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Further Approaches to Learning Users Guide 0006.

PSYCHOLOGY SERIES
USERS GUIDE

Learning Theories FURTHER APPROACHES TO LEARNING

This Guide is designed to be read before viewing and an overview of the content and structure of the programme is given to assist with planning and lesson preparation. It is written to support the teaching of psychology and will be particularly helpful for those new to this subject. The DVD includes a menu linking to sections within the programme. The default setting is to play the DVD through automatically. To select a section highlight the relevant heading using the arrows on your remote control and press ENTER. The chosen section will then play through and return to the menu for your next choice. Running time: 56 minutes (1996) The programme content is under copyright law and may not be duplicated in any form without written permission from Uniview Worldwide Ltd. Any graphics reproduced in the Users Guides may be photocopied for use with students. We hope you find this programme a useful teaching tool. 1 0151 625 3453

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Further Approaches to Learning Users Guide 0006.3 Introduction The programme is designed to be watched in small parts with frequent breaks for consolidation. It contains too much information to be useful if watched from start to finish in one sitting. Structure of the Programme We have included five breaks for thought, discussion or activities and details of these are listed in this Guide. The 'Pause the Video' screens are on for about 10 seconds to allow those viewing on video to turn off and switch on again. Writing materials are not essential for carrying out the activities. Introduction to the Video 3 mins 30 secs Revision - Principles of Conditioning 3 mins Latent Learning 8 mins 40 secs Insight Learning 5 mins 30 secs Learning Sets 5 mins 30 secs Observational Learning 4 mins Ethology 7 mins 40 secs Neuroscience 2 mins Cognitive Psychology & Learning Theory 13 mins Conclusion 3 mins This programme follows on from our programme Classical and Operant Conditioning and, although a brief revision is given, a knowledge of Behaviourist theories of learning is assumed. Aims o To follow on from the Behaviourist theories of Classical and Operant Conditioning by looking at some of the many alternative approaches to learning and explanations. o To emphasize the current revolution from the radical Behaviourist approach to learning towards Cognitive Behaviourism - the acknowledgement that mental processes play a large part in learning in both human and non-human species. o The short breaks, apart from giving the viewers a rest, aim to involve the students in their own learning by taking part in interesting, memorable and meaningful discussions and activities.

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Further Approaches to Learning Users Guide 0006.3

Psychology Syllabus Links AQA (A) AS knowledge useful for many aspects eg Mod 3 Social Influence; Mod 2 explanations of eating disorders AQA (A) A2 Mod 5 Individual Differences (b) behavioural therapies 13.5 Determinants of Animal Behaviour Social Learning in Non-Human Animals AQA (B) AS Mod 4 13 Child Development 13.8 Treatments of Atypical Behaviour approaches and therapies AQA (B) A2 Mod 5 Perspectives in Psychology 14.1.2 (c) Social Learning Theory AQA GCSE Section 10 Cognitive Psychology Learning - principles of social learning theory Edexcel AS Unit 2 The Learning Approach Studies in detail Bandura; Key Applications behaviour change Edexcel A2 Applications Unit 4c The Psychology of Education (a) theories of learning cognitive Unit 5c Health Psychology (a) Health and Substance Abuse - learning theory Unit 4e Sport Psychology social learning theory Unit 6 Approaches Behaviourist OCR A2 2544 5.5.1 Psychology and Education Perspectives on Learning (d) (ii) Humanistic applications to learning (d) (iii) Cognitive applications to learning

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Further Approaches to Learning Users Guide 0006.3 Timing and Content of the Programme Introduction The current move towards cognitive explanations of learning away from radical behaviourism is emphasized Some questions which arise in the study of learning are outlined The learning-memory difference; the nature-nurture debate; human versus non-human studies; laboratory versus field studies. 3.30 6.20 Revision of Classical & Operant Conditioning A brief recap with examples Latent Learning Edward C. Tolman - goal directed behaviour (Break 1 ) Learning versus performance (Break 2 ) Cognitive maps (Break 3) Insight Learning Wolfgang Kohler - the Gestalt School Work with Chimpanzees Replication using pigeons at Harvard Learning Sets 20.30 Harry Harlow - learning to learn Activity - Learning Set Transfer of Learning - positive, negative, lateral (Break 4 ) Observational Learning Albert Bandura - Social Learning Theory The learning-performance gap - Bobo doll work Imitation in human and non-human animals Ethology Factors governing animal behaviour Konrad Lorenz - fixed action patterns; egg-rolling behaviour in geese Instinctive drift Seligman biological preparedness and phobias Neuroscience Implications of current work on the plasticity of synapses The relationship between synaptic change and associative learning Cognitive Psychology and Learning Theory The Information Processing Approach 4 0151 625 3453

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Further Approaches to Learning Users Guide 0006.3

The rise of Cognitive Behaviourism The behaviourist and cognitive psychologists explanations of the same behaviour (Anthony Dickinson) 42.00 Cognitive processes in Learning Sensory pre-conditioning (Robert Rescorla) Blocking (Leon Kamin) Premacks Principle (Break 5 ) Learned Helplessness (Martin Seligman) Mackintoshs Theory (Nicholas Mackintosh) The Behaviourist viewpoint explained by B.F. Skinner and Robert Epstein on archive footage Connectionism (Parallel Distributed Processing) The complex computer models simulating neural activity currently being developed to explain the mechanisms of learning 53.50 Summary - applications, current trends and future research Relevance to real world problems The formation of a new Cognitive Theory of Learning

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Notes for Breaks for Exercises or Discussion Break 1 03.30 What have you learned that you are not demonstrating at this moment? What learning are you demonstrating? Notes: Most learned social skills, physical abilities and knowledge will not be demonstrated while sitting in front of a screen. Learning being demonstrated can be simply identified as any behaviour not possible at birth eg sitting upright, writing, walking. Break 2 06.20 Try to describe routes that you know. Notes: Having seen several people stopped in the street explaining a route, the viewer is asked to try this for themselves to highlight the dependence we have on left-right turns and landmarks.

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Further Approaches to Learning Users Guide 0006.3 Break 3 15.00 How do you mentally represent routes? How do drawings of the same route vary? Notes: Passers-by were asked how they mentally represent a route. It is hoped that, when trying this oneself, it becomes clear how difficult it is to explain mental processes to others. It also highlights the diverse ways people visualize routes mentally and reproduce them in drawings. Break 4 20.30 Find examples where you use positive, negative and lateral transfer in your life. Notes: The viewer is asked to do this after a brief explanation but before our examples are given. It is not always clear whether positive or negative transfer will occur in a given situation but it makes for an interesting discussion. Lateral transfer is easier to demonstrate eg applying something learnt in the classroom to another situation eg learning to convert miles into kilometres in the classroom and then being able to use this knowledge when on holiday. Break 5 26.00 Try to devise your own hierarchy. How do you use preferred activities to reinforce less preferred ones? Notes: An exercise based on Premacks Principle. Notes on Content This programme picks up where the world of pure reflexes and responses ends and moves into the importance of mental processes in learning. It covers a wide range of approaches to, and explanations of, learning in humans and non-humans placing particular emphasis on the current move towards Cognitive Behaviourism. The ethics involved in studying and experimenting on animals was discussed very thoroughly in the Classical Conditioning programme and Users Guide. The references are repeated at the end of this Guide. In this programme the ethics of exposing children to violent behaviour in adults is put forward and could be used as the basis for discussion, not only about ethics, but also about designing experiments ie if Bobo doll type experiments are unacceptable how else could we study the extremely important relationship between exposure to violence and subsequent behaviour?

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Further Approaches to Learning Users Guide 0006.3 Note: Some textbooks abbreviate Unconditioned Stimulus and Unconditioned Response to UCS and UCR; others use US and UR. We have used the latter convention in our charts when revising classical and operant conditioning and it may be worth pointing this out to students to avoid confusion. There are many very interesting aspects to learning that we have not had time to cover, some of which will come under different programme titles. Imprinting and implicit learning are just two examples which we discuss later. Discussion notes for the four questions posed in the film 1. What is the difference between memory and learning?

It is evident that they are really both part of the same process - what is learnt we must remember, what we remember is learnt. The student could think how much knowledge they must be storing somewhere just about psychology and if they have good metacognition (knowing what you know) they will realise that they have learnt and will be able to retrieve this information. It is therefore difficult to see why memory and learning have come to be studied separately as in some connectionist models and many psychologists suggest that they become one area of research. 2. Are we born with any knowledge or any innate mechanisms for learning?

It is clear from the ethological studies we have looked at that many non-human animals are born with certain instinctive behaviours, such as imprinting and fixed action patterns which enable them to survive, especially during vulnerable sensitive periods after birth. In humans it is also clear that babies have many behaviours that they dont need to be taught such as sucking and crying, which help them to get food and attention when they are unable to look after themselves. Noam Chomsky suggested that we have innate mechanisms to understand the rules of grammar and this is why children pick up language so quickly once exposed to it. But apart from some basic instincts, and perhaps some inbuilt tendencies to learn certain things more quickly, it is obvious that most learning of new information and behaviour occurs as a result of our interaction with the environment. Examples come from the area of observational learning, learning sets and insight learning.

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Further Approaches to Learning Users Guide 0006.3 3. Should we use non-human animals to try to understand human behaviour?

This is really a question about evolution. Since Darwin put forward his theory of evolution there has been a search for general principles of learning which can be applied across species and across situations. It has been claimed in the past that all human behaviour could be understood by studying small mammals. Mackintosh suggests that this was probably due to ignorance at that time about the complexity of the human mind and lack of knowledge about the natural behaviour of rats. There are of course advantages to studying animals over humans in that it is much easier to control all the important variables when you have a captive subject. An enormous amount of research has used small mammals and the results have been projected to the human species, however it is clear that man has capabilities that other organisms do not possess, for example the use of language and abstract thought. There are many practical and methodological reasons why animals make better experimental subjects than humans. Animal research produces results which are much less confounded by the higher cognitive, emotional and intellectual states of humans. Animals who are well cared for perform their tasks without any tantrums, awkward questions or coffee breaks. There are also serious ethical implications and the References given at the back and the discussion notes in the Classical Conditioning programme Users Guide will be useful here. One problem with any animal work is the tendency to anthropomorphise - that is, to attribute human feelings to non-human animals. This would be easy to do in many of the cognitive experiments we have looked at - for example, we might say that the rats happily ignored the tone because they hoped a reward would appear anyway like it did last time. This of course supposes that rats are happy or can experience happiness as we do, that they can deliberately ignore something and that they can experience hope.

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Should we study animals in the laboratory or study their natural behaviour in their natural environment?

Animals, both human and non-human, have been studied in a variety of artificial and contrived experiments and most of these have taken place in the laboratory using purpose-built equipment. Behaviour in the laboratory with a captive animal is much easier to control, measure and record although often the behaviour being recorded is not one naturally displayed by the animal in the field.

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Further Approaches to Learning Users Guide 0006.3 The obvious example is rats pressing levers for food pellets in Skinner boxes. Every movement can be recorded and timed precisely on a linked computer - very different from chasing wild rats around in the undergrowth and trying to monitor a particular behaviour; an almost impossible task and very time-consuming. In the case of Epsteins work with pigeons, he was able to use behaviour unnatural to the species deliberately in order to establish that learning had occurred. This doesnt necessarily add to our knowledge of the behaviour of pigeons in the wild even if it tells us something about their response to reinforcement training. This question can be applied equally to humans and leads to discussion about many aspects of experimental methods.

References for Ethical Guidelines British Psychological Society (Mar 2006) Code of conduct, Ethical Principles and Guidelines Leicester BPS available on http://www.bps.org.uk/document-downloadarea/document-download$.cfm?file_uuid=5084A882 -1143-DFD0-7E6CF1938A65C242&ext=pdf Association for the Teaching of Psychology (1992) Ethics in Psychological research: Guidelines for Students at Pre-degree Level Leicester ATP available on http://www.theatp.org/ Haworth, G. 1992 The use of non-human animals in psychological research: the current status of the debate Ethics, Psychology Teaching, New Series (1), 46-54 Russell, Julia 1992 The use of non-human animals in psychological research: the legal context Ethics, Psychology Teaching, New Series (1), 39-45 Wadeley, Alison (1991) Ethics in psychological research and practice Leicester: British Psychological Society

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Further Approaches to Learning Users Guide 0006.3 Charts used in the programme

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Further Approaches to Learning Users Guide 0006.3 Current Research Research studies on alternatives to behaviourism mainly highlight comparative cognition, neural network learning theory and artificial intelligence. Comparative cognition is an emerging interdisciplinary field which takes work from animal learning and behaviour, primatology, cognitive, experimental and developmental psychology. The aim is towards a better understanding of animal and human information-processing, reasoning, memory and metacognition. Boysen & Himes (1999) describe and discuss research areas that are producing new approaches and hypotheses including imitation, tool use and mirror self-recognition in primates. Some fresh insights and novel paradigms have been produced. Some interesting studies (Tomasello et al, 1993) looked at the imitation abilities of motherreared chimpanzees, encultured chimpanzees (raised in close contact with humans including rich immersion and experience with human artifacts) and human children. Simple and complex imitation tasks found that mother-reared chimps performed poorly and the encultured chimps and human children were comparable. However in their third task, which involved a 48 hour delay between the demonstration of the behaviour and the opportunity to imitate it, the encultured animals outperformed mother-reared chimps and human children by a long way. Further studies may be able to explain this discrepancy between encultured and nonencultured chimpanzees. Russon & Galdika (1995) looked at the choice of models imitated by orangutans. They noted a preference for models with whom they had formed a relationship. For human-reared orangutans, this preference was initially for human models and gradually transferred to other orangutans once these relationships had developed. It was also found that subordinates were more likely to imitate dominant animals. Numerous studies have looked at tool use and shown impressive results in most primates. However, Limongelli et al (1995) found that there is a wide disparity between species in ability to understand the causal nature of tools. Human children performed best with the most rapid comprehension of causality; chimpanzees showed some level of understanding of the causal nature of tools but capuchin monkeys showed no understanding of the causality of their actions. The work on theory of mind using self-recognition in mirrors and attribution of mental states in great apes has been dogged by methodological flaws and poor report writing. One ongoing debate surrounds the mark test where the primate has a mark painted on their face or hair dyed while asleep and a recognition reaction looked for when facing the mirror. One criticism made is that for most primate species direct eye contact and staring are highly aggressive behaviours and therefore looking into a mirror may cause aversion thus confounding any results.

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Further Approaches to Learning Users Guide 0006.3 It may be a worthwhile exercise to discuss these flaws and debates described in Boysen & Himes (1999) with students as examples of how even published work can have flaws. On the other hand perhaps they shouldnt be disillusioned!

Neural network learning theory An emerging and vibrant new area of investigation is what is known as Neural Network Learning Theory (NNLT). The evidence that our brains are physically altered by what we experience, and thus learn, has encouraged a move towards modeling the structure and functioning of the brain to improve our understanding of learning. Neural networks are simplified models of the brain composed of large numbers of units (the analogues of neurons) together with weights that measure the strength of connections between the units. These weights model the effects of the synapses that link one neuron to another. Experiments on models of this kind have demonstrated an ability to learn such skills as face recognition, reading and the detection of simple grammatical structure. Artificial Intelligence The ongoing aim to create the perfect robot continues apace. Building robots that can imitate other artificial or human agents in an appropriate way is work that involves the deepest problems of connecting perception, experience, context and actions. However if imitation, as an essential component of human learning capacities, can be properly formalized, robots will become capable of learning by imitating humans or one another. New questions need to be answered before that happens. Social Learning in robots demands new answers to self evident questions, say Breazeal and Scassellati in their chapter Challenges in Building Robots that Imitate People (see Ref Dautenhahn, K. & Nehaniv, C.L. (Eds) 2002). How does a robot know when to imitate? What to imitate? How to map observed actions into behavioural responses? Evaluate its successes? Correct its actions? The authors claim that progress in implementing social learning systems in robots makes us address those same issues that are applied in biological systems, although they are not yet being investigated. Watch this research!

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Further Approaches to Learning Users Guide 0006.3 Applications Criminal and anti-social behaviour A review of recent research shows that agencies around the world that are involved with perpetrators of crime and anti-social behaviour are looking for more effective ways of treatment than those traditionally used. In England and Wales, Friendship et al (2003) evaluated the use of a cognitive-behavioural treatment programme in H.M. Prison Service. The programme targeted cognitive deficits and a robust reduction in probability of reconviction was found and demonstrated the principles of effective practice. In Sweden, Osterdahl (2002) reports that many reforms in treatment of prisoners have taken place in recent years. For example, prison officers have taken over - after training - some of the roles of the social workers and psychologists and work closely with the inmates, including resolving conflicts and putting forward proposals for home leave. The increased knowledge about the inmates has supplemented the technical security and between 1991 and 2000 the escapes reduced from 547 to 182 and home leave has increased with the incidents of misuse decreasing. The training used cognitive psychological and social learning approaches which have been highly successful as well as improving staff motivation, professionalism and reducing stress levels. New Zealand has had a huge increase in anti-social behaviour in adolescents. In total there has been an 80% increase in apprehensions in the past decade (Curtis et al, 2003). As a result the New Zealand government is urgently searching for an effective treatment. Having looked at the research available (eg McLaren, 2000) they have decided to adopt Multisystemic Therapy (MST) nationwide as it has been shown to be highly successful elsewhere. Multisystemic Therapy is a family and community-based treatment approach that has been shown to achieve long-term positive outcomes with anti-social youth. The treatment theory underlying MST is based on social-ecological principles and causal modeling studies of serious anti-social behaviour which suggest that maladaptive behaviour is determined by a combination of difficulties within multiple systems in the individual's ecology (eg family, school, peer, community). Accordingly, MST targets the individual factors identified as contributing to and maintaining the problematic behaviour. In particular, MST is focused on empowering parents and other members of the ecology to develop the necessary skills and competencies to help the youth function more adaptively. MST is an individualised and flexible approach that integrates empirically-supported treatment methodologies, such as cognitive-behavioural protocols, behavioural parent training models and pragmatic family therapies (eg structural, systemic).

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Further Approaches to Learning Users Guide 0006.3 Education and Clinical Psychology The applications of non-behaviourist theories of learning in education and clinical psychology are listed and discussed in most student textbooks. However, one area of education has changed radically over the last decade and the increased research interest is evident in the literature Adult Education. It has been accepted that adults learn in a different way from children and that their life experience and previous learning can be both a help and a hindrance. Several factors have recently created the interest in this area of research, including the increasingly ageing population, increased numbers of mature students returning to education globally, the expansion of vocational and workplace education and the rise in the use of technology and hypermedia in teaching. New theories emerge and others are criticised or reinvented while educators debate the most effective methods of instruction to use with adult learners - Foley (2004). Research is looking at approaches, eg Huang (2002) argues for a constructivist approach to online distance learning; Cooks et al (2005) a humanistic (facilitative) approach. The emphasis is on cognitive methods such as problem-solving and development of insights. A meta-analysis of methods found that adults performed best using self-pacing (Callahan, 2003). The general conclusion currently seems to be that there is no single agreed best way to teach adult learners and that adulthood varies so widely that seeing it as a separate and distinct category may not be useful (Fenwick & Tennant, 2004). Observational Learning in Sport Demonstrating a motor skill in sport is the most commonly used mode of instruction. It changes behaviour through processes such as imitation, observational motor learning (modeling) and emulation. Horn & Williams (2004) are now questioning whether demonstrations are the best way to teach skill acquisition in sport. The traditional explanation is that the process is mediated by cognition and mental representation. The ethology view suggests that we perceive and are restrained by the demonstration and that in complex coordination tasks, the learner should more closely match the model at intra- and inter-limb (kinematic) level. Kouns et al (1991) support this view in their studies of teaching ballet dancers complex sequences. Recent neuroscience evidence shows that neurons which selectively fire during observation also fire in subsequent re-enactment, suggesting a psychobiological explanation. Horn and Williams conclude that kinematic information can make a substantial contribution to observational learning of a motor skill, specifically in learning movement quality. More generally, the first step in understanding the relationship between perception and action is to isolate the kinds of information that are most relevant to the task in question. To this end they have produced a resource based prescriptive advice chart (p 198) showing which is the best evidence for the use of demonstration or other methods in different circumstances on the basis of their review of recent findings.

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Further Approaches to Learning Users Guide 0006.3 References for Film Script and Guide Update Bandura, A., Ross, D. & Ross, S.A. Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology (63) 575-82 Bandura, Albert (1977) Social Learning Theory Englewood Cliffs: New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Bandura, Albert (1989) Perceived self-efficacy in the exercise of personal agency The Psychologist (2) October 411-423 Boysen, S.T. & Himes, G.T. (1999) Current Issues and Emerging Theories in Animal Cognition Annual Review of Psychology 1999 p 683 Breazeal, C. & Scassellati, B. Challenges in Building Robots that Imitate People in Dautenhahn, K. & Nehaniv, C.L. (Eds) 2002 op cit Byrne, R.W. (1979) Memory for Urban Geography Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology (31) 147-154 Callahan, J.S., Kiker, D.S. & Cross, T. (2003) Does Method Matter? A meta-analysis of the effects of training method on older learner training performance Journal of Management 29 (5) 663-680 Campbell, B.A. & Church, R.M. (Eds) Punishment and Aversive Behaviour Appleton Cooks, A., Hackney, D., Jackson, S.G., Stevens, C. & Zumwalt, D. A Humanistic Approach to Adult Learning from the Inside Out Digital archive of Northern Illinois University http://idea.iupui.edu/dspace/handle/180 5/432 Dautenhahn, K. & Nehaniv, C.L. (Eds) (2002) Imitation in Animals and Artifacts London: MIT Press Davey, Graham (1981) Animal Learning & Conditioning Macmillan Dickinson, Anthony (1979) Mechanisms of Learning and Motivation Lawrence Erlbaum Press Dickinson, Anthony (1980) Contemporary Animal Learning Theory Cambridge University Press Epstein, R., Kirschnit, C.E., Lanza, R.P. & Rubin, L.C. (1984) Insight in the Pigeon: antecedents and determinants of intelligent performance Nature (308) Mar 61-62 Fenwick, T. & Tennant, M. (2004) in Foley, G. Dimensions of Adult Learning: Adult Education and Training in a Global Era p 55 Allen & Unwin Foley, Griff (2004) Dimensions of Adult Learning: Adult Education and Training in a Global Era Allen & Unwin Friendship, C., Blud, L., Erikson, M., Travers, R. & Thornton, D. (2003) Cognitivebehavioural treatment for imprisoned offenders: An evaluation of HM Prison Service's cognitive skills programmes Legal and Criminological Psychology, Vol 8, Number 1, Feb 2003, pp 103-114(12) British Psychological Society http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/bpsoc/lcp Garcia, J. & Koelling, R.A. (1966) Relation of cue to consequence in avoidance learning Psychonomic Science (4) 123-4 Garcia, J., Ervin, F. & Koelling, R. (1966) Learning with prolonged delay of reinforcement Psychonomic Science (5) 3, 121-2 Gross, Richard (2005) Psychology The Science of Mind and Behaviour (5th Ed) Oxford Hodder Arnold

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Further Approaches to Learning Users Guide 0006.3 Gross, R. (2003) Themes, Issues and Debates in Psychology (2 nd Ed) Oxford Hodder Arnold Hayes, N. (1994) Foundations of Psychology London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Healy, A.F., Kosslyn, S.M. & Shriffrin, R.M. (Eds) (1992) From Learning Theory to Connectionist Theory Lawrence Erlbaum Horn, R.R. & Williams, A.M. (2004) Observational Learning. Is it time we took another look? in Hodges, N. & Williamsm A.M. Skill Acquisition in Sport: Research, Theory and Practice New York Routledge Huang, Hsiu-Mei (2002) Towards constructivism for adult learners in online learning environments British Journal of Educational Psychology 33 (1) Kamin, Leon J. (1969) Predictability, Surprise, Attention & Conditioning pp 279- 96 in Campbell, B.A. & Church, R.M. Kouns, S., Shapiro, B.A. & Zimmerman, B. (1991) Observational Learning of Ballet Sequences: The Role of Kinematic Information Ecological Psychology, 3 Limonelli, L., Boysen, S.T. & Visalberghi, E. (1995) Comprehension of cause-effect relations in a tool using task by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) Journal of Comparative Psychology 109 18-26 Mackintosh, N.J. (1975) A Theory of Attention: variations in the associability of stimuli with reinforcement Psychological Review (82) 2, 276-298 Mackintosh, N.J. (1983) Conditioning & Associative Learning Oxford University Press Mackintosh, N.J. (Ed.) (1994) Animal Learning and Cognition Academic Press Osterdahl, B. (2003) Prison and Probation: The Swedish Perspective Corrections Today 64 (1) Premack, D. (1983) Animal Cognition Annual Review of Psychology (34) 35-62 Rescorla, R.A. & Solomon, R.L. (1967) Two Process Learning Theory: relationships between Pavlovian and instrumental learning Psychological Review (74) 151-82 Russon, A.E. & Galdikas, B.M.F. (1995) Constraints on great apes imitation: model and action selectivity in rehabilitant orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) Journal of Comparative Psychology 109 5-17 Schwatz, B. (1989) Psychology of Learning and Behaviour Norton Seligman, M.E.P. & Maier, S.F. (1967) Failure to escape traumatic shock Journal of Experimental Psychology (74) 1-9 Seligman, M.E.P. & Hager J.L. (1972) Biological Boundaries of Learning Appleton, Century, Crofts Shanks, David R. (1995) The Psychology of Associative Learning Cambridge University Press Tomosello, M., Savage-Rumbaugh, S. & Kruger, A.C. (1993) Imitative learning of actions on objects by children, chimpanzees and encultured chimpanzees Child Development 64 1688-1705 Some Classics Harlow, Harry F. (1949) The Formation of Learning Sets Psychological Review (56) 51-65 Kohler, Wolfgang (1925) The Mentality of Apes Routledge & Kegan Paul 17 0151 625 3453

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Further Approaches to Learning Users Guide 0006.3 Lorenz, Konrad (1971) Studies in Animal and Human Behaviour Vol 2 Methuen Tolman, E.C. (1948) Cognitive Maps in Rats and Men Psychological Review (55) 4, 189-208

Further Reading for Students Association for the Teaching of Psychology (1992) Ethics in Psychological research: Guidelines for Students at Pre-degree Level Leicester ATP available on http://www.theatp.org/ Cardwell, M. (2003) Complete A-Z Psychology Handbook 3rd Ed. Ideal students companion throughout A level and undergraduate courses. Very user-friendly, definitions and jargon explained, revision and exam tips, diagrams and worked examples Cardwell, M., Clark, L. & Meldrum, C. (1996) Psychology for A Level London Harper Collins Coolican, H. (1994) Research Methods and Statistics in Psychology (2nd Ed.) London: Hodder & Stoughton Griggs, R. A. (2005) Psychology: A Concise Introduction Palgrave Macmillan All the main topics in psychology covered, clearly and concisely - American. A companion website http://bcs.worthpublishers.com/gray/content/psychsim5/launcher.html is worth looking at for 20 animated activities Gross, R.D. (1990) Key Studies in Psychology London: Hodder & Stoughton Gross, R. (2003) Themes, Issues and Debates in Psychology 2 nd Ed. Hodder Arnold Hayes, N (1994) Foundations of Psychology London: Routledge & Kegan Paul

Further Reading for Teachers British Psychological Society (Sept 2004) Code of conduct, Ethical Principles and Guidelines Leicester BPS available on http://www.bps.org.uk/document-downloadarea/document-download$.cfm?file_uuid=5084A882 -1143-DFD0-7E6CF1938A65C242&ext=pdf Davey, Graham (Ed.) (2004) Complete Psychology Hodder Arnold A first year undergraduate text written by a British team very comprehensive, plenty of artwork, activity boxes, applications, up to date and user-friendly Banyard, P. & Hayes, N. (1994) Psychology Theory & Application London: Chapman & Hall Berry, D.C. & Diennes, Z. (1993) Implicit Learning - theoretical & empirical issues Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Leahey, T.H. & Harris, R.J. (1989) Human Learning (2nd Ed) New Jersey Prentice Hall Matlin, M.W. (1989) Cognition (2nd Ed) Holt Rinehart & Winston Reber, Arthur S. (1989) Implicit Learning & Tacit Knowledge Journal of Experimental Psychology General (118) 3, 219-235 18 0151 625 3453

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Further Approaches to Learning Users Guide 0006.3 Websites www.uniview.co.uk a large collection of psychology videos, DVDs, posters, brain jellies, X-psyting extras, etc; worth checking regularly for latest news www.theatp.org the home of the Association for the Teaching of Psychology invaluable access to information and advice for teachers of psychology in UK and Europe www.bps.org.uk the home of The British Psychological Society free downloads of recent articles from The Psychologist magazine www.apa.org the home of the American Psychological Association nothing free on this site! www.psychology.heacademy.ac.uk details of psychology events, resources and research lists all UK university psychology departments; BPS list of accredited undergraduate courses www.s-cool.co.uk revision site for students on a limited number of topics; club-like feeling with an smagazine giving advice on bank accounts, interview skills and even how to shave! Teachers World with generic information http://www.mrmind.com/mrmind3 turning the Turing Test upside down, MRMIND challenges you to take the Blurring Test and prove to him(?) that you are human - make your case to a robot of your choice take the Human Quotient test - great fun and time-waster! www.youramazingbrain.org.uk just go and enjoy the brain in great detail, packed with information, activities www.holah.karoo.net information, fun activities, links excellent for staff and students alike http://psyonline.edgehill.ac.uk A Level resource from Edgehill College for AQA. Good and reliable resource for students and teachers. Includes a countdown to Mod 4 exams to the nearest second! http://psyberfun.users.btopenworld.com/ too new to comment on but looks promisingly weird, wacky and addictive! 19 0151 625 3453

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Further Approaches to Learning Users Guide 0006.3

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology extraordinary free encyclopedia which anyone can edit anytime even without being online! Over 1 million entries with definitions and further information http://www.brainconnection.com/ an award-winning site (USA) with lots of relevant material and some excellent animated mini-demonstrations. Uniview Worldwide Ltd accepts no responsibility for the content of any external websites. Please let us know if you experience any problems with any of these links.

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Further Approaches to Learning Users Guide 0006.3 Contacts The Association for the Teaching of Psychology The ATP has highly experienced teachers and examiners ready to give advice and assistance, especially for new teachers of this topic. They can recommend textbooks and resources that will get you started. ATP Helpline: Dorothy Coombs work: dorothy@pursglove.ac.uk 01287 280800 home: dorothycoombs@24whinchat.freeserve.co.uk

01287 636502

New teachers of this topic are well advised to get in touch with the ATP: The Association for the Teaching of Psychology c/o The British Psychological Society St Andrews House 48 Princess Road East Leicester LE1 7DR http://www.theatp.org Annual Conference - The ATP holds an excellent conference for members each July. As well as lectures and workshops, there is an opportunity to meet the examiners and to browse all the latest books and resources. The British Psychological Society The British Psychological Society St Andrews House 48 Princess Road East Leicester LE1 7DR Tel: 0116 254 9568 www.bps.org.uk The American Psychological Association The American Psychological Association 750 First Street NE Washington DC 20002-4242 USA Tel: 001 202 336 5500 www.apa.org 21 0151 625 3453

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Further Approaches to Learning Users Guide 0006.3 Resources Uniview has a large collection of resources for most areas of psychology, biology and sociology. Go online to see a full list of resources or contact Uniview to request a free copy of their latest catalogue: Uniview Worldwide Ltd PO Box 20 Hoylake Wirral CH48 7HY Tel: 0151 625 3453 Fax: 0151 625 3707 www.uniview.co.uk sales@uniview.co.uk

Other titles available in the Psychology Live Series include:


The Study of Attention The Study of Memory Perception: the theories Classical and Operant Conditioning Cognitive Development Language Development Evolution by Natural Selection Reductionism Introduction to Designing Experiments Organising Quantitative Data Inferential Statistics Exploring Qualitative Methods

Also recommended: Number Cruncher CD-ROM

All titles are available in VHS and DVD format

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Further Approaches to Learning Users Guide 0006.3

New titles are always in development and we welcome suggestions for areas you would like to see included in the Series, as well as any comments you may have about these titles. Please contact us on sales@uniview.co.uk.

No part of this publication may be copied in any way or stored in a retrieval system, except for teaching purposes, without the written permission of Uniview Worldwide Ltd PO Box 20 Hoylake Wirral CH48 7HY Tel: 0151 625 3453 Fax: 0151 625 3707 sales@uniview.co.uk www.uniview.co.uk

Uniview Worldwide Ltd 2006

Uniview Worldwide Ltd

23 0151 625 3453

www.uniview.co.uk

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