A Very Short Introduction to Rhetoric

History

Have you ever heard the phrase empty rhetoric? This phrase certainly carries negative connotation; howeve empty. But what exactly does rhetoric mean? And how can it help you?

Much of our understanding of what rhetoric is goes back over 2,500 years to the Sophists. The Sophists were classical Greece. They taught many subjects, but their main focus was rhetoric. The Sophists taught that knowledge perception; essentially, there is no right or truth, only what people perceived as right or truth. They taught their convincing for an audience would depend on the audience and the situation. In other words, what w ould seem true situation would not seem true to a different audience or in a different situation. These teachings, though powerful, w much so that Plato, the Greek teacher and philosopher, worked to discredit the Sophists teachings. For Plato, there therefore, at least at the beginning of his teaching career, he did not see much value in rhetoric, except that it should truth, a universal truth, he argued for. Fortunately for us today, Aristotle, Platos student, saw great value in rhetoric what he taught his students about rhetoric. Much of our modern understanding of rhetoric comes from the Sophists a

Aristotle emphasized rhetoric as an important part of effective communication. Aristotle defined rhetoric as the observe in any given situation the available means of persuasion . It is this definition of rhetoric that guides writing ins universities across the United States. Much like the Greeks during Aristotles time, our culture today is one that emp communication and rewards those who can speak and write well, and rhetoric is still the key for being a successful c Rhetoric Defined

Any negative definition of rhetoric fails to consider the true nature of rhetoric. Some would define rhetoric as la ornamentation or empty talk, but these definitions are too limited, uninformed, and do not address rhetoric for wha

For our purposes, rhetoric is an ability to assess a situation and know what to do to communicate well within t Although a thorough understanding of the complexity effective oral, written, and visual communication can take year effective communication begins with rhetoric, and with this foundation, even if you are just starting out, you can beco flexible writer. Rhetoric is the key to being able to write effectively in a variety of situations, and you already have a p and may not even know it.

From infancy, we are learning to read our audience, usually our parents, to figure o ut what we need to do be carry with us and develop throughout our lives. For example, most of us have a pretty good idea about how to be pe parents for money or persuading a boss that it is time for a raise. As a college student, you may know that when you a research paper on the novel you are reading that she or he is expecting an essay that is quite different from the su your Biology professor. However, without stopping and thinking rhetorically and honing our rhetorical skills, many of writers and to be able to respond well in a variety of writing situations. The goal of a rhetoric-based writing course is rhetorical skills so that you can quickly and efficiently analyze any rhetorical situation and respond to it effectively.

One way to begin to understand the true nature of rhetoric is to understand that almost everything we say or degree, and this persuasion is pervasive in our culture. The narrative essay about what you did over summer break trying to at least convince your audience that what you did was worth hearing about. The television commercials tha products to be beautiful, thin, smart, and cool all use rhetorical principals to persuade us. The words that I (the autho

communicating to you (my audience) right now are persuasive and rhetorical in nature because I am trying to convin you improve your writing skills. Rhetoric is all around us. If we are willing to learn about rhetoric and how to use it, w and better prepared to make informed decisions as citizens in a culture that greatly values the written word. Modes of Persuasion

Important to the understanding of rhetoric are three Greek words that have played an important role in effectiv thousands of years. Aristotle, in his teachings on rhetoric, also taught his students about the three modes of persuas While you may be thinking that these words sound like the names of the Three Musketeers, in reality, these wo nature and what appeals to us as human beings.

Aristotle taught his students that there were three basic ways of convincing your audience of something or at listen to what you have to say, and we still use these concepts today. You will often hear ethos, pathos, and logos re of persuasion. Ethos

Ethos is a way of convincing your audience of your credibility as a writer. Some credibility can be, in a way, bu relation to the topic may provide some built-in ethos. For example, if a Psychology professor were writing an essay a disorders, she or he would have strong, built-in ethos. But, if that same professor were to try to write a paper on qua educational background would provide no built-in ethos. Sometimes, position within a culture can provide built-in eth Luther King, Jr. had built-in ethos when he spoke and wrote because of his position in American society during the 1 built-in ethos in modern America?

You need not worry if you have no built-in ethos. There is also the kind of ethos or credibility you work to esta taught his students that this was the most powerful ethos, and it is the kind of ethos that you, as students, must work writer is come across as believable and credible to your audience, and knowing how to utilize rhetoric and the follow logos will help you do just that. When you use pathos and logos well, you build your ethos. You also build ethos as y style that are appropriate to the situation. If you are writing an essay that requires sources, you can build your ethos credible and have strong ethos. Essentially, writing with rhetoric in mind builds your credibility as a writer. Pathos

Most simply, pathos is the appeal to our human emotions. We are more often moved by our emotions than b pathos is a powerful mode of persuasion. As a writer, your job is to make the audience feel connected with your topi help. Think about the broad spectrum of human emotions: sadness, humor, pity, sympathy, anger, outrage; these ar Pathos provides writers with a tool to get the audience emotionally invested in the message.

There are many who argue that pathos is the strongest of the three modes of persuasion, that we are emotion mainly by our emotions. And there is no doubt that pathos is powerful. Just look at the television commercials that us that we need certain products or the political ads that play upon our fears to get us to vote a certain way. Pathos is c persuasion. But you should be very careful with pathos. Pathos is generally the least respected of the three ethical a community. In many fields of study, emotion is something that should be left out completely. Most of the time, the be pathos and use it wisely. Misusing pathos can negatively affect your ethos. It is best to always consider your audien

concepts that will be explained later in this essay, when considering what role pathos will play in your writing. Logos

Logos is the appeal to our logical side. Logos is about the facts we present in our writing and the logical mann ideas. Having strong logos is one important way that we can build our ethos within an essay. For example, if you are the Plague in Medieval times, you will want to gather a good deal of research and then incorporate that research in a manner. You should also make sure that your points or arguments are logical in nature, and you should avoid faulty aware of some of the most common errors in logic: the logical fallacies. You can read more about the logical fallacies at the following link: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/659/03/

Ethos, pathos, and logos are all interconnected, and it is important to realize that while we need to know how to use to know how they are being used to persuade us. Learning the basic rhetorical concepts will not only empower you a will empower you as a reader, a viewer, a consumer, and a citizen. Audience As mentioned earlier, the Sophists asserted there was no such thing as right or truth. There is only what truth. This idea is important in our discussion of audience.

Whenever you write, there is always an audience. You could be writing a research paper for your Biology clas your teacher and classmates. Or maybe you are writing a letter to the editor of your school newspaper, and your aud body as well as teachers and staff. Even the notes you take during your Psychologys teacher lecture have an audie perhaps when you take notes during the lecture, you use abbreviations that only you will understand. This works bec audience, and you are the only one who needs to understand these notes.

Before we even begin to write, we should think about our audience. Our audience should have an impact on about audience because, if we want to be effective, then we must think about what will be effective given our particu using the abbreviations that only you can understand when you write your letter to the editor of your school newspap because you did not keep your audience in mind when you wrote. Audience affects what and how we write.

Writing for an academic audience is one of the most difficult writing tasks because college students and facu can be difficult for student writers to see outside their own experiences and to think about how other people might re kind of rhetorical thinking is necessary for effective writing. We must try to see our writing through the eyes of our au effective writers. This, of course, requires a lot of flexibility as a writer, but the rewards for such thinking are great wh a diverse group of people, some of whom may disagree wholeheartedly with us, listen to what we have to say.

There are sometimes ethical questions that arise when it comes to considering your audience and audience back as Plato have questioned the ethics of considering audience, saying that we should not just give an audience w often question the concept of audience because they feel they must be honest to themselves first and foremost. Wh important questions to consider, what it comes down to ultimately is rhetorical effectiveness. Maybe you cannot get p change their minds, but you have an obligation as a writer to at least get them to listen to your ideas. In academia, w

require effective communication skills because we know students who can communicate well are successful in our c not know how to consider your audience and see things from your audiences perspective, your ability to communica which can have a negative impact on your educational and professional career.

For example, a few years ago, I had a student who wanted to write his paper on the abuse of social services the United States. The problem was that when we wrote his paper he said that all people on welfare were lazy. Asi this kind of statement is irresponsible when it comes to audience. Chances are, there are students and possibly teac class who receive or have received social support from the government for some very valid reasons. The students s receive such services are lazy is an immediate turn-off for members of his audience. If this student wanted to make reform, he certainly could have made a case using research, strong logos, and careful consideration of his audience listen to what you have to say by offending them. Therefore, as an effective writer, you must choose your words and your audience in mind. Things to Consider When Thinking About Audience

Because college classrooms, whether virtual or face-to-face are so diverse, a checklist of sorts can be helpfu audience.

You must consider diverse socioeconomic backgrounds. You will often be writing for people from a wide varie

You must consider diverse ethnic backgrounds. In most college classrooms in America, you will find students variety of ethnic backgrounds.

You must consider diverse religious backgrounds. It is important to remember that not everyone has the sam and many people have no religious beliefs at all. Matters of faith can be helpful when writing for a different au newsletter for example, but should not be a part of message that must appeal to an academic audience beca make-up.

You must consider diverse educational backgrounds. In many ways, a classroom of college freshmen are on but there can still be diversity when it comes to knowledge and educational training. It is also important to rem particular field. What do the members of your class know about your subject? What terms do you need to def

You must consider diverse age groups and different gender. Not all college students are 18, and not all colleg diverse group, and we must remember we are writing for people who may be older or younger than we are an

Purpose

In addition to thinking about audience, you must also think about your purpose as you write. Rhetorically sp making decisions as a writer about why you are writing and what you want your audience to take from your work.

Here are a couple of tips when it comes to thinking about purpose: First, you must be able to move beyond th because your professor is making you. While that might be true on some leveleven many levelsyou must decide content of your essay. You must decide for yourself why you are doing this. Only when you do this will your writing b Second, your assignment or project instructions affect purpose. If you are in a college class and your teacher gives y assignment sheet, it is especially important to read very carefully though your teachers expectations. If you are writi should think about the requirements are.

For example, in a college class, if the purpose of the assignment is for you to write an article review, it would be a m your own mind that your purpose is simply to summarize the article. The same holds true in the workplace. If your bo but informative research piece on one of your competitors, it would be a big mistake for you to decide you did not ne base your findings on what you think or have heard. In short, purpose must fit the rhetorical situation, a concept th Thesis Statements and Purpose

While it is your job as a writer to consider your purpose for writing in your own mind before you write, as you writing, it is also your job to reveal that purpose to your audience. In many types of academic writing, the place to rev statement. The thesis statement in academic writing is often placed at or near the end of your papers introduction. A to two sentences in length and states a clear purpose, one that coincides with the requirements of the assignment a of assertion about your topic.

Many times you will read writing that offers no clearly stated thesis statement and the thesis statement is imp has not directly stated his or her thesis but has implied a thesis that the reader should be able to discern. In many ac such as traditional essays and research papers, you will want to write a clearly stated thesis. The reality of academic able to state your purpose clearly and efficiently, and a strong, well-placed thesis helps you do this.

Think about all the essays your professors have to read each term. Most professors, especially your writing p hundreds of essays each term. They do not have a lot of time to figure out what you are trying to say. They need to b quickly and easily. Thats why a good thesis statement is so important. Body Paragraphs and Purpose

A strong thesis is the beginning of a well-written, purposeful essay, but your body paragraphs must support y purpose you have established for your piece. In academic writing, there are high expectations when it comes to purp essay is very focused on a single purpose, so your body paragraphs have the important task of carrying this single f is a good idea to connect all body paragraphs, at one point or another to your thesis. This is will keep your purpose c Voice

Once you have considered your audience and established purpose, it is time to think about voice. Your vo how you sound to your audience. Although many think that the voice you establish as writer is not that important and important, nothing could be further from the truth. Voice is critical in good writing. Donald Graves, teacher and autho wrote:

Voice is the imprint of ourselves on our writing. It is that part of the self that pushes the writing ahead, the dyn voice away and the writing collapses of its own weight. There is no writing, just words following words. Voicel whom it may concern." The voice shows how I choose information, organize it, select the words, all in relation I want to say it. The reader says, "Someone is here. I know that person. I've been there, too." But the writer's not pointing to itself but to the material. The voice is the frame of the window through which the information is voiceless writing when no one is there any more than they can have a dialogue with a mannequin (Writing: Te Work 81).

Clearly, voice is an important part of writing, but many students never stop to think about voice in their writing. It is im relative to audience and purpose. The voice we decide to use will have a great impact on our audience. As a writing make errors in voice, which have a negative impact on an entire essay. For example, when writing researched essay students lose their voices entirely, and the essay reads more like a list of what other people have said on a particula

It is also easy to use a voice that is too informal for college writing, especially when we are just becoming fam college expectations. You should avoid slang and familiar language in most academic papers. Of course, it is import certainly a lot of variety within academic writing assignments, and if you are writing a journal, you are most likely goin language. In online discussions, you will often have to make discussion postings, which are generally more formal th as a formal essay. Ultimately, thinking about your writing rhetorically will help you with establishing a strong, appropr Rhetorical Situation

Rhetorical situation is one of the most important rhetorical concepts to learn because it is really about where (voice, audience, and purpose) and your use of the three modes of persuasion (ethos, pathos, and logos) intersect t decisions when you write.

Every time you write or speak, you are faced with a different rhetorical situation. According to rhetorician Lloy question with an answer, communication is a response to a rhetorical situation. Each rhetorical situation requires so your part if you want to be as effective as possible. Many times, when we are given a writing assignment, we have a instructions and then just start writing as soon as the ideas pop into our minds. But writing rhetorically and with inten thoroughly investigate your writing assignment or rhetorical situation before you begin to write. Too many times, we writing assignment because we did not give the writing assignment enough thought and consideration.

My advice to you is to slow down and ask yourself some questions about your writing assignments before you how important analyzing voice, audience, and purpose are; now, you must remember to apply these concepts every assignment. Some Rhetorical Tools

In her book, Perspectives on Argument, Nancy Wood provides some tools to help students analyze a rhetori presents these tools as tools to analyze a reading, these tools can help you as both a reader and a writer when you

author. Moreover, it is pretty easy to remember to stop and consider these tools when you remember the acronym fo you are analyzing a rhetorical situation, it is helpful to consider these questions.

Text: What kind of text is it, or what type of text is being required? What are the special qualities and features of thi about? What is its topic?

Reader or Audience: Who is the targeted audience? What are they like? Can they be convinced? How do you as a targeted audience? What are your constraints? How much common ground do you share with the author?

Author. Who is the author of the work? Consider background, experience, education, affiliations, and values. Wha write? If you are the author, and this is a rhetorical analysis of your own writing situation, think about your own backg affiliations, and values. How do these things impact your approach to the work? How do these things create biases? not necessarily bad; we all have them. It is just important to be aware of them if we want to be successful writers, es

Constraints. What special constraining circumstances will influence the author's or the audience's responses to the what constraining circumstances will influence you? What beliefs, attitudes, prejudices, habits, events, circumstance place that will limit or constrain audience perception? What genre constraints must you work within as an author?

Exigence. What happened to cause this argument or to create a reason to write? What was going on that made the are the author, what makes you want to write on this particular topic or issue? Final Thoughts

I hope I have been successful in convincing you of the power and importance of rhetoric. As both a writer and a teac be the most useful approach to writing and writing instruction. As a student, I remember leaving my Freshman writin my writing skills, but I was not taught very much about rhetoric, and as soon as I encountered new rhetorical situatio feel panic and have a hard time adapting my writing. Once I learned about rhetoric, I could write at least fairly well w actually spent years working as a reference book author, writing books on subjects completely unrelated to my field successfully because I knew how to analyze my rhetorical situation and adapt my writing to that rhetorical situation.

As a teacher, I believe completely in the power of rhetoric to help students transfer the skills we teach in Freshman w classes. When I first started teaching, I was not the greatest teacher by the standards in my field. I taught students h and simple, descriptive essays. I realized the problem when I learned that my students were not writing those essay tools to be able to adapt to the writing assignments they were actually being assigned. As a teacher, I was saved by Composition theory class in graduate school. I never went back to the process essays, and I have worked hard to gi more likely to be used in different writing situations.

If you have any questions about the usefulness of rhetoric, please do not hesitate to ask. Feel free to post a comme the answers, but I can at least point you in the right direction with some helpful resources. Crystal Sands, PhD