Lesson 2 Note Introducing English Grammar (B and B)- the structure of sentences Morphology- Internal structure of words Morphemes-

s- parts which make up words (the smallest unit of meaning in the structure of the language) o Cardigan is one morpheme (cant be meaningfully broken down into constituent parts and retain meaning related to word), but cardigans is two morphemes, has two smaller meaningful units. Consider the sentence: the spas regime disagreed with the gluttonous guest. o Free morphemes- can exist in isolation (like spa and regime. Function as stems (or roots) to which bound morphemes attach Lexical morphemes- more contentful that grammatical morphemes. Can also have grammatical morphemes (like the). o Bound morphenes- cannot exit on their own, but are only ever found in the presence of others. (-ed) Normally Affixes- divided into subclasses of Prefixes- before the stem Suffixes- ater the tem Infixes- occur internal to the stem. Grammatical (or functional) morphemes- express abstract information like person, plural, possession, or case. Building words o Inflection- grammatical- adds some functional information to the element to which it is added, but does not drastically change the meaning of the word. -s added to nouns for plural, -ed added to regular verbs for past, -er added to adjectives to compare (loud-er). o Derivation- changes category, or meaning, of the element to which it is added. -er run vs. runner Un-, in-, im- used to make word negative. o Thus, can identify two types of affixes by their function- inflectional vs. derivational. Compounding o Combinations involving more than one free morpheme. (never inflectional, but always derivational) dog collar or spring clean. o Main stress falls on first element only (as in dark room photo development) o Cran-morphemes- roots that cannot occur independently (cran in cranberry) Constituents o Groups of words that forma natural unit in a sentence weight-loss program. o Can exist at different levels in combination with other constituents. Structural ambiguity-

o Sentence that, on account of their syntax, can be interpreted in a multiplicity of ways. Constituency tests o Substitution- if a word can be substitutded by a single word, then this is an indication that the string is indeed a constituent. Unit of sense/ sentence fragment o Based not on grammatical judgements but semantic judgements. Whether or not unit the string forms a unit of sense, which is also an identifiable part of the meaning of the whole sentence. o Sentence fragment test example- what did you say the food rejection therapy included? Answer: near-drowning ina soup filled Jacuzzi. Movement o Can move constituents around in a sentence, but cant move strings that do not form constituent. o Fronting- move elementsw to firt position in sentence for special emphasis or focus. o Clefting- builds a new structure when shifting elements around in a entence. cleaves original sentence into two clause. Formula= it is/was . That. . First gap put suspected constituent, second gap rest of sentence. Co-ordination o Only trings which make up constituents can be conjoined with coordinating sequences of words or phrases like and, but and or. Steps o Example: Ive put on 24 pounds. o First, can we find a single word which can be used to replace this string? *Ive put what? doesnt work o Second, in a questionanswer sequence, can our suspect string be used as a short reply; in other
words, a sentence fragment? What have you put? *On 24 pounds o Third, is it possible to move our string to any other position in the sentence, either by simple movement (to the front of the sentence, for example) or by building additional structure (as in the cleft test)? *on 24 pounds Ive put o Last, can we co-ordinate this string with a similar type of string? *Ive put on 24 pounds and on several ounces. o Page 35 good example Three additional tests o Reduction o Omission o Intrusion

Online Notes o Bound morphemes vs. free morphemes, grammatical morphemes vs. lexical morphemes. o Inflectional morphemes- do not change the word class, derivational morphemes do. o Inflections brings about grammatical changes to roots walkwalked o Derivations can be prefixes or suffixes which change the meaning of the word or change the class of the word.

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Great 8 English inflectional suffixes o s 3rd person singular present o ed past tense o ing progressive o en past participle o s plural o s possessive o er comparative o est superlative

o I'm alone at an outdoor caf in the Pest part of Budapest. Arranged around my table are the essential elements for an afternoon's contentment: a glass of wine, a slice of Sacher torte, a map, a railway timetable. On the street, a violinist plays one of Bartok's Gypsy melodies. The vibrato from his violin feels as if it is penetrating my heart. No, I'm not turning sappy; I'm savoring the perfect happiness that always overcomes me at a moment like this, when I'm fully immersed in travel. o o I'm riding the rails in eastern Europe, on my way to Istanbul. I have never been there, and I can't wait to see it. This afternoon, though, I have to figure out where I go from Budapest. I consult the map and timetable, and weigh my options: I could take an overnight train that runs east through Hungary into Romania (McLann, 2012)
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