CS3282 Section 6 6.

1 BMGC/ 25/08/06
University of Manchester
School of Computer Science
CS3282: Digital Communications 05-06
Section 6: Inter-symbol interference and pulse shaping

Rectangular symbols are not suitable for transmitting data at the highest possible bit-rates over band-
limited channels. A rectangular pulse or any other shaped pulse which is time-limited (i.e. is non-zero
for a finite period of time, say T seconds) will require infinite bandwidth if it is not to be distorted,
possibly unrecognizably. A symbol with finite bandwidth must have, in theory, infinite time duration.
Although using a symbol which really does exist from t = - to t = + to send a single 1 or a 0 (or
maybe two or three of them if we are using multi-level signaling) may seem impossible in practice, we
have to keep this in mind as an ideal and produce approximations to this form of signaling. The pulses
we use in practice may not actually go on, and back in time for ever. But they must definitely be non-
zero for considerably more than T seconds when the signaling rate is 1/T symbols per second.
Inevitably this means that one symbol will run into the previous and next symbol, and significantly
affect several more besides. The result could be inter-symbol interference (ISI) where the data
conveyed by one symbol causes the data of other symbols to be misinterpreted. Although we cannot
avoid the overlap of symbols in the time-domain, we must find ways of making sure that the data
carried by the symbols is not affected by this overlap. The solution to this challenge lies in pulse
shaping which means that we must carefully choose the time-domain shape of the symbols and hence
their spectral shape.
A convenient way of generating symbols with the time-domain shape we require is to generate an
impulse of the appropriate strength for each symbol and then to shape this impulse by passing it
through a shaping filter. The impulse-response of the shaping filter is the symbol shape we wish to
launch into the channel. An FIR digital filter followed by a digital to analogue converter will do this
job nicely. The channel will inevitably affect the shape of the symbol and noise will be added.
At the receiver, to optimize the detection process, filtering tasks are required as illustrated below.





A 3A -A
n(t)
Equal-
iser
T T
Samples at
intervals T
Channel
Matched
filter
Shaping
Filter



CS3282 Section 6 6.2 BMGC/ 25/08/06
Inter-symbol interference (ISI) can occur due to the ringing of one symbol into the next. However, ISI
can be avoided if the transmitter's pulse shaping filter shapes the symbols so that zero-crossings at the
output of the receiving filters occur T seconds, 2T seconds, and so on after (and before) the centre of
the symbol. So when we sample at t=0, T, 2T, etc, we only see the centre of one symbol, all the other
symbols being zero at those instants. This is nice in theory and possible to a fair degree in practice. If
we combine the transmitter's shaping filter, the channel and the receiving filters (i.e. the matched filter
and the equaliser) into a single frequency-response H
N
(()) say, then our goal is achieved if H
N
(()) is
a Nyquist frequency-response". To be a classed as a 'Nyquist frequency-response', as well as band-
limiting from -1/T to 1/T Hz, H
N
((f)) must have a form of odd-symmetry about 1/(2T ) in that:
( ) T f for t cons f T H f H
N N
1 | | 0 tan / 1 )) ((
*
= +
Two purely real frequency-responses satisfying this property are shown below. It may be shown
(Exercise 6.2 below) that this property guarantees that the impulse-response corresponding to H
N
((f)) ,
i.e. its inverse Fourier transform, has zero crossings at t = T, 2T, 3T, .
,H
N
(()),
0.5
1
-1/T -1/2T 0 1/4T 1/2T 3/4T 1/T

The brick-wall filter:

<
=
) 2 /( 1 | | : 0
) 2 /( 1 | | : 1
)) ((
T f
T f
f H
B
has the property of having a 'Nyquist frequency-response' and we already know that its impulse
response is a sinc function with zero crossings at t = T, 2T, etc. The 'brick-wall' frequency-
response achieves the required zero-crossing property with the minimum possible bandwidth, but is
difficult to deal with because the side-lobes of its "sinc" impulse response do not die away very
quickly. To design a pulse-shaping filter with a reasonable approximation to this 'brick-wall'
frequency-response, we would need a very long impulse-response and hence a high order FIR digital
filter. Also, assuming we could implement a good enough approximation, if there is the slightest
error in the timing of our sampling point, significant ISI will occur.



CS3282 Section 6 6.3 BMGC/ 25/08/06
Raised cosine frequency response
A commonly used family of Nyquist frequency-responses is a range of raised cosine frequency-
responses parameterized by r (sometimes called ) and defined by the following formula:

+
< +
+

= ) 2 /( ) 1 (
| | ) 2 /( ) 1 ( : 0
| | ) 2 /( ) 1 ( : )] / )} 2 /( ) 1 ( | {| cos( 1 [ 5 . 0
) 2 /( ) 1 ( | | : 1
)) (( T r
f T r
f T r r T r f T
T r f
f H
rc

The impulse-response of a filter with such a frequency-response may be shown to be:

x
x
T t r T
T rt T t c
t h

) sin(
lim = sinc(x) where
/ 4
) / cos( ) / ( sin
) (
2 2

=
When r=0, this becomes the brick-wall filter mentioned earlier with the narrowest bandwidth of all
the family: -1/(2T) to 1/(2T) Hz. When r = 0.5, H
rc
(f) is as shown below, assuming T=0.001 seconds
so that the symbol rate 1/T = 1 kHz.. From the general formula above, its spectrum is:

<
+

=
| | 750 : 0
750 | | 250 : )] 1000 / } 250 | {| 2 cos( 1 [ 5 . 0
250 | | : 1
)) ((
f
f f
Hz f
f H
rc

50%RC spectrum
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
-1000 -750 -500 -250 0 250 500 750 1000
Frequency
M
o
d
u
l
u
s

In the graph above, drawn using "Microsoft Excel" , note the "odd-symmetry" about f=500 Hz for f >0
and about f = -500 Hz = - 1/(2T) for f <0. It may be shown that H
rc
((f)) + H*
rc
(( 1000 - f ) ) = 1.


CS3282 Section 6 6.4 BMGC/ 25/08/06
When r=1, H
rc
(()) becomes a pure raised cosine shaped frequency-response with no flat-top and the
widest bandwidth of the family: -1/T to 1/T Hz. With 1/T=1 kHz, the bandwidth would be -1000 to
1000 Hz.
The impulse-responses h
rc
(t) corresponding to H
rc
(()) with r=0 and r=1 are shown below taking T to
be 10 seconds. Such graphs are easily drawn using a spreadsheet such as Microsoft Excel or
MATLAB. Notice the reduction of side-lobe ripples when r=1, but this is at the expense of a doubling
of the bandwidth. A raised cosine spectrally shaped pulse with a given value of r is called a "100r per-
cent RC symbol" and has band-width from -(1+r)/T Hz to (1+r)/T. When r=0.5, we have a 50% RC
spectrally shaped symbol (see spectrum above) with bandwidth from -750 Hz to 750 Hz if 1/T = 1
kHz.. This is 50% more than the absolute minimum band-width needed to avoid ISI with the
techniques discussed up to now. The minimum bandwidth would be achieved with a 0% RC symbol
which has a "brick-wall" spectrum from -1/(2T) to +1/(2T) Hz. Apart from the practical difficulties of
generating a pulse with such a spectrum, the disadvantage of the brick-wall spectrum , as mentioned
above, is that its time-domain shape is a "sinc" pulse which does not die away quickly enough for our
liking. The 100% RC spectrum (r=1) produces a time-domain pulse which dies away much faster. So
by increasing r from 0 to 1 we improve the rate of dying away at the expense of extra bandwidth.
h(t) for T=10, r=0 & 1
-0.02
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
t

A good way to implement a shaping filter is to use an FIR digital filter with multiplier coefficients
equal to samples of h(t). A succession of shaped pulses generated by a the transmission of a
continuous bit-stream are often viewed on an oscilloscope as eye-diagrams. The oscilloscope is


CS3282 Section 6 6.5 BMGC/ 25/08/06
triggered approximately at the beginning of each pulse, and an open eye is hopefully seen as each new
shaped pulse is superimposed on the previous pulses. If noise is added, the eye is seen to close,
making threshold comparisons for detection difficult.

Remember that H
N
(()) is the required overall response of transmitting filter, channel and receiving
filters. Within the receiver an equalising filter is introduced to cancel out the filtering effect of the
channel. We discuss this later.

If the overall symbol pulse shape as seen at the output of the receiving filters is to have a raised cosine
spectrum and the receiving filters include a matched filter, it would not be correct for the transmitter to
send symbols with raised cosine spectra. If we did send such a symbol its matched filter would have
gain-response equal to the magnitude spectrum of the pulse, and the resulting output would have this
spectrum squared. Its magnitude spectrum would no longer be raised cosine. It would be raised cosine
squared. This may not be a problem as far as minimizing the effect of AWGN is concerned. But it
would be a problem as far as ISI is concerned. We want the detector to see, at the threshold detector,
not a 'raised cosine squared' spectrally shaped pulse but a raised cosine spectrally shaped pulse. It is
therefore common to distribute the desired raised cosine frequency response equally between the
transmitting and receiving filter, making each a 100r % root raised cosine (RRC) frequency
response. So the transmitter sends into the channel RRC spectrally shaped symbols.
In the time-domain, such RRC symbols are not too dissimilar from RC symbols in that they exist for
all time and are symmetric about t=0. But, perhaps surprisingly, they do not have zero crossings at t =
T, 2T, 3T, To produce such symbols in practice, we simply have to define:

+
< +
+

= ) 2 /( ) 1 (
| | ) 2 /( ) 1 ( : 0
| | ) 2 /( ) 1 ( : )] / )} 2 /( ) 1 ( | {| cos( 1 [ 5 . 0
) 2 /( ) 1 ( | | : 1
)) (( T r
f T r
f T r r T r f T
T r f
f H
rrc

for our chosen value of r in the range 0 to 1, and apply an inverse FT to calculate the corresponding
impulse response h
rrc
(t). This would normally be done in sampled data form and h
rrc
(t) would be
sampled, windowed and delayed (this involves an approximation) to give us the impulse-response
(and hence the tap weights) of an FIR digital filter of manageable order. A graph of H
rrc
(f) against f
when 1/T=1000 Hz and r=0.5 is given below.



CS3282 Section 6 6.6 BMGC/ 25/08/06
50%RRC spectrum
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
-1000 -750 -500 -250 0 250 500 750 1000
Frequency
M
o
d
u
l
u
s

Note the lack of "odd symmetry" about f = 500. It is clear that H
rrc
((f))+H*
rrc
(( 1000 - f ) ) constant.

The matched filter at the receiver performs two roles at the same time. The first role is to minimise
the error probability P
B
as usual for a matched filter. To do this, the matched filter's impulse response
must be equal to s(t) time-reversed and suitably delayed. Bearing in mind that s(t) = s(-t) for a RRC
symbol, this is also exactly what we need to do in order to square the spectrum of s(t) to make it raised
cosine rather than RRC. Hence as well as minimising P
B
, the matched filter also completes the job of
generating a raised cosine type Nyquist frequency response as required to eliminate ISI.
Strictly, as we have seen, the matched filter has impulse-response s(T-t) i.e. the time-reversed symbol
delayed by a single signalling interval T. In practice we have to delay this by several more intervals of
T to allow some of s(-t) ( = h(-t) in the diagram above to be included) without making the filter non-
causal. We must also delay the decision against the threshold until several intervals beyond t=0 have
been received. All this is because each symbol now extends beyond a single interval of T seconds.

Exercise 6.1: Does a symbol whose spectrum is '100r % RC squared' have zero-crossings at T, 2T,
3T, as required for zero ISI?
Answer: Nope (except when r=0). This is the problem.



CS3282 Section 6 6.7 BMGC/ 25/08/06
Exercise 6.2:
A Nyquist frequency-response H
N
(()) with band-width from -1/T Hz to 1/T Hz has symmetry about
1/(2T ) in the sense that:
( ) T f for t cons f T H f H
N N
1 | | 0 tan / 1 )) ((
*
= + .
This means that the spectrum S(()) of a Nyquist shaped real pulse s(t) satisfies
( ) T f for t cons f T S f S 1 | | 0 tan / 1 )) ((
*
= + . Show that this condition guarantees that zero
crossings occur in the time-domain at t = T, 2T, 3T, as required to eliminate ISI.

Solution: From Section 2, sampling a signal s(t) at t = 0, T, 2T, 3T, to produce a sequence of
impulses gives a signal referred to as 'sample
T
(s(t))' whose Fourier transform is (1/T)repeat
1/T
(S((f))
where S((f)) is the Fourier transform of s(t).
If s(t) has zero-crossings at t = T, 2T, 3T, then all samples of 'sample
T
(s(t))' will be equal to
zero apart from the sample at t=0. Therefore
sample
T
(s(t)) = s(0)(t)
i.e. an impulse of strength s(0) at t=0 and zero for t 0. Its Fourier Transform is equal to the constant
s(0) for all f
since f s dt e t s dt e t s
jft
all for ) 0 ( ) ( ) 0 ( ) ( ) 0 (
0 2

= =

But we also know from Section 2 that the FT of 'sample
T
( s(t) )' is:
(1/T)repeat
1/T
(S((f))

=
=
k
T k f S )) / ((
T
1

f s T k f S
k
all for ) 0 ( )) / ((
T
1
e therefor =

=

If S(()) is band-limited between = 1/T Hz, only the terms with k = 0 and k = 1, i.e. S(()) and
S((-1/T)) , contribute to the expression in the range 0 1/T.
Draw a simple diagram to illustrate this.
f
S((f-2/T))
S((f-1/T))
S((f+1/T))
S((f))
-1/T
1/T








CS3282 Section 6 6.8 BMGC/ 25/08/06
Therefore S((f)) +S((f-1/T)) = s(0) for any f in the range 0 f 1/T
As s(t) is real S(-f) = S*(f) for any f. Therefore ( ) ( ) f T S T f S = / 1 / 1
*
for any f.
Hence, for 0 1/T, which is constant. ( ) ) 0 ( / 1 )) ((
*
s f T S f S = +
Complete the argument for -1/T 0 in a similar way.

Exercise 6.3: Without calculating h
rrc
(t), i.e. the symbol generated by exciting a 100r % RRC filter
with an impulse, would you expect its zero-crossings to occur at t = T, 2T, 3T, ?
Answer: Nope. It may seem strange that this symbol, which is the one actually transmitted and
hopefully received, does not have the zero-crossings required for zero ISI. So the transmission along
the channel has ISI. It is only when the symbols are received and passed through their matched filter
(or correlator), thus squaring the RRC spectrum to make it RC, that the condition for zero ISI is
satisfied. Remember that the matched filter performs time-domain convolution, not time-domain
multiplication.

Exercise 6.4: If RRC pulses are used, show that if AWGN is added to the received signal, the noise
component n
0
(t) of z(t), i.e. the output of the RRC matched filter at the receiver, has an auto-correlation
function which is zero at delays T, 2T, Why is this a good thing?
Answer:
ACF is inverse FT of power spectrum. Instead of " t " we have " " seconds "delay".
At delay = T, ACF tells us whether the noise we observe at any time t may be expected to be related
to (correlated with) what we observed T seconds ago.
If the noise sample was high T seconds ago does this mean that we must expect a high noise level
again? If so, a high P
B
before will lead to a high P
B
now.
Hence errors will tend to occur in "bursts". A lot of errors at once, then few errors.
This is not such a good thing.
If ACF of n
0
(t) is zero at = T, 2T, etc. there will be no correlation between error prob. at t=nT, &
at t=mT for mn. Errors more evenly distributed in time.
Channel noise n(t) only passes through matched filter. So its magnitude spectrum will be RRC shaped.
Its power spectrum will be RRC squared, i.e. RC. Gives required time or "delay" domain zero
crossings.

Exercise 6.5: Check from the formula given that an 100r % RC filter satisfies the conditions for being
a Nyquist filter. If T= 125 s, what bandwidth is required for binary signalling with 60%RRC pulses?

Equalisation

As mentioned earlier, the filtering operations that occur when digital information is transmitted and
detected may be separated in various ways. The transmitting filter band-limits and shapes the symbols


CS3282 Section 6 6.9 BMGC/ 25/08/06
before they are launched into the channel. The band-limiting is necessary as the channel cannot convey
all frequencies, and the shaping is necessary to allow symbols to be detected, eventually, with the
minimum of inter-symbol interference (ISI). The channel will distort whatever symbol-shape is
launched and noise will be added to the received version. Further band-limiting may be applied at the
receiver to reduce out-of-band noise and interference. Matched filtering is then applied to minimise the
effect of the noise at the detection instant. This matched filtering also changes the symbol shape.
The equaliser filter is included at the receiver to cancel out the symbol shaping effect of the channel.
Remember that to minimise ISI, we require the product of the frequency responses of the filters just
mentioned and the channel itself to be that of a Nyquist filter, H
N
(()) say. To make the product of the
frequency responses of all the filters and the channel equal to the desired Nyquist frequency-response
H
N
(()), generally a raised cosine frequency response, we take its square root and construct two
root raised cosine (RRC) filters. The first RRC acts as the transmitting filter (band-limiting the signal
H
N
(())
launched into the channel) and the second RRC, as well as completing the symbol shaping, also
minimises the effect of noise. So each of the RRC filters is doing two useful tasks. The task of the
equaliser is now to cancel out the effect of the frequency-response of the channel.
Detector Equaliser
T T
Channel RRC
Filter
RRC
Filter

Equalisation of the channel may be achieved using an adaptive FIR transversal filter, (or tapped
delay line) a 4th order example of which is shown below:
T
Delay
by T
Delay
by T
C2 C3 C4
C1
C0
x(t)
y(t)
T

Such a filter can be made a zero forcing transversal equaliser.


CS3282 Section 6 6.10 BMGC/ 25/08/06
These days, such a filter would probably be implemented digitally, but not necessarily so. It may
remind us of the FIR low-pass and band-pass filters encountered in Digital Signal Processing
courses, but there is an important difference. Note that the delay boxes are not z
-1
(one sample delay)
as they were in the DSP course. They are delay by T seconds boxes where 1/T is the symbol or Baud
rate. If we are receiving 1000 samples/second from the channel and sample the channel output at 8kHz
to do the filtering digitally, then each box will be a delay of 8 samples, i.e. a z
-8
box rather than a z
-1

box.
The filter shown above can be made a zero-forcing transversal equaliser which looks at the symbols
received from the RRC/channel/RRC combination and adapts its coefficients C
0
, C
1
, C
2
, etc. such that,
in response to an input waveform x(t) centred on t=0, the output y(t) has exact zero-crossings at t=0, T,
3T & 4T even when, because of the effect of the channel, the input x(t) does not quite have zero
crossings at t=T, and t=2T. Note that a Nth order transversal filter must delay the centre of the
symbol by (N/2)T to do its job.
The transversal filter shown above is of order N = 4, with five taps labelled C
0
, C
1
, C
2
, C
3
, C
4
.
(Sometimes these are labelled C
-2
, C-
1
, C
0
, C
1
, C
2
). The output is:

=
=
N
n
n
nT t x C t y
0
) ( ) (
Given a symbol x(t) from the RRC/channel/RRC filtering whose centre is at t = 0. Assume the effect of
the channel has been to make x(T) and x(2T) non-zero as illustrated. To take an example assume
x(-2T) =-0.04, x(-T) = 0.2, x(0) = 1.0, x(T)=0.2 and x(2T)=-0.04.
x(t)
t
-2T -T 2T T

To simplify the calculation, use a 3-tap (2nd order) transversal filter. This will allow us only to force
zero-crossings at t = +T & -T, the centre of the symbol being delayed by one sample and occurring at
t=T.


CS3282 Section 6 6.11 BMGC/ 25/08/06
The full 5-tap filter would have allowed us to force zero-crossings at 0,T, 3T,4T with a 2T delay to the
centre of the symbol. The output of the 3-tap transversal filter is:
) 2 ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 1 0
T t x C T t x C t x C t y + + =
The output at t=0, T, and 2T is as follows:
) 0 ( ) ( ) 2 ( ) 2 (
) ( ) 0 ( ) ( ) (
) 2 ( ) ( ) 0 ( ) 0 (
2 1 0
2 1 0
2 1 0
x C T x C T x C T y
T x C x C T x C T y
T x C T x C x C y
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =

and we wish to make y(0)=0, y(T)=1, y(2T)=0. Therefore:
2 1 0
2 1 0
2 1 0
2 . 0 04 . 0 ) 2 (
2 . 0 2 . 0 ) (
04 . 0 2 . 0 ) 0 (
C C C T y
C C C T y
C C C y
+ + =
+ + =
+ =

This is a set of three linear simultaneous equations in three unknowns. In matrix form:
1 0 2 0 04
0 2 1 0 2
0 04 0 2 1
. .
. .
. .

(
(
(

(
(
(

(
(
(
C
C
C
=
0
1
0
0
1
2

i.e. AC = B with the solution C = A
-1
B
You can solve this set of 3 simultaneous equations by several methods. One way is to calculate:
9152 . 0
0032 . 0 0416 . 0 96 . 0
) 04 . 0 04 . 0 ( 04 . 0 ) 008 . 0 2 . 0 ( 2 . 0 ) 04 . 0 1 ( 1 ) (
=
=
+ + = A DET

Then, by Cramers rule
0 2 . 04 .
1 1 2 .
0 2 . 1
) det(
1
C
1 0 04 .
2 . 1 2 .
04 . 0 1
) det(
1
C
1 2 . 0
2 . 1 1
04 . 2 . 0
) det(
1
2 1 0

=
A A A
C
The solution thus obtained is:
227 . 0
091 . 1
227 . 0
2
1
0
=
=
=
C
C
C

A simpler way is to use MATLAB to find A
-1
, the inverse of A,

as follows:
A= [1 .2 -0.04; 0.2 1 0.2; -0.04 0.2 1]
inv(A)
1.049 -0.227 0.087
-0.227 1.091 -0.227
0.087 -0.227 1.049


CS3282 Section 6 6.12 BMGC/ 25/08/06
Therefore:
(
(
(

(
(
(

=
(
(
(

0
1
0

049 . 1 227 . 0 087 . 0
227 . 0 091 . 1 227 . 0
087 . 0 227 . 0 049 . 1

2
1
0
C
C
C

and it follows that C
0
=-0.227, C
1
=1.091 and C
2
= -0.227.

Note that the matrices need not be symmetric in general, and that this second order filter will not
attempt to make y(-T), y(2T) or y(3T) equal to zero. This would need a higher order zero-forcing filter.
This type of equaliser is often trained by sending a suitable number of individual symbols at the
beginning of a transmission and calculating the coefficients which then remain fixed until a break in
transmission. An adaptive equaliser adapts the coefficients continuously according to the transmitted
data itself.

Exercise 6.6: (Exam 1998) Given x(-2T)= -.05, x(T) = 0.2, x(0) = 1, x(T)= 0.3, x(2T) = -0.07,
calculate the coefficients of a 3-term zero-forcing transversal filter and sketch the circuit of the
equaliser.

Exercise 6.7: (Exam 2003):
(a) What is the purpose of the physical layer in a digital communication system?
Draw a block-diagram of a digital transmitter and corresponding receiver which is valid for the
physical layer transmission of bit-streams over wired or wireless channels.
How may the channel and the receiver circuitry be expected to distort the transmitted wave-forms.
State the purpose of (i) a pulse shaping filter (ii) a matched filter and (iii) an adaptive equaliser as
may be used in this system.
Explain why a Nyquist frequency-response is required between appropriate points in the block-
diagram and indicate where these points occur.
(b) An appropriately shaped symbol with zero-crossings at t = T, 2T, 3T, etc. relative to the centre
is distorted by the frequency-response of a wired channel. It is estimated by averaging over several
training symbols that when the received symbol, x(t) say, is normalised to 1 volt at its centre
(assumed to occur at t=0), its voltages at t = T and 2T relative to the centre would be as follows
in the absence of channel noise:
x(2T) = 0.1, x(T) = 0.2, x(0) = 1.0, x(T) = 0.3, x(2T) = 0.2
Inter-symbol interference is to be reduced by a 3-term zero-forcing transversal equaliser. Explain
how this may be achieved and give a diagram of the equaliser.
Given that the zero-forcing equaliser has coefficients C
0
, C
1
, C
2
, expressed as a column vector c, show
that the required zero-crossings are achieved if Ac = b , where
A =

(
(
(
1 0 2 0
0 3 1 0 2
0 2 0 3 1
. .
. .
. .
1


CS3282 Section 6 6.13 BMGC/ 25/08/06
and b is a suitably chosen column-vector. Given that the inverse of matrix A is approximately as
follows:
A

(
(
(
1
0 93 015 012
0 30 0 90 015
010 0 30 0 93
. . .
. . .
. . .
calculate the coefficients C
0
, C
1
, and C
2
.
Give an expression for the frequency-response of the equaliser and comment on how it will affect a
stream of similarly shaped symbols at 1/T baud received with additive white Gaussian noise.


There will be nothing on partial response filtering this year.