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% (
2 0 1 0 1
(
DC A fuel
y y
SF y dx V y dx
+
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SF y dx V
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SF SF x x +
(
(().;86 %:8:.2 2);2.72
AD BC
SF SF x x x + +
Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle
Bending moment
=y substituting the ,alues of + for the abo,e eKuations of bending 'o'ents obtained we can get
a continuous bending 'o'ent cur,e for the -ort wing.
Note0 if we re-lace the + by $+ in each ter' we get the distribution of starboard wing
Page 41
( )
( )
2 ( %
(
4
%.6
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6
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BM BM y dx +
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BM BM x x +
2);4
AD DC
BM BM x
Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle
Shear force and bending moment diagrams d2e to loads along chord9ise
direction at cr2ise condition0
Aerod3namic center) This is a -oint on the chord of an airfoil section where the bending
'o'ent due to the co'-onents of resultant aerodyna'ic force 0&ift and Drag1 is constant
irres-ecti,e of the angle of attack. Aence the forces are transferred to this -oint for obtaining
constant <ac
Shear center) This is a -oint on the airfoil section where if a force acts, it -roduces only bending
and no twisting. Aence the force is transferred to this -oint and the torKue is found.
Cruise C&F).)6 G 5F %86 '?s
Cruise CDF ).)%(6
Angle of attackF $4X 0obtained fro' the lift cur,e slo-e1
Angle of attack G Vero liftF $6.6
*ing lift cur,e slo-e 0a1F ).)84 ?degree
Page 42
Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle
Co$efficient of 'o'ent about aerodyna'ic centreF $).%6
&ocation of aerodyna'ic centreD
4
ac
>c;+&,.
&ocation of shear centreD
4
sc
>c;+&@
&ift and drag are the co'-onents of resultant aerodyna'ic force acting nor'al to and along the
direction of relati,e wind res-ecti,ely. As a result, co'-onents of the' act in the chordwise
direction also which -roduce a bending 'o'ent about the nor'al 0V1 a+is.5
Co$efficient of force along the nor'al direction,
C
n
;C
"
Cos N JC
D
Sin N
C
n
F 0).)6 W Cos $41 N 0).)%(6 W Sin $41
C
n
F).)6
C
c
;C
"
Sin N JC
D
Cos N
Page 43
Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle
C
c
F 0).)6 W Sin $41 N 0).)%(6 W Cos $41
C
c
F ).%(%(
Chord wise force at root,
F
R
F 0).6W).%(%(W%.((6W%86
(
W:1
F
!
; -<-<=&.=. N>m
Chord wise force at ti-,
F
T
F 0).6W).%(%(W%.((6W%86
(
W(.%671
F
; E?+-&.. N>m
Chord wise force at inter'ediate length,
F
-
; <E--&=. N>m
F
,
; E?+-&.. NKm
=y using y F '+ Nc again we get the eKuation as
3 ; ),.*.&.4 J -.,-?
The abo,e eKuation gi,es the -rofile of load acting chordwise, by integrating this abo,e eKuation
we get a co'-onent of Shear force and again by integrating the sa'e we get the co'-onent of
=ending <o'ent
"oad along chord 9ise direction
Page 44
(
%(:(.86 %6(%; ydx x x +
( 2 (
4(8.6: 87);.6 ydx x x +
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( )
(
%
(
%
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%
2 (
%
47.:;
47.:; %.%(:6 7.7;44
47.:; %.(82 %6.%% 44.:(
47.:; ).4(4 8.66 44.:(
T c dx
T x dx
T x x dx
T x x x
+
+
1 +
]
( (
2
( (
2
(
2
2 (
2
%
(
).%6W).6W%.((6W%86 W
(:%2.78
(:%2.78 ).4(4 8.66 44.:(
ac
M
T C V c
T c
T c
T x x x
1 +
]
Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle
Then the different torKue co'-onents are brought together in a sa'e gra-h to 'ake a
co'-arison
Page 50
Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle
The net torKue will be su' of all the abo,e torKues i.e. torKue due to nor'al force, chordwise
force, -ower-lant and aerodyna'ic 'o'ent
Page 51
Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle
=& MAE!IA" SE"ECION
Page 52
Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle
Aircraft Metals
Inowledge and understanding of the uses, strengths,li'itations, and other characteristics of
structural'etals is ,ital to -ro-erly construct and 'aintain any eKui-'ent, es-ecially airfra'es.
In aircraft 'aintenance and re-air, e,en a slight de,iation fro' design s-ecification, or the
substitution of inferior 'aterials,'ay result in the loss of both li,es and eKui-'ent. The use of
unsuitable 'aterials can readily erase the finestcrafts'anshi-. The selection of the correct
'aterial fora s-ecific re-air /ob de'ands fa'iliarity with the 'ost co''on -hysical -ro-erties
of ,arious 'etals.
$roIerties of Metals
"f -ri'ary concern in aircraft 'aintenance are suchgeneral -ro-erties of 'etals and their alloys
as hardness,'alleability, ductility, elasticity, toughness, density, brittleness, fusibility,
conducti,ity contractionand e+-ansion, and so forth. These ter's are e+-lainedto establish a
basis for further discussion of structural'etals.
#ardness
Aardness refers to the ability of a 'aterial to resistabrasion, -enetration, cutting action, or
-er'anentdistortion. Aardness 'ay be increased by cold working the 'etal and, in the case of
steel and certain alu'inu'alloys, by heat treat'ent. Structural -arts are often
for'ed fro' 'etals in their soft state and are then heattreated to harden the' so that the finished
sha-e will beretained. Aardness and strength are closely associated -ro-erties of 'etals.
Strength
"ne of the 'ost i'-ortant -ro-erties of a 'aterial isstrength. Strength is the ability of a 'aterial
to resistdefor'ation. Strength is also the ability of a 'aterial to resist stress without breaking.
The ty-e of load orstress on the 'aterial affects the strength it e+hibits.
Densit3
Page 53
Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle
Density is the weight of a unit ,olu'e of a 'aterial.In aircraft work, the s-ecified weight of a
'aterial -ercubic inch is -referred since this figure can be used indeter'ining the weight of a
-art before actual 'anufacture.Density is an i'-ortant consideration whenchoosing a 'aterial to
be used in the design of a -artin order to 'aintain the -ro-er weight and balance ofthe aircraft.
Malleabilit3
A 'etal which can be ha''ered, rolled, or -ressedinto ,arious sha-es without cracking,
breaking, orlea,ing so'e other detri'ental effect, is said to be'alleable. This -ro-erty is
necessary in sheet 'etalthat is worked into cur,ed sha-es, such as cowlings,fairings, or wingti-s.
Co--er is an e+a'-le of a 'alleable'etal.
D2ctilit3
Ductility is the -ro-erty of a 'etal which -er'its it tobe -er'anently drawn, bent, or twisted
into ,arioussha-es without breaking. This -ro-erty is essential for'etals used in 'aking wire
and tubing. Ductile 'etalsare greatly -referred for aircraft use because of theirease of for'ing
and resistance to failure under shockloads. For this reason, alu'inu' alloys are used for
cowl rings, fuselage and wing skin, and for'ed ore+truded -arts, such as ribs, s-ars, and
bulkheads.Chro'e 'olybdenu' steel is also easily for'ed intodesired sha-es. Ductility is
si'ilar to 'alleability.
Elasticit3
Elasticity is that -ro-erty that enables a 'etal to returnto its original siVe and sha-e when the
force whichcauses the change of sha-e is re'o,ed. This -ro-ertyis e+tre'ely ,aluable because it
would be highlyundesirable to ha,e a -art -er'anently distorted afteran a--lied load was
re'o,ed. Each 'etal has a -ointknown as the elastic li'it, beyond which it cannot be
loaded without causing -er'anent distortion. In aircraftconstruction, 'e'bers and -arts are so
designed that the 'a+i'u' loads to which they are sub/ected willnot stress the' beyond their
elastic li'its. This desirable-ro-erty is -resent in s-ring steel.
o2ghness
Page 54
Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle
A 'aterial which -ossesses toughness will withstandtearing or shearing and 'ay be stretched or
otherwisedefor'ed without breaking. Toughness is a desirable-ro-erty in aircraft 'etals.
Brittleness
=rittleness is the -ro-erty of a 'etal which allows littlebending or defor'ation without
shattering. A brittle'etal is a-t to break or crack without change of sha-e.=ecause structural
'etals are often sub/ected to shockloads, brittleness is not a ,ery desirable -ro-erty. Cast
iron, cast alu'inu', and ,ery hard steel are e+a'-lesof brittle 'etals.
F2sibilit3
Fusibility is the ability of a 'etal to beco'e liKuid bythe a--lication of heat. <etals are fused in
welding.Steels fuse around (,7)) YF and alu'inu' alloys ata--ro+i'ately %,%)) YF.
Cond2cti:it3
Conducti,ity is the -ro-erty which enables a 'etalto carry heat or electricity. The heat
conducti,ity ofa 'etal is es-ecially i'-ortant in welding because itgo,erns the a'ount of heat
that will be reKuired for-ro-er fusion. Conducti,ity of the 'etal, to a certaine+tent, deter'ines
the ty-e of /ig to be used to controle+-ansion and contraction. In aircraft, electrical conducti,ity
'ust also be considered in con/unction withbonding, to eli'inate radio interference.
hermal E4Iansion
Ther'al e+-ansion refers to contraction and e+-ansionthat are reactions -roduced in 'etals as
the result ofheating or cooling. Aeat a--lied to a 'etal will causeit to e+-and or beco'e larger.
Cooling and heatingaffect the design of welding /igs, castings, and tolerancesnecessary for hot
rolled 'aterial.
Aircraft structures are basically unidirectional. This 'eans that one di'ension, the
length, is 'uch larger than the others $ width or height. For e+a'-le, the s-an of the wing and
Page 55
Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle
tail s-ars is 'uch longer than their width and de-thL the ribs ha,e a 'uch larger chord length
than height and?or widthL a whole wing has a s-an that is larger than its chords or thicknessL and
the fuselage is 'uch longer than it is wide or high. E,en a -ro-eller has a dia'eter 'uch larger
than its blade width and thickness, etc.... For this si'-le reason, a designer chooses to use
unidirectional 'aterial when designing for an efficient strength to weight structure.
Cnidirectional 'aterials are basically co'-osed of thin, relati,ely fle+ible, long fibers which are
,ery strong in tension 0like a thread, a ro-e, a stranded steel wire cable, etc.1
An aircraft structure is also ,ery close to a symmetrical structure. That 'eans the u- and
down loads is al'ost eKual to each other. The tail loads 'ay be down or u- de-ending on the
-ilot raising or di--ing the nose of the aircraft by -ulling or -ushing the -itch controlL the rudder
'ay be deflected to the right as well as to the left 0side loads on the fuselage1. The gusts hitting
the wing 'ay be -ositi,e or negati,e, gi,ing the u- or down loads which the occu-ant
e+-eriences by being -ushed down in the seat ... or hanging in the belt.
=ecause of these factors, the designer has to use a 84 structural 'aterial that can
withstand both tension and co'-ression. Cnidirectional fibers 'ay be e+cellent in tension, but
due to their s'all cross section, they ha,e ,ery little inertia 0we will e+-lain inertia another ti'e1
and cannot take 'uch co'-ression. They will esca-e the load by bucking away. As in the
illustration, you cannot load a string, or wire, or chain in co'-ression.
In order to 'ake thin fibers strong in co'-ression, they are Zglued togetherZ with so'e
kind of an Ze'beddingZ. In this way we can take ad,antage of their tension strength and are no
longer -enaliVed by their indi,idual co'-ression weakness because, as a whole, they beco'e
co'-ression resistant as they hel- each other to not buckle away. The e'bedding is usually a
lighter, softer ZresinZ holding the fibers together and enabling the' to take the reKuired
co'-ression loads. This is a ,ery good structural 'aterial.
*+*- Al2mini2m Allo3
*+*- is a -reci-itation hardening alu'iniu' alloy, containing 'agnesiu' and silicon as its
'a/or alloying ele'ents. It has good 'echanical -ro-erties and e+hibits good weldability. It is
one of the 'ost co''on alloys of alu'iniu' for general -ur-ose use.
Page 56
Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle
It is co''only a,ailable in -re$te'-ered grades such as, 7)7%$" 0solutioniVed1, 7)7%$T7
0solutioniVed and artificially aged1, 7)7%$T76% 0eKui,alent to T7 in rolled stock1.
Basic IroIerties
7)7% has a density of (.8) g?c'[ 0).);86 lb?in[1.
Chemical comIosition
The alloy co'-osition of 7)7% isD
Silicon 'ini'u' ).4J, 'a+i'u' ).:J by weight
Iron no 'ini'u', 'a+i'u' ).8J
Co--er 'ini'u' ).%6J, 'a+i'u' ).4)J
<anganese no 'ini'u', 'a+i'u' ).%6J
<agnesiu' 'ini'u' ).:J, 'a+i'u' %.(J
Chro'iu' 'ini'u' ).)4J, 'a+i'u' ).26J
>inc no 'ini'u', 'a+i'u' ).(6J
Titaniu' no 'ini'u', 'a+i'u' ).%6J
"ther ele'ents no 'ore than ).)6J each, ).%6J total
Re'ainder Alu'iniu'
Mechanical IroIerties
The 'echanical -ro-erties of 7)7% de-end greatly on the te'-er, or heat treat'ent, of the
'aterial.
aB *+*-)+
Annealed 7)7% 07)7%$) te'-er1 has 'a+i'u' tensile strength no 'ore than %:,))) -si 0%(6
<!a1, and 'a+i'u' yield strength no 'ore than :,))) -si 066 <!a1. The 'aterial has
elongation 0stretch before ulti'ate failure1 of (6$2) J.
Page 57
Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle
bB *+*-)E
T4 te'-er 7)7% has an ulti'ate tensile strength of at least 2),))) -si 0()8 <!a1 and yield
strength of at least %7,))) -si 0%%) <!a1. It has elongation of %7J.
cB *+*-)*
T7te'-er 7)7% has an ulti'ate tensile strength of at least 4(,))) -si 0(;) <!a1 and yield
strength of at least 26,))) -si 0(4% <!a1. In thicknesses of ).(6) inch 07.26 ''1 or less, it has
elongation of :J or 'oreL in thicker sections, it has elongation of %)J. T76% te'-er has si'ilar
'echanical -ro-erties. The fa'ous !ioneer -laKue was 'ade of this -articular alloy.
Uses
7)7% is widely used for construction of aircraft structures, such as wings and fuselages, 'ore
co''only in ho'ebuilt aircraft than co''ercial or 'ilitary aircraft.
7)7% is used for yacht construction, including s'all utility boats.
7)7% is co''only used in the construction of bicycle fra'es and co'-onents.
6elding
7)7% is highly weldable, for e+a'-le using tungsten inert gas welding 0TIG1 or 'etal inert gas
welding 0<IG1. Ty-ically, after welding, the -ro-erties near the weld are those of 7)7%$), a loss
of strength of around :)J. The 'aterial can be re$heat$treated to restore $T4 or $T7 te'-er for
the whole -iece.
E4tr2sions
7)7% is also an alloy used in the -roduction of e+trusionsRlong constantEcross$section structural
sha-es -roduced by -ushing 'etal through a sha-ed die.
Page 58
Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle
Forgings
7)7% is also an alloy that is co''only used in a hot forging. The billet is heated through an
induction furnace and forged using a closed die -rocess. Auto'oti,e -arts, AT5 -arts, and
industrial -arts are /ust so'e of the uses as a forging.
Page 59
Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle
<& DEAI"ED 6ING DESIGN
Page 60
Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle
SIar design0
S-ars are 'e'bers which are basically used to carry the bending and shear loads acting
on the wing during flight. There are two s-ars, one located at %6$()J of the chord known as the
front s-ar, the other located at 7)$8)J of the chord known as the rear s-ar. So'e of the
functions of the s-ar includeD
They for' the boundary to the fuel tank located in the wing.
The s-ar flange takes u- the bending loads whereas the web carries the shear loads.
The rear s-ar -ro,ides a 'eans of attaching the control surfaces on the wing.
Considering these functions, the locations of the front and rear s-ar are fi+ed at ).%8c and
).76c res-ecti,ely. The ARA$D 7J airfoil is drawn to scale using any design software and the
chord thickness at the front and rear s-ar locations are found to be 0).:4 ' and ).7( '1, 0).28 '
and ).2)1, 0).(28 ' and ).%66 ' 1 for three sections res-ecti,ely.
The s-ar design for the wing root has been taken because the 'a+i'u' bending 'o'ent
and shear force are at the root. It is assu'ed that the flanges take u- all the bending and the web
takes all the shear effect. The 'a+i'u' bending 'o'ent for high angle of attack condition is
()%)%;4.4( '. the ratio in which the s-ars take u- the bending 'o'ent is gi,en as
*here
h% Fheight of front s-ar
h( Fheight of rear s-ar
FI!S SECION
Page 61
Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle
The yield tensile stress U
y
for 7)7% Al Alloy is (87<!a. The area of the flanges is deter'ined
using the relation
*here
U is yield strength0(87 <-a1
< is bending 'o'ent taken u- by each s-ar0()%)%;4.4(1,
A is the flange area of each s-ar,
V is the centroid distance of the area F h?(
Area of the front S-ar,
A
fs
; +&+,@.
Area of the rear s-ar
A
rs
; +&+-=@
Ass2mItions0
T sections are chosen for to- and botto' flanges of front and rear s-ars.
=oth the flanges are connected by a ,ertical stiffener through s-ot welding
Fro' the buckling eKuation,
Page 62
Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle
the thickness to width ratio of web is found to be ).%)%7. Also fro' \AA&]SIS AD
DESIG "F F&IGAT 5EAIC&E STRCCTCRES by =RCA^, the flange to web width ratio of
the T section .
=y eKuating all the three ,alues of the ratio in area of the section eKuation, the di'ensions of the
s-ar can be found.
SIecification For Front SIar0
t
(
F %.)(7%7W%)
$2
t ; +&+@,+ m
b
f
; +&,+=? m
b
9
; +&@-. m
SIecification For !ear SIar0
t
(
F 8.6862W%)
$4
t ; +&+,=. m
b
f
; +&-=< m
b
9
; +&,=+ m
SECOND SECION
The yield tensile stress U
y
for 7)7% Al Alloy is (87 <!a. The area of the flanges is deter'ined
using the relation
Page 63
Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle
*here
U is yield strength0(87 <-a1
< is bending 'o'ent taken u- by each s-ar0()%)%;4.4(1,
A is the flange area of each s-ar,
V is the centroid distance of the area F h?(
Area of the front S-ar,
A
fs
; +&+E<.
Area of the rear s-ar
A
rs
; +&+@?@
Ass2mItions0
T sections are chosen for to- and botto' flanges of front and rear s-ars.
=oth the flanges are connected by a ,ertical stiffener through s-ot welding
Fro' the buckling eKuation,
the thickness to width ratio of web is found to be ).%)%7. Also fro' \AA&]SIS AD
DESIG "F F&IGAT 5EAIC&E STRCCTCRES by =RCA^, the flange to web width ratio of
the T section .
=y eKuating all the three ,alues of the ratio in area of the section eKuation, the di'ensions of the
s-ar can be found.
SIecification For Front SIar0
Page 64
Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle
t
(
F (.%22W%)
$2
t ; +&+E*, m
b
f
; +&@+ m
b
9
; +&E.E= m
SIecification For !ear SIar0
t
(
F %.8%8W%)
$2
t ; +&+E-E m
b
f
; +&,*? m
b
9
; +&E+=. m
#I!D SECION
The yield tensile stress U
y
for 7)7% Al Alloy is (87 <!a. The area of the flanges is deter'ined
using the relation
*here
U is yield strength0(87 <-a1
< is bending 'o'ent taken u- by each s-ar0()%)%;4.4(1,
A is the flange area of each s-ar,
V is the centroid distance of the area F h?(
Area of the front S-ar,
Page 65
Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle
A
fs
; +&+*E,
Area of the rear s-ar
A
rs
; +&+.,
Ass2mItions0
T sections are chosen for to- and botto' flanges of front and rear s-ars.
=oth the flanges are connected by a ,ertical stiffener through s-ot welding
Fro' the buckling eKuation,
the thickness to width ratio of web is found to be ).%)%7. Also fro' \AA&]SIS AD
DESIG "F F&IGAT 5EAIC&E STRCCTCRES by =RCA^, the flange to web width ratio of
the T section .
=y eKuating all the three ,alues of the ratio in area of the section eKuation, the di'ensions of the
s-ar can be found.
SIecification For Front SIar0
t
(
F 4.%%4:W%)
$2
t ; +&+*E, m
b
f
; +&E-*Em
b
9
; +&*@- m
SIecification For !ear SIar0
t
(
F (.7:(W%)
$2
t ; +&+., m
Page 66
Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle
b
f
; +&@@. m
b
9
; +&.+< m
FI!S SECION
SECOND SECION
Page 67
Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle
#I!D SECION
Page 68
Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle
CONC"USION
The structural design \-art (^ of the C<AED C"<=AT AERIA& 5EAI&E which is a
continuation of the aerodyna'ic design \-art %^ carried out last se'ester, is co'-leted
satisfactorily.
As earlier said, 'any of the 'ethods used in the design are no longer in regular usage, ha,ing
been su--lanted by finite ele'ent 'ethods. The older 'ethods are useful, howe,er for
a--ro+i'ating the correct answers to insure that the finite ele'ent results are in the right \ball
-ark
According to Ray'er, the study of classical 'ethods is useful for learning the ,ocabulary of the
structural design
Page 69
Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle
BIB"IOG!A$#/
%. Ray'er, D.!, Aircraft Design ) a ConceIt2al AIIroach (AIAA educational series second
edition %;;(.
(. T.A.G.<egson ( Aircraft Str2ct2res for engineering st2dents( 4
th
EditionElse,ier &td CSA
())8.
2. E.F.=ruhn ( Anal3sis and design of flight :ehicle str2ct2res(%
st
Edition, tri$state offset
co'-any,CSA,%;82.
4. <icheal Chun$]ung iu( Airframe str2ct2ral design( (
nd
Edition, Aong Iong Con'ilit
!ress &td, Aong Iong, ())%.
6.Anderson, #ohn D, F2ndamentals of Aerod3namics, (nd Edition <cGraw$Aill,
ew ]ork, %;;%.
7.Anderson, #ohn D , Aircraft design and Ierformance b3 Anderson, 2
rd
Edition , Tata
<cGraw$Aill, ew ]ork , ()%).
Page 70