2.

12

A.C.-D.C. LOAD FLOW

For solving the load ow problem of an A.C. system in which one or more HVDC links are present, either of the following two approaches are followed; a. Simultaneous solution technique b. Sequential solution technique In simultaneous solution technique, the equations pertaining to the A.C. system and the equations pertaining to the DC system are solved together. In the sequential method, the AC and DC systems are solved separately and the coupling between the AC and DC system in accomplished by injecting an equivalent amount of real and reactive power at the terminal AC buses. In other words, for an HVDC link existing between buses i and j of an AC system (rectier at bus i and inverter at bus j), the eect of the DC link in incorporated into the AC system by injections (R ) (R ) (I ) (I ) PDCi and QDCi at the rectier bus i and PDCj and QDCj at bus j (the super scripts R and I denote the rectier and inverter respectively). Therefore the net injected power at bus i and (R ) R) (I ) I) otal T otal otal j are: Pitotal = PACi + PDCi ; QT = QACi + Q( = PACj + PDCj ; QT = QACj + Q( i j DCi ; Pj DCj . With these net injected powers the AC system is again solved and subsequently, the equivalent in(R ) (R ) (I ) (I ) otal otal jected powers (PDCi , QDCi , PDCj , QDCi ) and the total injected powers (PiT otal , QT , PjT otal , QT ) i j are updated. This process of alternately solving AC and DC system quantities is continued till the changes in AC system and DC system quantities between two consecutive iterations become less then a threshold value. Although simultaneous technique gives the solution of the system without any to and fro switching between the AC and DC systems, the sequential solution technique is actually quite easy to implement as we will see later. Now let as look at the equations of the DC system.

2.12.1

DC system model

For deriving a suitable model of a HVDC system for steady state operation, few basic assumptions are adopted as described below; a. The three A.C. voltages at the terminal bus bar are balanced and sinusoidal. b. The converter operation is perfectly balanced. c. The direct current and voltages are smooth. d. The converter transformer is lossless and the magnetizing admittance is ignored.

With the above assumptions, the equivalent circuit of the converter (either rectier or inverter) is shown in Fig. 2.18. In this gure, the notations are as follows; 73

Figure 2.18: Equivalent circuit of the converter under the steady state operation

Vt t a Es s p , I s I Vd , Id

Magnitude and angle of the terminal bus bar of the converter Converter transformer tap ratio Magnitude and angle of the secondary side of the converter transformer Primary and secondary current of the converter transformer respectively DC voltage and DC current respectively

It is to be noted that in Fig. 2.18, the angles are referred to the common reference of the entire AC-DC system. With the above notations, the basic equation governing the HVDC systems are as follow: For rectier

3 2 Vdr = Nr ar Etr cos r = Vdor cos r 3 Vdr = Vdor cos Xcr Nr Id

(2.88)

(2.89)

For inverter

3 2 Vdi = Ni ai Eti cos i = Vdoi cos i 3 Vdi = Vdoi cos Xci Ni Id

(2.90)

(2.91)

In the above equations, the subscripts r and i denote the rectier and inverter side respectively. The quantity N denotes the number of six-pulse bridges at any partienlar side and the angle denotes the angular dierence between the terminal voltages and primary current of the transformer, i.e. the power factor of the converter as seen by the AC bus. Xc denotes the commutating reactance of the converter transformer and the angles and denote the ring angle of the rectier and the extinction angle of the inverter respectively. 74

The rectie and the inverter are interconnected though the following equation:

Vdr Vdi = Id Rd

(2.92)

In equation (2.92), the quantity Rd denotes the DC link resistance. Equations (2.88)-(2.92) describe the operation of a two-terminal HVDC link. Now, as the basic objective of a HVDC link is to provide complete controllability of power over a transmission corridor, both the recties and the inverter stations are suitably controlled and thus, suitable control equations also need to be incorporated in the above model. We will discuss these control equations shortly. However, to solve the above equations, appropriate solution variables must be chosen. Now, for the reason of simplicity, following set of solution variables is chosen for each converter;

x = Vd Id a cos

(2.93)

Therefore, for a two terminal HVDC link, the complete set of solution vector is;

x c = Vdr Vdi Id ar ai cos cos r i

(2.94)

In equation (2.94), Id has been taken only once as the DC current is same at both the ends. From equation (2.94) it is observed that there are total 9 unknown variables which need to be solved to completely determine the HVDC link. However, we have only 5 independent equations as shown in equations (2.88)-(2.92). Therefore, out of 9 unknown variables, any 4 variables need to be specied and thereafter, remaining 5 variables can be solved using equations (2.88)-(2.92). These 4 variables can be specied using the control specication. There can be several combinations of control specication and some of their combination are; i) , Pdr , , Vdi ; iii) ar , Pdr , ai , Vdi ; v) ar , Pdr , , ai ; vii) , Id , , Vdi ; ii) , Pdr , ai , Vdi ; iv) ar , Pdr , , Vdi ; vi) ar , Pdr , , ; viiii) , Vdr , , Pdi ;

With any of these four specied control values, the remaining 5 variables can be solved from equations (2.88)-(2.92) by using standard Newton-Raphoson technique. However, for the sequential (R ) (R) (I ) (I ) solution techniques, the quantities PDci , QDci , PDcj and QDcj can be competed in a much easier way by algebraic manipulation of equations (2.88)-(2.92). we will show this procedure by two of the eight combinations listed above.

75

Combination 1

In this case, , Pdr , and Vdi are specied. With these known quantities, the calculation procedure is as follows: Step 1: We know, Pdr = Vdr Id . Or, Pdr = Or,
2 Vdi + 4Rd Pdr 2 2 Or, Vdr Vdr Vdi Rd Pdr = 0.

Vdr (Vdr Vdi ) (from equation (2.92)). Rd

Vdr =

Vdi

(2.95)

From equation (2.95), two values of Vdr are obtained. Out of these two values, the value of Vdr which is greater than Vdi is chosen, i.e.

1 Vdr = (Vdi + 2
Step 2: Id is calculated as,

2 Vdi + 4Rd Pdr )

(2.96)

Id =

Pdr Vdr

(2.97)

Step 3: Using equation (2.89), Vdor is calculated as,

3 Vdr + Xcr Nr Id Vdor = cos

Step 4: Using equation (2.88), ar and cos r are calculated as,

(2.98)

cos r =

Vdr Vdor

(2.99)

Vdor ar = 3 2Nr Etr

(2.100)

In equation (2.100) Etr is known as in the sequential solution method, the terminal voltages are known from the immediate past solution of the AC system equations. (R) (R ) Step 5: The quantities PDCi and QDCi are calculated as;
(R ) PDCi = Pdr

and

R) Q( DCi = Pdr tan r

(2.101)

Step 6: From equation (2.91), Vdoi is calculated as,

3 Vdi + Xci Ni Id Vdoi = cos

76

(2.102)

Step 7: Using equation (2.90), ai and cos i are calculated as,

cos i =

Vdi Vdoi

(2.103)

Vdoi ai = 3 2Ni Eti

Step 8: The quantities PDCj and QDCj are calculated as,
(I ) PDCj = Vdi Id (R ) (R) (I ) (I ) (I )

(2.104)

and

I) (I ) Q( DCj = PDCj tan i (I )

(2.105)

With these values of PDCi , QDCi , PDCj and QDCj , the AC system equations are again solved to obtain the updated values of Etr and Eti and subsequently, steps (1)-(8) are repeated again to (R ) (R ) (I ) (I ) update the values of PDCi , QDCi , PDCj and QDCj . This alternate process of solving AC and DC system equations are repeated till convergence in obtained. Combination 8 In this case, , , Pdi and Vdr are known. With these known quantities, the calculation procedure is as follows:
2 Vdr Vdi Vdi Vdr Vdi = . Step 1: We know Pdi = Vdi Id = Vdi Rd Rd 2 Or, Vdi + Rd Pdi Vdi Vdr = 0. Or,

Vdi =

Vdr

2 Vdr 4Rd Pdi 2

(2.106)

From the two values of Vdi in equation (2.106), the nal value of Vdi is calculated as,

1 Vdi = (Vdr + 2
Step 2: Id is calculated as,

2 Vdr 4Rd Pdi )

(2.107)

Id =

Pdi Vdi

(2.108)

With these calculated values of Vdi and Id , steps (3)-(8) of combination-1 are followed to calculate (R) the Equivalent power injection values, where PDCi = Vdr Id . With these injected power values, the AC and DC systems are continued to be solved alternately till convergence in achieved. It is to be (R) noted that at the rectier end, P(R DCi) = Pdr and QDCi = Qdr as the rectier draws both real and reactive power from the grid. On the other hand, at the inverter end, P(IDCj ) = Pdi and QDCj = Qdi as the inverter supplies real power to the AC grid and draws reactive power from the AC grid. In the next lecture, we will look at an example of AC-DC load ow method.
(I )

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