Prestige in Its Sociological Aspects Author(s): Joseph S.

Roucek Reviewed work(s): Source: The American Catholic Sociological Review, Vol. 18, No. 4 (Dec., 1957), pp. 307-318 Published by: Oxford University Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3709142 . Accessed: 19/03/2013 00:50
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Prestige

in

Its

Sociological

Aspects

it is derived means delusion; Prestige, shows, etymology ? though it is found in the from the Latin praestigiae (-arum) in forms of and (-ii) too; praestigium praestigia (-ae) himself the "strong fact, (dice-player, rope-walker, juggler the Middle During man," etc.) was called praestigiator (-oris). used the word and glossaries-commentators Ages, Latin authors threw tricks." The praestigiator to mean juggling "deceptive them into a small dice or put coins on a table, and then passed or box, moved about quickly and adroitly, vessel the latter till, when the audience thought place, finally, they were in a certain the word coins The turned French up somewhere writers, at first from in the else.1 the very used the beginning, above assigned to the

"prestige"

meaning

Latin "praestigiae" -trice, prestigieux). (prestige, prestigiateur, This term of prophets, was limited to the prestige conjurers, of the cause to the delusions but adapted, demons, by analogy which word applicable Rousseau was was not considered of the as transfigured, to analogies ennobled supernatural and refined The any longer. so that it became

character. For instance, which dazzle of our prestige passions" the intellect and deceive of the wisdom. Tarde "prestige spoke of the latest to delusion. also news," referring Eventually was applied to every kind of spell, the effect of which prestige became and charms to all magic and attractive "prestige" remotest referred to "the powers The in the able to dull the intellect German as while enhancing sensation. utilized the concept languages virtue of to the imaginary opposed the conjurer; the same significance was applied to the Italian the Italian and the and Spanish (while prestigio prestigido have Spanish prestigiateur, prestigiador, just like the French ? or both meaning kept the older significance only conjurer Thus still characterizes the market juggler). clown, prestige the rope-walker, the sword the clever swallower, manipulator ? as well as demoniacal who defies imitation wizardry, spells, and all effectiveness not comprehensible by logic. Yet applies the concept even today. has never Fairchild's been too well Dictionary defined, of Sociology and this presents and English latter meaning

1 Lewis Leopold, Prestige

(London:

T. Fisher Unwin,

1913), pp. 16-62.

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308 quite public in his the social a

THE AMERICAN CATHOLIC SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW limited esteem, definition; attained by or not it the is in that "social social the position recognition press."2 is or one status receives in

prestige or status only; it also is related position Standard to the Neiv Or, according etc). symbols, (power, it is: "authority (1933), Language Dictionary of the English or gained based on past achievements or importance by the of influence the moral of power or ability; reputaappearance tion

associations, does author

perhaps conceive

here Glaringly not limited to to other factors

based on or process; character or former ascendancy lit? a survey of the pertinent In general, power" (p. 1962). is in some way associated would indicate that prestige erature the incalculable. the attractive, with the mysterious, This, for in others of power "A sense is implied in Cooley: instance, to involve a sense of their seems and, on the inscrutability; to he ceases other so soon as a person becomes hand, plain stimulate that he no the imagination; we an have seen door all around life. open arises from the fact that it gives power leaves it to work out a vague stimulus to thought and then been a has to suit itself."3 "Whatever the details ruling Or, in the world," Le Bon remarked, "whether it be ideas power or men, has in the main of enforced its authority by means that force irresistible in is Prestige reality expressed a sort of longer appears of mere inscrutability to new him, so . . . The

. . . by the word 'prestige'. on our domination exercised

mind tion

a work, or an idea. . . ." This domina? by an individual, our critical and fills us with "astonish"paralyzes faculty" ment and respect."4 paralyzes influence is faculties of those who the critical and offers them wonder and respect. enshrined with come The

Prestige beneath its object which of

prestige automatically authority all discussion or with a protecting which stops pathos criticism. It the of fear emotions and precludes love, promotes commands the sentiments of esteem and respect, and inauthe attitudes of emulation and obedience. gurates "Prestige is the mainspring of all authority. Neither nor gods, kings, 2 Henry Pratt Fairchild, Dictionary of Sociology (Ames, Iowa: Littlefield, Adams, 1955), p. 230. 3 Charles H. Cooley, Human Nature and the Social Order (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1902), pp. 313-315. 3 Gustave Le Bon, The Crowd, 1896 (London: Ernest Benn, 1952), pp. 129, 130-131.

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THE AMERICAN CATHOLIC SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW women which with the have put which we we ever gained about the endow without leader's it."5 is Prestige an imaginary the

309 halo

him in our hearts. Obviously, is important here. is the granting human evalua? of higher Basically, prestige tion to an individual the or a collectivity or a symbol, within of other individuals, or symbols. ranking system collectivities, It is a quality to a person for what he is, granted by others or pretends to be, for what he does, and for what he owns, or "stands or being with something which is associated for," irrational element valued. due to Thus his trust in (as another well prestige or its plausibility Above all, it interests). the a in domrole considerable prestige plays The is of process. degree greater conformity of the person or the group prestige seeking relevancy to one's The person's as to the point of view of may what be he

head, mind and

quality

has to say is evident that

ination-submission the higher the to influence others. with person prestige (Of portant. that respect). with an imaginary hearts, since we

the of the consequences plausibility im? will if he is seem presents greater the formal media in are also important course, we endow the person with prestige Futhermore,

derived from our minds as well as quality other human in more or less perceive beings If such a person affects us at all, complete configurations. we form some kind of picture of his total are personality, avid in our curiosity his private concerning life, and swallow detail with appetite. When these are not avail? details every these in our own imagination. details able, we supply missing It is also important to notice that is related not prestige

or groups, but also to ideas, although when only to individuals we talk about the prestige of ideas we are anthropomorphizing the concept, in the case when the ideas come justified only from the man endowed with For an old prestige. instance, man has the prestige of the age, not because he is old, but because the prestige of the age is really here from the derived assumption is simply categories, ferred to prestige. Prestige may thus rest either in the person, the group, 5 Le Bon, The Word Unbalanced 148. that an old man is wise and experienced. Prestige a character or their assigned only to the people, or the symbols them and is then trans? representing the characteristics or activities which add to man's

(New York: Longmans.

Green, 1924),

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310

THE AMERICAN CATHOLIC SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW idea. In societies, simple pres? and war ceremonies; for prestige the bases

in a work, or in an intangible with is associated usually tige in more are

religious

and secular societies, complex more numerous. The society or community has a graded of prestige, series and privilege that the members of the different esteem, honor, are more respected of society Some people and strata enjoy. the actions of has more than have prestige and privilege diminish as we descend from Prestige to the lower levels. the higher is a scale of pres? Thus, there ac? and members of the society are roughly categorized tige, to their on the scale. The scale is a kind of location cording their behavior others.6 borderline in-between or with numerous top to bottom in the social Each person has several statuses all possessing their own brand he has an of prestige: scheme, a sex status, a family an age status, status, status, occupational ? just to note a few. and, if in public office, an official status In turn, each individual he is has a key status with which cases. continuum from

identified and by which he is rated A by his social group.7 man may be a doctor ? and hence he will be rated according to his occupation, he may be rated low as the father, although or a social mixer. Thus the prestige of the status up? depends on the values the culture status. In one places upon a given old age may but old age may have culture, carry prestige; no prestige in another culture. Political grants position always a significant to the possessor; in fact, even "democratie prestige uses persistently such prestige titles as "Your Honor," society" "Your etc. Excellency," "Senator," GOALS OF SEARCH FOR PRESTIGE The lations and desire among is for prestige is an intrinsic for element of the re?

social desire individuals; recognition a potent force social rela? dynamic determining social institutions. The individual claims creating on the part of his fellows, of the evaluation he confirmation, on himself. He can become aware of his special attributes puts aware of the tribute only by becoming paid to him by others. In turn, his reputation of security, helps him to reach a measure power tions and 6Kingsley Davis, Human Society (New York: Macmillan, 1949), pp. 91-94; E. T. Hiller, Social Relations and Structures (New York: Harper, 1947), pp. 330-335. 7 Hiller, op. cit., pp. 339-343.

this

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THE AMERICAN CATHOLIC SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW wealth, of our and

311

in the mirror is the image Our prestige power. from that different is and that quite mostly fellowmen, is de? it. into we actually see when which Prestige looking in human other to perceive from rived our tendency beings a evaluate We more or less complete person configurations. of his total personality. us in a kind of picture who affects that they are not just aver? Most normal people are convinced and im? to some but of members degree, special are, age society The enthusiastic characters. way with which graduates portant or the as such known make themselves of Harvard or Yale successful and a with we identify ourselves glamorous way citizens star indicates our need for prestige. movie By being "most of "God's in the and powerful by living country," and have a comnation of the world," we gain significance, forting feeling of prestige. are not only to a de? benefits psychological also are there group; "superior" and importance. of mastery from the feeling material benefits bet? secure The graduates of an old and established university institution. ter positions from than those a young, struggling A white from South benefits African just being gets definite The "a white Africa. in South South when African," living there Futhermore, rived from belonging colonial territory, the "white official, carrying is definitely a beneficiary enables the bearer man's of his burden" in a tropical classification.

of exto secure opportunities or to of material ercising things. special influence, power dispose Such or success also involve of money the acquisition may of or of material property ("power position disposing things") of exercising social This means ("opportunities influence"). that to are after all names "money, property, position only Prestige may or to things in society."8 express society the fact that to his expect make a particular have control influence felt individual over in a particular material particular direction in

a particular

Thorstein in his of American Veblen, theory prestige, stressed to overlook the and tended psychological gratification, social function of much of what he dealt with.9 not Prestige only satisfies the individual ego, but creates a socially unify8 Kark Mannheim, Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge (New York: Oxford University Press, 1952), p. 240. 9 Thorstein Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class, 1899 (New York: New American Library, Mentor Edition, 1953).

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312

THE AMERICAN CATHOLIC SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW

described Much of "status behavior" ing function. by Veblen the function the elite of is discharging of mediating among the meeting and the various hierarchies and regions; places leisure various elites activities and coordinate bring together various and elements of the upper class. activ? sections These ities also serve as a marriage a propertied market, keeping class intact. The sense of with identification of membership prestige crowds is strengthened which have social by the individuaPs The sense prestige. as a part of the crowd

which the individual feels himself with his society and believe that helps him to identify he has found an important niche in that recognized society, not only by himself but by his contemporaries as well. Sherif and Cantril find that the reasons associate and why individuals the norms which establish are their association they during the most that factors determine the in which important way the crowd will behave and the goals which it will establish.10

PRESTIGE AMONG SOCIAL CONCEPTS AUTHORITY AND PRESTIGE be made between and authority. prestige established within the framework Authority right, of a social to decide on policies, to make judgments on order, and to end controversies pertinent issues, by passing judg? and to act as leader or guide to other people. It must ments, also be distinguished from power, since the stress is on right, not power in this respect. is the ability in any rela? (Power to command the service or the deference of others; tionship it is the ability to determine the behavior of others directly and indirectly devices of social Author? by available control.) means the it is obeyed when ity, however, comimplies power; people that the commanding has more power prehend than authority is usually backed they have. Authority by legal right and then the ability to exercise such power. Some criterion into the societies make the exercise of authority the main of rank, and others do not. shades off Authority ? sheer exercise of non-legitimized and the power coercive control of others. Of course, often authority from seizure of power, and sheer illegitimate power commands a grudging admiration and ambivalent The Psychology of Ego-InvolveA distinction must

purely emerges usually 10 Muzafer Sherif and Hadley Cantril, ments (New York: Wiley, 1947), p. 281.

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THE AMERICAN CATHOLIC SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW prestige. enhance viously In its neutral authority and prestige fact, often win uses violence from the or coercion individuals authorities

313 to pre? must

or uninterested.

support Sometimes

in order to retain the prestige. The "a tough attitude" display aim is not to eliminate all opposition or doubt; but its aim is or retain from the to increase and to secure prestige, support neutral sources. is usually from derived two main sources: the Authority personal prestige of the person the authority having qualities of the official position which the commanding For instance, a commanding officer can and the individual

have real occupies. but his personal make him ineffective; this qualities authority, was also shown of King Louis XVI, who by the royal authority was unable his authority and whose to exercise weak? personal nesses to inaugurate the French Revolution. a Thus helped weak man may derive his authority from his position, but is the power to exercise to his unable Or a granted position. weak office can be strengthened a man. In either by strong and the position have to be recogcase, the personal qualities ? nized within the framework of prestige, since "authority In this case, prestige is ultimately depends upon prestige."11 "not real or isolable a that man or an office has; it quality is a constellation of qualities that large numbers of people imAll personalities in? pute to the man or position."12 occupying fluential offices are surrounded with a glamor, a substance, them the admiration of the masses which tend to them as the embodiment of superiority. The whole worship tends to confirm the holy inevitability of myth-making process status and all the beneficiaries of a system are ex? equations to be very happy.13 The ruler becomes the center of a pected ceremonial the difference him and between order, inculcating granting other men. He is addressed in a special under honorific way, titles. maintains his apartness, draws invisible lines Ceremony of sanctity his presenoe. He becomes the fountainhead before of honor; he is the apex of a class as well as of a system power system. The routinized for authority based on age or ancesrespect confers further and prestige try or skill or prowess authority 11 F. E. Lumley, Means of Social Control (New Co., 1925), p. 331. 12 Ibid., p. 33. 13 B. Malinowski, Myth in Primitive Psychology Nort, 1926). York: The Century York: W. W.

(New

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314 on

THE AMERICAN CATHOLIC SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW individuals so that they are

to speak for, or to presumed This its or its virtues. folk, embody spirit represent, of or no office. have little paraphernalia may personal prestige and the person becomes When the instituted chief, prestige in Now the take a new dimension. authority person authority the men. He undergoes his fellow is set further from apart the to equivalent stabilized, Wealth interest lished forces property eminent is thus sanctification. safeguarded, Authority for power. removed in a measure from the competition the strong so that it becomes also goes with prestige, of all authority are the and dominant groups and classes to Thus enhance all the estab? social and preby acquiring property. historical bulwarks of of

converging power, of the headship power "INTRINSIC"

status authority, to ratify and stabilize the of the state. PRESTIGE of Hiller individuals between

AND "EXTRINSIC"

be ent here the

of the differential valuation The nature drawn clarified by the distinction by and "extrinsic" valuations.14 is vested This when authority valuation of in formal

can "in?

trinsic"

of the office may a specific the office. When person occupying the office has great within a social which authority complex social it also receives a measure of grants high appreciation, the valuation this prestige is then transferred to the prestige; the status, whatever he is, and which is occupying failure or misconduct. only in case of gross Similarly, is required for the symbols of legitimized respect authority, of the intrinsic of a particular officer. irrespective qualities Personal and achievements are intrinsic, but only qualities as achievements are taken as indices of the "quality," "nature," ? or "character" of the person while the other main criteria of ranking (possessions, group membership, power, authority) are extrinsic. Social stratification centers extrinsic cri? upon which are for consideration of the teria, usually prerequisites respect person denied individual on the legitimate rank-order scale. and

becomes most appar? organizational status; rather from diverge widely

ESTEEM AND PRESTIGE distinction related closely 14 E. T. Hiller, The between intrinsic the distinction and extrinsic between esteem valuations and pres-

is

to

op. cit., pp., 191-215.

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THE AMERICAN CATHOLIC SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW tige.15 A good since servant esteem may be is related

315

role; prestige tion in the social system. of the particular person general may have army he may also be morally him by esteem. Difference differences along

prestige, ance of his

but has little esteemed highly and perform? to his qualities of his functional is a valuation posi? Esteem to the office. of his his office valuation Thus rank, an but

here refers a given occupying because the status degenerate; but

provides

claims) economic,

are usually and esteem in prestige accompanied in opportunity and rights (norm-supported all socially almost significant lines, especially recreational, leisure, and cultural.

educational,

STATUS AND PRESTIGE or special is the ascendancy to Prestige attaching repute individual or group, the honorific reflection of socially esteemed A man of low status contribution or achievement. may win and if in consequence his status is changed, the high prestige, of prestige is independent attainment of that process. Hence status carries but the two concepts must be distinprestige, A soldier or a scholar but guished. may win great prestige, under some social conditions does not bring a change prestige of status in such instances is a more per? Prestige (India). sonal within attribute is than the status. position occupied by man or group this position is dependent not any established hierarchy; on or but on the qualities simply personal achievements, recog? nition received within some scheme of social valuation. Various ? are used for recognition grounds wealth, power, function, or birth; but these are and should not be grounds changeful identified with the status to which they contribute. While status confers and power confers status power, status, is not authority A itself. man without by important prior status the higher even after he has may be given authority; gained it, his status less by authority. may be lower than that accorded to others Status relative

SOCIAL CLASS AND PRESTIGE Status has a close or a status-defined connection with social stratification of the class. A social is a

class

community

15 Kingsley Davis, "A Conceptual Analysis Sociological Review, VII (June 1942), 312.

of Stratification,"

American

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316 tier

THE AMERICAN CATHOLIC SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW or leve1 as of the social or It is characterized by such hierarchy. which "lower" or "middle," signifies then there the hierarchy; within are

epithets the grade

"upper" or ranking

economic, intelligence-test, occupational, ethnic-origin, shape-ofBut usage and millions of other classes. head, color-of-hair, of the broad term "social class" sanctions the application usually to a status-determined group. arises when we identify Confusion social class with economic class or political class or any other defined category by some criterion where, other does not than always Status, though existing everysocial class. Various breed anthropo? show that the absence of a class system In the simplest life. forms of community status.

logical investigations is associated with the the

more complex the greater of labor brings division society, the more honorific between distinction and the less esteemed The disparity between and of power occupations. possession leads to the formation of an elite, a hierarchy of rank. The class the most has the most having prestige power. The prestige of numbers to the crowd. The gives ascendancy of prowess prestige it to the gives sanctity to the prophet; of place it to the gives capitalit to the learning gives The

of age prestige it to the gives

it to the elders. gives that of military caste; of inspiration it caste; priestly gives it to the official classes; of money gives of ideas it to the elite; of ists; gives

degree-holders. STRATIFICATION certain units are way whereby kind We can classify arranged people accord? ethnic ing to their size, their education, religion, background, etc. ? and their prestige. We shall consider only social stratifi? cation which ranks the individuals of superiorityon a scale in some of strata. inferiority-equality, of valuation.16 Thus cation, ranking but only which is to some commonly basis according accepted we cannot consider all varieties of stratifi? ? institutionalized stratification a system of Stratification denotes some

as right and proper, as generally accepted within which it operates. morally justified, by the groups In this respect, all superiority-inferiority relations are not of this nature; are based on power alone. many very largely For boys' gangs, for instance, physical fighting gives prestige; 16 Talcott Stratification," Parsons, "An Analytical Approach to the Theory of Social American Journal of Sociology, XLV (May 1940), 841-62.

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THE AMERICAN CATHOLIC SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW individuals in a complex society, their position, to gain or maintain violate many of the institutionalized Note sible there thus time fied or groups

317

although values.

may use coercion their methods may

is pos? of individuals also that the accurate ranking For of valuation. a scale within instance, given only and the ranking, to judge denominator is not a common at the same America and in the prestige, of Kruschev Futhermore, prestige,

which is identithe stratification, social within organiza? specific prevailing tions schools, gangs, factories, etc.) must (armies, governments, which and class from caste be distinguished arrangements, societies.17 communities and the more inclusive crosscut Segin Russia. with mental stratification class organization; broader institutional It is the shall occupy circumstances. of certain is usually or caste systems studied stratification, of a society. itself as a part as which of actual a part social of the who what absence

organization group each of its strata The second

determines and under or

and positions is the presence factor the

tested by the position, and demotion of the members, largely promotion, with the levels of prestige.18 and are integrated The constitutional monarchies, for instance, what reignprescribe definitely ? members order ? and in what can ascend the ing family's

in qualities specific devices. the group's

as individuals, respective two factors determine These

most prestige is ascribed to the ruler, and throne; obviously, in descending order to those who might succeed him. A similar exists in regard situation to the President of the Republic, is generally less popular since who, however, granted prestige, in the elective more citizens have a chance to become republics of a caste or social order decides or of the nobility, respec? become Brahmins and this is also assigned tively, may nobles; ranks. Or certain insist that they grant full prestige colleges to Ph. and in professorial appointments only D.'s, only those, with turn, special qualifications. President; that only constitution of the children Brahmins There tion to a difference here in regard is, however, which the members are born or who can to the achieve posi? this or the

17 W. L. Warner and Allison Davis, "A Comparative Study of American Caste," in E. T. Thompson, Ed., Race Relations and the Race Problem of North Carolina Press, 1939), Chapter 8, p. 220. (University 18 P. A. Sorokin, Society, Culture, and Personality (New York: Harper, 1947), p. 437.

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318

THE AMERICAN CATHOLIC SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW In the wealth, latter case, the pres? affiliations, political or personal achieve? with

abilities. by their special position is also related to senority, tige race and creed, the status of the ments. social While in the case

orders, parentage pres? in the latter case the prestige is related, tige of the individual; for instance, to wealth, or sex, or education, or ideology, and even manners and mores. Joseph University of Bridgeport, Bridgeport 1+, Conn. S. Roucek

family, of caste populations and those of the is the absolute criterion

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