- 1 -

5. ANALOG SIGNAL PROCESSING USING

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
5.4. IDEAL MODEL FOR THE OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
Ideal Operational Amplifier (op amp)

(Note: the symbol denotes the infinite gain.)
Assumptions to analyze op amp circuits

1. Infinite Impedance at both inputs. Hence no current is drawn from the input circuits.
0 = =
+
I I
2. Infinite Gain. As a consequence, the difference between the input voltages must be zero;
otherwise, the output would be infinite.
+
=V V
3. Zero Output Impedance. Therefore, the output voltage does not depend on the output
current.
- 2 -
Usage of op amps
Closed loop configuration: op amp circuits usually include negative feedback from the
output to the negative (inverting) input. The other case is positive feedback from the output
to the positive (noninverting) input. When the gain is G , the output is given by
) (
+
= V V G V
out
. For the negative feedback,
+
= + GV V G
out
) 1 ( (since

=V V
out
). If the
gain is very high, the output follows the positive input. For the positive feedback, however,
+
= GV V
out
when

V is connected to the ground. For small changes in the positive input,

the output is easily going to be saturated.

[negative feedback] [positive feedback]

Open loop configuration: when there is no feedback. This configuration results in
considerable instability due to the infinite gain (the output is easily saturated (comparator)).

Typical op amps
- 741, and TL071 (same configuration, FET inputs, and input impedance 10M).

V
+
V

out
V
+
- 3 -
5.5. INVERTING AMPIFIER
Configuration
It is constructed by connecting two external resistors to an op amp. Here, the resistor
F
R
is called the feedback resistor, and forms the feedback loop.
The input voltage is connected to the inverting input. Therefore, this circuit inverts and
amplifies the input voltage.

Analysis

Applying KCL at node C, and utilizing the Assumption 1 that no current can flow into the
inputs of the op amp,
out in
i i = .
From the Assumption 2 that the two inputs are assumed to be shorted, 0 =
C
V .
From Ohms Law, R i V
in in
= , and
F out out
R i V = .
Since
out in
i i = ,
F in F out out
R i R i V = = .
The resulting input-output relationship is
R
R
V
V
F
in
out
= .

- 4 -
5.6. NONINVERTING AMPLIFIER
Configuration
The input voltage is connected to the noninverting input. Therefore, this circuit amplifies
the input voltage without inverting the signal.

Analysis
From the Assumption 2, the voltage at node C is
in
V .
The currents through R and
F
R are
R
V
i
in
in
= , and
F
in out
out
R
V V
i

= .
Applying KCL at node C gives
out in
i i = .
The input and output voltage equations are
R i R i V
out in in
= = , and R i R i V R i V
out F out in F out out
+ = + = .
The resulting input-output relationship is
R
R
R i
R i R i
V
V
F
out
out F out
in
out
+ =
+
= 1 .
The noninverting amplifier has a positive gain greater than or equal to one.

Buffer or follower
If 0 =
F
R and 0 = R ,
in out
V V = .
The high input impedance of the op amp effectively isolates the source from the rest of the
circuit.

- 5 -
5.7. SUMMER
Analysis

Applying KCL at node C gives
out
i i i = +
2 1
.
From the Assumption 2, 0 =
C
V .
From Ohms Law,
1
1
1
R
V
i = ,
2
2
2
R
V
i = and
F
out
out
R
V
i = .
The input-output relationship is
F
out
R
V
R
V
R
V
= +
2
2
1
1
.
Assuming
F
R R R = =
2 1
yields ) (
2 1
V V V
out
+ = .

5.8. DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER
Superposition
The sum of the individual responses is equivalent to the overall response to the multiple
inputs.
When the inputs are dial voltage sources, to analyze the response due to one source, the
other sources are shorted.
When the inputs are current sources, the other sources are open.
Analysis
The first step is to replace
2
V with a short circuit effectively grounding
2
R . As shown in
Fig. 5.15, the result is an inverting amplifier. Therefore, the output due to input
1
V is:
1 1
V
R
R
V
F
out
= .
The second step is to replace
1
V with a short circuit effectively grounding
1
R as shown
in Fig. 5.16a. This circuit is equivalent to the circuit shown in Fig. 5.16b where the input
voltage is
- 6 -
2
2
3
V
R R
R
V
F
F
+
=
The circuit in Fig. 5.16b is a noninverting amplifier. Therefore the output due to
2
V is
given by
2
2
3 2
1 1 V
R R
R
R
R
V
R
R
V
F
F F F
out
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
+ = |
.
|

\
|
+ = .
From the principle of superposition, the total output
out
V is the sum of the outputs due to
the individual inputs:
2
2
1 2 1
1 V
R R
R
R
R
V
R
R
V V V
F
F F F
out out out
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
+ + = + = .
When R R R = =
2 1
, the output voltage is an amplified difference of the input voltages:
2 1 2
) ( V V
R
R
V
F
out
= .


- 7 -


5.9. INSTRUMENT AMPLIFIER
When the input impedance is too low for high output impedance sources, the two input
impedances, i.e.,
1
R and
2
R become different.
Furthermore, if the input signals are very low level and include noise, the difference
amplifier is unable to extract a satisfactory difference signal.
Characteristics of Instrument Amplifier
Very high input impedance.
Large Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR), which is the ratio of the difference mode
gain to the common mode gain. The difference mode gain is the amplification factor for
the difference between the input signals, and the common mode gain is the amplification
factor for the average of the input signals.
Capability to amplify low-level signals in a noisy environment.
Consistent bandwidth over a large range of gains.
- 8 -
Analysis
The two op amps on the left provide a high impedance amplifier stage where each input is
amplified separately.
The outputs
3
V and
4
V are supplied to the op amp circuit on the right, which is a
difference amplifier with a potentiometer
5
R used to maximize the overall CMRR.

Since the current cannot flow through the inputs of op amps (Assumption 2), it is clear that
the current
1
I passes through both feedback resistors
2
R and
1
R .
2 1 1 3
R I V V = ,
2 1 4 2
R I V V = , and
1 1 2 1
R I V V =
If we eliminate
1
I and express
3
V and
4
V in terms of
1
V and
2
V , the results are
2
1
2
1
1
2
3
1 V
R
R
V
R
R
V
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = , and
2
1
2
1
1
2
4
1 V
R
R
V
R
R
V
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + = .
Since the right part is a difference amplifier, the relation is given by
4
5 3 3
4 3 5
3
3
4
) (
) (
V
R R R
R R R
V
R
R
V
out
+
+
+ = .
Substituting
3
V and
4
V into the above equation, and assuming
4 5
R R = yield
4 1 2
1
2
3
4
) ( 2 1 V V
R
R
R
R
V
out

(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = .
For a common mode input,
2 1
V V = , the above equation yields a zero output, however, in
practice, the resistances will never match exactly.
By using a potentiometer for
5
R , the mismatch between
5
R and
4
R can be minimized
to get a maximum CMRR.
The gain can be programmable by changing the external resistor
1
R .
- 9 -
5.10. INTERGRATOR

If the feedback resistor of the inverting op amp is replaced by a capacitor, the result is an
integrator circuit.
The relation between voltage and current for a capacitor:
C
i
dt
dV
out out
= d i
C
t V
out out
) (
1
) (

=
Since
in out
i i = and R V i
in in
/ = ,
d V
RC
t V
in out
) (
1
) (

= .
Improved Integrator with a shunt resistor


- 10 -
The resistor
s
R is called a shunt resistor, whose purpose is to limit the low-frequency
gain of the circuit.
This is necessary due to the fact that even a small dc offset at the input would be integrated
over time, eventually saturating the op amp. Note that the scaled integral should be below
the maximum output voltage for the op amp.
s
R is usually greater than
1
10R .

5.11. DIFFERENTIOTOR

If the input resistor of the inverting op amp is replaced by a capacitor, the result is a
differentiator circuit.
The relation between voltage and current for a capacitor:
C
i
dt
dV
in in
=
Since
out in
i i = and R V i
out out
/ = ,
dt
dV
RC V
in
out
= .
Note that differentiation is a signal processing method that tends to accentuate the effects
of noise whereas integration smooths signals over time.
5.12. SAMPLE AND HOLD CIRCUIT

- 11 -
The sample and hold circuit is used extensively in analog to digital conversion, where a
signal value must be stabilized while it is converted to a digital representation.
When the switch S is closed, ) ( ) ( t V t V
in out
= .
When the switch S is opened, the capacitor C holds the input voltage corresponding to the
last sampled value, since negligible current is drawn by the follower.
) ( ) (
sampled in sampled out
t V t t V = , where
sampled
t is the time when the switch was last opened.

5.13. COMPARATOR

The comparator circuit without negative feedback is used to determine whether one signal
is greater than another.
The output of the comparator is given by

<
> +
=
ref in sat
ref in sat
out
V V V
V V V
V
where
sat
V is the saturation voltage of the comparator, and
ref
V is the reference voltage
to which the input voltage
in
V is being compared.

5.14. THE REAL OP AMP
A real op amp has finite input impedance and gain. There is very little voltage difference
between the input terminals.
The maximum output voltage is limited by the supply voltage. The maximum voltage
output will be about 1.4 V less than the supply voltage. For example, if a 15 V supply is
being used, the maximum voltage output would be approximately 13.6 V and the minimum
voltage output would be 13.6 V.
- 12 -
Characteristics of real op amps related to step response

Slew Rate The maximum time rate of change possible for the output voltage:
t
V
SR

= .
Rise time The time required for the output voltage to go from 10% to 90% of its final
value.
Characteristics of real op amps related to frequency response

A real op amp has a finite bandwidth, which is a function of the gain.
GBP (Gain Bandwidth Product) the product of the open loop gain and the bandwidth at
that gain. This measure is constant over a wide range of frequencies since typical op amps
exhibit a linear log-log relationship between open loop gain and frequency.
As the closed loop gain is increasing, the bandwidth is decreasing.
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EXAMPLE 5.1 Sizing Resistor in OP Amp Circuits

For an ideal op amp, the two circuits would have same gain, -2.
By considering the Output Short Circuit Current (the largest current of the output) in the
figure 5.25 at page 161, the value for a LM741 is typically 25mA.
The output current of the top circuit is A 5 2 / = =
out out
V I , since V 10 2 = =
in out
V V .
This is far above the current sourcing capability of the op amp.
When the larger resistances as shown in the bottom circuit are used, the output current is
5mA, which is well within the op amp specification.

DESIGN EXAMPLE 5.1 Myogenic Control of a Prosthetic Limb.
We would like to design a prosthetic limb, that is, an artificial arm or leg that could be
controlled by the thoughts of the user.
When a muscle is caused to move or twitch, the tiny movement of electrolytes in the
muscles below the skin cause an electric field that induces a small voltage on the surface of
the skin. However, it ranges from microvolts to millivolts and may be mixed with other
biopotential signals.
To sense the small potential, an instrumentation amplifier can be used, which can provide
the high input impedance, high common mode rejection ratio (typically for rejecting 60 Hz
noises), and high gain.
The following figure shows an Electro Myogenic (EMG) detector (CMRR>60 dB, Gain:
125, and Input Impedance: 10M).

- 14 -

[Instrumentation Amplifier]
To eliminate a motion artifact due to movement of the subject and add further gain to the
system, the 2Hz high-pass filter is used as shown below.

[High-Pass Filter]
A the point B, the EMG signal would look like the following:

This is a high-frequency signal with components between a few Hz and 250 Hz.

- 15 -
We need to rectify the signal so that specific levels of the signal can be used for control,
and to use a low-pass filter to get the envelope of the high-frequency waveform. We
require a precision rectifier as shown in the following figure, since the signal is very small.

[Precision Rectifier with Low-Pass Filter]
The precision-rectified EMG and the resulting low-pass-filtered signals look like:

The output of the low-pass filter can be used to a binary control signal, one that will be on
when the muscle is contracted and off when relaxed. The output of comparator can then be
input to a power transistor circuit to control the current in a motor.

[Comparator] [Motor Control Circuit using a Power Transistor]



- 16 -
DESIGN EXAMPLE 5.2 Analog PD Controller Circuits.
The following figure shows the schematic diagram of PD-controller for a DC motor.
Instead of differentiating the value of position sensor, the controller uses tachometer to get
velocity information. The resulting command input
in
V to the motor can be calculated as

& &
D d D d in
K K K K V = = ) ( ) (
where
d
denotes the desired angular position input, and
&
are the actual sensed
angular position and velocity, and K and
D D
K K K = are the position and velocity gains.






[Closed loop system with PD-control]
The analog controller circuit implementing the block diagram of Fig. 2 is shown in Fig. 4,
which consists of one inverting amplifier with unit gain, one summer with variable gain,
and two buffers.
+
_
_
+
+
_
100k
_
+
1k
+5V
Function
Generator
or Power
Supply
Servo
Amp
Tach
+
_
Pot
100k
1k
1k
K=10k
KD=10k
Motor
Vref
+
VT Vw
Vd
+

[Analog PD controller circuit with op amplifiers]


K Motor Tacho Pot
K
D
+

&
d

in
V
- 17 -
DESIGN EXAMPLE 5.3 Analog PID Controller Circuits.
Find out the output of the following circuit where V1 and V2 are the input voltages
(R1=R2=R3=Rf).
How can you use this circuit to control a DC motor with only a rotary potentiometer? Draw
the diagram of the total system.


(HW #5) Design Example 5.3, and in the exercise, 2, 6, 7, 10, 11 (by Feb. 15).