

Table 1. Total area, production and productivity of pulses in Tamil Nadu.

Years Area in L.ha Production L.M.T. Productivity Kg/ha

1979-80 6.06 1.95 322
1980-81 5.44 1.76 324
1981-82 5.58 1.89 337
1982-83 4.93 1.89 383
1983-84 6.03 2.22 367
1984-85 6.18 2.49 403
1985-86 5.82 2.75 473
1986-87 6.89 3.12 453
1987-88 6.35 2.83 451
1988-89 6.25 2.48 397
1989-90 8.21 3.34 407
1990-91 8.47 3.59 424
1991-92 7.76 3.51 453
1992-93 7.39 3.43 464
1993-94 6.90 2.76 401
1994-95 6.91 3.40 492
1995-96 9.61 3.59 374
1996-97 9.53 4.10 430
1997-98 8.05* 3.40 422*
1998-99 8.14* 3.52 432*
* Estimated
Area production and productivity of major pulses in Tamil Nadu

Among the different pulse crops grown blackgram occupies the major
area followed by greengram and redgram (Table 2). By adopting improved
method of technologies like improved variety, optimum time of sowing, plant
population, suitable rhizobial inoculation, fertilizer application, timely weed
management practices, need based plant protection measures coupled with
proper irrigation schedule would definitely increased the yield of pulses.

Table 2. Area, Production and Productivity of pulses in Tamil Nadu

Crops Area L.Ha Production L.MT Productivity Kg/ha

Blackgram 3.67 1.43 390
Greengram 1.63 0.78 480
Redgram 1.41 1.22 864
Horsegram 1.23 0.54 431
Bengalgram 0.09 0.05 625
Other pulses 1.50 0.25 164

Rice fallow pulses

Pulses are also cultivated under rice fallow conditions in about 2.6 lakh
hectares in Tamil Nadu which is 30.75% of the total area under pulses in this
state. Rice fallow pulses contribute about 40.5% of the total pulse production.
The rice fallow pulses are cultivated in Trichirapalli (0.3 lakhs ha), Thanjavur
(0.52 lakh ha), Nagapattinam (0.7 lakh ha), Vilupuram (0.48 lakh ha),
Tirunelveli (0.18 lakh ha) and Tuticorin (0.36 lakh ha).

The success of rice fallow crop is depending upon many factors.

However, average per hectare productivity of rice fallow pulses ranged from
300-500 kg/ha during favourable years but if soil moisture is inadequate, the
yield will be drastically pulled down to 100 kg/ha. The following are the causes
identified for the low productivity in rice fallow pulses.

01. Low area coverage

02. Use of poor quality seeds due to (farmers own seed) non availability of
quality seeds
03. Sowing is not done at correct time due to late release of water/ non
availability of irrigation water for rice
04. Poor germination of seeds
05. Water stress at flowering stage
06. Non adoption of DAP spraying
07. Excessive weed growth
08. Pests and disease problems
09. Sub optimal seed rate/inadequate population
10. Storage problem
11. Cattle grazing
12. Poor marketing

Therefore the current rice fallow pulses cultivation strategy needs to be

reviewed critically to overcome the constraints and get higher yield. It is a
potential area where considerable hectares of land are under pulses cultivation.
A minimum of even 10 per cent yield increase will boost the pulses production
considerably form rice fallow pulses.

The following are suggestions to boost the pulse productivity and

production in Tamil Nadu.

I. Strengthening research on rice fallow pulses

a) Breeding

i) Maintenance and evaluation of germplasm

ii) Identification of resistant genes for YMV and crinkle virus diseases
iii) Intensifying inter varietal and inter specific hybridization programme
iv) Introduction of biotechnology approach
v) Identification varieties to suit rice fallow condition (includes short
duration soyabean)
vi) Augmenting the quality seed production

b. Management

i) Technology for population maintenance

ii) Optimum seed rate and plant stand
iii) Time and method of sowing
iv) Use of organic inorganic and bio-fertilizers
v) Fertilizer management and application
vi) Micronutrient management
vii) Foliar spraying of nutrients/anti transparents/growth regulators
viii) Residual and fertility analysis after pulses harvest
ix) Cropping pattern – Pulses can be introduced as inter crop in rice fallow
cotton / maize / vegetables

c. Protection
i) Screening varieties against pest and diseases;
Particularly for yellow mosaic virus and its vector Bemisia tabaci, pod
borer and pod fly
ii) Development of integrated insect pest and disease management
iii) Intensification of research on storage pests

d. Seed Technology

i) Fixing norms for quality seeds

ii) Identification of places for quality seed production
iii) Seed hardening
iv) Quality seed production techniques
v) storage studies
vi) Seed viability in soyabean
II. Exploring the possibilities of extending rice fallow pulses in other
districts
III. Strengthening the seed production by identifying suitable places
IV. Well defined marketing facilities
V. Good storage facilities for keeping the pulse seeds without loosing their
viability and protection against insect attack.

Rice fallow pulses production techniques

In Tamil Nadu rice is being cultivated in an area of 21 lakh hectares

either as single or double crop. After the harvest of the rice crop during the
month of January, much of the area is left as fallow. However in the districts of
Tanjore, Nagapattinam, Thiruvarur, Trichy, Pudukkottai, Cuddalore,
Villupuram, Thirunelveli and Thoothukudi. Pulses viz., blackgram, greengram,
soybean are being cultivated under rice fallow situations. Rice fallow pulses are
grown utilizing the residual moisture and also the moisture obtained from dew
late in the season. The productivity of rice fallow pulses is low due to various
reasons already indicated above. The productivity could be enhanced by
following improved production techniques including the use of high yielding
varieties.

Varietal improvement

Varietal improvement programmes are to be continued to breed high

yielding and short duration varieties, taking into consideration the residual
moisture and quantum of moisture obtained from dew. The local varieties which
were in cultivation are of long duration in nature with excess vegetative growth
and ultimately yielding less. Varietal improvement works in rice fallow pulses
at TRRI, Aduthurai and TNAU, Coimbatore resulted in the release of high
yielding varieties suitable for rice fallow situation.

Blackgram

ADT 1 : Released in 1965 pureline selection form Aduthurai local, Duration

70-75 days, attains 50% flowerings 30-35 DAS yield 650 kg/ha.
ADT 2 : Released in 1979, Duration 70-75 days; yield 600 kg/ha; 50%
flowering 30-35 DAS.
ADT 3 : Released in 1981; Duration 72-75 days, yield 750 kg/ha, Medium
height and branches in the lower part of the plant. Also suitable for bund
cropping.
ADT 4 : Released in 1987; Duration 65-70 days, yield 100 kg/ha also suitable
for bund cropping. Resistant to root rot, yellow mosaic virus and stemfly
capable of yielding even under late sown condition.

Greengram

ADT 1 : Released in 1996; Duration 80 days, yield 500 kg/ha.

ADT 2 : Released in 1982; Duration 70-75 days, growing upto 35 cm height,
attain 50% flowering 50 DAS, yield 700 kg/ha. Resistant to powdery mildew
disease.
ADT 3 : Released in 1988; Duration 65 days, yield 1000-1200 kg/ha.. Resistant
to stemfly and yellow mosaic disease.

Soybean

ADT 1 : Released in 1990, 85-90 days duration, protein 30%, oil content 29%
yield 1270 kg/ha, field resistant to major pest and disease.
CO 1 : Released in 1985, rainfed as well as irrigated condition, duration 85
days, yield 1800 kg/ha (rainfed), 1640 kg/ha (irrigated). Suitable for rice fallow
situation also, high temperature during flowering grain filling is affected.
CO 2 : Duration 75 days, Released in 1996; yield 1340 kg/ha, non dehesive
pods at maturity, oil content 24.8 also suitable for rice fallow situation.

To realise higher yield from rice fallow pulses the correct time of
sowing is very important. Sowing the rice fallow pulses form January 15th to
February 15th (Thaipattam) will give higher yield. The result of the time of
sowing experiment in blackgram is furnished in Table 3. Sowing the pulses at
appropriate time under rice fallow situation will enable the crop to utilize the
residual fertility and moisture properly. Delayed sowing will expose the crop to
drought at later period due to depletion of residual soil moisture. The main
reasons attributed to low yields in late sowings are high temperature prevailing
in the growth and flowering phases.

Table 3. Seed yield of blackgram (kg/ha) at different dates of sowing 1998

Date of sowing Yield

January II fortnight 739
February I fortnight 702
February II fortnight 409
March I fortnight 362
March II fortnight 262
CD 32

Seed rate

Optimum plant population is the basis for higher yield (optimum seed
rate of 25 kg/ha is adopted). The gaps are to be filled with pre sprouted seeds to
maintain optimum population.

Seed treatment

To prevent the spread of seed borne diseases, pre seed treatment with
fungicide / biocontrol agent is to be resorted to Bevistin 2 g/kg of seed or
Trichoderma viride 4 gm/kg of seed.

A study was conducted at Aduthurai for three years to compare the

effect of soaking seeds in chemical solution. The seeds were soaked in water for
2 hours and than in chemical solution for 2 hours. The seeds were dried in shade
before sowing. The results indicated that soaking seeds in 8% MnSO4 solution
gave consistantly higher yields in all three years (Table 4).

Table 4. Effect of pre soaking of pulse seeds in chemical solutions

Grain yield (kg/ha)
Treatment Blackgram Greengram
1979 1980 1981 1979 1980 1981
MnSo4 8% 268 413 286 213 247 285
KCL 1 2% 128 201 139 199 207 165
FeSO4 4% 222 253 228 89 93 110
ZnSO4 8% 182 265 186 178 103 215
CuSO4 0.4% 161 250 213 63 103 130
K2SO4 2% 228 273 128 93 117 203
Water soaking 196 217 178 161 190 149
Unsoaked control 151 173 172 125 159 181
CD (P=0.05) 50 82 66 53 14 81

Pelleting of seeds with Super Phosphate, Rhizobial culture and plant

protection chemicals has been reported to improve establishment, nodulation
and grain yield in trials conducted under the All India Coordinated Pulses
Improvement Project in different centres in the country. Efficacy and economics
of this practice under rice fallow conditions are to be tested.

Bacterial seed treatment

Bacterial slurry may be prepared with rice kanji and treated the seeds.
Bacterial culture treated seed to be dried in shade for 15 mts. before sowing (24
hour interval should be maintained between fungicide and bacterial treatments).
Seed treatment with Trichoderma viride and carbendazim/thiram/PCNB at 4
and 2 g/kg respectively. Treating seeds with 3 pockets of crop specific
Rhizobium culture has to be done.

Sowing

Proper levelling of Samba/Thaladi rice fields is necessary to avoid

excess/deficit moisture during pulse sowing situation. Making availability of
good quality seeds with more than 90% germination is to be ensured. Advising
the farmers to at samba/Thaladi rice crops leaving 4 to 6 inches in order to
facilitate growing young pulse seedlings to get more sunlight is also important.
The pulse seeds are sown when the field is in waxy condition, 7-10 days prior to
harvest of the crop. If sowing is not able to be taken up prior to harvest, the
pulse seeds are to be dibbled manually at 30x10 cm spacing. The optimum
population required per unit area is 33 plants. Germination and establishment
should be completed before the top soil dried and an encrustation formed.

Nutrient Requirements

Of the 16 essential elements required for the nutrition of plants, pulses

specially need adequate amount of P, Ca, Mg, S and Mo. Phosphorus is required
for proper root growth and growth of rhizobia. Calcium and magnesium are
required to stimulate growth and to increase the size of the nodules, pod
formation and grain setting. Sulphur is required for nodulation and protein
synthesis, Molybdenum for nitrogen fixation and assimilatation and boron for
reproduction.

Greengram needs 45 kg of N; 4.5 kg of P; 7.3kg of K; 8.4 kg of Ca; 2.2

kg of Mg; 3.8 kg of S; 147g of Fe; 68g of Mn; 23 g of Zn and 10g of Cu to
produce 1 t seed/ha.
 Similarly blackgram requires 45 kg of N; 5.3 kg of P; 7.5 kg of K; 90.2
kg of Ca; 3.0 kg of Mg; 4.5 kg of S; 150 g of Fe; 68 g of Mn; 36 g of Zn and 11
g of Cu to produce 1 t seed/ha.

Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms

When pulse plants are not supplied with adequate amount of these
nutrients they develop deficiency symptoms.

NITROGEN : Stunted growth, small sized seeds, pale green coloured

leaves, premature yellow colouring of leaves, shortened
crop duration.
PHOSPHORUS : Reduced growth dark green or bluish green leaves
POTASSIUM : Pale green coloured chlorotic leaves, chloreotic
symptoms appearing on the margin and in between veins,
necrotic
spotted veins, plants susceptible for diseases.
MAGNESIUM : Interveinal chlorosis on older leaves, pale necrotic spots,
leaves prematurely shed
SULPHUR : Similar to N deficiency symptoms, reduction in yield
MANGANESE : Intervenial chlorosis of the terminal young leaves
AND IRON
ZINC : Reduction in size of young leaves, thick brittle leaves
forming upward cups, brownish orange chlorosis of the
older leaves.

Foliar spray of nutrients

There is no possibility of basal application of fertilizers for pulses, since

the pulses are sown prior to harvest of rice crop. Therefore, fertilizer
incorporation becomes impossible. Hence foliar fertilization is resorted to
spraying of 2% DAP and 1% KCl is recommended at 30 and 45 DAS. To
mitigate the drought effect on the crop for pulses cycocel at 100 ppm (100
mg/lit) is recommended. Cycocel spray will enhance the root development,
which facilitates the crop to get moisture from deeper layer. During drought
situation, flower dropping is seen. The check the flower dropping, NAA (4ml in
4.5 lit) spray is advocated, first spray at floral initiation and another spray at 15
days thereafter.

Plant Protection

• Need based application of fungicides and pesticides

• Effective rat control measures are to be taken for checking the damage
of pulse crop and yield reduction

The rats start damaging the pulse crops after 30-35 days of sowing i.e.
on the day of flowering. Rat movements have to be carefully watched and baits
kept in 30-35 rat holes. The bait should be prepared with twenty grams of
popped paddy/popped cumbu. Then popped grains are soaked with 2% coconut
oil and then mixed with zinc phosphide in the ratio of 49:1 and collected in a
coconut shell. About 70-80% of the rats which eat the bait will be killed within
12 hours. All dead rats are removed in the next day morning at 5-6 AM and
buried, otherwise eagles, crows other birds, cats, dogs etc. will eat the dead rats
and die. Baiting should be repeated on 10th day of flowering.

Harvesting and storage

Harvesting should be done at appropriate time and the seeds are striped
of from the pods by beating with sticks. Seeds are then dried cleaned and stored
in gunny bag after treating them with activated clay/mixing with Notchi/neem
leaf/treating with oil. Periodical drying is essential to check Bruchid damage.

Extension method

i) Creating awareness among the farmers about the need for pulses
production
ii) Frequent viable programmes broadcasting/telecasting through AIR/TV
iii) Distribution of pamphlets/leaflets on pulses production
iv) Conducting large scale demonstrations for the technology like, seed
treatment, population maintenance DAP spraying and rat control
v) Conducting field day with farmers who have good pulse crop and
encouraging them with awards.
vi) Arrangements for field visits with farmers to Research stations like,
National Pulses Research Centre, Vamban, Coimbatore and Tamil Nadu
Rice Research Institue, Aduthurai to discuss with the Scientists and even
to other pulse growing stages.
vii) Organising seminars/workshops farmers gatherings for discussion and to
disseminate new varieties/technologies
viii) Conducting pulses production lessons through Farm school on
AIR/correspondence course.
 VARIETAL SCENARIO OF PULSES
IN TAMIL NADU

Dr.K.Mohanasundaram*

Pulses are very well known for their protein source. Currently protein
famine is threatening the developing and under developed countries. According
to FAO/WHO's recommendation a minimum of 85 g. of pulses per capita per
day is required. Protein availability in Tamil Nadu as against the
recommendation is very low to a meagre level of 36.5g. The major pulses in
Tamil Nadu are redgram, blackgram, greengram, bengalgram, horsegram,
cowpea, soybean and lab lab. Annually these crops are grown on an area of 8-9
lakh hectares producing 4.51 lakh tonnes of pulses with a productivity of 454
kg/ha against the national average of 607 kg/ha. Tamil Nadu ranks 10th in terms
of area and 11th in terms of production at all India level. Since the annual
requirement of pulses for our state is 11 lakh tonnes, the balance is being met
from the neighbouring states, hence, the area under pulses should be increased
with high yielding varieties in order to produce more to attain self sufficiency in
pulse production.

Area production and productivity of pulse crops in Tamil Nadu

It is evident that the area under pulses has been increased during the
period and the productivity has also been increased from 320 kg/ha to 450 kg/ha
(Table 1). The increase in productivity is attributed to the combined effect of
improved crop varieties with efficient crop management practices.

Table 1. Total area, production and productivity of pulses in Tamil Nadu

Years Area in L.Ha Production L.MT. Productivity Kg/ha

1979-80 6.06 1.95 322
1980-81 5.44 1.76 324
1981-82 5.58 1.89 337
1982-83 4.93 1.89 383
1983-84 6.03 2.22 367
1984-85 6.18 2.49 403
1985-86 5.82 2.75 473
1986-87 6.89 3.12 453

* Professor and Head, NPRC, Vamban

 1987-88 6.35 2.83 451
1988-89 6.25 2.48 397
1989-90 8.21 3.34 407
1990-91 8.47 3.59 424
1991-92 7.76 3.51 453
1992-93 7.39 3.43 464
1993-94 6.90 2.76 401
1994-95 6.91 3.40 492
1995-96 9.61 3.59 374
1996-97 9.53 4.10 430
1997-98 8.05* 3.40* 422*
1998-99 8.14* 3.52* 432*
* Estimated

Area production and productivity of major pulses in Tamil Nadu

Among the different pulse crops grown blackgram occupies the major
area followed by greengram and redgram (Table 2). By adopting improved
method of technology like improved variety, optimum time of sowing, plant
population, suitable rhizobial inoculation, fertilizer application, timely weed
management practices, need based plant protection measures coupled with
proper irrigation schedule would definitely increase the yield of pulses.

Table 2. Area, Production and Productivity of Pulses in Tamil Nadu

Crops Area L. Ha Production L.MT. Productivity Kg/ha
Blackgram 3.67 1.43 390
Greengram 1.63 0.78 480
Redgram 1.41 1.22 864
Horsegram 1.23 0.54 431
Bengalgram 0.09 0.05 625
Other pulses 1.50 0.25 164

The principal pulse crops which occupy major area and localised in
cultivation in different agro climatic zones of Tamil Nadu is furnished below:

Table 3. Pulses under different Agroclimatic Zones

Sl.No. Agroclimatic zones Districts Predominant pulse crops
 1. North Eastern Zone Chengai MGR Blackgram, Redgram,
Thiruvannamalai Greengram & Horsegram
South Arcot
2. North Western Zone Salem Redgram, Lab lab, Horsegram
Dharmapuri and Other pulses
3. Western zone Coimbatore Lab lab, Horsegram,
Erode Blackgram Greengram,
Bengalgram, Redgram & Other
pulses
4. Cauvery Delta zone Thanjavur, Trichy, Blackgram, Greengram
Pudukkottai Redgram, Lab lab
5. Southern zone Madurai, Virudhunagar, Blackgram, Horsegram,
Sivagangai,Ramnad, Redgram, Lablab, Greengram
Tirunelveli, Thoothukudi
6. High rainfall zone Kanyakumari Blackgram & Other pulses

Pulses varieties recommended for Kharif / Rabi cultivation for different

Agro climatic zones:

Table 4. Important pulses varieties for different seasons

Sl.No. Zones Redgram Blackgram Greengram Cowpea
1. North eastern SA 1 CO 5 CO 4 C 152
CO 6 T9 CO 5 Vamban 1
Vamban 2 VBN 1 KM 2 Vamban 2
Vamban 1 Vamban 2 Vamban 1
APK 1 Vamban 3 CO 6
2. North western SA 1 CO 5 CO 5 Paiyur 1
CO 6 T9 KM 2 C 152
Vamban 2 Vamban 1 CO 6 Vamban 1
Vamban 1 TMV 1 Vamban 2
APK 1
3. Western SA 1 CO 5 CO 4 Paiyur 1
CO 6 Vamban 1 CO 5 C 152
CO 5 Vamban 2 KM 2 Vamban 1
Vamban 1 Vamban 3 CO 6 Vamban 2
Vamban 2 CO 6
APK 1
4. Cauvery Delta CO 5 ADT 3 ADT 2 -
ADT 4 ADT 3
ADT 5
5. Southern zone Co 5 CO 5 CO 5 Paiyur 1
VBN1, VBN2, VBN 1 CO 4 C 152
APK 1 T 9 VBN 2 KM 2 Vamban 1
VBN 3 VBN 1 Vamban 2
CO 6

Table 5. Varietal details of Redgram, Blackgaram, Greengram, Cowpea,

Horsegram, Bengalgram and Soybean
S.N. Variety Year of Duration Yield kg/ha Special Area of
 release (days) Rain Irri- character adaptation
fed gated ristics
REDGRAM
1. Vamban 2 1999 180 1050 - Resistant to Entire Tamil
sterility mosaic Nadu
disease. Suitable
as a rainfed crop
in mixed and
intercropping
situations to
replace SA 1 and
CO 6
2. CO 5 1985 120-130 800 1500 Photoinsen Entire Tamil
sitive moderately Nadu
resistant to
podfly, root rot
sterility mosaic
disease
3. Vamban 1 1992 95-100 840 1200 Highly suitable Vellore,
for intercropping Tiruvannamalai,
in groundnut Pudukkottai,
Madurai,
Sivagangai,
Tirunelveli,
Virudhunagar,
Theni,
Ramanathapuram
4. Aruppuk- 1999 95-105 900 1250 Suitable for a Virudhunagar,
kottai pure crop in Ramanathapuram
(APK 1) irigated , Sivagangai,
conditions. Madurai, Theni,
Resistant to SMD Tuticorin,
Tirunelveli,
Trichy, Salem,
Dharmapuri,
Coimbatore.
5. COPH 2 1997 120-130 1050 1350 Suitable as a pure Coimbatore,
crop in irrigated Erode, Salem,
conditions and Dharmapuri,
rainfed situations Vellore,
also. Good. Tiruvannamalai,
Synchro-nisation Trichy
of flowers in
male and female
parents in hybrid
for seed
production and
resistant to SMD
BLACKGRAM
6. CO 5 1981 70-75 750 1250 Moderately Coimbatore,
resistant to Erode, Salem,
powdery mildew, Dharmapuri,
leaf crinkle, pod Vellore,
borer and tip Tiruvannamalai
blight but
susceptible to
YMV
7. Vamban 1 1987 65 780 900 High yielding and Ramnad,
resistant to YMV. Pudukkottai,
Suitable for both Tirunelveli,
irrigated and Vellore,
rainfed conditions Tiruvannamalai,
Tuticorin,
Madurai, Trichy.
8. Vamban 2 1996 65 700 1100 Suitable for both Ramnad,
rainfed & Pudukkottai,
irrigated Tirunelveli,
conditions. Vellore,
Resistant to YMV Tiruvannamalai,
Tuticorin,
Madurai, Trichy.
9. Vamban 3 2000 70 825 950 Suitable for both Entire Tamil
rainfed & Nadu
irrigated
conditions.
Resistant to YMV
10. K1 1994 70-75 700 - Suited to Shouthern
Southern districts. districts for
Suited for intercropping
intercropping with Cotton
with cotton
GREENGRAM
11. CO 6 1999 65-70 850 1300 Resistant to Entire Tamil
YMV. Suited to Nadu
both rainfed and
irrigated
conditions

12. Paiyur 1 1988 85-90 700 - Suitable for Dharmapuri &

rainfed conditions Salem districts
in Dharmapuri
and Salem
districts low
incidence of
YMV

13. Vamban 1 1989 70 800 - Suitable for Pudukkottai,

rainfed conditions Madurai, Trichy,
in Southern Tirunelveli and
districts Tuticorin.

14. K1 1998 70-75 700 - Suitable for Suitable for

 Cotton based intercropping
intercropping with Cotton in
because of short southern districts
duration and short
stature
COWPEA
15. CO 4 1983 85 960 1570 Seed colour Coimbatore,
greenish brown. Erode, Salem,
Suited for Dharmapuri,
irrigated Vellore and
conditions. High Tiruvannamalai.
yielding.
16. CO 6 1993 65-70 700 - Highly suitable Coimbatore,
for rainfed Erode, Salem,
conditions. Dharmapuri,
Shortest duration. Vellore and
Resistant to rust Tiruvannamalai.
disease. Seed
colour light
cream. Good
marketability.
17. Paiyur 1 1985 90 750 - Suited to rainfed Suited to
condition of Dharmapuri and
Dharmapuri and Salem districts.
Salem districts
18. Vamban 1 1997 65 950 - Suited to rainfed Suited to
conditions. Pudukkottai,
White grain. Trichy, Madurai,
Vellore and
Tiruvannamalai.
19. Vamban 2 1998 85 10.6 tons - Vegetable types Entire Tamil
green lengthy, Fleshy Nadu
pods pods
20. CO 2 1972 90 11.0 tons - Vegetable type, Entire Tamil
Green lengthy, fleshy Nadu
pods pods
HORSEGRAM
21. CO 1 1953 110 600 - Suited to rainfed Suited to
condition Coimbatore and
Erode districts
22. Paiyur 1 1988 110 650 - Suited to rainfed Suited to
condition Dharmapuri and
Salem districts
23. Paiyur 2 1998 105 870 - High protein Suited to
(19.25%) suited Dharmapuri and
for Samai, Salem districts
Groundnut,
Gingelly –
Horsegram crop
sequences in
rainfed lands

BENGALGRAM
24. CO 3 1986 85 1000 - Tolerant to root Suited to
 rot and wilt Coimbatore,
Salem and
Dharmapuri
districts
25. CO 4 1998 85 1150 - Attractive Desi Suited to
bold grains. 30- Coimbatore,
32 g. 100 seed Salem and
weight and Dharmapuri
tolerant to root districts
rot
SOYBEAN
26. CO 1 1980 85 - 1600 Erect, bushy Entire Tamil Nadu
determinate
photoinsen
sitive
27. CO 2 1995 75-80 - 1350 Photoinsen Entire Tamil Nadu
sitive, Tolerant
to YMV and
leaf minor.
Suited to
intercropping.

28. ADT 1 1990 85 - 1270 Suitable for Suited to Tanjore,

(rice rice fallow Tiruvarur,
fallow) situations Nagapattinam,
where there is Cuddalore and
no terminal Trichy.
moisture stress
and high
temperature.
RICE FALLOW PULSES
BLACKGRAM
29. ADT 2 1979 70-75 600 - Highest protein Thanjavur,
content Nagapattinam,
(21.5%) Tiruvarur, Trichy,
Cuddalore,
Tirunelveli,
Tuticorin.

30. ADT 3 1981 70-75 750 - Suited for Thanjavur,

raising in field Nagapattinam,
bunds Tiruvarur, Trichy,
Cuddalore,
Tirunelveli,
Tuticorin.

31. ADT 4 1987 65-70 1000 - Synchronised Thanjavur,

flowering and Nagapattinam,
maturity and Tiruvarur, Trichy,
suited for bund Cuddalore,
cropping Tirunelveli,
Tuticorin.
32. ADT 5 1988 70-75 1550 - Very high Pudukkottai,
(irrigated yielder. Orthanad areas
summer) Flowering summer, kharif
behaviour irrigated situations 2
 according to to 3 flushes.
moisture
availability.
GREENGRAM
33. ADT 2 1982 70 800 - Resistant to Thanjavur,
powdery Nagapattinam,
mildew Tiruvarur, Trichy,
Cuddalore,
Tirunelveli,
Tuticorin.
34. ADT 3 1988 70 850 - Resistant to Thanjavur,
stemfly Nagapattinam,
Tiruvarur, Trichy,
Cuddalore,
Tirunelveli,
Tuticorin.

In Tamil Nadu, Research on pulses improvement is being carried out in

NPRC, Vamban, Pulses Research Station, Coimbatore, TRRI, Aduthurai, RRS,
Paiyur, AC&RI, Killikulam and ARS, Kovilpatti and Pattukkottai. In crop
improvement, 13 redgram varieties, 18 blackgram varieties, 17 greengram
varieties, 9 cowpea varieties, 3 soybean varieties, 13 garden lab lab varieties, 2
field bean varieties, 4 bengal gram varieties and 3 horsegram varieties were
released for cultivation upto 2001.

Table 6. Number of varieties released in different pulse crops in Tamil Nadu

Centres Red Black Green Cow Horse Bengal Lab Mochai Soy
gram gram gram pea gram gram lab bean
Coimbatore 8* 5 6 5 1 4 13 2 2
Vamban 2 3 1 2 - - - - -
Aruppukkottai 1 1 - - - - - - -
Bhavanisagar 1 - - - - - - - -
Salem 1 - - - - - - - -
Aduthurai - 5 3 - - - - - 1
Tindivanam - 1 - - - - - - -
Kudimianmalai - 2 2 1 - - - - -
Kovilpatti - 1 1 - - - - - -
Paiyur - - 1 1 2 - - - -
Others - - 1 - - - - - -
Total 13 18 15 9 3 4 13 2 3
80
N.B.: * Includes two hybrids
Due to the release of these varieties the cropping area and production of
pulses has been increased in the state.

In redgram, under rainfed situation, sterility mosaic disease – resistant

variety Vamban 2 can be utilised for maximum yield. Under irrigated
condition, short duration varieties Vamban 1 and APK 1 can be utilised as pure
crop or intercrop with groundnut.

In blackgram, high yielding variety Vamban 3 may be recommended for

cultivation under irrigated and rainfed situations. It is resistent to yellow
mosaic disease. For summer irrigated situation ADT 5 blackgram is performing
well with high yield potential.

For Greengram, the major problem is yellow mosaic disease. To

overcome this situation YMV resistant variety CO 6 can be utilised for
maximising yield without any loss. Under moderate situations, Vamban 1
greengram can be utilised which is tolerant to YMV. Under Rice fallow
situations, ADT 3 can be grown for better results. K1 greengram is
recommended for rainfed situation to southern districts.

In Cowpea, under rainfed situations, short duration varieties like

Vamban 1 and CO 6 can be popularised. Under irrigated condition vegetable
cowpea, CO 2 and Vamban 2 can be cultivated for green pods.

Erect and bushy varieties of Garden lab lab like CO 9, CO 10, CO 11,
CO 12 and CO 13 can be cultivated throughout the year which gives different
types of green pod with market fancy.

For rice fallow situation in blackgram the varieties like ADT 2, ADT 3
and ADT 4 and in greengram the varieties ADT 2 and ADT 3 and in soybean,
the variety ADT 1 can be cultivated to obtain maximum yield.
 DRYLAND TECHNIQUES FOR
PULSES PRODUCTIVITY

T. M. Thiyagarajan1 and T. N. Balasubramanian2

Pulses are the universal crops in the world like rice rated as one among
the important crops because of their biological nitrogen fixing mechanism and
inherited in-situ high protein contribution. Among the merits of these crops,
rich diversity in germplasm, adaptability of a variety of edapho-climatic
conditions and its flexibility to accommodate in any cropping system are need
special mentioning. However, its productivity is far below compared to that of
food cereal crops. In India even though it is cultivated over 1/5th of total
cultivated area, its production is only 1/12th of total food production. Among
the many reasons attributed for its lower productivity. Lower yield potential,
cultivation in marginal lands, below average management efforts, non-
availability of quality seeds, prevalence of higher temperature in its growing
environment, susceptible to pod borers and wilt diseases are important.

The challenge of a quantum jump in pulses production in India and

especially in Tamil Nadu is formidable, as it requires addressing important
developing and research issues. The demand for pulses during 2030 AD would
be around 26 million tonnes in India with an expected annual growth rate of 3.3
per cent per annum. To achieve this, the present productivity level of 0.6
tonnes/ha has to be increased to 0.99 tonnes/ha. The limitation is its popularity
with the farmers as intercrops rather than as sole crops.

In Tamil Nadu, pulses are being cultivated in 0.953 million hectares

within the seven million hectares of cultivable lands and this works to 13 per
cent as against 29 per cent under rice. The distribution of different pulses to
total pulse area is 39 per cent for blackgram, 17per cent for greengram, 15 per
cent for redgram, 13 per cent for horsegram, 0.94 per cent for bengalgram and
16 per cent for other pulses. Majority of the blackgram area is under rice fallow
situation followed by as companion crop in the intercropping system especially
under dryland situation. About 55 per cent of total cultivable area ( 4 m ha ) is
still under dryland, wherein, the scopes are greater to crops is in operation

1. Director, SCMS, TNAU, Coimbatore

2. Professor and Head, Dept. of Meteorology, TNAU, Coimbatore
in the past four decades in Tamil Nadu and many field oriented easy to do,
cheap and effective technologies have been generated by TNAU and those offer
opportunities to increase the productivity in Tamil Nadu.

The viable technologies especially for dryland situation are discussed

here upon.

Technologies to increase dryland pulses productivity

Non monetary inputs

Field studies were conducted during Kharif 1992, 1993 and 1994 at
NPRC, Vamban on rainfed blackgram (Srinivasan et al., 1997). The treatments
comprised of variety, method of sowing, time of sowing and time of weed
control. The pooled results are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Non monetary inputs on the grain yield of blackgram

Treatments Pods plant Grain yield (kg/ha) CBR

T1 Vmpw 19.0 475 1.65
T2 Vmpw 22.0 573 2.43
T3 Mvpw 21.0 545 2.15
T4 Pvmw 21.2 501 2.00
T5 Wvmp 22.0 602 2.40
T6 VMpw 25.0 655 2.52
T7 VPmv 25.0 645 2.50
T8 VWmp 28.7 696 2.65
T9 MPvw 24.5 640 2.50
T10MWvp 29.1 700 2.66
T11PWmv 30.1 705 2.68
T12 VMpw 30.2 705 2.69
T13 VMWp 38.0 803 2.92
T14 VPWm 36.0 774 2.83
T15 MPWv 33.2 735 2.75
T16 VMPW 42.1 845 3.10
CD (5%) 2.9 56 -

(V = Variety; M = Method of sowing; P = Time of sowing; W = Time of weed

removal
Small letters indicate local practices, while capital letters indicate improved
practice)
 The result indicated that there was significant effect of non-monetary
inputs on the growth and yield of rainfed blackgram. Improved practices
outyielded local practices. Line sowing of Vamban 1 with 30 x 10 cm spacing
at the onset of monsoon sowing; weeding 3 weeks after sowing recorded higher
number of pods per plant and resulted in higher yield, with increased yield of 78
per cent over control. In respect of the per cent contribution of different non-
monetary inputs, improved weed management contributed for 26.7 per cent
increased yield, while improved variety, method of planting, time of sowing
contributed for 20.6, 14.7 and 5.5 per cent respectively indicating the
importance of weeding when sowing was taken up with the onset of rains.

Studies conducted at TNAU, Coimbatore under rainfed during 1989-90

and 1990-91 revealed that adoption of the combined inclusion of non monetary
/ low cost inputs such as improved redgram variety (CO 5) increased plant
population (1,00,000 plants/ha) sowing with the onset of monsoon rain and
weed removal on the third week resulted in higher seed yield in redgram (865
kg/ha) (Arunachalam et al. 1995).

At Aruppukkottai, experiment was conducted to identify suitable time of

sowing for APK1 redgram and the results are presented in Table 2 (ARS, 2000).

Table 2. Times of sowing on redgram grain yield (kg/ha)

Treatments Grain yield

September I fortnight sowing 812
September II fortnight sowing 304
October I fortnight sowing 158
October II fortnight sowing 78
CD (5%) 34

The result indicated the superiority of September first fortnight sowing.

When the sowing was delayed there was drastic reduction in grain yield.

In another experiment at the same station when sowing was delayed for
greengram, bengalgram and horsegram, there was drastic reduction in pulses
yield (Table 3) for greengram, but the yield of bengalgram and horsegram was
higher in the middle sowing compared to first sowing.

Table 3. Times of sowing in greengram, bengalgram and horsegram

Name of the crop Grain yield (kg/ha)

Onset of NEM November 1 November 30
 Oct 15 week
Greengram 213 105 61
Bengalgram 208 223 145
Horsegram 477 520 423

The output of several research works have indicated that optimum early
time of sowing is required to obtain higher yield in pulses especially for
redgram, blackgram, greengram, while, horsegram and bengalgram need late
sowing as compared to redgram, blackgram and greengram. Even then,
location specific time of sowing has to be generated across areas after
identifying efficient cropping zone for each of the pulse crop.

b. Moisture efficiency and conservation practices

Moisture use efficiency of different pulses was computed (ARS, 2000).

The moisture use efficiency of blackgram was 0.61 kg/ha/mm, while it was 0.12
for redgram, 0.84 for greengram and 0.53 for cowpea against 6.50 of ragi crop.
It is inferred from the information that pulses have lower moisture use
efficiency. Research has to be strengthened in this direction.

In another experiment at ARS, Kovilpatti on blackgram (CO5) the

results revealed that among the tillage treatments evaluated medium and
shallow tillage combination recorded the highest yield of 285 kg / ha followed
by shallow ploughing ( 264 kg/ha) (Table 4). Compartmental bunding was
found superior in terms of blackgram grain yield obtained.

Table 4. Effect of tillage and management practices on blackgram grain

yield (kg/ha)
Sub/Main Compartmental Ridges and BBP Mean
bunding furrows
Shallow ploughing 299 256 237 264
Medium and shallow 349 285 223 285
ploughing
Country ploughing 285 235 210 243
Mean 311 259 223 -
CD (5%) Main plot : 16 Sub plot : 12
MxS : 23 SxM : 21
Little research efforts were taken to identify suitable moisture
conservation practices for sole pulses, but information are available for different
pulses based intercropping systems. Greengram seemed to possess higher WUE
character followed by blackgram and this indicated that for area of low rainfall
greengram would be the choice either as sole crop or as intercrop.
c. Nutrient Management

There was response from blackgram to P application up to 40 kg / ha

(Table 5) in a study conducted at NPRC, Vamban especially in lateritic soils
(Ramamoorthy et al., 1997) and single year response to sulphur (applied
through gypsum) up to 40 kg / ha.

Table 5. Effect of P and S on blackgram grain yield (kg / ha)

Treatments Grain yield

1992 1993 Mean
P kg/ha
0 157 224 191
20 360 356 358
40 497 512 505
60 494 490 492
CD (5%) 49 57 -
S kg/ha
0 334 342 338
20 384 374 379
40 347 470 452
CD (5%) 51 82 -
Interaction
CD (5%) 75 105 -

In another experiment conducted (Solaiappan et al., 1994) at Madurai

during kharif 1984 in sandy clay loam soil, on redgram (CO 4), the results
revealed that basal application of 6.25 kg N and 12.5 kg P2O5 /ha followed by
foliar spray of 3 per cent DAP (70 DAS) recorded higher seed yield (11.26 q/ha
with a BC ratio of 2.02. In the same study seed treatment with Rhizobium
recorded higher yield of 10.26 q/ha with a BC ratio of 1.86 and the treatment
was at par with the treatment wherein seeds were treated with super phosphate
(12% W/W).

In a study on greengram, the highest grain yield and Relative

Agronomic Efficiency (RAE) were obtained under MRP application at 25 kg
P2O5 /ha along with seed treatment of phosphobacteria at 400 g / ha seeds
(Table 6) as reported by Ramamoorthy and Arokia Raj (1997).

Table 6. Effect of treatments on greengram yield (kg / ha)

 Treatments Grain yield RAE (%)
(kg / ha)
T1 Control 517 -
T2 25 kg P205 / ha as SSP 634 77
T3 50 kg P2O5 / ha as SSP 669 100
T4 25 kg P2O5 / ha as MRP + seed treatment with 1044 346
Phosphobacteria
T5 50 kg P2O5 / ha as MRP + seed treatment with 799 185
phosphobacteria
T6 25 kg P2O5 / ha as MRP + FYM 10 t/ha 693 116
T7 50 kg P2O5 /ha as MRP + FYM 10 t/ha 708 126
T8 25 kg P2O5 /ha as MRP + BDS at 5 t/ha 777 171
T9 50 kg P2O5 / ha as MRP + BDS at 5 t/ha 813 195
T10 Seed treatment with phosphobacteria 699 120
T11 FYM 10 t/ha 600 55
T12 Enriched BDS at 5 t/ha 907 257
CD (5%) 131 -

BDS : Biodigested slurry

In another study at NPRC, Vamban (Ramamoorthy et al., 1997) on

rainfed redgram, the results revealed that the highest grain yield was obtained
(449 kg / ha) under 12.5 kg N + 37.5 kg P2O5 / ha as MRP with seed inoculation
of phosphobacteria. This treatment was significantly superior to other
treatments but at par with higher dose of P ( 50 kg / ha as MRP).

Nutrient efficiency of dryland pulses was computed based on

experiments at ARS, Kovilpatti (ARS, 2000). The nutrient efficiency of
blackgram was 14.9 and 6.7 kg per kg of N and P respectively while it was 29.2
and 12.9; 20.6 and 9.7; 12.8 and 6.1 respectively for redgram, greengram and
cowpea. Redgram seemed to be nutrient efficient crop as compared to other
pulses.

In another experiment at the same station the result revealed that

application of 25 kg P2O5 / ha as EFYM registered significantly higher
blackgram yield of 1.20 q / ha( Table 7).

Table 7. Effect of P on blackgram yield

Treatments Grain yield (q /ha ) Rainfall use efficiency

(Kg / mm / ha)
10 kg P2O5 / ha (MRP) 0.79 0.8
12.5 kg P2O5 / ha (MRP) 0.81 0.9
25 kg P2O5 / ha (MRP) 0.90 0.9
37.5 kg P2O5 / ha (MRP) 0.87 0.9
25 kg P2O5 / ha (Super) 0.81 0.8
25 kg P2O5 / ha 0.95 1.0
(EFYM+Super)
25 kg P2O5 / ha 1.20 1.3
(ERYM+MRP)
CD (5%) 0.04 -

At Paiyur, soil application of recommended inorganic fertilizer with 2

per cent DAP spray twice (flowering and 15 days later) recorded the highest
grain yield of 1134 kg /ha in cowpea (Table 8) as reported in RRS, 2000.

Table 8. Yield of rainfed cowpea kg / ha (mean of 1995 and 1996)

Treatment Seed yield ( kg / ha) BC ratio

T1 (DAP spray twice) 863 1.75
T2 Seed pelleting with DAP 536 1.16
T3 Soil application of 954 1.75
recommended fertilizer
T4 Seed pelleting with KH2PO4 463 0.99
T5 T1 +T3 1134 1.96
T6 Control 255 0.55
CD (5%) 82 -

In another trial conducted in the same station with horsegram, which

was a succeeding crop to sorghum in the cropping system of sorghum-
horsegram (pooled data of three years), horsegram yield was higher (184 kg/ha)
under recommended inorganic fertilizer application + EFYM, which was at par
with recommended fertilizer + biofertilizer; EFYM + biofertilizer and EFYM
alone treatments.

In a ragi-horsegram crop sequence the treatment 40 kg P2O5 / ha as RF

either with phosphorus solubilising agents like phosphobacteria or VAM4
recorded higher horsegram yield of 348 and 365 kg / ha respectively.

In greengram at Paiyur, the yield got increased significantly in the plot

applied with 18.75 kg P2O5 / ha + seed soaking (Table 9).

Table 9. Effect of treatments on greengram yield kg / ha

Treatments Grain yield Haulm BC ratio

(kg /ha) yield
(kg / ha)
T1 Control 844 1577 4.87
T2 Seed soaking with SSP at 20 g 1064 1878 6.13
SSP/kg of seed for 1 hour
T3 Seed soaking with RP at 20g RP 1118 2087 6.34
/ kg of seed for 1 hour
T4 25 kg P2O5 / ha as SSP 1214 2223 5.87
T5 25 kg P2O5 / ha as RP 1141 2040 5.90
T6 12.5 kg P2O5 / ha as SSP +T2 1200 2287 6.30
T7 12.5 kg P2O5 / ha as RP + T3 1154 2064 6.18
T8 18.75 kg P2O5 / ha as SSP +T2 1374 2491 6.92
T9 18.75 kg P2O5 / ha as RP + T3 1197 2186 6.35
T10 25 kg P2O5 / ha as RP + Pb 1221 2252 6.29
T11 25 kg P2O5 / ha as RP + VAM 1219 2162 5.80
T12 25 kg P2O5 / ha as RP + Pb + 1276 2343 6.06
VAM
CD (5%) 113.4 428.0 -

In a cropping system of groundnut-horsegram at Paiyur, horsegram

grain yield was higher (638 kg / ha) when the preceding groundnut crop was
applied with 75 per cent soil test based Nitrogen + CCP (5 t/ha).

The above results indicated that pulses responsed to phosphorus and

sulphur. There was promising response of rock phosphate when it was applied
along with phosphobacteria. Similarly foliar application of DAP had added
advantage on pulses productivity. Still INM has to be developed for each
agroclimatic sub zone of Tamil Nadu.

d. Weed Management

Kandasamy (1999) studied weed management for redgram (CO 5) for

two years 1993 and 1994. The result indicated that metalachlor at 1.0 kg / ha +
manual weeding effectively controlled the weeds and maximized pigeonpea
yield to 832 and 893 kg ha-1 (Table 11) in 1993 and 1994 respectively.
Application of metalachlor or alachlor alone each at 1.5 kg / ha, alachlor or
pendimethalin each at 1.0 kg / ha + manual weeding and manual weeding twice
caused similar increase in grain yield and were statistically at par with the best
treatment metalachlor + manual weeding. Pre-emergence application of
oxyfluorfen and clomazone were phytotoxic and this was more pronounced
with higher doses, especially with oxyfluorfen. The uncontrolled weeds
resulted in 55 to 60 per cent yield loss of rainfed pigeonpea and maximum
economic advantage was achieved with metalachlor or alachlor applied at
higher dose (2.38 to 2.65 ) or at lower dose in combination with manual
weeding (2.31 to 2.58).
Table 11. Effect of weed control methods on redgram yield

Treatments WCE (%) Grain yield BC ratio

( kg / ha)
1993 1994 1993 1994 1993 1994
Metolachlor 1.50 kg ha-1 3 DAS 69.3 76.1 774 826 2.38 2.54
Oxyfluorfen 0.20 kg ha-1 3 DAS 70.6 69.4 619 692 1.78 1.99
Pendimethalin 1.50 kg ha-1 3 71.1 72.2 762 799 1.97 2.06
DAS
Alachlor 1.50 kg ha –1 3 DAS 71.7 75.2 740 862 2.28 2.65
Clomozone 1.00 kg ha-1 3 DAS 61.3 63.0 648 681 2.07 2.18
Metolachlor 1.0 + MW (40 DAS) 83.6 79.2 832 893 2.35 2.58
Oxyfluorfen 0.15 3 DAS + MW 82.1 73.4 652 707 1.73 1.88
(40 DAS)
Pendimethalin 1.00 3 DAS + 82.5 76.0 812 792 2.06 2.01
MW (40 DAS)
Alachlor 1.00 3 DAS + MW(40 79.5 71.4 819 840 2.31 2.37
DAS)
Clomazone 0.75 3 DAS MW (40 78.5 63.8 743 668 2.12 1.91
DAS)
Fluazifop 0.25 3 DAS + MW 76.9 62.5 764 676 2.26 2.00
(20+40 DAS)
MW twice (20 + 40 DAS) 83.5 80.2 829 884 2.16 2.31
Control - - 375 362 1.50 1.45
CD (5%) - - 58 71.1 - -

In a study on times of application of herbicides for rainfed greengram

Jaganathan et al. (1994) concluded that sand mix application of pendimethalin
at 0.75 kg/ha applied at the time of sowing recorded higher grain yield of 1216
kg/ha which was at par with hand weeding and hoeing on 30 DAS (1175 kg
/ha), sand mix application of fluchloralin at 0.70 kg /ha, applied at the time of
sowing (1208 kg /ha) and sand mix application of pendimethalin 0.75 kg / ha
applied at 3 DAS (1005 kg / ha).

In another study conducted at Paiyur (RRS ,2000) application of

fluchloralin at 1.5 litres / ha at 3 DAS followed by hand weeding (30 DAS)
registered higher yield of 1180 kg / ha in cowpea, while in greengram the best
treatment was application of fluchloralin 1 litre / ha ( 3 DAS) followed by one
hand weeding on 30 DAS.

The results indicated that herbicides could be applied up to 3 DAS

without any loss from the herbicides on the control of weeds. When manual
weeding was integrated with herbicide application, there was synergistic
interaction. However further research is required to generate IWM practice for
each agroclimatic sub zone of Tamil Nadu.
Conclusion

Even though in the past means researches were conducted, the results
were inadequate to provide ways and means to increase the productivity of
pulses to achieve the expected production level for 2030 AD. A number of key
technological economical and political factors can influence the pulse
production. Horizontal expansion through short duration pulse in production, genetic
enhancement, development of new types to high inputs, development of varieties for
intercropping system, introduction of INM, development of varieties resistant to
Helicoverpa and wilt diseases are some of the research and development agenda to be
addressed immediately. Genomic and transgenic research is the need of the hour.
The prospects of the use of molecular techniques to magnify the power of
breeding research offers greater scope for developing better varieties.

Multiplication of large quantity of quality seeds, their safe storage and

distribution, timely dissemination of information on plant protection need
allotment of increased funds for pulse research. Fitting of pulse crops in new
and non-conventional cropping systems, providing support prices are some of
the areas need policy attention.

Earmarking efficient cropping zone for pulses and introduction of hi-

tech, documentation of productivity of different pulse based cropping systems
are some of the prioritized works to be attended.

It is thus concluded that pulses productivity can very easily be increased

and sustained provided integrated approach is handled. Each component of
improved technology is equally important. With the introduction of high
potential pest and disease resistant genotypes, Rhizobium inoculation, proper
seed rate, executing optimum time of sowing, practicing INM and IWM
techniques, the productivity of pulses could certainly be doubled in the coming
years, if strong pulse research and extension co-exist.

References

Arunachalam,L., S.Purushothaman, Palaniappan,SP. And M.Mark

Devasahayam. 1995. Relative contribution of non-monetary/low cost
inputs in redgram production. Madras Agric.J., 82(3): 179-181

ARS, 2000. Review paper on dryland agriculture. Agricultural Research

Station, Kovilpatti.
Jaganathan,R., Jayakumar,R. and M.Nadanam. 1994. Times of application of
herbicides for rainfed greengram. Madras Agric.J., 81(10): 570-571.

Kandasamy,O.S. 1999. Effect of herbicides with and without manual weeding

on weeds and yield of rainfed pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L.mill sp.).
Legume Research, 22(3): 172-176.

Ramamoorthi,K., Balasubramanian,A. and A.Arokia Raj. 1997. Response of

rainfed blackgram (Phaseolus mungo) to phosphorus and sulphur
nutrition in red lateritic soils. Indian J.Agron.,42(1): 191-193.

Ramamoorthy,K. and A.Arokia Raj. 1997. Agronomic effectiveness of organic

sources and MRP to phosphorus economy in rainfed greengram Madras
Agric.J., 84(10): 593-595.

RRS, 2000a. Review paper on dryland agriculture. Regional Research Station,

Aruppukottai.

RRS, 2000b. Review paper on dryland agriculture. Regional Research Station,

Paiyur.

Solaiappan, U., Senthivel, S. and S. Paramasivam. 1994. Influence of seed

treatments and fertilizer levels on growth and yield of rainfed redgram.
Madras Agric.J., 8(5): 245-248.

Srinivasan, K., Vairavan,K. and M.Ramasamy. 1997. Relative contribution of

non-monetary inputs in rainfed urd bean. Madras Agric.J.,84 (10): 602-
603.
 PLANT PROTECTION STRATEGIES IN PULSES
Dr.Sabitha Doraiswamy1, Dr.K.Gunasekaran2 and Dr.T. Ganapathy3

India is one of the largest producer of pulses (13 million tonnes) but the
average productivity is very low (614 kg/ha) (Ali, 1998).The major pulse crops
grown in Tamil Nadu are chickpea, pigeonpea, urdbean, mungbean and cowpea.
Among the various constraints, insect pests and diseases are the major and
important one affecting the productivity of pulses apart from ecological and
biological constraints.

I. INSECT PESTS
A variety of insect pests infest pulses and the annual yield loss is
estimated to be 20 per cent in pigeonpea, 15 per cent in chickpea and 30 per
cent in urdbean and mungbean. On an average 2.5 to 3.0 million tonnes of
pulses are lost annually due to pests (Ali, 1998). The insects causing economic
damage are :

1. Pigeonpea
1. Gram pod borer : Helicoverpa armigera
2. Spotted pod borer : Maruca virtata
3. Plume moth : Exalastis atomosa
4. Blue butterfly : Lamides boeticus
5. Podfly : Melanagromyza obtusa
6. Pod bug : Clavigralla gibbosa; Riptortus spp.
7. Blister beetle : Mylabris spp

2. Mungbean / Urdbean / Lentil / Peas

1. Stemfly : Ophiomyia phaseoli
2. Whitefly : Bemisia tabaci
3. Leaf hopper : Empoasca kerri
4. Pod borer : Etiella zinkenella
5. Aphids : Aphis craccivora

1. Director, CPPS, 2. Associate Professor, Entomology, 3. Associate

Professor, Plant Pathology, TNAU, Coimbatore
3. Chickpea
1. Gram pod borer : Helicoverpa armigera
2. Semilooper : Autographa nigrisigma
3. Cutworm : Agrotis ipsilon
4. Black aphid : Aphis craccivora
5. Temite : Odentotermes obesus

Pest management

1. Pigeonpea

Pigeonpea is the second most important and highly profitable pulse crop
cultivated in 3.47 million hectares in different states in the country. The
production is also steadily increasing from 1.02 in 1949–'50 to 2.77 million
tonnes in 1998–'99. The average yield is almost static varying from 0.4 to 0.8
tonnes /ha despite the potential yield of 1.5 to 3.0 tonnes/ha. Nearly 90 per cent
of the crop is grown under rainfed conditions with medium and long duration
cultivars. Short duration varieties are suited for irrigated conditions. As the
pigeonpea is grown under wide variety of agroclimatic conditions and under
varied cropping systems of different maturity, it is valuables to many pests and
about 250 species of insects belonging to 8 orders and 61 families are reported
to attack this crop. The early or vegetative stage pests are not causing economic
damage. However, the pests of flowers and pod borers are the major and
important pests.

Apart from the above pests pod wasp, Tanaostigmodes cajaninae

(LaSalle) and mealy bug, Coccidohystrix insolitus (Green) are also attaining
major pest status causing 10–75 per cent damage in Tamil Nadu.

There is no resistant variety for pod borers. Planting date is having

influence on the incidence of pod borers. For example, June month sowing
helps the crop to escape from the attack of pod borers like H. armigera and
requires lesser number of sprays in Tamil Nadu. Though there are several
parasitoids and other biocontrol agents have been recorded, only NPV and B.t
are found to be promising under field conditions.

1. Seedling pests : If sucking pests are noted , spray methyl demeton 25 EC

500 ml or dimethoate 30 EC 500 ml (250 litres spray fluid/ha).

2. Inflorescence and pod borers : Spraying can be taken up based on

Economic Threshold (ETL).For example , Maruca 3/plant, Exalastis
5/plant. Whenever H. armigera is predominant apply NPV 500LE/ha to
control the pest in the early stage. Apply any one of the following
 insecticides at 25 kg/ha – Endosulfan 4% D; quinalphos 4% D; carbaryl 5%
D or spray endosulfan 35 EC 1250 ml, monocrotophos 625 ml/ha. Spraying
of NSKE 5% twice followed by triazophos 0.05% is also effective.
Application of Neem oil 2% and phosalone 0.07% has controlled the pod
borers and increased the yield.

Recent studies have indicated that following IPM methods have

controlled the pest and increased the yield.

1. Installation of bird perches @ 50/ha

2. H. armigera pheromone trap @ 10/ha
3. Collection and destruction of fully grown larvae
4. Spraying NSKE 5% at 50% flowering
5. Spraying HaNPV at 500 LE/ha at 15 days after first spray
6. Application of the following insecticides at 15 days interval depending
on the intensity of pest. Chlorpyriphos 0.05% or monocrotophos 0.04%

2. Green gram and black gram

There are nearly 200 insect pests belonging to 48 families in coleoptera,

diptera, hemiptera, hymenoptera, isoptera, lepidoptera, orthoptera, thysanoptera,
and 7 mites of the order Acarina are attacking the above crops. Under severe
case stemfly alone causes more than 90 per cent damage resulting in an yield
loss upto 20 per cent (Talekar, 1990). The galerucid beetle, Madurasia
obscurella causes damage upto 20 – 60 per cent. Whitefly, a potential vector of
mungbean yellow mosaic virus (MYMV) causes losses ranging from 30 – 70
per cent. Damage due to bruchids, Callosobruchus chinensis starts right from
the field. Adults emerging from the stored seeds lay eggs on healthy grains.
The field infestation ranges from 7.8 – 9.9 per cent (Banto and Sanchez, 1972)
and there was 100 per cent destruction of seeds when there was 9.9 per cent
field infestation.

Adjusting the sowing dates, use of resistant varieties and growing inter
or trap crops can be followed depending on the availability and effectiveness in
a particular location. Use of biocontrol agents has not been successful in these
crops although it is a viable alternative despite the record of several natural
enemies in the field.

1. Early stage pests : In order to protect from seedling stage pests like
stemfly and sap feeders, application of carbofuron 3 G (30 kg) or Aldicarb
10 G (10 kg)/ha in the soil at the time of sowing can be applied. Spraying
of endosulfan 35EC 500 ml/ha a week after germination and again 10 days
after first round also controls the pests (Anon,1999). Alternatively, seed
 pelleting with dimethoate 5 ml/kg (dissolve 1g gum in 20 ml of water and
add 5 ml of dimethoate, pellet the seeds and shade dry) followed by one
round of endosulfan 0.035 per cent controls the early stage pests.

2. Young plants : If sucking pests are noticed, spray methyldemeton 25 EC

500 ml or dimethoate 30 EC 500 ml or phosphamidon 85 EC 250 ml/ha
(250 litres of spray
fluid / ha)

3. Inflorescence and pods : Apply any one of the following insecticides at 25

kg/ha. endosulfan 4% D or quinalphos 1.5 % D or phosalone 4 % D or
carbaryl 5 % D. Spraying of endosulfan 35 EC 1000 ml or monocrotophos
36 WSC 500 ml can also be sprayed (spray fluid 500 ml/ha).Spraying of
neem seed kernel extract 5 % twice ,starting from 50 per cent flowering
stage followed by one round of endosulfan 0.07 % is also effective.

4. Storage pests : Seeds must be dried to reduce the moisture level to 8 per
cent. To reduce further attack by bruchids seeds can be treated with 1 kg of
activated clay or malathion 5 % D / 100 kg of seed. Neem seed kernel
powder 3 % also protects the seeds from pests.

Pest management in cowpea

The cowpea is an important pulse and vegetable crop attacked by variety

of sap feeders like aphids in the early stage and flower feeders and borers at
later stage of the crop.

1. Early stage pest

Sucking pests : Spray methyl demeton 25 EC 500ml or dimethoate 30 EC 500

ml/ha (250 l spray fluid / ha).

Stemfly: Soil application of carbofuron 3G (15 kg/ha) at the time of sowing or

spray endosulfan 35 EC a week after germination and second round 10 days
after first round.

2. Protection of inflorescence and pod borers : Dust endosulfan 4% D or

quinalphos 1.5% D or phosalone 4% D or carbaryl 5% D@ 25 kg/ha or spray
endosulfan 35 EC 1000 ml 0r monocrotophos 36 WSC 500 ml (500 l spray
fluid/ha)

Pest management in chickpea

 Chickpea is an important pulse crop grown in 7.3 million hectares
(Yadava and Lal, 1998) with an average yield of 800 kg/ha. A wide variety of
are attacking the crop and nearly 54 insect species have been recorded. In
addition to insects, few nematodes are also infesting the chickpea.

Helicoverpa is the key pest causing an average yield loss of 7.3 per cent
for the entire country. There was even 90 per cent damage under severe cases.
The annual loss due to this pest was estimated to be Rs.20.30 crores (Lal et al.
1985)

1. Protection of pods and flowers

Application of phosalone 4% D or quinalphos 1.5% D or or carbaryl 5%

D @ 25 kg/ha; NPV 250 LE/ha; NSKE 5% or spraying of endosulfan 35EC
1000 ml/ha or monocrotophos 36 WSC 500 ml/ha (500 litres spray fluid/ha)

Spraying (ETL 2 early instar larvae / 10 plants) of endosulfan 0.07% in

combination with neem oil 0.01%. or three sprays of NPV along with 10%
aqueous extract of Vitex negundu is also effective against H. armigera. The
application of B.t. @ 1500 ml/ha is effective against H. armigera.

2. Storage of seeds

Seeds can be treated with 1.0 kg of malathion 5% D or Activated Kaolin

clay/100 kg of seed to protect the seeds from storage pests. Store the seeds in
polythene lined gunny bags.

II. DISEASES

Red gram , blackgram and greengram are the major pulse crop grown
in different systems as rain fed and irrigated crop in different seasons. The
above pulse crop is attacked by several diseases caused by viruses, fungi ,
bacteria and phytoplasma. Major constraints in increasing the production in
redgram is sterility mosaic and in black gram and green gram are yellow mosaic
caused by Mungbean Yellow Mosaic virus (MYMV), leaf crinkle caused by
Urdbean leaf crinkle virus (ULCV), leaf curl caused by Peanut bud necrosis
virus (PBNV), powdery mildew and dry root rot. These are the potentially
dangerous diseases in Tamil Nadu. Only possible way to reduce the yield loss
due to these diseases are adopting the integrated disease management practice
(IDM) employing many strategies like use of resistant varieties, use of disease
free seeds, manipulation of cultural practices, management of vectors,
application of bio-control agents and chemicals.
Table 1. Some important diseases of Red gram

Common name Symptoms Host range Transmissiion

Sterility mosaic Typical mosaic mottling symptom, Narrow Eriophyid
later plants become sterile or mite
partially sterile (Aceria
cajani)
Wilt Gradual withering and drying up of Wide –
plants
Root rot Premature defoliation and sudden Wide –
death of the plants

Table 2. Important viral diseases of blackgram and greengram, symptoms,

host range and transmission

Common name Virus code Symptoms Host range Transmissiion

Yellow mosaic MYMV Mild scattered yellow Wide White fly (Bemisia
specks on the leaves tabaci)
Leaf crinkle ULCV Enlargement, crinkling Wide Aphid, white fly,
and rugosity are the beetle, and also
typical symptoms through seed.
Leaf curl PBNV Chlorosis and inward Not known Transmitted
curling of leaves through thrips

The other virus diseases of black gram and green gram are bean
common mosaic, alfalfa mosaic, bean yellow mosaic, Cowpea aphid-borne
mosaic and etc.

The major fungal diseases of black gram and green gram are the
powdery mildew, dry root rot, and leaf spot diseases like Cercospora,
Alternaria leaf spots and rust (Gurdip Singh and Bhan, 1998 : Muthukrishnan
et al., 1995)
Table 3. Important fungal diseases of blackgram and greengram, causal
organism and their symptoms

Common name Causal organism Symptoms

Powdery mildew Erysiphe polygoni White powdery growth both on
upper and lower surface of the leaf
Dry root rot Macrophomina phaseolina Sudden death of the plants
Cercospora leaf spot Cercospora canescens Irregular to regular purplish brown
spots with pale gray center.
Alternaria leaf spot Alternaria spp Dark brown lesions with concentric
rings.
Rust Uromyces sp. Small brownish errumpent pustules

The bacterial and phytoplasma diseases are the minor importance in

Tamil Nadu.

Important diseases of Cowpea

Cowpea aphid borne mosaic virus
Root rot

Important disease of Bengal gram

Wilt

Integrated Management of Diseases

A. Redgram

i. Sterility mosaic : Rouge out the infected plants in the early stages of
growth. Spray monocrotophos 500 ml/ha on noticing the initial
symptoms and repeat after a fortnight.

ii. Wilt and root rot :

a. Spot drench around the base of the affected plants as well as healthy
plants surrounding them with carbendazim @ 1 g/litre for wilt and
root rot.
b. Soil application of Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 2.5 kg/ha mixed
with 50 kg of well decomposed FYM/sand at 30 days after sowing
Black gram and green gram

Integrated management strategies involves use of resistant varieties, use

of disease free seeds, manipulation of cultural practices, management of
vectors, and biological and chemical control methods (Raguchandar et al.,
1995; Vidhyasekaran and Muthamilan, 1995).

• Use of resistant varieties

• Vamban 1, Vamban 2, and Vamban 3 are resistant to yellow mosaic virus.
• Application of Neem cake @ 150 kgs / ha for the control of dry root rot
disease
• Seed treatment : Treat seeds with talc formulation of Trichoderma virde @
4g/kg of seed (or) Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 10 g/kg of seed (or)
carbendazim or thiram @ 2 g/kg of seeds.
• Soil application / drenching
• Apply Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 2.5 kg/ha mixed with 50 kg of well
decomposed Farm yard manure /sand at 30 days after sowing for the control
of root rot.
• Removal of yellow mosaic, leaf crinkle and leaf curl infected plants.
• Removal of weeds.
• Collect the seeds from disease free plants.
• Vector management

Name of the disease Control measure

Yellow mosaic
Leaf crinkle Spray Monocrotophos @ 500 ml /ha or Methyl demeton @ 500
ml/ha and repeat after 15 days.
Leaf curl
Powdery mildew Spray NSKE 5% or Neem oil 3% twice at 10 days interval from
the initial disease appearance (OR) Spray Carbendazim 250
gm/ha or Wettable sulphur 2.5 kg/ha.
Rust Spray Mancozeb I kg (or) Wettable Sulphur 2.5 kg/ha
Leaf spot Spray Carbendazim @ 250 g/ha

Cowpea :
Mosaic Virus

• Rogueing out of affected plants in the early stage of growth upto 30

days
• Spray Monocrotophos 500 ml/ha or Methyldemeton 500 ml/ha twice at
fortnightly intervals
Root rot

• Spot drench Carbendazim 1 g/lit or soil application of Pseudomonas

fluorescens @ 2.5 kg/ha mixed with 50 kg of well decomposed
FYM/sand at 30 days after sowing

Bengal gram
Wilt

• Treat with T.viride culture @ 4 g/kg of seed and sown.

• Soil application with P. fluorescens peat culture @ 2.5 kg/ha
• Application of peat culture mixed with organic manure or sand along
with the rows at the time of sowing and at 30 and 60 days after sowing
• Treat the seeds with P. fluorescens talc formulation @ 10 g/kg

Reference

Ali,M.1998.Research,Development and management for production of pulses.

In:IPM System in Agriculture.Volume 4. Pulses, R.K.Upadhyay,
K.G.Mukerji and R.L.Rajak (Eds.) Aditya Books Private Limited ,New
Delhi. pp1–40.

Anonymous,1999.Crop Production Guide. Directorate of Agriculture,

Chennai 600 005. Pp 73–102.

Banto,S.M. and F.F..Sanchez. 1972. The biology and chemical control of

Callasobruchus chinensis (Linn) (Coleoptera:Bruchidae) Philipp.
Entomol. 2:167–182.

Gurdip Singh and Livinder Kaur Bhan. 1998. Disease of Mungbean and
Urbean and their management. In : IPM System in Agriculture.
Vol. IV. Pulses. Upadhyay, R.K.Mukerji, K.G. and Rajak, R.L.
(Eds.), Aditya Books Private Ltd., New Delhi, India. pp 311-371.

Lal,S.S.,C.P.Yadava and C.A.R.Dias, 1985.Assesment of crop losses caused

by Helicoverpa armigera, FAO Plant Protection Bulletin 33:27–35.

Muthukrishnan, K., Arjunan, G. and Raguchander, T. 1995. Some pathological

studies on Macrophomina root rot of urbean. Indian Journal of
Pulses Research, 8:162-165.
Raguchander, T. Rajappan, K. and Prabakar, K. 1995. Evaluation of tale
based product of Trichoderma viride of the control of blackgram root
rot. Journal of Biological Control, 9:63-64.

Talekar,N.S.1990. Agromyzid flies of food legumes in tropics . Wiley

Eastern Limited, New Delhi.

Vidhyasekaran, P and Muthamilan, M. 1995. Development of formulation of

Pseudomonas fluorescens for the control of chickpea wilt. Plant Dis.
79:782-786.

Yadava,C.P. and S.S.Lal,1998.Major insect pests of chickpea and their

management. In:IPM System in Agriculture.Volume 4. Pulses ,
R.K.Upadhyay, K.G.Mukerji and R.L.Rajak (Eds.) Aditya Books
Private Limited ,New Delhi. pp197–231.
 MANGEMENT OF PODBORER COMPLEX
IN REDGRAM

Dr. K. Gunasekaran*

Among the pulses, the redgram Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. is the most
important dietary component of human beings. India is the largest producer
contributing more than 90 per cent of the worlds production of redgram.
Though the area has increased from 2.18 (1950–51) to 3.47 million ha (1998–
99) and the production has increased from 1.72 to 2.77 million tonnes. However
the productivity remains almost constant (788 – 799 kg/ha) (Anon, 2000).
Owing to the increase in population the per capita availability has been reduced
from 12.05 to 6.08 g/day (Durairaj, 1999). In Tamil Nadu redgram is grown
under 1.41 lakh ha with a production of 1.22 lakh tonnes. The average
productivity is 864 kg/ha (Anon,2000a).

Among the various constraints, insect pest is one of the major and
important one affecting the productivity of red gram apart from ecological and
biological constraints. ICRISAT (1981) listed 19 important pests of redgram
that are known to occur in India and the important pests are listed in Table 1.
The level of damage caused by different pests either individually or jointly may
vary with locations.

Table 1. Important pests of redgram

S.No. Common Name Scientific Name Plant Parts damaged

1 Flower beetle Mylabris spp. Flower / pod
2 Spotted pod borer Maruca virtata Pod
3 Gram pod borer Helicoverpa armigera Pod
4 Plume moth Exelastis atomosa Pod
5 Blue butterfly Catechrysops cnejus Pod
6 Pod wasp Tanastigmodes Pod
cajaninae
7 Pod fly Melanagromyza obtusa Pod
8 Pod bug Clavigralla spp. Pod

* Associate Professor, Dept. of Agricultural Entomology, TNAU, Coimabtore

 Among the eight pests, the gram pod borer and the pod fly are of major
concern in the redgram growing areas. The intensity of damage caused by pod
borers in different states of India is presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Intensity of Pod borer damage in redgram growing areas of India

Damage (%) Grade States

>20 High Punjab, Maharastra, Madhy Pradesh, Tamil Nadu
7–20 Moderate Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh
<7 Low North Eastern States

Monitoring of Helicoverpa armigera

The trap catch is influenced by environment, crop, egg and larval

population. The seasonal cycle of this pest varied in different parts of the
country and also with cropping pattern. Studies so far conducted has indicated
that these traps can be used as a monitoring device to design the management
strategies against H.armigera.

Podfly

Among the 20 species under the genus Melagromyza, only two species
viz., M.obtusa and M.chalcosoma Spencer feed on redgram. M.obtusa is of
economic importance only in the larval stages and is the major pest in medium
and long duration varieties causing 60–80 per cent grain damage (Lal and
Katti,1998). In Tamil Nadu the grain damage ranged from 2.5 to 51.0 per cent
(Sheriff and Rajagopalan,1971; Rajagopalan and Devakumar,1965). The
infected seeds do not germinate. Partially matured pods are used for egg laying
than the tender or fully matured pods.

Monitoring

All the immature stages remain within the developing pod and is very
difficult to monitor without damaging the pod. Though several attractants and
traps have been designed to monitor the adult flies, none of them are effective in
the field (Sithanantham et. al.1981; Mohan et.al.,1994; Durairaj,1995). Hence,
monitoring needs further research.

Spotted pod borer

The larvae cause extensive damage to floral buds and flowers. The
characterestic symptom is webbing together of flowers, pods, and leaves with
frass often on pods and shoot tips. This is serious pest in early maturing
varieties.
Monitoring

The adults can be monitored through light traps though there are
variations in the catches in different months at various regions of the country.

Plume moth

The pest is active throughout the year depending on the availability of

the host plants. Apart from redgram, it is also recorded in horse gram and lab
lab. The average pod and grain damage was 8.95 and 4.02 per cent respectively
(Bindra and Jakhmola, 1967)

Blue butterfly

It causes considerable damage to buds, flowers and tender pods

compared to other pod borers. Cowpea, pea, and beans are also important hosts
for this pest.

Pod wasp

This was first recorded in Patancheru during 1997 (Lateef, 1997). Many
infested pods fail to develop and are either shed or retained in the plants. The
adults emerge from these undeveloped pods. The basal locule is most
commonly affected. The damage is to the extent of 16.3 – 49.7 per cent
depending on the duration of the crop.

Pod bug

This is the most important sucking pest of pods. The adults mostly lay
eggs on green pods or leaves. At times floral buds, developing pods and dough
pods were also preferred for oviposition.

Blister beetle

The beetles are found to occur throughout the year in redgram, cowpea,
green gram and black gram. Peak incidence was observed during September
causing a maximum flower damage of 95 per cent.
MANAGEMENT
1. Host Plant Resistance

This is the most important and widely adopted components in IPM.

Several short, medium and long duration maturity groups have shown resistance
or tolerance to gram pod borer and pod fly. Ten redgram selections viz.,
ICRISAT 16, 166–2–1, ICP 7946–1–3–3, ICP 127, SL 12–3–1, SL 41–3–3,
PDA 88–2E–3–1, ICP 3401, ICP 7950 and ICP 12304 were promising
(Lal,1996). Rabi red gram SL 21–6–2 was tolerant against pod borer and pod
fly in many locations of the country (Anon,1996–97). Several resistant lines
were identified (Table 3)from ICRISAT (Lateef and Pimbert,1990) The short
duration entries ICPL 4, ICPL 2 and ICPL 88034 were tolerant pod borer
complex (Durairaj et.al. 1997). In Tamil Nadu, the entries viz., PDA 88–2E and
PDA 92–1E were tolerant to lepidopteran pests and pod fly (Durairaj and
Ganapathy, 1997).

The cultivars with small pods, small dark coloured seeds and deep
constrictions between seed locules were less preferred by pod fly. High level of
trypsin inhibitors and linolool was recorded in resistant lines to gram pod borer
(ICRISAT, 1989 &1990).

2. Cultural Practices

The effects of several cultural practices have been investigated on the

incidence of pod borer complex. In north, the timely sowing saves the crop
from the incidence of Helicoverpa (Sachan, 1992).

3. Biological control

Though several parasites and predators have been recorded against

Helicoverpa, they are less effective under field conditions (Durairaj, 1999).
The pathogens like HaNPV @ 500 LE (3.0x 1012 POBs/ha) were effective
under field conditions. There was high level (>80%) of parasitism by the larval
– pupal parasitoid Ormyrus spp. on pod fly in Vamban (Durairaj,1998).
Table 3. Redgram genotypes identified as resistant to Helicoverpa armigera

Genotypes Mean Resistance Borer Damage range

Rating 1 during 1979–90(%)
Short duration (Hissar)
ICPL 1 3.7(7) 5 – 32
ICPL 2 3.9 (8) 6 – 45
ICPL 269 4.7 (6) 11 – 29
ICPL 187–1 3.7 (7) 8 – 29
Control– Pant A1 6.9(9) 14 – 58
Medium & Medium – Long Duration
(ICRISAT Centre)
ICP909 –F3 4.5 (11) 6 – 50
PPE 45–2 4.4 (11) 4 – 37
ICP 1811–F3 4.1 (11) 9 – 50
ICP 1903–F1 3.8 (11) 13 – 67
ICP 10466–F3 3.7 (11) 3 – 67
Controls
ICP 1691 (Susceptible) 7.5 (11) 11 – 100
BDN – 1 6.0 (11) 16 – 90
C –11 6.0 (11) 18 – 76
ICP 3615 3.6 (11) 14 – 50
ICP 5036 3.5 (11) 7 – 61
1. Rated on a 1 to 9 scale, where 1= Resistant and 9 = susceptible
2. Figures in parentheses indicate the number of years tested
(After Lateef and Pimbert,1990)

3. Chemical control

This is the most reliable and effective control measure and offer
immediate solution to most of the problems. As the pod borer complex consists
of more than one pest and their intensity of attack differs depending on the
maturity of crop and geographical distribution, the type of insecticide and time
of use vary according to the pest situation. Generally the lepidopteran borers
and pod fly cause major damage and the control measure is decided based on
the incidence of these two groups. The chemicals recommended for managing
the pod borers are given below (Anon,1999).

Spraying can be taken up based on Economic Threshold (ETL).For

example , Maruca 3 /plant, Exalastis 5/plant. Whenever H. armigera is
predominant apply NPV 500LE/ha to control the pest in the early stage. Apply
any one of the following insecticides at 25 kg/ha. Endosulfan 4% D; quinalphos
4% D; carbaryl 5% D or spray endosulfan 35 EC 1250 ml., monocrotophos 625
ml/ha. Spraying of NSKE 5% twice followed by triazophos 0.05% is also
effective. Application of Neem oil 2% and phosalone 0.07% has controlled the
pod borers and increased the yield. Recent studies have indicated that following
IPM methods have controlled the pest and increased the yield.

1. Use of tolerant varieties

2. Installation of bird perches @ 50/ha
3. H.armigera pheromone trap @ 10/ha
4. Collection and destruction of fully grown larvae
5. Spraying NSKE 5% at 50% flowering
6. Spraying HaNPV at 500 LE/ha at 15 days after first spray
7. Application of the following insecticides at 15 days interval depending
on the intensity of pest. Chlorpyriphos 0.05% or monocrotophos 0.04%

The status of IPM in redgram is detailed in Table 4. Suitable

manipulation of the available technologies could result in an effective IPM
technology (Lal and Katti,1998).

Table 4. The Status of IPM in redgram in India

Insect Pests
S.No IPM componnents
H.armigera M.obtusa Others
I Pest Monotoring
Economic Thresholds
ϑ ρ ρ
Surveillance System
Forecasting ϑ ρ ρ
ϑ ρ ρ
II Host Plant Resistance
Ecological Resistance 4 4 ρ
Genetic Resistance ϑ ϑ ρ
III Cultural Control
Manipulation of sowing date ϑ ϑ ρ
Intercropping ⎯ ⎯ ρ
IV Chemical control
Effective Insecticides
Selective Insecticides 4 4 4
Timing of Insecticide Application
4 4 4
Minimum Effective Rates
Use of Plant Products 4 4 4
ϑ ƒ ϑ
V Biological control
Augmentation of Natural Enemies ƒ ƒ ƒ
(NE)
Prediction of NE effectiveness ƒ ρ ρ
Importation of NE ƒ ρ ρ
 Use of Microbial Agents 4
ρ ρ
4 Component available for use
ϑ Component available but more research needed for its
effectiveness
⎯ Component available but incompatible with other management
practices
ƒ Component not available but research currently being conducted
ρ Component neither available nor any research is being conducted

Reference

Anonymous, 1999. Crop Production Guide. Directorate of Agriculture,

Chennai 600 005. pp 73–78.

Anonymous, 2000. Project Co–Ordinator Report 1999–2000, All India

Coordinated Research Project on Pigeonpea. Indian Institute of Pulses
Research, Kanpur –208 024. 9p.

Anonymous, 2000a. Pulse Production Technology, Centre for Plant Breeding

and Genetics, TNAU, Coimbatore. 9p.

Bindra,O.S. and S.S.Jakhmola.1967.Incidence and losses caused by some pod

infesting insects in different varieties of pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan (L)
Millsp.) Indian J.Agric.Scientist., 37:177–188.

Durairaj,C. 1998.Seasonal incidence of pupal parasitods of pigeonpea pod fly

in tamil Nadu. Tamil Nadu. Indian J.Agric.Scientist., in Press.

Durairaj,C. and N.Ganapathy.1997.Evaluation of pigeonpea entries for their

tolerance to pod borer complex in Tamil Nadu. Indian J.Agric.Scientist.,
67(8):317–318.

Durairaj,C.,T.G.Shanower, V.R.Bhagwat, M.I.Khan and D.A..Dodia.1997.

Relationship between insect abundance, damage, and yield loss in short
duration pigeonpea (report of work) ICRISAT, Patancheru, India.10p.

Durairaj, C.1995. Ecology and management of Tur pod fly Melagromyza obtusa
Mall.in pigeonpea.Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, TNAU, Coimbatore. 120p.

Durairaj,C. 1999. Integrated Management for Pigeonpea pod borer Complex.

Pestology, 100–115.
ICRISAT,1981. Annual Report for 1979–80. Patancheru, Hyderabad, India.342p.

ICRISAT,1989. Annual Report for 1998. Patancheru, Hyderabad, India.

ICRISAT,1990. Annual Report for 1989. Patancheru, Hyderabad, India.

Lal,S.S. and G.Katti.1998.IPM of Pod borer complex infesting pigeonpea.

In:IPM System in Agriculture.Volume 4. Pulses , R.K.Upadhyay,
K.G.Mukerji and R.L.Rajak (Eds.) Aditya Books Private Limited, New
Delhi. pp 79–128.

Lateef,S.S.S1977. A new hymenopteran pest, Tanostigmodessp. (Hymennptera:

Tanostigmatidae) recorede on pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan Millsp.)at
ICRISAT, Hyderabad, India.Tropical Grain Legume, 7:6–7.

Lateef ,S.S. and M.P.Pimbert.1990.The search for host plant resistance to

H.armigera in chickpea and pigeonpea at ICRISAT. Proc. First
consultative Group Meeting on Host Selection behavior of H.armigera.5–7
May, 1990, ICRISAT centre, Patancheru, India.

Mohan,S. P.V.Subba Rao, and P.C.Sundara Babu. 1994. A new model trap for
monitoring pigeopea pod fly International Chickpea and Pigeonpea
News Letter, 1:42.

Rajagopalan, C.K. and J.A.Paul Devakumar.1965. Preliminary studies on the

infestation of Agromyza obtusa Mall. In redgram (Cajanus cajan Linn.)
Madras Agric.J. 58:345–346.

Sachan, J.N.1992.Present status of Helicoverpa armigera in pulses and

strategies for its management.In: Sachan, J.N.(ed.) Helicoverpa
Management. Current and future strategies .Proc. of first National
Workshop held at Directorate of Pulses, Kanpur, 30–31 August,1990.

Sheriff, M.N. and C.K.Rajagopalan.1971.A comparative study of the intensity

of infestation of the pod fly Melagromyza obtusa (Agromyzidae) Malloch
on different varieties of the redgram (Cajanus cajan L.) Madras Agric.J.b
58:842–843.

Sithanatham,G., M.Balasubramanian and S.Chelliah. 1981.Cotrol of Heliothis

armigera on red gram with NPV and Insecticides. Madras Agric.J.
68:417–420.
 RECENT TRENDS IN SEED PRODUCTION IN PULSES

Dr.V. Krishnasamy1, Dr.V.Palanisamy2 and Dr.P. Srimathi3

India is the largest producer and consumer of pulses in the world

accounting for 33 per cent of the world area and 22 per cent of world production
of pulses. The domestic demand and consumption, however is much more than
production mainly because pulses are a major source of protein for a large
section of the vegetarian population in the country. The cultivation of pulses
also provides of large quantity of green fodder, which serves as the nutritious
food for the livestock. Besides their high nutritional value, pulse crops have
unique characteristics of containing and restoring soil fertility through
biological nitrogen fixation. In Tamil Nadu, area wise, blackgram occupies
predominant place next to greengram and redgram. The following practices may
be adopted in different agro climatic zones for enhancing the pulses seed
production by better utilization of the available resources.

Land requirement

The land should be fertile and should not have been grown with the
same crop in the previous season. If grown, it should be the same variety, which
was certified for the said class of seeds. The land should be free from volunteer
plants.

Seeds and sowing

The seeds should be obtained from authenticated source with tag and
bill. The off colour seeds should be removed from normal coloured, since they
record lower germination. Only graded seeds should be used. In greengram and
blackgram the hard seed percentage may exceed to 10 per cent at a time.

At that time seeds should be scarified with commercial sulphuric acid

for 2 minutes and should be washed thoroughly and used for sowing. If the field
is infected with Macrophomina sp. the seeds are to be treated with Trichoderma
@ 4g kg-1.

1. Professor and Head, 2. Associate Professor, 3. Assistant Professor, Seed

Science and Technology, TNAU, Coimbatore
Specific rhizobium strains (600 g ha-1 as seed treatment) may be used
for all pulses for increasing the yield, for better nodulation and maintenance of
organic matter in the soil. Phosphobacteria @ 600 g ha-1 as seed treatment is
recommended for increasing the phosphorus use efficiency.

The seeds have to be treated with thiram or captan @ 2.0 g kg-1 and
insecticide carbaryl @ 200 mg kg-1 before sowing for early protection against
diseases and insects.

Seed hardening-cum-invigouration treatment of pulses

The process of seed hardening followed by invigouration is given as a

pre-sowing seed treatment. This treatment enables (or) helps the pulses seed to
germinate early with the available soil moisture. The hardened-cum-
invigourated seeds will withstand besides drought much sowing better than
untreated seeds.

The invigouration process accelerates seedling growth and suppresses

the weed growth. Better and early germination result in higher population per
unit area and contribute for higher yield. Two seed management practices
namely seed hardening and invigouration are combined in one process using
cheap and easily available materials. The steps involved are:

Seed hardening - Pre-conditioning

The seeds are pre-conditioned by placing them in between two moist

gunny bags for a period of 1 hr. The gunny bags are first soaked in water, then
excess water is removed by squeezing and used for pre-conditioning. The seeds
are spread to a depth of 1 to 2 cm on the gunny bag. After pre-conditioning the
seeds are soaked in botanical solution as explained below:

Soaking and drying

The pre-conditioned seeds are soaked in aquous botanical leaf extracts

of prosopis and pungam using 1% solution each and taken in 1:1 ratio or mixed
in 1:1 ratio. For example, to prepare 1 lit. of botanical extract weigh 10 g in
each of prosopis and pungam fresh leaves, macerate it to a paste and make up
the volume to 1 lit. of water. Soak the pre-conditioned seeds in this prepared
solution using 1:0.3 ratio. That is for 1 kg of seeds 300 ml of leaf extract.
Gently stir this seeds occasionally to enable uniform absorption. After 1 hr.
drain the solution and dry the seeds in the shade.
Invigouration

Following seed hardening the seeds are treated with halogen formulation
at 3 g kg-1 of seed. Halogen formulation is prepared by taking 5 parts of pure
bleaching powder with 4 parts of finely powdered chalk powder and 1 part of
arappu leaf powder and mixed in a closed container. This treatment can be
given to the seeds at the time of drying (when the surface moisture is removed)
and then dried back to safe moisture level.

The treated seeds can be sown immediately or can be stored upto 1 week
prior to sowing. Palanisamy and Jayaseelan (1998) found that pre-sowing seed
treatments of redgram CV CO5 seeds with trichoderma @ 4 g kg-1 followed by
Rhizobium culture inoculation at 24 hrs interval and subsequently pellating with
ZnSo4 (100 mg kg-1) using gypsum (300 g) as carrier and maida 10% (50 ml) as
adhesive resulted in higher germination, seedling group, vigour index and field
emergence (Table 1).

Vijaya and Ponnusamy (1998) studied seed fortification and pelleting on

crop growth and yield in black gram CV CO BG 282/1 and found that black
gram seeds fortified with ZnSo4 (0.2%) + NaSo4 (0.2%) + Na2Mo4 (0.1%) and
subsequently pelleting with DAP @ 120g kg-1 of seed registered higher yield
and quality.

Table 1. Effect of seed treatment in redgram cv CO5

Root Shoot Field

Germination Vigour
Treatments Length Length emergence
(%) index
(cm) (cm) (%)
ZnSo4(100ppm)+Thira
87.5 17.1 28.4 3978 84.0
m (2g)+Rhizobium
ZnSo4+Trichoderma+
88.5 17.7 28.6 4096 85.0
Rhizobium
Trichoderma+Rhizobiu
98.0 18.2 31.4 4687 91.0
m +ZnSo4 Pellating
Control 84.0 17.0 28.7 3906 83.0
CD 3.50 2.20 4.70 250.0 3.16
Table 2. Seed fortification and pelleting in black gram

Seed
Number of Seed yield 100-seed Germination
Treatment recovery
seeds pod-1 (g plant-1) weight (g) (%)
(%)
Control 5.7 4.8 3.60 90 94
Fortified with
micro nutrient + 6.3 5.6 3.80 94 96
pelleting DAP
CD 0.09 0.07 0.01 0.31 -

Mahaeswari (1996) found among the organic pelleting materials tested

in soybean CV CO1, vermicompost @ 50 g kg-1 gave the best effect on
germination, peedling growth, dry matter production and vigour index. The next
best was the combination of vermicompost and pungam (Derris indica) leaf
powder (1:1) @ 40 gkg-1.

Table 3. Seed pelleting with Vermicompost in soybean

Germination Root length Shoot length Dry matter Vigour

Treatment
(%) (cm) (cm) (mg SL-1) Index
Impelleted 82 5.1 31.5 67 419
Vermicompost 98 11.6 27.2 109 1136
Vermicompost+Pung 92 11.3 26.5 93 1039
am leaf powder (1:1)
CD 9.2 1.20 2.9 8.7 20.0

Maintenance of purity

To maintain the genetic purity and physical purity of seeds, rouging is to

be done form vegetative phase to harvesting phase. The off types and volunteer
plants are to be removed as and when they occur in the field based on leaf
colour, stem colour, growth status, flower colour, pod colour, seed colour etc. In
addition to the off types, the pest affected and mosaic virus affected plants
should be removed.

Irrigation

The crop should be irrigated immediately after sowing and the life
irrigation is given on third day. Subsequently irrigate the crop once in 10-15
days depending upon soil and climatic conditions. The flowering and pod
formation stages are critical periods of irrigation. Water stagnation should be
avoided at all stages.
Pre-harvest sanitation spray

To avoid bruchid (pulse beetle) infestation in the storage, the pulse crop
should be sprayed with endosulfan or malathion 0.07 per cent two times at
weekly interval before harvest. This treatment will minimize the egg laying by
bruchid. Sasikala (1994) studied the effect of pre-harvest sanitation spraying of
pesticides on seed yield and quality in cowpea CV CO4. The results revealed
that pre-harvest spray of endosulfan (0.25%)+carbendazium (0.1%) two times
that is at 30th and 45th after sowing recorded increased number of pods, pod
yield, seed yield and seed quality. This treatment also recorded minimum
bruchid incidence during storage.

Table 4. Pre-harvest sanitation spray in cowpea cv CO 4

Pod Seed Seed

Pod yield / Germination
Treatments Number/ Number/ Yield
plant (g) (%)
plant pod (g/Plant)
Control 6.1 14.2 14.9 10.1 87.3
Endosulfon (0.25%) 8.1 13.0 17.8 11.1 93.3
Malathion (0.1%) 10.1 15.3 23.0 17.2 91.7
Carbendazium (0.1%) 9.0 15.7 23.2 15.9 94.7
Endosulfon+Carbendazium 12.8 16.9 28.8 20.8 95.7
Malathion+ 8.8 15.3 25.3 16.2 93.3
Carbendaszium
CD 1.01 NS 3.40 2.50 1.91

Patrick Jasper (1998) studied the effect of pre-harvest sanitation spray

on seed yield and quality in pea. The results showed that the seed yield and
quality characters were found to be higher in the plots sprayed with endosulfon
0.1 per cent three times at 10 days interval before harvesting.

Table 5. Pre-harvest sanitation spray in peas

Seed Bruchid
Seeds Germination
Treatment yield Vigour index infestation
pod-1 (%)
g plant–1 (%)
No spray 5.5 11.3 67 1102 11.3
Endosulfon 6.5 18.4 83 1197 1.7
CD 0.8 0.7 3.8 54.0 0.31
Harvesting
 Harvest the pods when they attain the physiological maturity. The pod
colour turns straw colour on the crop. Discard the terminal pods, as they
invariably contain immature and diseased seeds. The seed moisture content at
this stage will be about 15 per cent. Dry the pods to render them just brittle and
flail them with pliable bamboo stick to separate the seeds. Rain at the time of
harvest may enhance the occurrence of off coloured seeds and result in poor
seed quality. These seeds are to be removed.

Seed processing

The pods are dried to 12-13 per cent moisture content and then they are
threshed and precleaned. The seeds should be size graded using recommended
sieve for homogenising the seed lot.

Seed treatment

The graded seeds can be further dried to 7-8 per cent moisture content
and treated with following materials in the order of preference:
• thiram or captan @ 2g + carbaryl @ 200 mg kg-1 of seed for safe
storage.
• Activated clay @ 1 kg 100-1 kg of seeds may be dry dressed for grain
cum seed storage use.

Hybrid seed production in redgram for COPH 2

The tool employed for production of hybrid seed is by genetic male

sterility system (GMS) where the male sterility is maintained in heterozygous
stage. Following the test cross principle, these would be fertile and sterile plants
in the ratio of 1:1 in male sterile production. COPH 1 and COPH 2 are the two
redgram hybrids released from TNAU.

Planting ratio

For hybrid seed production in COPH 2, a ratio of 4:2 or 6:2 or 4:1 or

male sterile; pollen parent is to be adopted depending upon the honey bee
activity. If the honey bee activity is above normal, a ratio of 4:1 can be
followed. If the honeybee activity is very less a ratio of 4:2 may be adopted. If
the activity is moderate adopt 6:2 ratio.
Isolation distance
An isolation distance 200 m for foundation class and 100m for certified
class is to be followed.

Sowing

Both the parents are to be sown simultaneously. Sow two rows of pollen
parent all around the entire plot. Sowing should be done during Ist fortnight of
June or 1st fortnight of December.

Rogueing
In male sterile line or female parent,
1. Remove the off type plants
2. Remove the male fertile plant by examining the colour of the anthers
(yellow) at the time of first flower formation. The plants with
translucent white anthers (sterile) alone are retained in the female
rows. This operation should be completed in 7-10 days interval till
completion of flowering by daily visit.
3. Remove the late flowering and early flowering plants

In male fertile line or pollen parent,

1. Remove all the off type plants
2. Remove the immature pods set in the plants from time to time to
induce continuous flowering and to aware the pollen availability.

Harvesting

Collect the pods from the female parent i.e., male sterile parent. This
will give the hybrid seeds. Male and female rows can be identified by putting
colour bamboo stakes.

Somu (1995) conducted experiments to standardize optimum planting

ratio and effect of pickings on seed yield and quality in redgram hybrid ICPH 8.
The results revealed that pod set percentage, pod number seed yield per plant
and per row were on par up to three rows adjacent to the male row on either
side. The hybrid seed yield was significantly higher upto three female rows in
either side of male row indicating that the optimum planting ratio for ICPH 8
pigeon pea hybrid seed production is 1:6 (male: female). The picking wise study
revealed that the pod number, pod yield, seed yield and quality showed a
decreasing trend from first to third picking.

Table 6. Optimum planting ratio for ICPH 8 hybrid

Female row (R) Seed yield Seed yield Germination
 (g Plant–1) (g row-1) (%)
R1 17.8 995 89
R2 17.4 991 89
R3 16.8 987 87
R4 10.9 692 86
R5 9.0 537 86
R6 4.7 294 86
R7 4.8 290 87
CD 1.3 20.0 NS

Vasantha (1995) studied the better of seed size on seed quality in pigeon
hybrid CoH1 and its parents. The results revealed that the pollen and seed
parents, ICPL 87109 and MST 21, are large and small seeded genotypes while
the hybrid is a medium sized seed. The seed lots of hybrid and its pollen parent
can be processed using 12/64 “round perforated sieve while the seed parent with
10/64” sieve in order to get quality seeds with higher germination and vigour.

Table 7. Seed certification standards for pulses

Field standards Foundation class Certified class
Isolation distance for redgram (m) 200 100
For others (m) 10 5
Specific requirements
Off types 0.10% 0.20%
*Plants affected by seed borne disease 0.10% 0.20%
Seed standards factors
Pure seed (minimum) 98.0% 98.0%
Inert matter (maximum) 2.0% 2.0%
Other crop seeds (maximum) 5/kg 10/kg
Weed seeds (maximum) 5/kg 10/kg
Other distinguishable varieties (maximum) 5/kg 10/kg
Germination including hard seeds 75% 75%
(minimum)
Moisture (maximum) 9.0% 9.0%
containers (maximum) 8.0% 8.0%
* Seed borne diseases are: Ashy stem blight (Macrophomina phaseoli),
anthracrose (Colletotrichum lindemuthianum), scochyta blight, cowpea mosaic,
Halo blight (Pseudomonas phasiolicola), Bacterial blight (Xanthomonas spp.)

Seed storage and treatment techniques in pulses

 Storage is the basic preservation of material for further usage. This
occupies special importance in seed since seeds are to be viable at the time of
usage for sowing. Seeds undergo irreversible physical, physiological and
biochemical deteriorative changes during storage. Seed treatments are the
management practices, which can prolong the shelf life of seed by mitigating
the deteriorative changes. The seed treatments employed for the said purpose
can be broadly classified into pre-storage and mid-storage treatments.

I. PRE-STORAGE SEED TREATMENT

These treatments are given to seeds before storage for safe and
protective storage of seeds. These treatments reduce the deterioration of seed
caused by external and internal factors.

The factors influencing seed treatment are; 1. Moisture content of seed

2. Initial infestation of insects and fungi 3. Kind of seed 4. Selection of
chemical 5. Storage environment and 6. Storage period.

1. Pre-sanitation spray

The treatment influence can be exalted by protecting the crop at field

itself from bruchids by implementing the pre-harvest sanitation spray at field 10
days before harvest with 0.07% endosulphan as a preventive dose to storage
insects especially the bruchids.

2. Seed treatment with activated clay

The seeds are treated with activated clay (Burnt China clay) @ 1:100
ratio as dry mix. Due to abrasive action the infestation by bruchids is minimized
and seeds are protected from bruchids.

3. Seed treatment with botanicals

The seeds are treated with botanical leaf powder such as neem, notchi,
pungam, sambangi, arappu @ 1:100 ratio as dry mix and are stored under
ambient conditions. The leaf powders act as repellent to insects and their
invasion is prevented. Sikkai and soapnut fruit rind are also used as a repellents
for the storage of seeds. Vasambu and turmeric rhizome powder are also used
for dry mixing with seed to protect against deterioration of seed by internal and
external factors. It is a low cost and no cost indigenous technologies for short-
term seed storage.
4. Seed treatment with red earth
 Seed are coated or mixed with red earth @ 1:100 ratio and is used to
prevent the insect emergence with preventive action.

5. Seed treatment with oils

Seeds are treated with neem oil, coconut oil, groundnut oil, castor oil,
pungam oil @ 1:100 ratio as repellents. The slippery nature of oil gives 100%
protection against insects. Among the oils, neem oil is the best.

6. Seed fumigation

Seeds are dried to below 10% moisture and fumigated with celphos @ 3
g/m3 for a period of 7 days. This prevents the primary and secondary
infestations of bruchids.

7. Seed treatment with insecticides and fungicides

Seeds are dried to low moisture content (8-10%) and treated with
fungicide and insecticides either alone or in combinations.

The fungicides used are thiram or captan or carbandazim. These are

mixed with seed @ 2 g kg-1 of seed either as dry mix or as slurry treatment.
The fungicides are diluted with 5 ml of water per kilogram of seed, mixed with
seed, shade dried and stored.

The insecticides such as monocrotophos, chloropyriphos are treated in

liquid form, where 2.4 ml of the insecticide is mixed with one kilogram of seed.

Carboryl 50% dust or carboryl 50% WP. is the insecticide commonly

used as dry mix and slurry @ 200 mg kg-1 of seed along with fungicide to
protect the seed both from storage fungi and insects.

Malathion and Decis is also used for seed treatment @ 0.06 and 0.04 ml
kg-1 of seed respectively (slurry) to protect the seed both from insects and fungi
in addition to provide a check against natural deterioration.

8. Seed treatment with Halogen mixture

Seed treatment with chlorine and iodine based halogen mixture to

protect the seed from free radicle formation, which is the deteriorative factor
occurring in seed senescence and aging. This halogen treatments quench the
free radicle and slow down the natural deteriorative nature of the seed. Chlorine
based halogen mixture is prepared by mixing Calcium chloride (bleaching
powder), Calcium carbonate and arappu leaf powder in 5:4:1 ratio. The dosage
for seed treatment is 3 g kg-1 of seed either as dry mix or as slurry treatment.

9. Repeated sun drying

Moisture content is the factor that influences the internal deterioration

and external biotic organism in seed. By repeated sun drying of seed once in 2
months to keep the moisture content of seed to 7-8% will protect the seed. The
storability can be extended to more than a year.

10. Seed storage godown sanitation sprays

The seeds are invaded by the insects as secondary infestation in the

unhygienic seed storage. Spraying of bags and walls of storage godown with
malathion and nuvan can prevent the secondary infestation and preserve the
seeds for longer duration.

10. Selection of packaging material

The seeds devoid of primary infestation and dried to below 8 per cent
can be stored for longer duration, when packed in moisture vapour proof
containers. This type of storage protects the seed from external and internal
deteriorating factors. The polyvinyl and 600 gauge polyethylene bags also give
better protection against insects compared to gunny and cloth bags.

II. MID-STORAGE CORRECTION TREATMENTS

The seeds stored in godown can also be checked for the storability /
deteriorative nature in the middle and can be corrected by the adoption of any of
the following methods.

1. Water flotation technique

When the seeds are infected with bruchids, they may be floated in water
to assess the insect activity. They can be further minimized by fumigation or by
seed treatment.
2. Moisture equilibrium technique

Pulse seeds which have the hydrophilic protein, can not respond to
hydration-dehydration technique. Hence, seeds are moisture equilibrated to raise the
moisture content above 20 per cent and then they are dried back to original moisture
content. Seed may also be sprayed with water and dried back to original moisture
content. This helps in quenching of the free radicles present in the deteriorating seed.
Halogen treatment can also be used as a mid-storage treatment where the
halogen is utilized for quenching the free radicles.

Adoption of these seed treatment technique either individually or in

combination, can preserve the pulse seeds and prolong its life for longer
duration.

References

Maheswari,R.(1996). Seed production technology in soybean under rice fallow

and methods to control seed detenoration in soybean CV Co1 (Glycine
max L.) Merrill) M.Sc. (Ag) Thesis, TNAU, Coimbatore-3.

Palanisamy, V. and K.Jayaseelan (1998). Effect of pre-sowing seed treatments

on seed quality in redgram. MAJ.85(10-12): 612-614.

Patrick Jasper (1998). Studies on seed production and storage aspects of pea
(Pisum sativum L.) M.Sc (Ag) Thesis, TNAU, Coimbatore-3.

Sasikala, K. 1994. Studies on the influence of pre-harvest spraying of pesticides

on seed yield and quality in cowpea CV Co4. M.Sc (Ag) Thesis, TNAU,
Coimbatore-3.

Somu, G.(1995). Studies on certain aspects of seed production in pigeon pea (Cajanus
cajan (L.) Millsp.) hybrid ICPH 8 M.Sc (Ag) Thesis, TNAU, Coimbatore-3.

Vasantha, R. (1995). certain seed technological studies in the piegon pea

(cajanus cajan (L) Millsp) hybrid Co H1 and its parental lines M.Sc (Ag)
Thesis, TNAU, Coimbatore-3.

Vijaya, J. and A.S. Ponnusamy (1998). Studies on seed fortification and

pelleting in blackgram. Madras Agric. J., 85 (10-12):549-552.
RHIZOBIUM AND PHOSPHOBACTERIA: AN AVENUE FOR
INCREASING PRODUCTIVITY IN PULSES

Dr.S.Gunasekaran1 and Dr.D.Balachandar2

Rhizobium: An introduction

The average annual global nitrogen fixation is of 175 million

tonnes/year, in which the legume nitrogen fixation accounted for about 40 per
cent. Rhizobium, gram negative rod shaped bacteria, which invade into the
roots of legume, forming nodules and fixing the atmospheric nitrogen through
nitrogenase enzyme is the basic phenomenon of the BNF of pulses. Subba Rao
(1995) quated that, clover fixes about 130 kg of nitrogen per ha and cowpea
ranges from 62-128 kg/ha. The nitrogen fixed by other legume crops is given in
Table 1. (Nutman,1974). Keyser et al. (1992) reviewed the following
characters of Rhizobium to be used as inoculant for pulses. 1. Ability to form
nodules and fix nitrogen; 2. Ability to compete, 3. Ability to fix N at different
environmental range; 4. Ability to grow in the artificial media; 5. Ability to
persist in soil for long time; 6. Ability to migrate; 7. Ability to colonize in the
soil; 8. Genetic stability; 9. Compatability and 10. Ability to colonize in
rhizosphere soil.

Crop Response to Rhizobium

The range of experimentally determined values of N2 fixation by

temprate and tropical legumes reflects the inherent capacities of legumes to
accumulate and fix N (Peoples, et al., 1995). The All India Coordinated Pulses
Improvement Project trials results clearly indicated that the inoculation of
Rhizobium with basal P fertilizer application is enough to get maximum
nodules/plant, nodule weight, plant biomass and grain yield of blackgram,
greengram and redgram (Table 2-3). (AICPIP, 1997; 1998 & 1999). It is
clearly revealed that application of Rhizobium as seed inoculant is the most
essential component in the integrated nutrient management system in pulses.
(AICPIP, 1999). The results also clearly showed that atleast 25 per cent of
nitrogen could be complemented by Rhizobium if included as a component in
the integrated nutrient management system.

1. Associate Professor, 2. Assistant Professor, Microbiology, NPRC, Vamban

Limitations of Rhizobium - Pulses symbiosis

There are so many biotic and abiotic factors influencing the rhizobial
colonization in pulses. These factors play an important role in the pulses
production by altering the efficiency of Rhizobium.

1. Pulses varieties

Selection of a pulse varieties for more nodulation and nitrogen fixation

by Rhizobium is the basic step in the BNF of pulses. The pioneering work
carried out by Lie and Mulocer (1971) and Philips et al (1971) reported that the
phenotypic differences in nitrogen fixation are not fully due to plant genotypes
or the Rhizobium genotypes but arise due to a lesser or greater extent from the
collective action between specific individuals. Oblisamy et al. (1982) reported
that the genotypes of blackgram and greengram varied with the response to
Rhizobium inoculation (Table 4). Muthiah (1999) reviewed some practical
methods to evolve the pulses for more Rhizobium response.

2. Soil abiotic factors

a. Soil pH

The soil pH plays are important role in the nodulation and nitrogen
fixation by Rhizobium in pulses. At acid pH, the non availability of
phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, calcium, molybdenum and boran, which
are key elements for Rhizobial nodulation and nitrogen fixation lead to poor
performance. Moreover the toxicity of aluminia and manganese to rhizobial
cells also the reason for the poor growth (Bushby, 1982). The aluminium of
50µ M and 200µ M of manganese are the minimum concentrations in soil
solution to effect the rhizobial cells (Keyser and Munn, 1979).

A trial conducted at National Pulses Research Centre, Vamban at

different pH soils, the Rhizobium CRU 7 performed better nodulation and
biomass production in blackgram at 6.5-7 pH, whereas the low pH of 4.5-5.0,
there is significant decline in the nodule / plant, nodule and biomass
production.

As fig.2, the alkaline soils also tend to be high in sodium chloride,

sodium bicarbonate, sodium sulphate which are found to be highly toxic to the
Rhizobial cells (Wilson, 1931). The effect of pH on the survival of rhizobia in
soil was studied by Swaminathan and Prasad (1982) (Table 5).
 The neutral soils are with more availability of P, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mo, B etc.
and with non toxic level of A1, Mn, NaCl leads to higher survival of Rhizobium
in soil and better nodulation and nitrogen fixation in pulses (Prabakaran, 1999
and Hegde, 1999).

b. Organic matter

The organic matters act as a media to survive the Rhizobium in the soil
when the host is not available. So, the organic matter of the soil leads a major
role in the activity of Rhizobium (Gunasekaran, 1999). More over, when the
organic matter content of soil declines the water holding capacity, becomes
poor, nutrients status and soil hardening which lead to the poor survival of
Rhizobium in the soil (Prabakaran, 1998). Bharwaj and Guar (1972) reported
that humic and fulric acid fractions of soil appreciably improve the growth of
Rhizobium meliloti. Prabakaran and Ravi (1996) reported that application of
organic amendments such as sheep manure, biodigested slurry and farm yeard
manure application significantly increased the Rhizobium efficiency by
increasing the nodule number/plant, nodule weight and grain yield (Table 6).

c. Moisture and aeration

Optimum soil moisture and good aeration of soil are required for
maximum nodulation. Both excess moisture and drought adversely affect the
nodulation and symbiotic nitrogen fixation. Moisture content of 24% in alfisols
and 45% in vertisols gave maximum nodulation in Chickpea (Hegde, 1999).
Venkateswaralu (1997) reported that though the soil rhizobial population was
low in the off season, but can return to normal population on the receipt of
monsoon rains and soil rewetting. Balasundaram (1988) screened soybean
Rhizobium tolerant to water stress.

3. Biotic factors

i. Antogonistic organisms

Jain and Rewari (1974) found that seed-borne bacteria and fungi are
reported to be antogonistic to rhizobia. The bacterial genera, Bacillus,
Alcaligenes, Erwinia, Aerobacter, Corynebacterium, Arthrobacter,
Brevibacterium, Agrobacterium, Sarcina, Enterobacter and Micrococcus and
the fungal genera, Alternaria, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Rhizopus, Acrothecium,
Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, Curvularia, Pythium and Mucar were found to be
autogonistic against rhizobia in soil (Subba rao, 1993).

ii. Rhizobiophages
 The phases which infect and kill the rhizobia are called as
rhizobiophages. They possess DNA. They infect both slow and fast growing
rhizobia. The presense of higher phage population in the soil reduce the activity
of rhizobia and ultimately the crop yield. The selection of rhizobial strains
resistant to rhizobiophages with higher nitrogen fixation is advisable
(Murugesan, 1999).

iii. Native Rhizobium

Brockwell et al. (1982) reported that naturally occurring rhizobia often

exist in populations of between 1.0 x 104 and 1.0 x 107 cells per gram of soil.
This is equavalent to 1.5 x 1013 rhizobia per ha of soil (10 cm). If the
introduced rhizobia are about 10 x 1010 cells per ha, the inoculant: native
rhizobia ratio is about 1:250. It seems, therefore, in soils where there are large
number of naturally occurring rhizobia, will result in to poor response of
inoculated Rhizobium. It clearly indicated that the best way to establish a new
strain of rhizobia against a naturally occurring population is to apply a heavy
rate of effective, persistent inoculum placed straightly close the point in the soil
where the legume roots will accept infections.

As fig.2. explained, the biotic and abiotic factors of soil play a major
role in the exploitation of Rhizobium for pulses production in sustainable
agriculture.

Phosphobacteria – An Introduction

Phosphate solubilizing bacteria play a major role in the solubilization

and uptake of native and applied soil phosphorus. Phosphorus, the key element
is an essential plant nutrient required for early establishment and better plant
growth. It accelerates tillering, flower initiation, good pod and seed setting.
Most of the indian soils are deficient in available form of P and its requirement
is met by the addition of phosphatic fertilizers but the use efficiency of applied
phosphorus rarely exceeds 30 per cent due to its fixation as Fe and Al
phosphates in acid soil and Ca and Mg phosphates in alkaline soils. In this
context, phosphate solubilizing micro organisms plays an important role in the
utilization of unavailable native phosphates as well as added phosphates.

The bacteria, Bacillus megatrium, B. polymyxa, Pseudomonas striata,

Micrococcus, Streptomyces are the important phosphobacteria commonly
present in the soil. The population of these bacteria is more in the rhizosphere
compared to non rhizosphere.
Mechanism of phosphorus solubilization

The major microbiological means, by which insoluble phosphorus

compounds mobilized, is by the production of organic acid which is
accompanied by the acidification of medium. The acids are citric, furmanic,
malic, lactic, 2 ketogluconic, gluconic, glyoxylic and x-ketobutyric acids
(Illmer and Schinner, 1992). Apart from acid production, they produce
phosphatase enzyme which cause the solubilization of P (Alghazali et al.
1986). Kapoor et al. (1989) reported that chelating compounds, mineral acids
and siderophores also play the role of P solubilization (Fig.3).

Crop response of phosphobacteria

The experiments conducted on soybean (Natarajan and Gunasekaran,

1991), pea, french bean and ground nut (Natarajan and Subramanian, 1995)
revealed the synergistic effect of phosphobacteria. The trials conducted at
National Pulses Research Centre, Vamban reported that the application of
phosphorus as rock phosphate at basal along with phosphobacteria inoculation recorded
significant yield increase in the blackgram and greengram (Table 7& 8).

Interaction of Rhizobium and Phosphobacteria

Nitrogen and phosphorus are the two major plant nutrients required for
higher productivity and combined inoculation of nitrogen fixers and phosphate
solubilizing micro organisms may benefit the plant better than individual
inoculation. Natarajan and Gunasekaran (1991) reported the beneficial effect of
combined inoculation of Rhizobium and phosphate solubilizing bacteria on
soybean. Trials conducted at Coimbatore reported that combined inoculation of
Rhizobium and phosphobacteria with 50 per cent of N and P fertilizer recorded
the equal yield of 100% N and P alone (Santhana krishnan, 1990). The same
results are obtained at National Pulses Research Centre, Vamban when tried
with blackgram var. Vamban 1 and in horsegram also (Prabakaran et al., 1999)
(Table 9).

The above results clearly suggested that combined inoculation of

Rhizobium and Phosphobacteria will help the macro symbiont – pulses to get
maximum quantity of N and P nutrients so as to get higher yield (Fig.4).
Future thrust to improve the dual inoculation

Among the various sources of biological nitrogen fixation, symbiotic

legume – rhizobia association contributes one of the major sources. To utilize
the symbiotic nitrogen fixation effectively, there should be enough improved
techniques available. The altering the environmental soil and biotic factors, the
legume dual inoculation can be improved.

1. Macro and Micronutrients

The failure of pulses – biofertilizers may be sometimes due to non-

availability of macro and micronutrients which are essential for the nodualtion
and nitrogen fixation in pulses. Application of organic amendments such as
farm yard manure, compost, press mud and coirpith application gives enough
nutrients for the biofertilizers both Rhizobium and phosphobacteria to survive in
the soil when host is not available. More over, the organic manure application
lossen the soil for better movement of rhizobial cells in the root region. As
Prabakaran (1998) reported application of organic manure is most essential to
improve the nodulation and grain yield in pulses by Rhizobium in acid soils.

Similarly, foliar spray of phosphorus also recorded the higher nodulation

and nitrogen fixation by Rhizobium in blackgram. The experiments conducted
at National Pulses Research Centre, Vamban revealed that both soil and foliar
spray of phosphorus recorded the maximum nodulation and grain yield of
blackgram.

Most of the times, the failure of Rhizobium in pulses is due to non

availability of micro nutrients such as Mo, Co, B and Fe. The experiment
conducted at National Pulses Research Centre, Vamban confirmed that
application of Mo, Co, B and Fe as foliar spray recorded maxim um nodulaion
and grain yield in blackgram (Table 10).

The research on requirement of macro and micro nutrients to create

better environment for the maximum utilization of biofertilizers (Rhizobium and
Phosphobacteria) is essential.

2. Genetic Improvement

The following are the avenue for the improvement of Rhizobium to get
maximum BNF in pulses.
• Improvement of sym gene – a plasmid / chromosomal gene which is
involved in the symbiotic activities.
• Improvement of nod genes – nodulation factor
• Improvement of nif gene of Rhizobium – a plasmid gene which is
responsible for nitrogen fixation in Rhizobium.

The Rhizobial strains could be improved by manipulating the genetic

triat of the above genes. To achieve these important characters, the rhizobia
could be manipulated genetically by in vitro recombination through
conjugation, transformation, transduction and mutations (Sundaram, 1999).

Apart from nodulation and nitrogen fixation improvement, the following

characters of Rhizobium are to be manipulated so as to get maximum efficiency.

• Acid tolerant strains

• Salt & water resistant strains
• Herbicide resistant mutants
• Temperature tolerant strains
• Phage resistant strains
• High competitive strains to native rhizobia

3. Antogonistic bacteria and Azospirillum

The use of antogonistic bacteria, which is compatable to the Rhizobium

and antogonistic to other soil pathogens could be another method to improve the
nodulation and nitrogen fixation. The antogonistic bacteria - AB 3 was
developed by Department of Agricultural Microbiology, Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University, Coimbatore tested at AICPIP Centres. The results
clearly proved that the Coinoculation of Rhizobium and antogonistic bacteria
proved to be the best for enhancing the rhizobial nodulation and nitrogen
fixation (Table 11).

The exploitation of such bacteria and Azospirillum, which can improve

the root growth for better nodulation and production of growth promoting
substances is the next step in the improvement of pulses – Rhizobium
symbiosis.

4. Improvement of legume host

 It is now well known that number of host factors influence the
nodulation as well as symbiotic nitrogen fixation directly or indirectly. The
flavonoids produced by the legume trigger the induction of bacterial nodulation
genes which is essential for the expression of plant genes for nodule
morphogenesis. The genetic improvement of legume host is essential for
production of flavonoids and nodulins is the future need to improve the
nodulation and nitrogen fixation by Rhizobium.

5. Inoculants for Dryland pulses

Nearly 90 per cent of pulses in India is cultivated under rainfed

situation on marginal lands. Abiotic stresses significantly affect the BNF and P
solubilization. Optimum environment for better biological nitrogen fixation and
P solubilization are well known. But simple and practical agronomic
techniques which can be adopted by small farmers are to be developed to
overcome the soil stress in the field.

Table 1. Average nitrogen fixed by legumes

Sl.No. Legumes N fixed (kg/ha)

1. Pigeonpea 41-90
2. Soybean 17-124
3. Cowpea 73-240
4. Grams 31-121
5. Groundnut 33-111
6. Chickpea 41-270
7. Cluster bean 37-196
8. Peas 46
9. Fenu greek 44
10. Lentil 41-90
11. Stylo 30-190
12. Leucerne 164
13. Clover 23-260
(Nutman, 1974)
Table 2. Average nodulation by Rhizobium at different pulses

Nodule No./ plant

Treatments 1997 1998 1999 Average Per cent increase
over fertilizer
conrol
I. Redgram
i. Control 2.2 2.1 2.0 2.1
ii. Rhizobium 5.9 5.7 6.7 6.1 15.15
iii. 20 kg N/ha 3.4 3.4 3.2 3.3
II. Blackgram
i. Control 10.00 10.11 10.07 10.06
ii. Rhizobium 18.41 16.47 16.21 16.38 17.00
iii. 20 kg N/kg 13.71 15.17 13.13 14.00
III. Greengram
i. Control 12.17 10.31 10.41 11.96
ii. Rhizobium 17.47 15.22 15.42 16.04 19.79
iii. 20 kg N/kg 13.17 14.14 12.27 13.39

(Source: Annual Reports of AICPIP)

Table 3. Grain yield increase by Rhizobium strains in pulses

Grain yield (kg/ha)

Treatments 1997 1998 1999 Average Per cent increase
over fertilizer
conrol
I. Redgram
i. Control 271 231 255 252
ii. Rhizobium 315 314 309 312 18.6
iii. 20 kg N/ha 374 256 255 263
II. Blackgram
i. Control 327 371 301 333
ii. Rhizobium 525 619 507 550 34.80
iii. 20 kg N/kg 397 433 394 408
III. Greengram
i. Control 354 339 341 345
ii. Rhizobium 556 528 525 536 41.79
iii. 20 kg N/kg 370 388 376 378
(Source: Annual Reports of AICPIP)
Table 4. Genotype variation in blackgram on rhizobial inoculation
Germplasms Nodule No. / plant
Inoculated Uninoculated
H 21 117 147
P 133 73 118
H.21.40/22 43 148
VZM 189 117 46
CO 2 52 72
H.21.40/28 152 158
P 58 122 104
H.21-50-4 40 206
NO 55 137 202
PLS 364 87 223
T9 71 114
H.21 191 91
M3 204 174
Musiri 117 127
H21-40/30 166 149
Pusal 181 131
(Oblisami, et al., 1982)

Table 5. Survival of Rhizobium at various soil pH

pH Population ( X 106 /g)

th th
20 day 40 day 80th day 100th day Mean
7 24.0 19.0 14.0 10.0 15.3
8 20.0 29.0 18.0 12.0 20.1
9 23.0 34.0 33.0 13.0 28.4
10 23.0 30.0 17.5 8.0 18.5

Table 6. Influence of organic amendments on nodulation and grain

yield of blackgram
Treatments Nodule Grain yield %Increase over control
No./plant (kg/ha)
Control 4.0 835 -
Rhizobium 25.0 995 22.6
Biodigested slurry 17.0 970 16.1
BDS + Rhizobium 22.0 1060 26.9
Sheep manure 15.0 965 15.2
SM + Rhizobium 22.0 1015 21.6
FYM 1.0 940 12.5
FYM + Rhizobium 23.0 1005 20.1
(Prabakaran & Ravi, 1998)
Table 7. Influence of Rhizobium and phosphobacteria with fertilizer N and
P on nodulation in blackgram (Vamban 1)
 No. of noduels / plant Nodule dry weight
Treatments (mg/plant)
Rabi Kharif Rabi Kharif
1998 1999 1998 1999
T1 – Uninoculated control 3.80 3.67 16.13 16.33
T2 – Rhizobium 8.20 8.27 16.67 16.67
T3 – Phosphobacteria 5.53 5.20 16.67 17.00
T4 – Rhizobium + Phosphobacteria 12.27 11.87 24.00 24.67
T5 – 50% N + 50% P + R 15.20 15.00 27.63 31.67
T6 – 50% N + 50% P + PB 12.07 11.17 27.67 27.00
T7 – 50% N + 50% P + R + PB 30.33 31.00 65.67 64.67
T8 – 50% N + 50% P 16.47 16.33 25.33 32.33
T9 – 100% N + 100% P 17.17 15.87 40.00 33.67
SEd 1.24 1.40 1.90 2.04
CD 2.62 2.97 4.04 4.33

R – Rhizobium, PB – Phosphobacteria
(NPRC, Vamban)

Table 8. Influence of Rhizobium and phosphobacteria with fertilizer N and

P on grain yield of blackgram (Vamban 1)

Rabi 1998 Kharif 1999

Grain yield Per cent Grain Per cent
(kg/ha) increase yield increase
Treatments
over control (kg/ha) over
control
T1 – Uninoculated control 353 - 293 -
T2 – Rhizobium 415 17.56 334 13.08
T3 – Phosphobacteria 373 5.67 304 2.80
T4 – Rhizobium + Phosphobacteria 441 24.93 370 25.23
T5 – 50% N + 50% P + R 525 48.73 430 45.33
T6 – 50% N + 50% P + PB 531 50.42 428 44.86
T7 – 50% N + 50% P + R + PB 580 64.30 596 101.40
T8 – 50% N + 50% P 512 45.04 427 44.39
T9 – 100% N + 100% P 561 58.92 567 91.59
SEd 9.30 20.45
CD 19.73 43.35
R – Rhizobium, PB – Phosphobacteria (NPRC, Vamban)

Table 9. Effect of dual inoculation of Rhizobium and phosphobacteria

different P levels on growth, nodulation and grain yield in CO 1
horsegram
Plant Nodules Nodule Grain Per cent
Treatments biomass (No./pl.) biomass yield increase
 (g/pl.) (mg/pl) (kg/ha) over
control
T1 – Uninoculated control 2.01 4.0 13 550 -
T2 – Rhizobium (R) 3.06 19.6 69 690 25.4
T3 – Phosphobacteria (PB) 2.78 14.0 47 630 14.5
T4 – R + PB 3.14 21.6 77 715 30.0
T5 – SP (40 kg P2O5 /ha) 2.76 19.0 64 665 20.9
T6 – SSP + R 3.11 23.0 83 705 28.3
T7 – SSP + PB 3.01 21.0 73 690 25.4
T8 – SSP + R + PB 3.26 25.6 89 735 33.6
T9 – ½ SSP (20kg P2O5/ha) 2.29 15.0 49 620 12.7
T10 – ½ SSP + R 2.66 20.6 79 675 22.7
T11 – ½ SSP + R + PB 2.79 22.6 84 700 27.3
SEd 0.93 2.89 3.07 5.61
CD (0.05) 1.94 6.03 6.4 11.7
(Prabakaran, et al., 1999)

Table 10. Influence of micronutrients spray on plant growth, nodulation and

grain yield of Vamban 1 blackgram
Sl. Nodules per plant Nodule weight (mg/pl) Grain yield (kg/ha)
No Treatments Kharif Kharif Kharif Kharif Kharif Kharif
'98 '99 '98 '99 '98 '99
1. Mo 15.00 14.00 33.67 32.33 384 361
2. B 14.33 13.67 31.67 31.33 360 397
3. Co 15.33 14.67 30.33 31.67 374 358
4. Fe 16.00 14.00 27.00 32.67 358 385
5. Mo + B 17.00 17.33 32.00 35.33 427 434
6. Mo + Co 17.67 16.67 37.33 36.00 453 458
7. Mo + Fe 17.00 17.67 27.33 33.67 485 460
8. B + Co 17.67 16.00 28.00 36.33 425 450
9. B + Fe 17.33 17.17 30.33 35.00 425 434
10. Co + Fe 17.00 17.67 32.00 34.67 434 466
11. Mo + B + Co 17.33 17.67 45.67 44.67 437 581
12. Mo + B + Fe 17.00 16.33 46.00 45.00 435 540
13. Mo + Co + Fe 18.33 16.67 43.67 43.17 449 531
14. B + Co + Fe 19.33 18.33 40.33 48.33 445 578
15. Mo + B + Co + Fe 23.34 24.60 56.47 57.33 555 590
16. Rhizobium alone 13.34 12.67 26.87 24.00 355 333
17. Uninoculated 12.67 11.17 21.47 22.17 341 312
control
SEd: 0.74 0.98 0.65 1.43 14.10 14.07
CD: 1.51 1.99 1.32 3.54 28.76 28.71
Table 11. Synergistic effect of dual inoculation of Rhizobium and
antogonistic bacteria on the grain yield of greengram (CO 5)
Treatments Grain yield (kg/ha)
1996 1997 1998
Uninoculated control 653 628 646
Rhizobium (R) 829 800 760
Azospirillum (Az) 732 700 703
Antogonistic bacteria (AB) 755 720 715
Rhizobium + Azospirillum 778 845 781
R + AB 842 888 815
A + AB 737 745 728
R+AZ+AB 787 900 840
(Source: AICPIP report)

6. Thrust on Extension activities

Besides above research and technological thrusts, equal thrust is needed

on developmental, extension and policy making level also. Quality control of
biofertilizer is also an serious issue which is to be worked out at national level.

Conclusion

This millenium is bound to depend on the sustainable and

environmentally safe agriculture. The cost of chemical fertilizers, dwindling
fossil fuels, environmental pollutions, awareness of quality foods, awareness of
organic farming produces and sustainability in agriculture are some of the
reasons for the dependency of fiofertilizers. So, creating suitable environment,
genetic improvement and newer agronomic techniques for the Rhizobium and
phosphobacteria will have greater oportunity to get the maximum pulses
production.

Reference

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 Fig.3. Mechanism of P solubilization by phosphobacteria

Phytins Phospholipids Nucleic acid

Inorganic

Acid soil Alkali soil

Fe Ca
Phosphates Phosphates
Al Mg

Rock phosphate

Phosphobacte Organic acids

Soluble Phosphate (H2PO4-)

Plants
Fig.4. Mechanism of dual inoculation of Rhizobium and
Phosphobacteria for pulses

P
Rhizobium Phosphobacteria

Carbohydrate N P
Root exudates
(Carbohydrates)

Pulses
Fig.2. Biotic and abiotic factors influencing the Rhizobium in soil

Weedicides & Inorganic fertilizers

SOIL
Soil pH
Antogonistic Organisums

Organic matter
Rhizobiophages

Macro & Micro nutrients

Native Rhizobia

Temperature
Pests
Moisture
 Fig.1. Influence of soil pH on the Rhizobium nodulation
pH 1

pH 4
• Non availability of P,K,Mg, Poor survival of
Ca, Mo & B Rhizobium in Poor nodulation & Nitrogen
• Toxicity of Al & Mn soil
pH 6

Availability of all the essential Good survival

pH 7 of Rhizobium in Good nodulation & Nitrogen
nutrients at optimum level
soil
pH 8
• Non availability of water
• Non availability of Fe Poor survival of
Rhizobium in Poor nodulation & Nitrogen
• Toxicity of NaCl & NasSO4
soil
pH 10

pH 14
TAGGING GENE(S) FOR MUNGBEAN YELLOW MOSAIC RESISTANCE
IN MUNGBEAN - A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH WITH AVRDC

Dr.A.Manickam*

Mungbean / green gram (Vigna radiata L.Wilczek) is an important food

grain legume in south and southeast Asia. It ranks fifth among over ten different
food legumes in India. The grains are consumed in different forms- cooked with
vegetables and curry (sambar), boiled, deep-fried (vadai), roasted and/or sprouted.
It contains 22% - 28% total protein, mostly water-soluble and easily digestible.
The powder is used as an ingredient in some cosmetics as well as infant bathing
powder.

The global annual production of mungbean is estimated at 2.9 x 106 tons

from 5.7 x 106 ha with an average yield of 0.5 t / ha. India accounts for about 60%
of the world's mungbean area; she harvests 47% of the world production (Jickoo
and Satyanarayana, 1998). China leads in the yield level with an average of 1.1 t /
ha. India is the largest grower in terms of area but, alas, harvests only 0.4 t/ha.
There is, therefore, greater scope for increasing the mungbean productivity in the
country.

Among various states in our country, Tamil Nadu ranks 8th in mungbean
production with a harvest of 63,200 tonnes which is 4.6% of the national
production level during 1995-96. Although, the mungbean production has
improved in the past two decades, it is not yet substantial when compared with
many other grain legumes despite the best efforts of mungbean breeders.

There are many factors responsible for low mungbean yield. These range
from plant type (due to low inherent capacity) to biotic and abiotic stresses,
neglected cultivation, low input and so on. Post-harvest storage problem of the
grains, competition with other food grain legumes, consumer preference and
marketprice of the produce also indirectly influence the mungbean production.
* Professor & Head, Dept.of Biotechnology, TNAU, Coimbatore - 641 003
 Crop improvement by plant breeding has been the main focus all the time.
Systematic efforts to improve the mungbean plant by breeding have been
continuously made by the Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center and
National Agricultural Research Systems either independently or collaboratively as
well as through 'shuttle breeding' between these institutions (AVRDC 1998a). The
mungbean varieties with specific improved traits released around the world have
been compiled (Shanmughasundaram, 1984 and 1998).

The major abiotic stresses in mungbean production include drought/water

stress, salinity etc. while major biological stresses include susceptibility to various
fungal, bacterial and viral pathogens and insect pests. Diseases are the major
constraints to yield in most of the mungbean growing countries. Among them,
mungbean yellow mosaic, powdery mildew and Cercospora leaf spot continue as
major diseases on mungbean plant especially in Asian countries.

The devasting disease among these three varies from country to country,
season to season and region to region within the country. The mungbean yellow
mosaic virus (MYMV) is the serious and most devastating biotic stress in Indian
subcontinent and perhaps co-evolved with the mungbean. It was first reported by
Nariani (1960). The disease is widely prevalent in all countries of south Asia. The
disease occurs at any season especially during summer. It is caused by MYMV
transmitted by whitefly (Bemicia tabaci). Depending upon the stage of infection of
the plant, the yield loss could be up to 85% (AVRDC, 1998).

Breeding efforts continue to evolve new varieties with resistance to the

vector, resistance to the virus as well as to increase the yield potential. Although
many new genotypes have been developed with tolerance/resistance to MYMV
(Green et al., 1998, Singh et al., 1997), they are either unstable or resistance breaks
down at different locations / seasons. Therefore, there is a need to develop
genotypes that carry durable resistance to MYMV, if yield level is to be raised in
the subcontinent.

Attempts to develop resistant lines have also been made through

inter/intraspecific hybridization and mutation by deriving resistance from 3 species
of Vigna: radiata, mungo and umbellate (Tickoo and Satyanarayana, 1998).
Although many of phenotype characters are known genetically, the molecular
aspects governing MYMV resistance in the host plant is not yet understood. Such
a knowledge would help develop biotechnology tools for improving mungbean
with MYMV resistance.

Mungbean is a mandatory crop in Asian Vegetable Research and

Development Centre's (AVRDC) research activity. AVRDC, Taiwan has
evolved many varieties with improved plant traits including higher yield potential
as well as for certain disease and insect resistance. Initiatives were made by
AVRDC to breed MYMV resistant mungbean lines through 'shuttle breeding' with
Pakistan and found an improved elite variety (NM 92) with MYMV resistance.
However, the performance of these varieties especially with respect to longer
disease endurance has been a point of focus. Recently, AVRDC embarked with
molecular research initiatives to understand the MYMV resistance mechanism as
well as to develop plants through biotechnological means.

In this context, a collaborative molecular research was established between

TNAU and AVRDC. The results generated during a short term training period of
the author is as follows:

• Three oligonucleotide primers based on the conserved P-loop and

nucleotide-binding site of plant disease resistance (R) gene products were
designed and used
• Forty mungbean DNA were examined for the presence of R-gene related
sequences by PCR
• Amplification of Taq DNA polymerase using primer set III resulted in 5-7
products; the product at 500 bp size was the most abundant. In most of VC
lines, a strong band of 1100 bp was observed. The product pattern slightly
differed between VC and south Asian mungbean genotypes
• Primer set II amplified 7-9 products (size 200 - 1000 bp) with similar band
pattern in agarose gels
• Primer set I generated 4-6 products almost similar in electrophoresis pattern
between mungbean genotypes; amplification of MYMV immune ricebean
DNA showed an additional band of 1.3 kb size
• The PCR products of NM 92 amplified using primer set III by Taq DNA
polymerase were cloned in pGEM-T Easy vector. Four groups of clones
based on the insert size were isolated and sequenced. The inserts of 500 bp
 size showed homology to short regions of conserved sequences of NBS in
soybean and potato
• Many of these clones were identified homologous to N (tobacco), RPS2
(Arabidopsis), RLG (soybean) and Osr (rice) R genes
• Altogether, 16 clones of different candidate R-gene sequences of mungbean
have been isolated. These clones were used on suitable near-isogenic
lines as molecular probes, to identify the diseases to which they confer
resistance
• Preliminary RFLP experiments using some of these candidate R gene
sequences (1.3.12 and 1.3.14) as probes revealed variant bands between
mungbean such as MYMV-susceptible Pusa Baisakhi and V. sublobata TC
1966
• Dra I and clone 1.3.12 combination detected a polymorphic band between
MYMV resistant and susceptible F7 lines of NM92 x TC 1966 cross.

Similarly, these sequences can be used as probes to study fungal and

bacterial diseases of mungbean.

Biotechnology can be applied to develop MYMV resistant mungbean from

three different approaches:

1. Manipulating viral genome including antisense RNA technology to contain

virus multiplication in the host plant

2. Identifying host plant genes responsible for whitefly resistance either from
mungbean or from any other (whitefly-host) plants and then utilizing such
genes in mungbean improvement

3 (a) Developing molecular markers to identify MYMV resistance and deploying

them for marker aided selection in breeding program and (b) Cloning of
host plant MYMV resistant gene from any Vigna Sp. and then introducing it
into mungbean

We need substantial research money to intensify our efforts towards

addressing MYMV resistance through biotechnology We have already submitted
research plan proposals to the McKnight Foundation, USA and Competitive Grant
Project under ICAR.

The following experimental activites have already been initiated:

- phenotyping of promising lines at different locations for MYMV resistance

- collecting seed materials from other Institutes for study
- Biochemical and molecular laboratory experiments and
- developing mapping population.

It is hoped that these initiatives will bring a greater understanding of

MYMV problem and help increase mungbean productivity.

References

AVRDC : 1994. Annotated bibliography of mungbean yellow mosaic virus.

AVRDC Library Bibliography Series 6, Tropical Vegetable Information
Service. Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, Publication
no.94-418, 920.

AVRDC : 1998. Diseases and insect pests of mungbean and blackgram : a

bibliography. Shanhua, Tainan : Asian Vegetable Research and
Development Center, 1998. VI, 254p.

AVRDC : 1998a. International Consultation Workshop on Mungbean : Proc. Of

the mungbean workshop, 7-11 Sep. 1997, New Delhi, India. Asian
Vegetable Research and Development Center, Shanhua, Tainan, Taiwan.
198p.

Green SK Kim DH Chiang BT Maxwell D 1998. Mungbean yellow mosaic virus

in the AVRDC mungbean improvement program. In : International
Consultation Workshop on Mungbean : Proc. of the mungbean workshop,
7-11 Sep. 1997, New Delhi, India. Asian Vegetable Research and
Development Center, Shanhua, Tainan, Taiwan. 198p.
Nariani TK 1960. Yellow mosaic of mung (Phaseolus aureus L.). Indian
Phytopathol. 13, 24-29.

Shanmughasundaram S. 1984. A catalog of mungbean cultivars released around

the world AVRDC, Shanhua, Tainan, Taiwan. 20p.

Shanmughasundaram S. 1998. Summary of improved mungbean varieties released

in the region. In : AVRDC, 1998. International consultation workshop on
mungbean; Proc. of the mungbean workshop, 7-II Sep. 1997, New Delhi,
India. Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, Shanhua,
Tainan, Taiwan. 198p.

Singh, G., Brar, J.S., Sharma, Y.R., Kaur, L. 1997. Enhancement of mungbean
yellow mosaic resistance through inter / intraspecific hybridization and
mutations. In : International consultation workshop on mungbean. Proc. of
the mungbean workshop, 7-11 Sep. 1997. New Delhi, India. AVRDC,
Shanhua, Taiwan, 198p.

Tickoo, J.L. and Satyanarayana, A. 1998. International Consultation Workshop on

Mungbean : Proc. of the mungbean workshop, 7-11 Sep. 1997, New Delhi,
India. Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, Shanhua,
Tainan, Taiwan. 198p.
 ROLE OF PULSES IN HUMAN DIETS

Dr.A.Susheela Thirumaran1 and S.Kanchana2

Pulses occupy a prominent place in our diets and the Indian agricultural
economy, since they are major protein sources for the people. In India pulses are
recognised as one of the most important sources of edible vegetable proteins, which
are taken in the form of dhal. Legumes provide the protein supplement to the diet
which primarily consists of carbohydrates. The complementary nutritive value of
cereals and pulses suggests that the most practical means of eradicating the wide
spread protein calorie malnutrition in several areas of the world, is to increase the
supply of cereal pulse mixtures for human diets.
Legumes are important sources of proteins, carbohydrates including fibre,
certain minerals (Calcium, Magnesium, Zinc, Iron, Potassium and Phosphorous)
and ‘B’ complex vitamins. Legumes are consumed by human in many forms. The
nutrient bio availability from legumes depend on the nutrient content and factors
such as post harvest handling, processing methods and conditions.
In developing countries, legumes are the most important high protein foods
and play the role, which is played in rich countries by meat and other animal
products. Though the share of calories from the pulses only 67 per cent a very
substantial portion of protein is obtained from the pulses.

Functional properties

For processing of pulses into value added products the various functional
properties of the pulses known like water absorption, emulsion capacity and
nitrogen solubility index should be known.

1. Dean, 2. Assistant Professor, Home Science College and Research Institute,

Madurai.
Table 1. Chemical composition of pulses

Sl.No Name of the foodstuff Moisture Protein Fat g. Minerals Fibre g. Carbo Energy Calcium Phosphorus Iron mg.
(Nx6.25) g. hydrates Kcal. mg. mg.
g. g.
28 BENGAL GRAM, 9.8 17.1 5.3 3.0 3.9 60.9 360 202 312 4.6
Whole
29 BENGAL GRAM,dhal 9.9 20.8 5.6 2.7 1.2 59.8 372 56 331 5.1
30 BENGAL GRAM. 10.7 22.5 5.2 2.5 1.0 58.1 369 58 340 9.5
Roasted
31 BLACK GRAM, dhal 10.9 24.0 1.4 3.2 0.9 59.6 347 154 385 3.8
32 COW PEA 13.4 24.1 1.0 3.2 3.8 54.5 323 77 414 8.6
33 FIELD BEAN, dry 9.6 24.9 0.8 3.2 1.4 60.1 347 60 433 2.7
34 GREEN GRAM, 10.4 24.0 1.3 3.5 4.1 56.7 337 124 326 4.4
whole
35 GREEN GRAM, dhal 10.1 24.5 1.2 3.5 0.8 59.9 348 75 405 3.9
36 HORSE GRAM,whole 11.8 22.0 0.5 3.2 5.3 57.2 321 287 311 6.77
37 KHESARI , dhal 10.0 28.2 0.6 2.3 2.3 56.6 345 90 317 6.3
38 LENTIL 12.4 25.1 0.7 2.1 0.7 59.0 343 69 293 7.58
39 MOTH BEANS 10.8 23.6 1.1 3.5 4.5 56.5 330 202 230 9.5
40 PEAS green 72.9 7.2 0.1 0.8 4.0 15.9 93 20 139 1.5
41 PEAS dry 16.0 19.7 1.1 2.2 4.5 56.5 315 75 298 7.05
42 PEAS roasted 10.1 22.9 1.4 2.4 4.4 58.8 340 81 345 6.4
43 RAJMAH 12.0 22.9 1.3 3.2 (4.8) 60.6 346 260 410 5.1
44 REDGRAM,dhal 13.4 22.3 1.7 3.5 1.5 57.6 335 73 3.4 2.7
45 REDGRAM (tender) 65.1 23.8 1.0 1.0 6.2 16.9 116 57 164 1.1
46 SOYABEAN 8.1 43.2 19.5 4.6 3.7 20.9 432 240 690 10.4
Table 2. Essential amino acids for pulses and legumes
Approxi Argi Histi Lysine Tryp Phyny Tyrosine Methi Cystine Thre Leucine Lsole valine
Name of the mate nine dine tophan lalanine onine onine ucine
Foodstuff total N
g/100
gms.
mg. per gm N

BENGAL 2.74 570 160 440 050 360 180 080 080 220 580 320 310
gram (whole)
BLACK 3.84 520 170 400 070 310 140 090 080 220 500 340 310
GRAM dhal
COWPEA 3.86 420 200 430 070 320 230 090 080 230 480 270 310
FIELD 3.98 530 180 500 030 330 -- 040 080 250 550 360 310
BEAN
GREEN 3.84 500 170 460 060 350 100 080 060 200 510 350 320
GRAMwhole
HORSE 3.52 530 190 520 070 380 -- 070 130 230 540 370 390
GRAM
KHESARI 4.51 490 160 470 050 260 -- 030 070 140 410 410 250
dhal
LENTIL 4.02 540 160 440 060 270 200 050 070 220 470 270 310
MOTH 3.78 -- 210 340 040 280 -- 060 030 -- 420 310 200
BEANS
PEAS 1.15 570 130 400 060 250 220 060 080 240 380 290 290
PEAS (dry) 3.15 570 130 440 060 280 170 050 070 240 430 280` 300
RAJMAH 3.66 370 180 460 060 340 100 060 040 270 470 300 330
REDGRAM 3.57 360 250 480 040 460 130 060 060 200 450 250 260
dhal
SOYA 6.91 450 150 400 080 300 210 080 100 240 480 320 320
BEAN
Digestibility by Proteolytic Enzymes

The proteolytic enzymes both pepsin and pancreatin have a lower

digestibility value than by casein.

Mixing properties

Replacing 5% or 10% of the wheat flour with mungbean flour improve the
mixing properties of the dough and produce good acceptable bread. Water
absorption, oil absorption, emulsion capacity and nitrogen solubility index (NSI)
are the indices to determine quality of the pulse flour.
Flatulence Factor

The ability of legume seeds to stimulate gas been recognized for many
years and is one of the main reasons why people limit their consumption of
legumes. A number of huma and animal investigations have demonstrated that the
oligosaccharides, raffinoses and stachyoses are the principal causes of flatulence.

Germination Effect on Nutritional Quality

Legumes have to be cooked for a prolonged period of time to make them
digestible and palatable. Due to the interlay of enzymes, germination, however,
increases the digestibility, shortens the time needed for cooking and enhances the
nutritive value of the legumes as revealed by several studies conducted earlier.
Chandrasekhar and Chitra (1978) reviewuated the protein quality of
mungbean (raw and sprouted forms) supplemented with skim milk at 5% level and
sulphur-containing amino acids, methionine and cystine on albino rats. The results
revealed that the diet with sprouted mungbean and skim milk + 0.5% methionine
was the best. Jaya and Venkataraman (1980) reported that germination up to 48h
improved the carbohydrate digestibility while the 96h germination had no effect.
Digestibility was better when the legumes were treated with α-amylase than when
they were treated with α-amylase. When starches isolated from chickpea were
treated with α-amylase, the relative proportion of crude products was altered as a
result of germination, whereas, in the case of mungbean the relative proportion of
end products was not altered. Germination can be considered as process for
improving the digestibility of mungbean. Giri et al. (1981) studied the effect of
germination of mungbean, among others, which indicated that ash content
decreases during germination and mineral content (total iron and calcium) remains
constant. Calcium decreased and the available iron and protein content increased
with progressive germination stages. The increase in the available iron may be due
to the release of protein-bound iron. The pectin content increases in mungbean and
the phytin content decreases. Chavan et al. (1983) reported that soaking legume
seeds such as mungbean and black gram in a solution for 12h at 250Cimproved the
water uptake of the resultant dhal during cooking and decreased cooking time by
50% to 75%. However, soaking dry dhal in water for 1h prior to cooking was
essential.
Thirumaran and Devadas (1994) formulated weaning food mixes using
malted ragi (finger millet) Elusine coracan, thenai (foxtail millet) Setaria italica
the staple food of the population in developing countries and grain amaranthus-
Amaranthus hypochondriacus-the under utilized high protein pseudo-cereal as a
base. The processed weaning food mixes were studied for acceptability, nutritive
value, packaging and shelf life. The Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER), True
Digestibility (TD), Biological Value (BV) and Net Protein Utilization (NPU) of the
mixes were also studied.

Acceptability
Among the six combinations tried the malted grain amaranthus + roasted
Bengal gram had significantly higher values acceptability than all the others and
was on par with ragi + roasted Bengal gram flour.

Nutritive Value
The energy value of the weaning food mixes ranged from 371 to 395
kilocalories per cent, protein 13.38 a per cent, calcium 120 to 760 mg/g, iron 136 to
503, copper 10 to 20, zinc 19 to 44 and manganese 14 to 63 in g/g.

Shelf life
There was an increase in moisture level of the weaning food mixes in
HDPE packing after a period of 60 days without the development of free fatty acids
and microbial load.

Biological assay
 Compared to the PER of the diets formulated with roasted Bengal gram
significant difference between ragi and thenai (0.05 per cent level) was found, the
ragi being highest. There was no significant difference between the diets with green
gram. The nitrogen balance studies were conducted with ragi and grain amaranthus
base with roasted Bengal gram which had high PER, and compared with casein
diet. The TD of the foods had significant differences, the highest for casein,
followed by malted grain amaranthus and ragi base respectively. The difference in
BV of malted grain amaranyhus base diet and casein diet were significantly
different from malted ragi base diet. The NPU of the casein diet and malted grain
amaranthus base were on par and significantly higher than that of malted ragi based
diet.
It is clear from the above studies that germination is a simple method of
food processing which results in increased nutritive value. It decreases the phytin
phosphorous level and increases the availability of iron and calcium. An increases
in the pectin level in mungbean may increase the cooking time.

Nutritional Quality

Reeta-Goel and Verma (1980) conducted a study with mungbean, black

gram and lentil (Lens culinaris). In all three of these pulses, bacteria fermentation
increased the total sugar content.
Easwaran et al. (1972) reported the protein quality for two selected
vegetable protein mixtures based on maize, chickpea, mungbean and groundnut,
through growth and the protein efficiency ration (PER), hepatic nitrogen and
nitrogen balance using albino rats. It was found that the protein quality of vegetable
protein mixture based on maize, chickpea and groundnut was comparable to that of
skim milk, while the maize, mungbean and groundnut mixture was nearly as
efficient as the other two.
Chandrasekar et al. (1981) used chickpea, mungbean and horse gram
(Kerstingiella uniflora (Lam.)Lackey) in three forms: raw ground form; roasted at
100-1100C for 5 min and ground into a fine powder; and autoclaved at 6.8 kg
pressure for 20 min, cooked, dried, powdered and analyzed for the amino acid
pattern. It was found that processing improved the protein quality of legumes in
general. Supplementation with the limiting suplhur-containing amino acids further
enhanced the protein quality, especially in the autoclaved legumes.This observation
is of great value in that autoclaving (common pressure cooking) is commonly-used
household method and would improve the diet of the common people.
Vallidevi et al. (1972) estimated the thiamine, riboflavin and nicotine acid
contents in four dhal varieties, viz. Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan), chickpea (Cicer
arietinum), black gram and mungbean dhal, as well as precooked dehydrated dhal
prepared from these varieties and stored over a period of one year under ambient
conditions. It was observed that a vitamin loss, in the order of 20% to 35% takes
place during processing. A further loss of about 10% to 15% also occurred during
the storage and reconstitution of these dhals. On the above basis, the net
availability of these vitamins ranges from 35% to 50% of the crude form.
Devadas et al. (1979) carried out a study to investigate the availability of
folic acid from selected germinated cereals and pulses on adolescent girls. The
cereals selected were finger millet (Eleusine coracana) and pearl millet
(Pennisetum glaucum) and the pulses were chickpea and mungbean.
The results revealed that the during germination the folic acid content in
cereals and pulses increases up to a period of time after which it declines. In
chickpea, mungbean and pearl millet the maximum folic acid content was observed
at 72h and in finger millet at 69h after germination. The absorption of folic acid
was found to be higher from pulses than from cereals, but because there were wide
individual variations the differences in availability among the four foods were not
statistically significant.
Rao and Tulpule (1980) analysed 18 foods for vitamin B6 content. Among
the legumes analyzed pigeonpea dhal, blackgram dhal, chickpea dhal and groundnut
were found to be rich sources of vitamin B6 with an average of 5 mg/100 g.
Their significance in the improvement of the protein quality of the
predominantly cereal based diets have been well recognised. Two major problems
which limit the use of pulses are (i) the presence of anti-nutritional factors in them
and (ii) the long period of time required for cooking.
Legumes are prepared for consumption in several ways such as whole
legumes, dehusked split legumes known as dhal in India and by grinding the dhal
in a flourmill and is utilised in many common Indian preparations.
 Compared to animal foods, legume foods have only secondary nutritional
value and low utlisation. This has been partially attributed to (i) inherent presence
of beany flavours (ii) prolonged preparation and cooking prior to consumption (iii)
deficiency of sulphur containing amino acids particularly methionine (iv) presence
of several heat stable and heat labile anti-nutritional and toxic factors including
enzyme inhibitors, phytohemagglutinins, cyanogenic glucosides, lathyrogens,
supenins, estrogens allergens, antivitamins, favism factors and polyphenolic
compounds and (v) presence of phytic acid and flatulence causing
oligosaccharides. Reduction or elimination of these factors would make grain
legumes more acceptable as a source of inexpensive nutritious proteins and
maximise their utilisation in human food.
Pulses form an important part of the diet in the underdeveloped and the
developing countries like India and a number of attempts have been made to
improve their nutritional value. Practically all legumes are consumed only after
they have been subjected to some form of processing such as heating, roasting,
soaking sprouting, boiling and pressure cooking. All these methods are known to
improve their palatability and digestability, decrease anti-nutritional factors and
convert vital constituents of the pulse into simpler compounds which are ultimately
beneficial nutritionally.
The legumes generally used in our diets are redgram, blackgram, Bengal
gram and greengram. All these legumes provide 18 to 23 percent of protein. Now a
days soybean is gaining importance which has 40 percent of protein content and it
is an ideal supplement for Protein Calorie Malnutrition because of its high protein
and fat contents.

Research conducted on Utilisation of Pulses in the Home Science College and

Research Institute

1. Extrusion characteristics fo cassava based noodles

2. Visco-amylograph studies of ‘soynoodles’ and rice ‘idiappam’ blends
3. Protein quality of cassava based detatted soy flour noodles
4. Studies on soy incorporated papads
5. Preservation of idli-a south indian fermented food
6. Contamination of idli batter with pathogens during fermentation and
preparation of idli
7. Processing of soymilk yogurt
8. Processing of soya curd and its utilisation
9. Studies on the utilisation of soybean
10. Processing of soymilk chum-chum
11. Effect of incorporation of cereal and pulse flour on the characteristics of
chapaties suitable for diabetic patients
12. Quality characteristics of pre-release cultures
13. Studies on increasing storage stability of pulses-cow pea
14. Studies on utilisation of soybean in human diet

Soybean is superior to most other plant proteins and its essential aminoacid
composition compares favorable with that of milk and meal. Soybean which
contains 40% protein and 20% oil also contains an unusually large number of
biologically active components which are to be eliminated prior human
consumption. Most of them are easily digested by heat treatment. The soybeans are
processed into various products. By virtue of soybean high and balanced protein
contact, soybean should be a better choice than any other pulses. Though soybean
is consumed fairly in many oriental countries, numerous attempts to introduce it in
the indigenous foods have not succeeded in our country because of the unpleasant
beany flavours, difficulty in cooking and the several anti nutritional factors present
in the soybean. Research is being conducted to utilise the ‘wonder bean’ ‘golden
bean’ in our Indian diet.
Soybean Processing Technologies Developed in TNAU

Soya

Soybean Dhal flour

Puffed soya Protein isolate Fried foods
Milk, yoghurt, shrikand Podi (Rasam parruppu) vadagam
Malted soybean Appalam
Sprouted: weaning food Extruded products
Bakery products
Milling of soybean into dhal

Soybean was cleaned and conditioned with 1% water for one minute and
rested in a hot sand bath maintained at 120°C for one minute and sieved. The bean
was then milled in a minidhal mill and winnowed to separate husk. The dhal was
used for further study and milled into soy flour (Full fat).

Utilization of Soybean for product development : Puffed Soya

The soybean was soaked in 5% salt and 3% sodium bicarbonate for a period
of 3 hours. The excess water was drained off and puffed in a hot sand bath
maintained at 250°C for 3 –5 minute. The puffed bean was sieved and dehusked
manually by rubbing the bean. It was winnowed and used.
 Puffed soya

Soybean
↓
Soaking in chemical solution
↓
Draining
↓
Puffing at 250° C for 3 – 5 min
↓
Sieving
↓
Dehusking
↓
Winnowing
↓
Puffed dhal

During soaking and puffing treatments the anti nutritional factors are
destroyed and it provide 38.4 g % of protein. This puffed dhal can be used for the
preparation of toffee.

Malting of soybean

Malting also reduces antinutritional factors and the digestibility value is

improved. This product can be suggested for children and malted bean could be
used for preparing weaning food. A study was conducted utilising malted soya and
avocado fruit and weaning food was developed.
 Soybean
↓
Soaking (6 hrs)
↓
Draining
↓
Germinating (36 hrs)
↓
Drying
↓
Roasting
↓
Removal of shoot in root
↓
winnowing
↓
malted Soya
↓
Milling
↓
Malted Soy flour

Soymilk / Soy shrikand / soy yoghurt

Soy milk was prepared using soybean and the milk was innoculated with
different stains like streptococcus lactis and Lacto bacillus acidophilius and
yoghurt was prepared with different fruit flavours and fruit pieces. The nutritive
value specially B Vitamins are increased and the product was highly acceptable.

Soyadhal – Utilisation in Indian foods : Soybean protein isolate

 Soybean which is having 40% protein, could be utilised to isolate the
protein. The starch is removed and protein is isolated by altering the PH condition
and this could be incorporated in the preparation of idli, vadai and other products.

Soy podi
The soydhal can be utilised in the preparation of Paruppu podi, Rasa podi,
Sambar podi upto 50% level.

Soyflour utilisation in Indian diet

Soyflour both fullfat and defatted could be utilised in the traditional foods
(fried foods), vadagam, appalam, extruded products and bakery products. In the
traditional foods, soyflour could be incorporated upto 50% level beyond that level
perceptible flavour of soybean is pronounced. The traditional foods include,
murukku, kharaboondhi, vadai, thatai, karasev, omapodi, idli and dosai.

In the preparation of vadagam and appalam only upto 25% is acceptable.

Since the starch content of soybean is less the product quality was not obtained
beyond. To prevent the browning, protussium metabisulphite of 350 ppm is added
to the appalam. Soy appalam could be prepared on commerical basis.

Extruded Products
Various extruded products like noodles, idiappam, spaghetti, macroni are
now fetching importance in the Indian markets. These could be processed with
defatted soy flour as convenience foods.
Processing of noodles

Refined wheat flour + Defatted Soy flour

↓
2 % Salt
↓
Steaming for 10 min
↓
Kneading into dough
↓
Extruding through extruder
↓
Drying
↓
Packing

Bakery Products

Bakery products like biscuits, bread, bun and wafers were prepared using
soy flour. Both defatted and full fat soy flour were incorporated in the bakery
products. To mask the beany flavor different flavoring agents viz, mint, onion and
ginger extract were added. A high protein, Vitamin Soy biscuit was also developed
in the department. The wafers which is preferred by many school children was also
prepared incorporating with defatted Soy flour.

Reference

Chandrasekhar, U., B.Lalitha and R.P.Devadas, 1981. reviewuation of protein

quality of raw, roasted and autoclaved legumes supplemented with sulphur
containing aminoacids. Indian J.Nutr. Diet. 18:283-288.
Devadas, R.P., S.Premakumari and C.Moorthy.1979. availability of folic acid from
selected germinated cereals and pulses. Indian J.Nutr. Diet. 11:257-263.
Easwaran, P., G.Srilatha, S.Jamala and R.P.Deadas.1972. reviewuation of the
protein of the selected vegetable protein mixtures using albino rats. Indian
J.Nutr.Diet. 9:327-330.
Gopalan,C., B.V.Ramasastri and S.C.Balasubramanina.1980. Nutritive Value of
Indian Foods. National Institute of Nutrition, Ind. Coun. Med. Res.,
Hyderabad.p.63.
Rao,B.S. and P.G.Tulpule.1980. Vitamin B6 content of some Indian foods and
regional diets and effect of cooking on the vitamin content. Indian J.Nutr.
Diet.18:9-14.
Thirumaran,A.S. and Devadas, R.P.1994. Processing and reviewuation of malted
millet and pseudo cereal based weaning food mixes. 5th ASEAN Food
Conference, Kuala Lumpur.137-139.
 STATUS OF PULSE MILLING TECHNIQUES

Dr. V. V. Sreenarayanan 1 and Dr. CT. Devadas 2

INTRODUCTION

The total food grain production of India is 203 million tonnes in the year
1998-99. Out of this, the total pulse production alone is 14.85 million tonnes
(Anonymous, 1999). Pulses contain 20-30% protein, which is almost three times
higher than that found in cereals. Therefore, pulses offer the most practical means
of solving protein malnutrion in the diet of the people of the country, where
majority of people are vegetarian. The availability of protein for consumption has
gone down steeply on account of inadequate availability of pulses(Anonymous,
1997). Pulses are mainly consumed in the form of dehusked split pulses. There are
about 4000 pulses mills (Dhal mills) in India. The average processing capacities of
pulses mills in India vary from 10 to 20 tonnes/day.

Milling of pulses means removal of outer husk and splitting the grain into
two equal halves. Generally, the husk is much more tightly held by the kernel of
some pulses than most cereals. Therefore, dehusking of some pulses poses a
problem. The method of alternate wetting and drying is used to facilitate dehusking
and splitting of pulses. In India the dehusked split pulses are produced by
traditional methods of milling. In traditional pulses milling methods, the loosening
of husk by conditioning is insufficient. Therefore, a large amount of abrasive force
is applied for the complete dehusking of the grains, which results in high losses in
the form of brokens and powder. Consequently, the yield of split pulses in
traditional mills is only 65 to 70 per cent in comparison to 82 to 85 per cent
potential yield.

1. Dean, 2. Professor and Head, Dept. of Agrl. Processing, College of Agrl. Engineering,
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore - 3
 It is, therefore, necessary to improve the traditional methods of pulses
milling to increase the total yield of dehusked and split pulses and reduce the
losses.

Varieties, Composition and structure

Green gram, red gram, Bengal gram, horse gram, cluster bean, filed pea,
arhar are some of the common types of pulses.

The botanical name of Arhar is Cajanas cajan. Its chemical composition

and structure are:

Moisture - 10.35 per cent

Protein (Nx6.25) - 24.19 per cent
Ether extract - 1.89 per cent
Ash - 3.55 per cent
Crude fibre - 1.01 per cent
Carbohydrate - 59.21 per cent

The average percentage of husk and endosperm in arhar is 15 per cent and
85 per cent respectively.

TRADITIONAL PROCESSING AND UTILISATION OF PULSES

Milling of pulses

In India there are two conventional pulses milling methods: wet milling
method and dry milling method. The latter is more popular and used in commercial
mills.
 Pulses

Cleaning Chaffs, dirts etc.

Soaking

Mixing with red earth

Conditioning

Dehusking and splitting (Mixture of husk,

small broken and powder)

Grading Brokens

Dehusked split pulses

(Grade 1 pulses)

TRADITIONAL DRY MILLING METHOD ('DHAL' MILLING)

There is no common processing method for all types of pulses. However,

some general operations of dry milling method such as cleaning and grading,
rolling or pitting, oiling, moistening, drying and milling have been described in
subsequent paragraphs (Chakravarthy, 1998).

Cleaning and grading

Pulses are cleaned from dust, chaff, grits, etc., and graded according to size
by a reel type or rotating sieve type cleaner.

Pitting

The clean pulses are passed through an emery roller machine. In this unit,
husk is cracked and scratched. This is to facilitate the subsequent oil penetration
process for the loosening of husk. The clearance between the emery roller and cage
(housing) gradually narrows from inlet to outlet. As the material is passed through
the narrowing clearance, mainly cracking and scratching of husk takes place by
friction between pulses and emery. Some of the pulses are dehusked and split
during this operation, which are then separated by sieving.

Pretreatment with oil

The scratched or pitted pulses are passed through a screw conveyor and
mixed with some edible oil like linseed oil (1.5 to 2.5 kg/tonne of pulses). Then
they are kept on the floor for about 12 hours for diffusion of the oil.

Conditioning

Conditioning of pulses is done by alternate wetting and drying. After sun

drying for a certain period, 3-5 per cent moisture is added to the pulses and
tempered for about eight hours and again dried in the sun. Addition of moisture to
the pulses can be accomplished by allowing water to drop from an overhead tank
on the pulses being passed through a screw conveyor. The whole process of
alternate wetting and drying is continued for two to four days until all pulses are
sufficiently conditioned. Pulses are finally dried to about 10 to 12 per cent moisture
content.

Dehusking and splitting

Emery roller, known as Gota machine is used for the dehusking of

conditioned pulses. About 50 per cent pulses are dehusked in a single operation (in
one pass). Dehusked pulses are split into two parts also, the husk is aspirated off
and dehusked, split pulses are separated by sieving. The tail pulses and unsplit
dehusked pulses are again conditioned and milled as above. The whole process is
repeated two to three times until the remaining pulses are dehusked and split.

Polishing

Polish is given to the dehusked and split pulses by treating them with a
small quantity of oil and/or water.
Dry milling of Tur

The dry milling of tur is generally practised in M.P. and U.P.

Raw Tur

Chaff and other foreign materials Cleaning

Grading

Different grading of Tur

Pitting

Scratched Tur

Application of oil in worm

Scratched and oil coated Tur

Sundrying and overnight tempering for 2 to 4 days

Addition of about 5 per cent water by spraying and overnight moisture

equilibration

Dehusking and Splitting

Aspiration (Husk+Powder)

Husked and unhusked whole grains Sieving

'Dhal'
Wet milling of Tur

The flow diagram of the wet milling of Tur is given below ( Kurian, 1979).

Raw Tur

Soaking in water for 3-12 hours

Mixing of soaked pulses with wet earth (5 per cent)

Conditioning overnight for moisture diffusion and equilibration

Alternate sundrying and tempering for 2-4 days

Red earth Separation of red earth from the mixture by sieving

Husk and powder Dehusking and splitting of dried pulses by a disc sheeler
'chakki'

Size separation by sieving Unhusked and husked

whole grains

'Dhal'

MODERN CFTRI METHOD OF PUSLES MILLING ( Sahay and Singh, 1994)

Cleaning

Cleaning is done in rotary reel cleaners to remove all impurities from pulses
and separate them according to size.

Preconditioning

The cleaned pulses are conditioned in two passes in a dryer (LSU type)
using hot air at about 120°C for a certain period of time. After each pass, the hot
pulses are tempered in the tempering bins for about six hours. The preconditioning
of pulses helps in loosening husk significantly.
Dehusking

The preconditioned pulses are conveyed to the Pearler or Dehusker where

almost all pulses are dehusked in a single operation. The dehusked whole pulses
(gota) are separated from split pulses and mixture of husk, brokens, etc. (chuni-
bhusi) and are received in a screw conveyor where water is added at a controlled
rate. The moistened gota is then collected on the floor and allowed to remain as
such for about an hour.

Raw pulses

Cleaning and Grading

First conditioning and tempering

Second conditioning and tempering

Husk
Husk and powder Pearling, aspirating Dhal Polishing Dhal
(Grade II)
Pearled pulses

Water Mixing Lumped pulses Lump breaking

Conditioning in LSU type aerator

Unsplit Pulses Splitting and sieve grading

'Dhal'
(Grade I)

Lump Breaking
 Some of the moistened gota form into lumps of varying sizes. These lumps
are fed to the lump breaker to break them.

Conditioning and Splitting

After lump breaking the gota is conveyed to LSU type of dryer where it is
exposed to hot air for a few hours. The gota is thus dried to the proper moisture
level for splitting. The hot conditioned and dried dehusked whole pulses are split in
the emery roller. All of them are not split in one pass. The mixture is graded into
Grade I pulses, dehusked whole pulses ands small brokens. The unsplit dehusked
pulses are again fed to the conditioner for subsequent splitting.

PEARLER FOR PULSES

The pearler consists of a series of cylindrical abrasion stones (6numbers

each 1.9 cm thickness), which are mounted on a horizontal shaft without any gap
between them. The rotor so formed is mounted in a metal case with a clearance of
1.5 cm is provided at the inlet end of the shaft. An aspirator is provided at the outlet
end, so that the fine particles formed during abrasion are automatically removed by
the system. Grains are fed into one end of the pearling unit at a uniform rate and
collected at the opposite end through an adjustable overflow outlet. The level of
grain in the unit is adjustable such that more than 50% of the rotor is covered
during operation. Under such conditions, the grains get rubbed and move through
the adjustable gate opening. This cycle of operation has to be repeated depending
upon the hull/seed coat removal ( Anonymous, 1994).

Specification:

1) Speed of the abrasion roller: 1500 rpm

2) Power required: 1Hp electric motor
3) Capacity: 25 Kg/h
4) Approximate cost: Rs.10, 000

MINI DHAL MILL:

 The dhal mill consists of a feed hopper with feed regulating mechanism.
The feed material will pass through a screw auger, which in turn sends the pulses
grains in between two abrasion discs. The abrasion discs are housed along the
same axis of the screw auger and one of which is rotated by means of 1.0 H.P.
electric motor and another is stationary. When the pulses grains pass through in
between the abrasion discs by means of shearing action they split in two halves and
fall down through the outlet chute. All the pulse grains require premilling treat-
ment before milling. The machine can be used for flour making from any grain by
replacing the stationary rubber disc into cast iron serrated disc. The breakages of
dhal can be minimised by adjusting the clearance between the abrasion discs by
means of a screw with handle.

The dhal recovery from the mill is about 80 percent the case or red gram
and around 92 percent in the case of other pulses (viz. black gram, green gram and
horse gram, which inclusive of husk content. The capacity of the machine is 30
kg/h of dhal and the approximate cost of machine is Rs.10, 000/- (with 1 HP
motor). By using this machine a small farmer can process his produce himself and
get a better return by eliminating the share that goes go to the middlemen
(Anonymous, 1994).

Salient features:

1. Suitable for splitting all kinds of pulses/grains into dhal at the rate of 30 kg/h
2. Capable of dry milling rice, wheat, jowar, ragi and bajra into flour like rava,
suji etc.
3. Smooth running, easy to operate and run by 1.0 H.P. electric motor.
4. Compact, elegant, lightweight and easy for transport.
5. The approximate unit cost Rs.10, 000/-.
CONCLUSION

Traditional method of pulse milling requires more abrasive force due to

improper preconditioning. also the yield by traditional method is only 65 to 70 % in
comparison to 82 to 85 % potential yield.

Modern method of pulse milling viz., CFTRI method and mini dhal mill
increases the yield and also minimises the brokens. Preconditioning before splitting
also has significant effect on grade of dhal.

REFERENCES

Anonymous, 1999. The Hindu, Survey of Indian Agriculture.

Anonymous, 1977. analysis of FAO survey on post harvest crop losses in

developing countries (AGPP. Misc./ 27). Food and Agriculture Organisation of
United Nation, Rome.

Anonymous, 1994. Research Digest (1972 - 1990). Published by Dept. of Agrl.

Processing, TNAU, Coimbatore - 3.

Chakravarthy, A. 1995. Post harvest technology of cereals, pulses and oil seeds.
Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.

Kurien, P.p. 1979. Pulse milling in Food Industries, CRTRI, Mysore. pp. 3.1- 3.20.

Sahay, S.M. and K.K. Singh. 1994. Unit operations in Agrl. Processing. Vikas
publishing house pvt. Ltd. New Dlhi.
 TRANSFER OF TECHNOLOGY FOR INCREASING PULSES
PRODUCTION

Dr.S.Uthamasamy1 and Dr.S.Palaniswamy 2

The setting
Pulses are an important component of Indian diet in the predominantly
vegetarian society. Besides being rich source of protein, they are also important for
sustainable agriculture, enriching the soil through biological nitrogen fixation.
Pulses are a rich source of protein required for human health. The average
requirement of protein per capita per day for each kg of body weight of human
being is 1 g. Accordingly, an adult man would require about 60 g and adult women
50 g of protein per day. Against requirement of 60 g protein per day, the
availability of protein from pulses is around 8 g per capita per day, the balance
coming from other sources like cereals, eggs, milk, fruits etc. All sections of the
people, from different income groups belonging to both rural and urban locations
consume pulses at varying levels. However, per capita availability of pulses has
been declining consequent to the rapid growth in population and relatively lower
pulses production.

Pulse crops are equally important for maintaining soil health and
sustainability of different cropping systems. Introduction of pulses in cereal -
cereal - based cropping systems such as rice-wheat will add to the sustainability of
these systems by ensuring both nitrogen economy and improved soil health. An
estimated amount of 30 to 147 kg/ha nitrogen can be fixed by different pulse crops
in the soils in which they are grown.

The crop production technologies generated during the green revolution

period in the mid-sixties had revolutionised Indian agriculture, leading to a record
food grain production of 202.54 million tonnes during 1998-99 compared to 72.3
million tonnes in 1965-66. However, application of new technologies did not result

1. Director of Extension Education, TNAU,Coimbatore-641 003

2. Deputy Director (Extension), DEE,TNAU,Coimbatore-641 003.
in similar impact on all crops. For example, the productivity of rice increased from
862 kg/ha in 1965-66 to 1905 kg/ha in 1998-99 and that of wheat increased from
827 to 2595 kg/ha, whereas that of pulses increased from 438 to 622 kg/ha only
during the same period.

India has the largest acreage and production of pulses accounting for 37%
of the area and 27% of the world production. About 90% of the total global
pigeonpea, 65% of chickpea and 37% of lentil area falls in India with
corresponding production of 93,68 and 32% of global production respectively.

The production of pulses has increased at a relatively much slower rate than
desired in the last two lecades. As a result, the per capita availability of pulses has
declined from 60.7 g during 1951 to 40 g/day/capita during 1998 due to increased
population. However, the total production falls short of the requirement. The
prospects of import of pulses not being bright, the domestic demand will have to be
met by increasing production of pulses.

In India, the productivity of pulse crops is low because of several

constraints. These include inadequate availability of quality seed of improved and
high yielding varieties, cultivation of crops in the poor and marginal lands under
rainfed conditions without recommended input application, high-risks with severe
price fluctuations , pest menace and inadequate promotional/development efforts.
The farmers are reluctant to increase the area under pulses because of uncertainity
about the market prices and fluctuations in production from year to year.

Considering the importance of pulses for the sustainability of various

cropping systems and their role towards household nuitrition security, efforts are
required to raise their domestic production sustainability. While there appears to
be good scope for the expansion of area under pulses, the major thrust required
now is to improve productivity. To achieve this, research, extension and other
developmental activities will have to be accelerated on a mission mode approach.
Transfer of Technology Activities of the Tamil Nadu Agricultural Univesity

The Directorate of Extension Education of the Tamil Nadu Agricultural

University is primarily responsible for expeditious transfer of the latest
technologies emanating from various research programmes of the Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University to the farming community and extension personnel
through the Transfer of Technology Centres (TOT) such as Krishi Vigyan Kendras,
Plant Clinic Centres, Communication Centre, Training Division etc. The salient
TOT activities are as follows :

Communication Centre

The Communication Centre at Coimbatore disseminates the innovations of

the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University through mass media like radio, dailies,
farm magazines, publications, video programmes and Doordarshan.

It also conducts distant learning programme like farm school on All India
Radio and Correspondence Courses on various subject matter areas for the benefit
of farming commutity.

Farm School on All India Radio

The Farm School on All India Radio programme for a duration of 3 months
is regularly conducted on agriculture and allied topics in collaboration with All
India Radio Stations in Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry.

In all the crop oriented topics of farm School on All India Radio, adequate
emphasis is given on Integrated Pest Management (IPM), Integrated Nutrient
Management (INM), Integrated Water Management (IWM) etc., to inclucate
knowledge among the farmers. So far, 132 lessons on various topics were
organised for the benefit of more than 37,500 farmers.

Correspondence Courses
 In the correspondence courses, topics for a duration of 3 months on various
aspects of agriculture and related sciences are regularly offered for the benefit of
farmers. Nearly 12 - 15 courses per year on various topics are conducted. So far,
193 correspondence courses were conducted for the benefit of 11,000 farmers.

Topics for the farm school on All India Radio and Correspondence Courses
were finalised based on the interaction meeting with University scientists, media
persons, progressive farmers, etc. to suit the changing scenario in agriculture.

Audio cassette lessons

Audio cassette lessons in agriculture and allied topics are regularly prepared
and sold at a nominal cost for the benefit of farmers. Audio cassette lessons on
more than 35 topics were produced and distributed for the benefit of farming
community.

Video library

Production and distribution of video cassettes in agriculture and allied

sciences to needy farmers is done since 1987. Development departments and
NGOs avail this technology. Many important topics on pest and disease control
measures in different crops, IPM, biocontrol agents, biopesticides, farm
implements, crop varieties, horticulture etc. were produced and sold to the farmers.
So far, more than 100 video lessons were produced.

Agricultural Information Service

The Agricultural Information Service established at the main campus is

mainly responsible for finalishing messages relevant to the season for
dissemination to farming community through various mass media. This centre also
issue press notes highlighting the on - going research programmes, findings of
completed research projects and TOT activities.

Training to extension personnel

 The Training Unit of the Directorate of Extension Education is actively
engaged in training of extension functionaries of development departments, input
agencies, NGOs, nationalised banks on various topics of state and national
importance. State level and national level training programmes on biocontrol
agents, IPM, organic farming etc. are offered periodically. So far, 734 trainings
were conducted by the Training unit for the benefit of 13877 participants.

Training to farmers
Krishi Vigyan Kendras

The Krishi Vigyan Kendras located at Coimbatore, Madurai, Sirugamani,

Vridhachalam and Sandhiyur facilitate the process of dissemination of
technology through Monthly Zonal Workshops, training programmes, skill
demonstrations, kisan melas, village meetings, seminars, campaigns, front line
demonstrations, model village adoption etc.

Plant Clinic Centres

The Plant Clinic Centres located at Bhavanisagar, Virinjipuram, Tirur,

Killikulam and Srivilliputhur are engaged in TOT activities in solving field
problems, identification of pest and diseases and suggesting remedial measures, on-
farm testing of pre-release cultures, management practices and plant protection
methods, surveillance work for forecasting pests and disease ourbreak etc. The
Plant Clinic Centre are located at the research stations with scientists from plant
protection disciplines. In the TOT activities of the Plant Clinic Centre, much
emphasis is on the IPM concept on control of pest and diseases with use of bio-
control and biopesticides.

Joint Diagnostic Team

The joint diagnostic team constituted with scientists and officials of

development departments in each district visits the farmers fields and render
effective farm advisory services and remedial measures for field problems
including plant protection aspects.

Publications
 The TNAU Newsletter published during the first week of every month,
highlights the research and extension activities carried out in various research
stations and TOT centres of the University.

The TNAU Seithi Madal in Tamil is brought out on 1st of every Tamil
month. Seasonal and location based messages including pest and disease outbreak,
plant protection aspects etc, are disseminated regularly for the benefit of farmers.

Valarum Velanmai, a tamil monthly is published with the inclusion of

articles of location specific and seasonal importance for the benefit of the farmers.
In all articles on crop production technologies, adequate emphasis is given to
include plant protection practices with IPM technologies.

Mushroom Seithi Madal, a quarterly newsletter in tamil published by the

centre for Plant Protection Studies for the benefit of progressive farmers and
entrepreneurs engaged in mushroom cultivation on commercial basis.

Uzhavar Thunaivan, a bi-monthly farm journal published by the

Agricultural College and Research Institute, Madurai for the benefit of Southern
Tamil Nadu.

Frontline Demonstration on Pulses

The ICAR sponsored frontline demonstrations are being conducted on

Pulses through the five Krishi Vigyan Kendras of the Tamil Nadu Agricultural
Universtiy located at Coimbatore, Madurai, Sirugamani, Vridhachalam and
Sandhiyur with a view to demonstrate the production potentialities of the important
pulses in the farmers field by adoption of recommended practices. During 1999-
2000, the Krishi Vigyan Kendras had organised the Frontline Demonstrations on
pulses as indicated below :

Centre Crop
S.No. Greengram Blackgram
 Area No. of Area No. of
(ha) Demons- (ha) Demons-
trations trations
1. KVK, Coimbatore 10 11 10 15
2. KVK,Madurai 5 10 - -
3. KVK,Sirugamani - - 5 12
4. KVK,Vridhachalm 5 9 5 5
TOTAL 20 30 20 32

Yield increase was noticed in all the pulse crop as against the local variety
to the tune of 40 to 60%. Thus, the FLD enabled the farmers to obtain additional
income by way of cultivating pulses in their fields. Success stories of the farmers
were published in local dailies and farm magazines to show the utility of the FLD.

Strategies of transfer of technologies

Keeping the importance of increasing pulses production in the state, the

extension mechanism should adopt the following stragegies to promote the
technology transfer efforts to user pulses production.

• Identification and popularisation of appropriate, need based and location

specific pulses production technologies.
• Organising more number of skill oriented demonstrations and technology
based off-campus trainings on technologies of pulses production in the
villages to ensure more participation of farmers, farm youths, farm women
etc.
• Strengthening the linkage among state development departments, NGOs,
input agencies, farmers organisations etc. to promote the percolation of
production technology for pulses.
• Refinement of technologies on pulses should be taken up as and when
needed based on feedback from farmers.
• Case study and feedback analysis on the impact of pulses production
technologies among the farmers are to be undertaken periodically and
results communicated to the research system.
• More number of front line demonstrations on pulses are to be conducted
through KVKs of SAUs to show the efficacy of pulses technologies.
• Success stories of the farming community on adoption of pulses production
technology should be periodically published in leading farm journals and
dailies for creation of awareness and wider dissemination of technologies.
• Farmers clubs in all the districts are to be established to facilitate interaction
and quick technology transfer.
• Effective use of modern and electronic gadgets in the dissemination of
pulses technology should be ensured.
• More number of farmers discussion groups in the rural areas are to be
established to promote exchange of ideas among them.
 PROCEEDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The State Level Seminar on “Increasing Productivity of Pulses in Tamil

Nadu” was organized by TNAU at National Pulses Research Centre, Vamban on
22.09.2000. Prof.Dr.S.Kannaiyan, Vice-Chancellor, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore–3 presided over the seminar. Th.K.Seerangan, Additional
Director of Agri.(Inputs), Chennai was representing the Director of Agriculture. A
total of 33 delegates consisting of 26 scientists from Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University and 7 delegates from the Department of Agriculture participated in the
seminar. (Annexure).

Dr.S.Ramanathan, Director, Tamil Nadu Rice Research Institute

Aduthurai welcomed the gathering.

Dr.M.Subramanaian, Director of Research, Tamil Nadu Agricultural

University, Coimbatore in his inaugural address said that satisfactory progress
could not be made in the productivity and production of Pulses as that of cereals
and oilseeds. He has stated that from an area of 9.5 lakh hectares under pulses in
Tamil Nadu a meager production level of 4.08 lakh tones of pulses only could be
produced annually with a productivity level of 450 kg/ha. He said that the low
productivity level of pulses was due to their cultivation in marginal and
submarginal lands, under rainfed conditions and low adoption levels of improved
technologies. He was of the opinion that the area expansion of pulses was not
recorded even though a lot of improved pulses varieties are made available,
therefore he said that pulses area should be increased with new high yielding
varieties particularly under irrigated conditions. He also emphasized the need for
intercropping of pulses in tapioca, cotton, sugarcane crops, and expansion of
pulses cultivation under rice fallow which would produce more pulses in the State.
He said that out of 21 lakh hectares available under rice fallows in Tamil Nadu,
only 2.8 lakh hectares are cultivated with rice fallow pulses. He wanted ADT 3,4
blackgram and ADT 1,2,3 greengram should be cultivated under rice fallows and
ADT 5 blackgram under irrigated conditions during summer. He highlighted that
use of poor quality seeds with poor germination and prolonged North East
monsoonic showers in the initial stage, low level adoption of DAP foliar spary,
problems associated with plant protection and the increasing area of cash crops like
cotton under rice fallows were the main reasons for reduced production from rice
fallow pulses.

Mr.K.Seerangan, Additional Director (inputs) in his address, thanked the

Vice-Chancellor for having organized “Pulses Seminar” at National Pulses
Research Centre, Vamban, which is very important currently to discuss the various
issues on pulses production. He told that rainfed pulses occupied 50% of total pulse
area in Tamil Nadu followed by rice fallow pulses (30%) and irrigated pulses
(20%). He lauded the efforts of Scientists of TNAU in developing improved pulse
varieties suitable for different agro-climatic zones of Tamil Nadu. He felt happy to
pointout that Vamban 1 redgram is performing better under irrigated conditions
during summer and farmers are willing to grow this variety as pure crop, and ADT3
blackgram and ADT 3 greengram varieties are also performing well, He also said
that under rice fallow conditions, folair spary of DAP had pronounced effect in
increasing the yield and he requested the Joint Director of Agricultures to widely
propagate this technology through effective extension methods.

Prof.Dr.S.Kannaiyan, the Vice-Chancellor, Tamil Nadu Agricultural

University, in his presidential address pointed out that pulses production in the state
remains stagnated over years because of many reasons, of which growing pulses
largely in marginal lands and less than 20% of pulses area alone under irrigation
prone to pests and disease, and wilting due to severe drought, tendency to have
more vegetative growth under high moisture conditions and lack of proper seed
storage facilities are very important.

Prof.S.Kannaiyan, Vice-Chancellor said that a holistic approach is needed

to harness the yield potential of pulses. In the case of greengram he suggested that
new varieties like CO 6 and Pusa Bold should be promoted for large scale
cultivation and horsegram, which is grown in about 1.23 lakhs in Coimbatore and
Dharmapuri districts has good potential in other districts also. The Vice-Chancellor
stated producing and distributing good quality seeds at correct season should be
given importance. He also suggested that in case of rice fallows and rainfed
conditions, seed rate should be increased to maintain optimum plant population and
correct time of sowing (January 15- February) should be followed, along with
foliar sparying of DAP at the time of flowering. In redgram, the Vice-Chancellor
observed that spraying NAA@ 40 ppm and salicylic acid @ 50 g/500 lit /ha
prevented flower dropping and induced synchronized flowering. He is of the
opinion that consumer value addition to the products from the pulses should be
given due attention to increase the consumption level of pulses to alleviate
malnutrition.

In the technical session, twelve theme papers were presented.

Dr.M.Subramanian, Director of Research , in his presentation, informed about
various edible pulse crops in the country and also high lighted that (i) more than
78% of area of pulses under rainfed conditions (22.39 m.ha) (ii) Low level of
fertilization (iii) Uncertainity in weather conditions (iv) high incidence of pests
and diseases (v) poor crop care by farmers and (vi) poor seed storability were the
main reasons for low production of pulses in Tamil Nadu.

While elaborating on pulses varieties he said that TNAU has evolved many
short, medium long, perennial and pigeonpea cultivars which are largely under
cultivation in Tamil Nadu. Vamban 1 and APK 1 redgram he said, are the early
varieties (105 days duration), CO 5 medium in duration (125 days) variety and
CO6 and Vamban 2 are long duration types, (180 days). He informed that BSR 1
perennial redgram is best suited for bund cropping with an yield level of 2 kg plant.
He also pointed out that the hybrid pigeonpea COPH 2 is well suited for all seasons
with an yield potential of 1050 kg/ha. He told that (i) poor seed viability (ii)
temperature sensitivity – as the crop tends to wilt beyond 34° C at reproductive
phase (iii) excess vegetative growth (iv) susceptible to MYMV (v) non dibbling of
seeds and (vi) paucity of residual moisture in rice fallows are the main reasons for
the failure of soybean in the State

He stressed the need for using good quality seeds, correct time of sowing
(January 15 – February 15), maintaining optimum plant population, foliar spary of
DAP at flowering stage, seed hardening to overcome drought and need based plant
protection for the successful cultivation of rice fallow pulses, and highlighted the
following aspects as important thrusts for pulse improvement.
• Pulse varieties responsive to high inputs
• Early varieties suitable for specific situations & multiple cropping
• Stepping up seed production levels in hybrid pigeonpeas
• Exploiting biotechnological approaches for YMV and SMD resistance
• Utilizing marker aided selection procedures and identification of CMS
lines in developing pulse hybrids
• More research on physiological and nutritional aspects
• Research on post-harvest technology
• More use of bio-fertilizers and emphasis on Integrated Nutrient Management

Dr.S.Ramanathan, Director, Tamil Nadu Rice Research Institute,

Aduthuari, in his address stressed the need for the importance of “Integrated
Nutrient Managament” in rice fallow pulses of Cauvery Delta Zone. He is of the
opinion that though better performing rice fallow and summer pulses like ADT 3,
ADT 4, ADT 5 blackgram varieties and ADT 1,2,3 greengram varieties are
available Breeders’ / Nucleus seed indent for these varieties was very low. While
highlighting the problems associated with rice-fallow pulses cultivation, he said
that flower dropping in pulses remains a major problem because of cleistogamy in
blackgram and greengram, and wanted early detection of Cyto-plasmic Male
Sterile lines for hybrid seed production in pigeon pea. Since field – levelling is not
given proper attention, the Director TRRI said that seed germination and crop stand
are poor under rice-fallow system. He suggested that increasing pod length and
seed numbers through genetic manipulation could increase productivity. He also
pointed out that, labour shortage for harvesting the rice fallow pulses is currently
on the increase, therefore utilization of machinery for the purpose is the need of the
hour. He observed that use of quality bio-fertilizers is very minimal and foliar spray
of 2% DAP is also adopted only on a low scale due to water scarcity at the time of
flowering in rice-fallow pulses. He requested that combined foliar spray of 2%
DAP, 1% MOP and 40 ppm NAA has been found to be effective in enhancing the
grain yield by 20% in pulses and this practice needed promotion. He said that if
rockphosphate / Udaipur phosphate is used in the proceeding rice crop instead of
Single Super phosphate, residual phosphorus may be available more to the
succeeding pulses which will increase seed set. He pointout that the length of rice
stubbles has a profound effect on pulses seed germination, stubbles with 4” height
and fallow pulses sown in that condition would improve germination compared to
6” long stubbles. In order to increase the seed-fall to the ground, he suggested that
the pulse seeds may be pelletted with clay before sowing which indirectly enhances
seed germination. The Director TRRI, Aduthurai pointout that though prodenia
incidence is common, it can be controlled with the help of pheromone traps and
insecticides and also wanted that identified Pod borer resistant blackgram cultures
viz., ADB 2027, ADB 2045, COBG 593, VBG 52 and VBG 55 need to be
popularized for large scale cultivation.

Dr.T.M.Thiyagarajan, Director, Soil and Crop Management Studies,

Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore in his talk on ‘Dryland
Technology for Pulses Production” outlined the need for judicious utilization of the
rainfall and conserving moisture through management practices like compartmental
bunding. In the case of redgram, he said that foliar spray of salicylic acid (100
ppm) on 30th and 50th day alongwith NAA 40 ppm arrests vegetative phase and
stimulate flowering. He also said that foliar spray of 1% Kcl found to increase yield
in pulse under drought. He advocated the basal application of ‘K’ only for deficit
soils.

Dr.MohanaSundaram, Professor and Head, National Pulses Research

Centre Vamban highlited the research efforts on the varietal improvement of
pulses. Dr.A.R.Muthiah, Professor and Head, Department of Pulses, Tamil Nadu
Agricultual University, Coimbatore gave a brief account on the prospects of
summer irrigated pulses in Tamil Nadu. He advocated ADT 5 blackgram and CO 6
greengram for irrigated condition in summer. Under irrigated conditions he pointed
out that CO 12 and CO 13 (bush type) garden bean varieties with an yield
potential of about 10-13 tonnes (fresh wt.) / ha have good prospects for further
promotion.

Mr.D.Balachander, Assistant Professor (Micro.) spoke in detail about the

bio-fertilizers and said that biofertilizer alone could replace about 50% applied
fertilizers and dual inoculation of Rhizobium and phosphobacteria has a profound
effect on enhancing the pulses stand and yield. He also pointed out that the
limitations such as the non-availability of Rhizobium responsive genotypes, non
availability of micronutrients like Cobalt, Iron, Molydbdenum and Boran under
acidic soils, thermosensitivity of Rhizobium under extreme temperature (maximum
35°C), and rapid movement under high moisture regimes, presence of native
Rhizobia which hinder the activity of applied Rhizobium and lower level of
nodulation under high soil nitrogen status should be overcome through intensive
research. He wanted, the future thrust should be more on genetic improvement of
Rhizobium, acid , salt, temperature, water, herbicide and phage tolerant rhizobia
with high amount of competitiveness against native microflora.

Dr.Krishnasamy, Professor and Head, Department of Seed Science and

Technology emphasized the importance of seed hardening technique using KCl,
Prosophis leaf extract 1% or Pungam 1% by soaking the seeds of black gram for 6
hrs, and then pelleting with gypsum or DAP before sowing which enhanced
germination and yield. He observed that bold seeded greengram had no hard seeds
unlike small seeds. He highlighted the concept of ‘Seed Village’ for maintaining
the quality and purity of pulses seeds.

Dr.A.Manickam, Professor (Bio-Chem.) gave a detailed account of tagging

genes for MYMV resistance in greengram using PCR technique. Dr.K.Guna sekaran,
Assistant Professor (Ento.) in his speech emphasized the need for IPM i.e; use of
pheromone traps, bird perhes, NPV and botanicals in Pulses. Dr.T.Raghuchander,
Assistant Professor (Path.) had said that use of resistant varieties, seed treatment
with Trichoderma virdie and Psuedomonas flourescens, cultural practices like
barrier cropping against ‘YMV’ and use of botanicals like neem oil and NSKE 5%
are the most important components in Integrated Disease Management.

Dr.Mrs.Susheela Thirumaran, Dean, College of Home Science, Madurai

presented a detailed lecture on the role of pulses in alleviating malnutrition. She
said that germinated greengram has a greater role as a rich protein supplement both
as child and weaning food alongwith malted ragi.

The technical session was followed by group discussion among the delegates
to formulate strategies for enhancing pulses productivity. Finally Mr.Muthukumaran,
Joint Director of Agriculture, Pudukkottai proposed the vote of thanks.
Minutes of Group discussion
Constraint
1. Under rice fallow system
• Seed germination, crop stand and grain
yields are low in pulses
• Foliar spray of DAP 2% using H/V sprayer
poses practical difficulties.(Joint Director of
Agriculture Thanjavur).
2. MLT of rice fallow pulses may be conducted
in all potential areas in the State.
Bengalgram and Pea may be promoted in
Conoor and Theni belts
(Vice-Chancellor, TNAU)
Constraint
3. Area specific Rhizobia may be supplied
fromTNAU research stations under strict quality
control
(Joint Director of Agriculture, Pudukkottai)
4. The ident for Breeders’ Seeds of pulses from
State Department of Agriculture is now very low
for the recently released pulses varieties and it
should be increased every year
Suggestion
1. Use of higher seed rate (30 kg/ha)
2. Use of 2 kg of sprouted seeds as supplement
3. Clay pelleting of pulse seeds before sowing
4. Maintaining the stubble height as low as 4” w
possible in paddy crop
5. Promoting the use of Rock phosphate in
Single Super Phosphate for paddy crop to en
availability of residual phosphorus to the su
pulse crop
6. Giving supplemental irrigation at pod form
arrest pod dehiscene and allowing the pulse
second flush of pods (in another 25-30 days a
5 blackgram)
7. Foliar spray of DAP 2% may be attempted
volume sprayer using about 60 lit. spray
experimental basis before large scale r
dation. (Director of Research; Director, Soil
Management Studies, Tamil Nadu Agrl. U
Director, Tamil Nadu Rice Research
Aduthruai).
This request will be taken care of (Director of
Tamil Nadu Agrl. University, Coimbatore)
Suggestion
Steps will be taken to fulfill this demand
(Vice-Chancellor, TNAU)
This will be given due consideration and attention
(Joint Director of Agriculture, Pulses, Chennai)
 (Director of Research, TNAU, Coimbatore)
5. Long duration blackgram, greengram and
cowpea varieties are also needed for seasons
under inclement weather conditions
(Joint Director of Agriculture, Pudukottai)
Since pulses are largely grown as rainfed crops,
much focus is given for shortening their duration so
water requirements were also minimal
(Vice-Chancellor, TNAU, Coimbatore)
The following long duration pulses are available
Greengram (CO 3) – 85 days
Greengram (Paiyur 1) – 90-95 days
Cowpea (Paiyur 1) – 90-95 days
(Dr.A.R.Muthiah, Professor and Head, Pulses,
Coimbatore and Dr.Suresh, Assoc. Prof. (Breed),
Research Staion, Paiyur)
 State level Seminar Pulses Production Technology held on 22.09.2000 at
National Pulses Research Centre, Vamban

Recommendations on Pulses production techniques

S.No Technologi Crops Irrigate Rainfed Rice Intercroppin
. es d fallow g
1. Varieties Blackgra ADT, Vamban1 ADT3, BSR 1
m CO 5, , Vamban ADT 4 Redgram +
Vamban 2, APK 1, Turmeric
1, 2 and Vamban BSR 1
3 3, CO 5 Redgram as
border crop
Greengra CO 6 CO 6, ADT 3, Tapioca +
m Paiyur1, Pusabol KM 2
Vamban1 d
Redgram COPH 2, Vamban -- Greengram +
CO 5, 2 Sorghum
APK 1, BSR 1 K1
Vamban (Perennia Greengram +
1 l) Cotton
APK 1
Blackgram +
Cotton
Vamban 1
Redgram +
Groundnut

Cowpea CO 6 CO 6, -- --
Vamban 1,
CO 2,
Vamban 2
(Vegetable)
Soybean CO 1, CO 2 -- ADT 1 --
Seed rate Blackgram 20 kg/ha 30 kg/ha 30 kg/ha --
 and supplemental
Greengram seed rate of
2 kg/ha
sprouted
seeds (Seeds
soaked in
water for 6
hours
allowed for
sprouting)
Redgram 25 kg/ha 25 kg/ha -- --
Short
duration
Long 10 kg.ha 10 kg/ha -- --
duration
Cowpea 20 kg/ha 20 kg/ha -- --
Soybean 80 kg/ha -- 80 kg/ha --

S.No. Technologies Crops Irrigated Rainfed

2. Seed For all Pelleting with DAP 40 a) Pre-conditioning
treatment pulses g/kg + Gypsum 250 Spreading the seeds on
g/kg, maida 10% as a moist gunny bag and
sticking agent 150 covering with moist
ml/kg seed + Bio- gunny bag for one hour
fertilizer one packet
b) Soaking for one
each of specific
Rhizobium culture hour with one Kg seed
Antagonistic bacteria in 300 ml solution of
and Phospho bacteria one per cent prosopis
for every 10 kg of fresh leaf extract
seeds + bio-control c) Shade drying
Pseudomonas d) Pelletting with DAP
flurescence 10 g/kg, 40 g/kg + Gypsum 250
Trichoderma viride 4 g/kg, maida 10% as
g/kg of seeds sticking agent 150 ml/kg
 Procedure : A coating seed + Bio-fertilizer one
of sticker followed by a packet each of specific
layer of gypsum then Rhizobium culture
sticker then remaining Antagonistic bacteria and
gypsum, again sticker Phospho bacteria for
followed by bio- every 10 kg of seeds +
fertilizers and bio bio control
control agents Pseudomonas fluescense
10 g/kg, Trichoderma
viride 4g/kg of seeds
Procedure : A coating
of sticker followed by
a layer of gypsum then
sticker, powered DAP,
sticker then remaining
gypsum, again sticker
followed by bio-
fertilizers and bio-
control agents

S.No. Technologies Crops Irrigated Rainfed Rice fallow

3. Spacing Blackgram 30 x 10 cm 30 x 10 cm Broadcasting
Greengram 30 x 10 cm 30 x 10 cm Broadcasting
Redgram – long 90 x 30 cm 90 x 30 cm --
duration
Redgram shortduration 45 x 20 cm 45 x 20 cm --
Cowpea CO2, CO3 & 45 x 15 cm 45 x 15 cm --
Vamban 2
Cowpea – other 30 x 15 cm 30 x 15 cm --
varieties
Soybean CO 1 30 x 10 cm -- Broadcasting
Soybean CO 2 30 x 5 cm -- Broadcasting
4. Gapfilling 2 kg of
sprouted seeds
 5. Organic Blackgram, 12.5 t/ha 12.5 t/ha --
manure (Basal Greengram, Redgram,
application) Cowpea
6. Nitrogen -- 25 kg/ha 12.5 kg/ha --
Soybean 20 kg/ha --
7. Phosphorus Blacgram, Greengram, 50 kg/ha 40 kg/ha --
Redgram, Cowpea
Soybean 80 kg/ha -- --

S.No. Technologies Crops Irrigated Rainfed Rainfallow

8. Potash Blackgram, 20 kg/ha 20 kg/ha --
Greengram, Redgram,
Cowpea
Soybean 40 kg/ha -- --
9. Gypsum All pulses 111 kg/ha 111 kg/ha --
10. Zinc sulphate All pulses 25 kg/ha -- --
11. Foliar DAP 2% + MOP + NAA 40 ppm --
spraying (At first flowering and again at 15
days after)
12. Weed All pulses Preplant incorporation / pre- --
Management emergence :
Fluchloralin 1.51 / ha Intercropping
with sorghum : Metolachlor 2.01/ha
Herbicide application followed by
hand weeding with in 30 days after
sowing
S.No. Technologies Crops Irrigated Rainfed
13. Intercropping -- a) Sugarcane + a) Groundnut + Redgram
Blackgram b) Groundnut + short duration
b) Turmeric + Redgram (4:1)
Redgram c) Sorghum + Blackgram /
c) Cotton + Greengram
Blackgram d) Redgram + Blackgram /
Greengram (2:1)
e) Semi-dry rice + Blackgram /
Greengram (4:1)
14. Pest Redgram 1. Erecting bird perches @ 1. Erecting bird perches @
Management 50/ha 50/ha
2. Installation of phermone 2. Spraying Neem seed kernel
traps for Helicoverpa @ extract (NSKE) 5% at 50%
12/ha flowering
3. Spraying Neem seed 3. Application of any one of the
kernel extract (NSKE) 5% following dusts at 25 kg/ha
at 50% flowering a. Endosulfan 4%
4. Spray dichlorvos 76 SC b. Quinalphos
500ml/ha for blister beetle
and Maruca testtulalis
5. Spraying HaNPV at 500
LE/ha
6. Spray monocrotophos 36
WSC 625 ml or endosulfan
35 C 1250 l/ha
7. Spraying chlorphyriphos
0.05% (if warranted)
15. Insect Pest Blackgram, Apply carbofuran Seed pelleting Seed pelleting with
Stemfly Greengram, 30G (30 KG) or with dimethoate dimethoate 5 ml/kg
management Cowpea aldicarp 10g 5ml/kg followed followed by
(10kg)/ha in the soil by spraying of spraying of
at the time of endosulfan endosulfan 35EC
sowing or spray 35EC 500 ml/ha 500 ml/ha
endosulfan 35 EC
500 m/ha a week
after germination
and again at 10
days after
16. Sucking pests - do - If sucking pests are --- If sucking pests are
management noted spray methyl noted spray methyl
demeton 25 EC demeton 25 EC 500
500 ml or ml of dimethoate 30
monocrotophos 36 EC 500 ml or
WSC 500 ml/ha monocrotophos 36
WCS 500 ml/ha
17. Pod Borers - do - Spray endosulfan To protect ---
management 35 EC 1000 ml/ha inflorescence
or monocrotophos and pods apply
36 WSC 500 ml/ha any one of the
following at 25
kg/ha.
Quinalphos 4%
dust Endosulfan
4% dust
Phosalone 4%
dust
18. Disease Redgram Vector control Monocrotophos 500 ml/ha on noticing the
control symptom and repeat after a fortnight
Sterility
mosaic
19. Root rot/wilt - do - Seed treatment with carbendazim @ 2g/kg or Trichoderma
management viride @ 4g/kg Pseudomonas florescens (10g/kg) before
sowing

20. Yellow Pulses other a) Use resistant varieties

mosaic, Leaf than redgram b) Rouging of infected plants upto 30 days of sowing at
crinkle, Leaf weekly interval
curl c) Virus vecror control : Moncrotophos @ 500 ml/ha or
Methyl demeton @ 500 ml/ha at the appearance of disease
and repeat at 10 days interval or spraying NSKE 5% or spray
dimethoate 500 ml/ha.

21. Leaf spot “ Carbendazim 50 WP (0.1%) may be sprayed

22. Powdery “ Wettable sulphur 2.5 kh/ha or Mancozeb 1.0 kg/ha
mildew / rust
23. Root rot/wilt All Pulses Seed treatment with Carbendazim @ 2g/ha or Trichoderma
viride @ 4g/ha
24. Pre-harvest All Pulses Endosulphan 0.07% + Carbendizem 0.1% at 10 days before
sanitation harvest
spray against
bruchid
25. Drying of All Pulses 10% moisture
grains
26. Grain storage All Pulses a. Thiram 75% WP (2.0 g/kg + Carbaryl 50% WP (200
for seed mg/kg) in 5 ml water or
purpose b. Activated clay @a (10 g/kg) or
c. Neem Oil 910 ml/kg) of seed Malathion dust 10 g/kg,
Thiram 2g + Carbaryl 200 mg/kg of seed)
27. Grain storage All Pulses TNAU Neem Oil formulation (10 ml/kg) or Neem Oil (10
for ml/kg)
consumption