The African Origin of the Ancient Egyptians Abstract This paper, citing data from archaeology, cultural anthropology,

and biological anthropology, demonstrates that the ancient Egyptian people were predominantly of indigenous African descent, originating from more southerly areas of the continent and sharing many cultural components and physical features with sub-Saharan populations. Introduction Who were the people who founded and sustained the ancient Egyptian ci ili!ation" Of all the enigmas surrounding this most famous of early cultures, perhaps none are more hotly debated than the #uestion of the Egyptians$ ethnic ma%eup. Egypt is located in Africa, a continent traditionally associated with blac% people, yet Egyptologists ha e for o er two centuries been reluctant to identify the Egyptians with other Africans due to racial pre&udice, instead insisting on an Asiatic origin for Egyptian culture '(oe )**+, ,amugisha -../0. Among the biggest proponents of 1ear Eastern roots for the Egyptians was Sir 2linders (etrie, a pi otal figure in the de elopment of modern Egyptology, who claimed that 3esopotamians whom he called the 45ynastic 6ace4 founded Egyptian ci ili!ation, but there were many others 'see Wil%inson -../ for a discussion0. It is for this reason that ancient Egyptians are often portrayed in popular culture as non-African in appearance 'see for e7ample 8ecil 5e3ille$s )*9: film The Ten Commandments and the more recent )*** film The Mummy for &ust two out of numerous e7amples0. These iews, besides being tinged with racism, are obsolete. There is in fact a mountain of e idence, unco ered by archaeologists and anthropologists, re ealing that the people who created and maintained ancient Egypt, far from being of 1ear Eastern affinity, were predominantly indigenous Africans who originated from deeper into the continent and had a physical appearance that modern Americans would classify as 4blac%4. The Archaeological E idence (erhaps the oldest e idence for a settled culture along the 1ile ;alley was unco ered in the )*<.s by Anthony =. Ar%ell not in Egypt itself but in central Sudan near modern ,hartoum. This culture, dubbed the ,hartoum 3esolithic, is regarded as sedentary or at least semi-sedentary because it left behind the oldest pottery found anywhere in Africa, dated to appro7imately +/.. >8 'archaeologists consider pottery a trademar% of sedentary and semi-sedentary cultures because it is too fragile to be carried around by constantly mo ing nomads0. The ,hartoum 3esolithic culture has also left behind bone harpoons, grain-grinding stones, and burials of the dead '>yrnes -..*0, but most significant of all is a piece of roc% art depicting a boat. As ?sai and Sal atori '-..+0 show, the boat$s design shows close architectural parallels with later Egyptian ships well

into the (haraonic period, indicating that the ,hartoum 3esolithic culture e ol ed into or at least influenced Egyptian culture. Around :... >8 the earliest sign of a settlement appear in Egypt proper, specifically in the area of 1abta (laya in the country$s far southeast 'Wendorf and Schild )**@0. The ruins of stone houses built in straight rows, wells, a circle of small megaliths, and stone tumuli 'burial mounds0 containing cattle bones ha e all been found here, in an area that is now desert but was sa anna thenA the 1abta (layan people appear to ha e had an economy based on herding cattle which were probably domesticated from a 1orth African subspecies of aurochs different from cattle used in the 1ear East and Europe'Wendorf )**<, Banotte et al -..-0. =Cordec!%a et al '-.))0 report similarities between the 1abta (layan pottery and older Sudanese pottery, again showing a southern origin or influence for the proto-Egyptians. The ne7t significant culture to appear in Egypt is the 2ayum 1eolithic culture further north, which goes bac% to 9-.. >8 and pro ides the oldest e idence for agriculture in the country. Some of the crops and animals used by the 1eolithic 2ayumians do appear to ha e come from the 1ear East instead of being indigenous to Africa, but e en here it is unli%ely that the people themsel es were of 1ear Eastern origin. Ehret et all ')**:0 note that the de elopment of agriculture in the 2ayum area appears to ha e been gradual, which is more consistent with nati e Africans slowly incorporating 1ear Eastern domesticates into an indigenous foraging strategy rather than a mass coloni!ation of 1ear Eastern farmers, who would ha e brought about a more abrupt change in subsistence strategy. 2urthermore, Ar%ell ')*+90 notes similarities in artifacts from the 2ayum 1eolithic to those produced by contemporary Sudanese cultures, and as will be shown later, the s%eletal remains left behind by the people of ancient northern Egypt are more similar to those of Africans. >etween 9-.. and <... >8, %nowledge of agriculture spread from the 2ayum into ?pper 'southern0 Egypt, but this did not completely replace the earlier cattle-herding ?pper Egyptian culture. On the contrary, Egyptians continued to be semi-sedentary cattle herders who annually mo ed between 1ile ;alley illages and the grasslands beyond, with agriculture being only a supplement to this pastoral lifestyle 'Wil%inson -../0. Egyptian tools and pottery also continued to resemble those from more southerly Africa 'de Bein!elin )*:-, Ar%ell and ?c%o )*:9, and Ar%ell )*+90 and prehistoric roc% art from the Sahara shows Egyptian connections '5onadoni )*:<0. The Sahara began to turn from sa anna into desert between <... and /... >8, forcing the Egyptians to abandon their pastoral ways, cling to the 1ile ;alley, and de elop an urbani!ed and socially stratified culture that would e ol e into classical Egyptian ci ili!ation. 3ost of these de elopments would occur in ?pper Egypt, with Dower 'northern0 Egypt remaining a relati e bac%water as indicated by unimpressi e burials relati e to the large elite tombs of the south 'Wil%inson -../0. E entually the ?pper

Egyptian culture would completely replace the Dower Egyptian culture and dominate the entire length of the Egyptian 1ile ;alley '>ard )**<0. Around the same time, a wealthy monarchic culture ery similar to ?pper Egypt$s was de eloping in Sudan 'Williams )*@:0, again showing a cultural lin% between Egypt and this part of Africa. Ta%en as a whole, the archaeological data shows both strong cultural affinities between early Egypt and more inland regions of Africa, particularly Sudan, and a predominantly southern origin for Egyptian ci ili!ation. If Egyptian culture was hea ily deri ati e of 1ear Eastern traditions, Dower Egyptian culture would ha e dominated the south, yet instead the re erse is obser ed. Whate er influence the 1ear East had during Egypt$s formati e period was not enough to replace an indigenous---and therefore African--foundation. The 8ultural Anthropological E idence Archaeology does not pro ide the only data supporting an African origin for the ancient Egyptians. Studies of both ancient Egyptian and sub-Saharan African cultures ha e unco ered numerous similarities. This is not to say that African cultures are homogeneous or that Egyptian culture did not de elop its own uni#ue characteristics, but it does add more support to the argument that Egyptian ci ili!ation e ol ed from a common African cultural substratum. This becomes especially apparent when one loo%s at Egypt$s early history. As discussed pre iously, prehistoric Egyptians were semi-sedentary cattle-herders mo ing between the 1ile ;alley and the high sa anna e ery yearA this lifestyle is still practiced by some Sudanese groups today '6yle )*@-0. In addition, archaeologist Timothy ,endall '-.).0 ma%es a congent case for the Egyptian spiritual concept of the 4%a4 ha ing e ol ed from a Sudanese-style cattle culture. Early Egyptians also shared with their Sudanese counterparts the ritual sacrifice of royal ser ants to accompany departed %ings into the afterlife 'Ehret )**:0. 3any other Egyptian religious practices ha e close African parallels. >oth ancient Egyptians and sub-Saharan Africans considered their %ing to ha e a godli%e nature and the eneration of ancestral spirits was pi otal in both Egyptian and sub-Saharan religions '>ell )**:, ,usimba )**:0. ,usimba and Eurco ')**:0 report that animals play a prominent role in both Egyptian and other African religions, with Egyptians and subSaharan peoples sharing a belief that di inity can be manifested in any form. The Egyptian conception of di inity is also similar to that of other Africans in another respectF Taiwo '-..90 describes the Eoruba of 1igeria as belie ing in multiple di inities that are really manifestations of one Supreme 8reator named Olodumare, whereas Allen ')**+0, citing an Egyptian papyrus, says that all of the characters in Egyptian mythology fre#uently called 4gods4 were really manifestations of one creator deity named Amun. This #uasi-monotheistic belief system appears to ha e e ol ed from one similar to that

still practiced by some southwest Ethiopian groups 'Ehret )**:0. Egyptians also resembled other Africans in the way they treated womenA although both Egyptian and sub-Saharan African cultures tended to be male-dominated, both let women play a noteworthy role in economic, religious, and political arenas inaccessible to their 1ear Eastern and 3editerranean contemporaries 'Des%o )***0. 2or e7ample, one Egyptian mural in the 1ew ,ingdom tomb of Sennutem shows men and women wor%ing together in the fields, reflecting the widespread African custom of ha ing women contribute significantly to agricultural wor%. In addition, both Egyptian pharaohs and sub-Saharan African rulers fre#uently ga e their wi es substantial influence at the political court. E en such #uintessentially Egyptian customs li%e mummification and the construction of large royal tombs are shared by other Africans. >udge ')*+/0 obser es that a number of sub-Saharan peoples would smo%e-dry their deceased %ings and wrap them in cloth to preser e them, and Seligman ')*/-0 reports that some Sudanese tribes would bury important religious figures in large burial mounds that recall Egypt$s pyramids. The final cultural component that will be mentioned here is language. As Ehret ')**:0 shows, Afroasiatic, the linguistic phylum to which ancient Egyptian belongs, is ultimately of 1ortheast African origin, but much Egyptian ocabulary also appears to ha e been borrowed from another African language phylum called 1ilo-Saharan 'one e7ample of a 1ilo-Saharan language is the 3aasai language of ,enya0. What has &ust been reproduced is far from a complete list of parallels between ancient Egypt and sub-Saharan Africa, but it should suffice to show that much of the Egyptian culture emerged from a similar substratum to many other cultures distributed throughout the African continent. The >iological Anthropological E idence As has been shown, the ancient Egyptian culture originated from areas further south and shared many cultural traits with the rest of Africa, but there is still the #uestion of whether the Egyptians themsel es were African in appearance. If the Egyptians had to be classified according to modern American society$s racial ta7onomy, to which 4race4 would they belong" =ust as archaeology and cultural anthropology show significant ties between ancient Egypt and more southerly Africa, so too has biological anthropology confirmed that most of the Egyptian people were genetically related to other Africans and would ha e resembled people whom Americans call 4blac%4. >efore a discussion on the Egyptians$ biological relationships can begin, howe er, it must be pointed out that 4blac%4 Africans actually ha e a broad range of physical appearances. 3any Americans thin% they %now what African 'or 41egroid40 facial features loo% li%eF

for e7ample, broad, flat noses and full lips. Bowe er, the physical anthropology =ean Biernau7 ')*+90 has obser ed that many Africans do not conform to this stereotype. According to his studies, some of the thinnest lips in the world can be found in Africa as can *-G of the world$s ariation in nose shape. African s%in color is similarly heterogeneousA in fact, there is more s%in tone ariation in African populations than any other in the world, e en after correcting for en ironmental factors that can influence s%in color '6elethford -...0. 1arrow noses and thin lips, both facial features stereotypically associated with Europeans rather than Africans, are particularly common in 1ortheast African countries not far from Egypt, such as northern Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and SomaliaA their abundance in this region may ha e something to do with its arid climate, since as noted by 3olnar ')**)0 narrower noses are considered more adapti e in drier en ironments. This must be ta%en into account when analy!ing Egyptian statues or physical remains to &udge their 41egroidness4A Egyptians need not ha e flat noses or e erted lips to be closely related to other Africans. If neither nose width nor lip thic%ness are reliable indicators of population affinity, how can the Egyptians$ biological relationships with other peoples be accurately assessed" One method used by biological anthropologists to determine how closely related ancient populations were to each other and to modern populations is by studying and measuring the features of their s%ulls 'also called crania0. The more similar two populations$ crania are, the more closely related they are considered to be. It is important to stress that a reliable study on crania should not fi7ate on one feature of the s%ull but rather measure a large number of ariables distributed all o er the s%ull, since it is possible for two otherwise unrelated populations to con ergently e ol e a certain feature. 1umerous cranial studies ha e found ancient Egyptian s%ulls to resemble those of more southerly Africans. Hodde '-..*0 found Egyptian crania to particularly resemble those of Sudanese, as did >arnard ')*/90, while 8richton ')*::0 disco ered a strong similarity between Egyptians and ,enyans. >rauer ')*+:0 found Egyptian crania to fit snugly into a cluster with s%ulls from throughout tropical Africa. 6elationships between ?pper Egyptians and sub-Saharan populations are particularly strong ',eita )**., -..9A ;ermeersch -..-0, but as found by Benneberg et al ')*@*0 and 3idant-6eynes '-...0, e en Dower Egyptian crania ha e sub-Saharan characteristics. To be sure, a couple of studies ha e shown different results, but both of these ha e fundamental methodological flaws. >race ')**/0 claimed to ha e found an affinity between ancient Egyptians and Europeans, but as pointed out by Bowells ')**90, too many of >race$s ariables in ol ed nose shape, bringing to mind Biernau7$s point about the high ariability of African nose shapes. A later study by Banihara '-../0 found that while Egyptians were more closely related to Sudanese than to anyone else, both of these

populations seemed related to Europeans according to his analysis. The problem with Banihara$s methods is that they were based not on #uantitati e measurements of cranial features but on #ualititati e descriptions of 4non-metric4 traits 'i.e. anatomical anomalies0, and this type of analysis is considered useful only for comparing crania within populations rather than between them as noted by 8he erud et al ')*@)0. When these two flawed studies are dismissed, the picture that emerges from cranial analysis is that ancient Egyptians were of sub-Saharan African affinity. Some bio-anthropologists ha e attempted to determine population relations using the shape and si!e of teeth, but this can be ris%y. Irish and Turner ')**.0 noticed that the teeth of prehistoric 1ile ;alley dwellers had a more sub-Saharan African appearance than the supposedly more EuropeanI1ear Eastern-li%e teeth of farming populations in the same region, with sub-Saharan teeth being larger and morphologically more comple7 than that of other populations, but an earlier study by >race and 3ahler ')*+)0 found that a population$s a erage tooth si!e and shape can change in response to dietary changes without any gene flow being necessary. Since the adoption of agriculture is correlated with a reduction in tooth mass and morphological comple7ity all around the world, and since agriculture de eloped earlier in the 1ile ;alley than in other parts of Africa, it should not be surprising to find agricultural 1ile ;alley populations e ol ing smaller, simpler teeth o er time without significant mi7ing with Europeans or 1ear Easterners. This is why dental morphology by itself is not enough to determine population relationshipsA other lines of data should be considered. 3o ing away from the cranium to other parts of the s%eleton, another type of analysis that can determine population origins is measuring limb proportions. As a general rule, sub-Saharan Africans ha e proportionately longer limbs than people from other parts of the world, since long appendages dissipate heat in tropical climates more easily. 3easurements of ancient Egyptian limbs find them to be similar to those of sub-Saharan Africans, and in fact some report Egyptian limb proportions to be 4super-1egroid4---that is, proportionately e en longer than those of most Africans '6obins and Shute )*@:, Ja%r!ews%i -../0K >y contrast, 3iddle Easterners from subtropical desert climates comparable to Egypt$s do not ha e the Egyptians$ African-li%e limb proportions 'Bolliday -..., Smith -..-0. This means that the ancient Egyptians$ ancestors must ha e migrated from a tropical region further south, such as Sudan, which is consistent with the archaeological data cited earlier in this paper. S%eletal morphology is not the only data that must be considered when assessing the Egyptians$ biological affinities and physical appearance, for soft tissues, for instance hair form and s%in color, must also be ta%en in account. The first soft tissue that will be considered here is hair form. One might thin% that simply loo%ing at the hair on Egyptian mummies is enough to determine its original te7ture, but this fails to ta%e into account the possibility that the

hair might ha e undergone damage o er time. >rothwell and Spearman ')*:/0 analy!ed many Egyptian mummy hairs and found that the %eratin forming the hair follicles had e7perienced significant o7idation 'damage0, which they attributed to chemicals used in the mummification processA o7idation of %eratin can cause both te7ture changes and discoloration. A more reliable method for determining hair$s original te7ture is by measuring the hair follicles$ cross-sections using an instrument called a trichometer, di iding the minimum diameter in micrometers by the ma7imum, and then multiplying the result by ).., producing an inde7. 3artin ')*-@0 reports that curly hair li%e that of Africans produces indices less than +9, whereas indices abo e +9 are typical of the wa y to straight hair of other populations. As Strouhal ')*+)0 found, ancient Egyptian hair samples produced indices between /9 and :9, well within the range of curly African-type hair. In other words, ancient Egyptians$ natural hair te7ture was curly li%e that of other Africans. On a related note, 8hapel et al ')*@)0 report finding a tightly curled hair shaft forming within one Egyptian mummy$s s%in, suggesting that hair protected from o7idising forces can retain its original te7ture. 2inally there is the #uestion of the ancient Egyptians$ s%in color. One might e7pect tomb paintings to answer that #uestion, but this is complicated by the tendency for Egyptian paintings to be styli!ed and symbolic rather than realistic. An e7ample is offered by (oe ')**+0F during the Old and 3iddle ,ingdom periods of Egyptian history, men were painted brown and women yellow, but both se7es were painted brown during the 1ew ,ingdom. While the 1ew ,ingdom con ention is arguably more realistic than the older one, whether the Egyptian artists really were aiming for greater realism is not presently %nown. A better approach would be a histological analysis of Egyptian mummified s%in. 3e%ota and ;ermehren '-..90, loo%ing at the s%in cells of Egyptian mummies, note that they were pac%ed with melanin as e7pected for 41egroid4 'i.e. sub-Saharan African0 specimens, but they do not go into details. A more specific analysis of mummy s%in, especially one using s%in cells from arious other ethnic groups for comparison, would be preferred, but 3e%ota et al$s obser ation is nonetheless interesting and perhaps the most authoritati e statement on ancient Egyptian s%in color that is presently a ailable. If so much bio-anthropological data indicates a close physical resemblance and genetic affinity between ancient Egyptians and more southerly Africans, one might wonder what to ma%e of the lighter-s%inned modern Egyptian population. The answer is that the current Egyptian population is not necessarily reflecti e of the original Egyptians but is instead significantly admi7ed with arious groups, most of them from Europe and the 3iddle East, who ha e immigrated into Egypt during historic times.

One cranial study by >erry and >erry ')*:+0 found continuity in Egyptian s%ull morphology between prehistoric times and the 3iddle ,ingdom, but this trend of continuity bro%e during the 1ew ,ingdom, coinciding with increased interaction between Egyptians and 1ear Easterners during and &ust prior to this period. Another s%ull study by Ja%r!ews%i '-..-0 disco ered that Egyptians postdating the 1ew ,ingdom were physically distinct from earlier Egyptians, replicating a result found by >arnard ')*/90. ,eita ')**.0 reported stronger European tendencies in recent Egyptian s%ulls compared with more ancient ones. 2urthermore, a genetic study by 1ebel et al '-..-0 showed that a significant component of the modern 1orth African gene pool can be traced to historically recent Arab in asions and settlement. All of this shows that the Egyptians ha e e7perienced significant genetic change within the last three millennia. This should not be surprising when one considers the point made by ,eita and >oyce ')**:0 that e en a small tric%ling of immigrants can radically change a population$s gene pool within a thousand-year period, nor is it without parallel elsewhere in world history. As an analogy, Europeans ha e been present in 3e7ico for only fi e centuries, yet o er <)G of the modern 3e7ican gene pool is of European origin 'Sil a et al -..*0. Since the Egyptian 1ile ;alley is a geographically much smaller region than 3e7ico and has been sub&ected to in asions from Europe and the 1ear East for o er -,9.. years, foreign immigration should be e7pected to ha e altered the Egyptians$ genetic ma%eup to an e en greater e7tent. 8onclusion 5ata from archaeology, cultural anthropology, and biological anthropology all show a strong cultural and biological connection between ancient Egypt and sub-Saharan Africa. The Egyptians originated in more southerly regions of Africa, shared many cultural characteristics with Africans elsewhere on the continent, and had a physical appearance that would definitely be regarded as 4blac% African4 in an American cultural conte7t. Although the blac% African identity of the ancient Egyptians should not color our &udgement of their ci ili!ation$s greatness, it is nonetheless important to ac%nowledge for a number of reasons. 2irst, %nowledge of the Egyptians$ African affinities will aid in accurately reconstructing these ancient people and their culture, whether in artwor% or in films and tele ision documentaries. Secondly, ancient Egypt$s accomplishments show the potential that people of African people ha e and refutes the anti-blac% racist allegation that Africans are incapable of any %ind of ci ili!ation. Thirdly, if Egyptology as a discipline admits the Africanity of ancient Egypt, that will help undo the damage inflicted by two centuries of denial. The time to accept the African bac%ground of ancient Egypt is long o erdue. Wor%s 8ited

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