UNSUPERVISED LEARNING STRATEGIES FOR THE DETECTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSIENT
PHENOMENA ON ELECTRIC POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
David L. Lubkeman
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Clemson University
Clemson. South Carolina 29634-0915
ABSTRACT
A number of utilities are currently installing high-speed data
aoquisition equipment in their distribution substations. This
equipment will make it ssible to record the transient waveforms
due to events such as c w and high-impedance faults, capacitor
switching, and load switching. This paper describes the
potential of applying unsupervlsed learning strategies to the
classification of the various events observed by a substation
recorder. Several strategies are tested using simulation studies
and the effectiveness of unsupervised learning is compared to
current classification strategies as well as supervised learning.
Keywords: Fault Classificorion, Unsupervised Learning, Paver
Distribution Fault Analysis.
INTRODUCTION
The classification of transient disturbances on electric power
distribution feeders is a challenging problem. Traditional
protective relaying schemes are capable of correctly identifying
major disturbances, such a$ low-impedance faults. However, there
are presently no commercial on-line detection schemes that can
be applied to differentiate between transient disturbances due to
events such as high-impedance faults, transformer inrush and load
switching. Modem data recording systems are capable of
sampling three-phase voltages and currents, at sampling rates up
to 6 KHz. This makes it possible to calculate lower-order
harmonics and the extent of higher-frequency noise. Although
different types of disturbances ap ar to have certain unique
signature characteristics, the class&on of these events is not
a trivial task. Each feeder has different load and line
characteristics, which would mean that any detection scheme
would have to be adaptable to a particular system. Also, the
voltage and current waveforms in a distribution system are rich in
high-frequency noise with a very wide frequency spectrum (white
noise) and a number of harmonics. Any successful scheme for
event detection and classification would have to be based on some
type of adaptive pattem recognition technique.
Neural networks have successfully been applied to a number
of power engineering-oriented classification problems [11. They
have been especially useful when the essential features of the
patterns are unknown or difficult to characterize. Initial efforts to
train a neural network to differentiate between high-impedance
faults and other transient events have alread been described by
Ebron, et al. [2]. In this study, a number oztraining cases for a
typical 12 kV distribution system were developed through the use
of the Electromagnetic Transients Program (EMTP).The standard
backpropagation learning algorithm was then applied to train the
network. The results indicated that this type of supervised
learning could be successfully applied. Unfwtunately, the
problem with a classification approach based on supervised
learning is that a substantial amount of effort would be required to
obtain the training cases. Also, because actual fault waveforms
differ from simulation results, it would eventually be necessary to
train the network on real network data. Since the types of events
needed to train the network would not naturally occur over a short
period of time, it would be necessary to stage the events in order
~ to gather the data.
A more desirable approach to the classification of transient
events would involve unsupervised leaming. A nctwork that
learns without supervision is appro riate since there is no
requirement for a priori knowledge ofthe relationship between
input patterns and the events to be classified. Unfortunately, if
an event is not consistently associated with a characteristic
pattern of activity, then that event cannot be classified. One
could also employ unsupervised learning as a tool to discover the
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Chris D. Fallon Adly A. Girgis .
kinds of events that could potentially be classified with a given
feature set.
This paper discusses the feasibility of applying unsupervised
learning techniques to the classification of transient events on
distribution networks. The specific unsupervised learning
schemes applied include the self-organizing mapping scheme
introduced by Kohonen as well as a model based on adaptive
resonance theory which is attributed to Grossberg. Training and
testing cases are based on EMTP program simulations of typical
transient events on a model power distribution system. The
performance of the unsupervised learning schemes is also
compared to that obtained by applying supervised learning based
on backpropagation.
OVERVIEW OF LEARNING STRATEGIES
Unsupervised vs. Supervised Learning
What the distribution engineer would like to have as a
disturbance classifier is a black box that can be hooked up to a
transient recorder with minimal setup. The engineer would not
normally have the resources necessary to develop a set of cases .
that would be needed to train a neural network-based classifier
requiring supervised training, such as a backpropagation
network. Instead, it would be desirable that this classifier could
learn how to differentiate between the various events on its own, ,
with minimal interaction on the part of the engineer.
Neural networks are trained by applying sets of input pattern
vectors and adjusting the network weights according to a
predetermined learning strategy. There are two basic types of
learning strategies: supervised and unsupervised. Supervised
learning requires a set of training pairs, consisting of input
vectors with target vectors corresponding to the desiied output.
The goal of a supervised training strategy is to minimize the m r
between the output produced by each input vector and the desired
output for a set of training vectors. A popular neural network
based on supervised training is the backpropagation network.
The basic problem with strategies employing supervised
training is that there are many situations in which the
relationships between the classifier inputs and the appropriate
output target patterns can not be determined ahead of time. It is
for these types of situations that unsupervised learning strategies
have been developed that do not require an output target vector.
The training set would only consist of input vectors
corresponding to the features of the event to be classified. The
goal of the training algorithm in this case would be to adjust
network weights to produce output vectors that are consistent. In
other words, the application of similar input vectors,
~
corresponding to the same class of events would produce the same
output pattem. Although a vector from a certain event class
would produce a specific output. there would be no way to
determine, before tr\aining the network, which output pattern
would be produced by a given input vector beloneg to a certain
class of events. Although a number of convenhonal algorithms
for performing the unsltpervised clustering described above have
already been developed, such as the K-Means and ISODATA
algorithms [3]. this paper'will only focus on two common neural
network approaches for unsupervised learning.
Self-organized Mapping
One strategy for unsupervised learning is self-organized
mapping, based on work done by T. Kohonen [4]. The self- -
organizing map is a neural network which maps an n-dimensional
input space onto a two-dimensional grid. A Kohonen layer
employs a competitive or "winner-take-all" strategy. For a given
input vector, only one neuron will output a logical one, with all
 the other outputs set to zero. The Kohonen layer is capable of
grouping input vectors into clusters which correspond to a
category that the input vector belongs to. This is accomplished
be adjusting the Kohonen layer weights so that input vectors with
similar features activate the same Kohonen neuron. Eventually,
the weights of a neuron will be the average of the class of input
vectors that activate it. Kohonen used this type of network for
speech recognition in which he created phoneme maps.
The structure of this network consists of three layers: an
input layer, a Kohonen layer and a competition layer, as shown in
Figure 1. The Kohonen layer is basicall a twodimensional array
of neurons, where each input neuron is &y connected to those in
the Kohonen layer. Neurons in the Kohonen layer are also
connected to neighboring neurons. The Kohonen layer is also
fully connected to the competition layer, which only contains a
single neuron. Also, the neurons of the Kohonen layer are
connected to neighboring neurons. This interconnection allows
the self-organized mapping strategy to maintain spatial
relationships among nearby members of the grid elements.
Before training, the Kohonen layer is initialized such that
the neuron's weights are set to points on a grid in the unit square,
defmed by the fmt two coordinates of the input space, where the
coordinates vary between zero and one in each dimension. When
an input vector is presented to the network, each Kohonen neuron
computes the distance between its weight vector and the input
vector. where this distance is given by
The neuron in the competition layer then determines the
"winner", which is the Kohonen neuron with the smallest
distance. This is referred to as a competitive learning strategy
since the neurons compete against each other for the ability to
modify their weights. The winning Kohonen neuron's weights
are then adjusted to move it closer to the input vector. In this
particular implementation of the self-organizing map, the
winning neuron's neighbors are also adjusted such that their
weight vectors are also moved closer to the input vector. The
adjustment of the neighboring neurons is needed to main& the
spatial integrity of the grid. The weight adjustments are as
follows:
w"k = {ld + ~ ( - xwL15, if k is the winner
k
Wmw = +ld + ~ ( -xwkold1, if k is a neighbor of the winner
As the learning progresses, the neuron weight vectors are spread
out such that each weight vector represents a region in the input
space. That is, each neuron's weight vector becomes the
prototype for inputs in that region. The learning rate for the
neighbors is also subject to a cooling factor, which determines
how quickly the neighborhood effect is reduced to zero.
One potential problem with Kohonen networks is that if the
input vectors are very similar and the initialization process
spreads the initial weight vectors over a wide range, then only a
few neurons will get involved in the learning process. To r e c w
this- problem, this implementation of the self-organizing ma
also mcludes a conscience mechanism developed by Desieno [5f
The conscience mechanism is used to monitor each Kohonen
neuron's history of success in the competitive learning process.
If a neuron wins too often, then the conscience mechanism takes
that unit temporarily out of the competition. This will allow
neurons in undersampled areas to get involved in the competitive
learning process.
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A preprocessing strategy is needed to normalize the t r h g
set of input vectors before using them as inputs to the network.
This is accomplished by dividing each component of an input
vector by that vector's length. This has the effect of convertmg
each input into a unit vector in ndimeasional space. Hence, each
input vector terminates on the surface of a hypersphere.
COMPETITION LAYER
Figure 1 Self-Organized Mapping Network
Adaptive Resonance Theory
The human brain has the ability to process new memories as
they arrive and still keep from erasing or corrupting existing
memories. One of the disadvantages of a backpropagation
network is that the addition of a new input vector to the training
set may require that the network be completely retrained. This
makes the backpropagation network unsuited for incremental .
learning in certain environments. A neural network designed for
incremental learning is the ART network, based on the
application of adaptive resonance theory and developed by '
Carpenter and Grossberg [a]. There are several variations of the
ART network. ART1 was developed for binary signals and ART2
was developed for analog signals.
The ART network is basically a pattem vector classifier
which can also be used for unsupervised learning. That is, it
accepts an input vector pattem and classifies it into a category
depending on pattems already seen by the network. The desired
output does not have to be known ahead of time to train the
network. If an in ut vector pattern does not match up to anything
stored by the ARf network, then a new category is created. If the
input vector pattern is matched with a pattern category, then the
weights corresponding to that pattem category are modified to
make it more like the input vector. Hence new input pattem
vectors will modify weights corresponding to stored pattems if
the match is within a certain tolerance referred to as the vigilance
factor.
An ART2, two-layer network, is illustrated in Figure 2
below. The classification strategy consists of three stages:
recognition, comparison and search. New input pattem vectors
are learned and classified b modifying the bottom-up weights
from the F1 neurons to the 22 neurons. Neurons in the E2 layer
then compete for the ability t~ match up with the input pattern.
where each neuron in the F2 layer corresponds to a pattern
category. The topdown weights from the F2 layer then provide
an expectation to the F1 layer, of what a typical pattern should
look l i e for a given category. A vigilance factor specified by
the user then determines what degree of recognition is required for
a match to be declared. If the F2 match is close enough to the
input vector pattern, then resonance is said to occur. Network
weights are then adjusted to make the stored pattern look more
like the input. In this manner, the weights for a given pattem
reflect the average of the pattems in a given category. However,
if a mismatch occurs, then the F2 neuron is inhibtted and process
is regeated until a match occurs. If the network is unable to match
the 1 pattern with any existing category, then the network
creates a new pattem category, using the input vector as a
prototype for a new category.
 The network user needs to specify the size of the F1 layer,
which corresponds to the size of the input vector, the number of
neurons to be used in the F2 layer, a vigilance arameter. and
some other miscellaneous learning parameters. he
successful
application of this type of network is highly dependent on the
selection of the vigilance factor. If the vigilance is set too high,
then input vector pattems will fail to match up to those stored in
memory, resulting in a large number of pattem categories being
created. In this case. the network fails to generalize correctly,
since only a slight variation of a pattem will create a new class.
However, if the vigilance is set too low, then different categories
will &come indistinguishable and get grouped together. This
usually necessitates the need for some type of supervision to
adjust the vigilance factor.
SHORT-TERM MEMORY FZ
STM RESET
n :a,L,
Ip(my w I
+ TD LTM
SHORT-TERM MEMORY F1
INPUT PAllERN
Figure 2 ART2 Network
DESIRED FEATURES OF A NEURAL NETWORK-
BASED EVENT CLASSIFICATION STRATEGY
The success of a strategy for classifying transient events will
be highly dependent on the features presented to the neural
network. Neural networks do not normally operate on raw data.
Some form of preprocessing involving filtering, computing the
discrete Fourier transform components or scaling is usually
essential. A neural network approach to the classification of
power system disturbances, as illustrated in Figure 3. would
consist of three basic tasks: collecting a set of sampled feeder
line currents and voltages corresponding to abnormal and normal
conditions, using this set to train a neural network, and Jesting
the network on a separate set of processed line currents and
voltages. The preprocessor is an integral part of this strategy
since it conditions the raw data into a form suitable for input into
the neural net, as illustrated in Figure 4. Such a detection strategy
could be based on parameters such as changes in seQuence
components, variations in the non-60 Hz components in the
current waveform, and abnormal high-frequency noise. These
parameters would be calculated by a preprocessor for a number of
windows, where each window represents a certain time period.
This allows the network to make use of changes in parameters
over time. The parameters which existed for the n-window range
would then form one input vector for a neural network. The
associated output vector would then be used to indicate the type of
transient event.
Feature selection is more of an art than a science. The goal of
feature selection is to eliminate as much unnecessary information
as possible while still retaining the salient information in a
cbmpact form. Useful features are those which vary widely from
class to class, are easy to measure and calculate and which are not
correlated with other features. This process is difficult to
automate and must be based on an intuitive understanding of the
classification problem. For identifying disturbances on
distribution systems, the following items have typically been
looked at as possible features:
Magnitude and phase of currents
Magnitude and phase of voltages
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Harmonic components
Deviations in frequency
Difference between pre- and postevent values .
Rate of change of above quantities.
The detection and classification of low-impedance faults is fairly
straightforward since this only involves discriminating between
the high current magnitudes associated with faults and the normal
load currents. However, the detection of events associated with
switching or high-impedance faults requires a more detailed
analysis of transients.
Each disturbance due to capacitor switching, faults, etc. is
accompanied by transients in the current and voltage waveforms.
Certain aspects of transients are unique to the type of disturbance,
while others are common to all of them. The uency and rate of
decay of these transients depend on the -3
disturbance and
the location of the event causing the disturbance. For example,
capacitor switching creates both voltage and current transients.
The voltage transients are based on the natural frequency of the
system, which normally varies between 250 and lo00 Hz. These
transients may decay within half a cycle. The capacitor switching
can also magnify the harmonic distortion.
High-impedance faults also produce transients. However
these transients may decay faster due to the high attenuation
produced by the fault impedance. It is interesting to note that this
'
type of fault is not easily detected by conventional relaying
schemes since this fault's characteristlcs are similar to other
transient events. Switching a parallel transformer to satisfy
loading conditions may result in transients or inrush current. In '
some instances, this inrush may be incorrectly interpreted as a
fault condition. High-impedance faults can exhibit arcing of a
highly random nature, resulting in fault currents with noticeable
high-frequency components. Yet this same behavior can result
from such normal operations as capacitor switching and. '
transformer tap changing, so frequency monitors are also
unreliable. These attributes of high-impedance faults make them
very difficult to detect and the identification of salient features is
an ongoing area of research [7].
The detection of certain types of events based on the
monitoring of waveforms at the substation is not a trivial task.
The waveforms of the voltage or the current in a distribution
system are rich in high-frequency noise with a very wide
frequency spectrum and a number of harmonics. It is reasonable
to expect that the level of these harmonics and high-frequency
transients will increase in the future. Also, each feeder has
different load and line characteristics, which would mean that any
detection scheme would have to be adaptable to a particular
system.
AND WGEMENT OF FAULT DATA UBRARY
SUUAlWN
S
-
.
RRYDUUV I Lorn- I
WRLO
S M V DATA "utnwIIJ#
Figure 3 Creation and Management of Fault Data
 '6PERmACm'r substantial increases in current on two phases. What
distinguishes an ungrounded-line-to-line fault from a grounded-
'
I
line-to-line fault is the fact that the latter results in an increase in
zero sequence c m m t [9].
I The fmt set of studies involved a 12 element input pattern
vector consisting of three-phase pre- and post-fault current
magnitudes and angles, as measured at the s&station. To test
whether the inputs were sufficient for characterizing the fault
typs, a backpropagation network consisting of 1 hidden la er
I
I RAWDATAANALYSIS I
with 12 neurons was presented with the training data. h e
I
I
network was able to correctly class 98% of the cases after
I
P H A S E # about 100 iterations. A self-organamapping network with a
I
I
I
CURRENTS ; seven by seven Kohonen layer was then presented with the
training set. The mapping results are shown in Figure 5a The
I grounded-line-to-line faults correspond to the triangles. the
NEUTRAL
I
I
I
CURRENT ; ungrounded-bto-line faults am represented by the squares while
the single-line-to-ground faults are represented by the circles. As
I I shown in the map, the single-line-to-ground faults are well
I I grouped, while there is good, but not ideal differentiation between
I SAMRE I the two sets of lineto-he faults.
I
I
I I DATA PREPROCESSOR
-I
SETS I
I
I
Next, an ART2 network with 12 nemns in the F1 layer and 4
neurons in the F2 layer with a vigilance factor of 0.95 was tested.
I I The network accurately classified the single-line-to-ground faults,
I I but could only obtain a success rate of about 8096 when hying to
I I differentiate between the two types of line-to-line faults.
I I
I
I
I
I
I

8.0
7.0 -
rI NEURAL NETWORK
J
6.0 e 0 U
5.0 e o h

Fault
J
HIF
J
Capadtor Xfmr Load
4.0
3.0
- 0 0
e
0

Fault Switching Inrush Switching
EVENT CLASSIFICATION
Figure 4 Neural Network-Based Classification Scheme
SIMULATION RESULTS
In order to evaluate the suitability of unsupervised strategies
such as self-organized mapping and adaptive resonance theory, as
opposed to supervised strategies such as backpropagation, it was
necessary to derive suitable test and training sets. A simulation
of a typical radial distribution feeder with multiphase laterals and
loads was used to create case studies. For the purpose of the
transient simulations, the system was modelled as mutually
coupled resistive and inductive transmission lines with lumped
loads to best simulate actual distribution feeders. Transient data
was generated using EMTP by creating faults at different locations
within the network. The fault type, loading conditions, fault
resistance and the point on the voltage waveform when the fault
occurred was varied throughout the simulations. The 60 Hz
phasor quantities of the fault induced transient data were estimated
by means of an optimal estimation algorithm [8]. The data
produced was the pre-fault voltage and current phasors and the
post-fault voltage and current phasors taken after the Kalman
fdter algorithm converged, typically one-half to threequarters of
a cycle after the detection of the transient. A trainiig set with 75
events-was constructed as well as a test set with 75 events.
In this initial study, only three types of events were
considered: single-line-to-ground faults, ungrounded-line-to-line
faults, and grounded-line-to-line faults. It was decided to fully
explore this sim ler set of events before moving on to more
complex types o f events involving additional frequency domain
information. Hence the goal of the classificakion process was to
select which of the three fault events occurred. Single line-to-
ground faults can be characterized by a large increase in current on
a single phase only, while line-to-he faults are characterized by
0
0
n
A
2.0 e A A 0
1.0 6 0 A A 0
0.0 0 6 1 c b t l @ A l
~ 1.0
-1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
Figure 5a Results of Self-Organized Map for First Set of Cases
A second set of studies with a r e d d pattem vedor size was
then created. The new pattem consisted of the difference between
the pre- and post-fault current magnitudes for each phase, as well
as the difference between pre- and post-fault zero sequence current,
to make a total of 4 inputs. A backpropagation network
consisting of 1 hidden layer with 4 neurons was able to achieve
the same 98% classification success as cited before. The same
data set was also applied to the same self-organized mapping
network as descrhd above, with results as shown in Figure 5b.
Again there is a noticeable differentiation made in the three types
of events.
An ART2 network with 4 neurons in the F1 la er and 5
neurons in the F2 layer with a vigilance factor of 0.9rwas then
tested. As before, the network was able to differentiate between
single-line-to-ground and line-to-line faults. However, the
network was not able to completely differentiate between
grounded and ungrounded line-to-line faults. A number of
different variations were made to the network without much
success. The two type of faults differ in that one has a large WO
sequence component while the other doesn't. Ap
problem was that there was too great a differeact in rt:yG
within each class of line-to-line faults. When the vigilance factor
was increased, instead of differentiating between the two types of
faults. the network would onl take each type of line-to-line fault
and divide its cases into smalrer subclasses.

110

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 [5] Duane Desieno, "Adding a Conscience to Competitive
Learning", Proceedings of the IEEE International
.
Conference on Neural Networks, Volume 1, July 1988, IEEE
8.0 Press, pp. 117-124.
1.0 -
[6] Carpenter,. Gail A., and Grossberg. Stephen, "ART 2: Self-
6.0 e o 0 0 0 h Organization of Stable Category Recognition Codes for
5.0 e A O h Analog Input Patterns", Applied Optics, Vol. 26. No. 23,
1987, pp. 4919-30.
"4.0 - A A A B 0
3.0 4 A A A 0 0 [7] Adly A. Girgis. Wenbin Chang. Elham B. Makram.
2.0 8 n o 0 0 "Analysis of High-Impedance Fault Generated Signals using
a Kalman Filtering Approach, IEEE Transactions on Power
1.0 A 0 0 0 Delivery, Vol. 5. No. 4, November 1990, pp. 1714-1724.
0.0 A A t b t b l l a 1
-1.0 ' 1
[8] A.A. Girgis, R.G. Brown, "Application of Kalman Filtering
in Computer Relaying", IEEE Transactions on Power
Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-100, No. 7, July 1981,
-1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
pp. 3387-3397.
Figure 5b Results of Self-organized Map for Second Set of Cases [9] A.G. Phadke, M. Ibrahim, T. Hlibka, "Fundamental Basis
for Distance Relaying with Symmetrical Components".
IEEE Transactions on P e e r Ap aratus and S stems, Vol.
CONCLUSIONS PAS-96, no. 2, March/Apnl 197,! pp. 635-64dl
It is apparent that developing an event classification scheme
based totally on unsupervised learning will be a difficult task.
Obvieusly some type of initial supervised training would be
~ q u i r e dbefore such a device is used in the field. This could be
rcomplished by using a simulation of the network to which this
rype of device is to be attached. Although this would take quite a
bit of extra work, an event classifier would then only require
aruprvised learning to compensate for the difference between
IL sudation model and the waveforms which actually occur on
dr feeder.
The practical application of neural networks will also
rvolve the integration of small, special purpose networks with
mnventional fault detection algorithms. It will be difficult to
ccmstruct a large neural network with a large number of inputs that
will be able to classify a multitude of different events. There is no
rcd to have a network learn that the zero sequence current, which
I the phasor sum of the three-phase currents, corresponds to a
fault involving ground. One could incorporate t h s type of
howledge into a procedural algorithm. However, a special-
popose neural network component could be embedded to help
aerentiate between two events which are very similar, given
&at only a limited comparison between the two is required.

-
Future work is also required on how to best incorporate
ddltional salient features into an input pattern vector. There is a
rcd to mix in additional frequency domain information related to
m-60 Hz phenomena. This will be necessary to classify other
of events, such as capacitor switching and high-impedance
faalts. However problems with dimensionality will be
crpuntered if one were to attempt to add a complete set of three-
values for each measurable harmonic.

i
REFERENCES
Proceedings of the Workshop on Applications of Artificial
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Sonja Ebron, David Lubkeman and Mark White, "Neural Net
Processing A roach to the Detection of High Impedance
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2, April 1990. pp. 905-914.
Yoh-Han Pao, Adaptive Pattern Recognition and Neural
Networks. Addison-Wesley. Reading, Massachusetts, 1989.
T. Kohonen, Self-organization and Associative Memory.
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1984.
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