Professional Documents
Culture Documents
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
DESIGN OF STEEL STRUcruRES
arranged at the comers and the centre of square of side a . .
by most heavily loaded rivet. Ans.[1.24 W] . FlOd 10 terms of W, the. load transmitted
(\ steel bracket connection has 22 mm diameter . .
10 Fig. 3.41. Determine the load P so that allowabl rIvets 12 10 number arranged as shown
:ake safe permis e stress 10 the extremely loaded rivet is just
sIble stress In bearing in rivet f... :'" f'
N/mm
2
, and safe per , ft
m.lSSlble stress in shearing in'" " /
rivet =102.5 N/mm
2
p '\." / /
(J.U. 1965) Ans. [186 kN] " /
If the worst rivet in the system r-"" - ;x:
shown in Fig. 3.42 may be 1'" IT. IOOItI
J
m / "
stressed to 100 N/mm
2
, calcu- I T / "
late t.he safe value for. the cc- T / / '\.
centrIC load P. The rivets are T ,I T / '\.
,?m in diameter and are
In smgle shear. F ,00",.. -----{..!D
Ans. [140 kN] FIG. 3.41. p
FIG. 3.42.
Calculate the m&1timum load
carried by any rivet shown
in Fig. 3.43. Rivets A and
B are 200 mm
2
cross-sec
tional area and rivet C of
400 mm
2
area.
Design a bracket connection
shown in Fig. 3.44, if it carries
a load of 120 kN at an ec
centricity of 350 mm from
the centre line. Use power
driven rivets. The thickness
of bracket is 16 mm and the FIG. 3.43.
thickness of flange of the stanchion is 12 mm.
'00
The flange of a tee section 200 mm x 200 .
the fla f mm IS l.veted to
. nge? a rolled. steel column of I-section to form a bracket
whIch carnes a vertIcal load of 250 kN at a distance of 200
mm. from face of the stanchion, as ,shown in Fig. 3.45.
DeSIgn. the rIveted connection. Use shop driven rivets each 20 .
mm dl8. '
FIG. 3.44.
I
I
I - SECTION.
T-SECTK)N
IOmm BRACKET
-+I i-10mm
FIG. 3.45.
4.1. INTRODUCTION
Steelwork Connections : II
Bolted & Pinned Connections
In chapter 1, we have seen that there are three fundamental structural members-tension
members, compression members, and bending members. These structural members are often
composed of structural sections which are jointed together. The most common types of structural
steel connections are riveted connections, bolted connections and welded connections, though
riveted conriections are fast becoming absolete because of their low strength, high installation
cost and other disadvantages. In bolted connections, bolts and nuts are used. There are several
types of bolts that can be used for connecting structural steel members. The three types of
bolts used in structural applications are (i) unfinished or black bolts, (ii) turned and fitted
bolts and (iii) high-strength bolts. In pinned connections, pins are used for jointing the members.
Advantages of bolted connections
1. The bolting operation is very silent, in contrast to the hammering noise in riveting.
2: Bolting is a cold process, and hence there is no risk of fire.
3. Bolting operation is far more quicker than riveting.
4. There is no risk involved in the bolting, in coIitrast to the risk of flying rivets in
riveting work.
5. Less man-power is required in making the' connections.
Disadvantages of bolted connections
1. The bolted connections, if subjected to vibratory loads, result in reduction in strength
if they get loosened. -
2. Bolted connections for a given of bolt, have lesser strength in axial tension
since the net area at the root of the' threads is less.
3. Unfinished bolts have lesser strength because of non-uniform diameter.
4: In the case of black bolts, the diameter of hole is kept 1.5 mm more than the diameter
of the bolt, and this extra clearance does not get filled up, in contrast to the riveted joints,
4.2. BOLT TYPES
A bolt is a metal pin with a head formed at one end and the shank threaded at the
other end, in order to receive a nut. Structural bolts are classified as under :
. \ (91)
! .1
92
(a) A.ccording to type of shank
(I) Unfinished or black bolts
(ii) Turned bolts.
(b) According to materta . . I and strength
Ordinary structural bolt
(u) High strength steel bolt
(c) A.ccording to Shape of head and
(I) Square bolt nut
(ii) Hexagonal bolt
(d) to Pitch and fit of thread
Standard pitch bolt
(u) Coarse pitch bolt
I (ui) Fine pitch bolt
. n common steel structural workh
DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES"
ABOLT ASSEMBU
FIG. 4.1. BOLT ASSEMBLY
1. Ordinary unfinished or black' the following three bolt types are recognised:
2. Turned and fitted bolts
3. High strength bolts.
4.3. ORDINARY UNFINISHED OR BLACK BOLTS
These are manufactured from b .
the shank is left unfinish d . lack round bars of low carb
under the thread is IS rough as rolled. The head is and the sunaco of
wbtch are usually made 15' to 3 mm less than the shank The y mgtng. The dtameter
SInce the bearin of " mm larger In diameter than the Y loose In the holes
stresses in these gbOltssuch bolts on the walls of the holes dIameter of the bolt
only for ordinary field are k:pt than the other types of the
T bI wor and Itght loads-speciall d' s. ey are therefore used
b a e 4.1 summarises the dime. . y unng erection operations
olts, by IS , range of lengths and other information black
RAL DIMENSIONS OF HEXAGONAL H
D' EAD BLACK BOLT IS . I
II. lameter (d) mm 6 8 i l' I .l364 (Part I) 1983
I[
__ I __
Houl ",:,. (.), mm 24 30
"11.05 14.38 17.77 20.03 26.75 " 33.53 H i Til
l
39.98!
Head thickness, mm 4 5.3 6 T I I 50.85 1
I ,..,..., ....,h mm I 18 22!4 I 7.5 ! 10 125 15 I 18.7
__ __ __
. 1.25 I I Pitch of thread, mm 1 0 w 1
Wruher, out. dia. mm 18
__;;__ __
T
__ I
Washer thickness, mm i 1.5 2.01I 13.0 I 17.0 21.0 IS: 5370-1969
Step 1 : Determine the span of the beam. Also, estimate self weIght of .the
.' beam, and add it to the super-imposed load to get the lotal load on the beam. The self weIght
may be assumed\ to be equal to total load W1300 to WI350 kN/m. . .
Step 2 Compute the maximum B.M. (M) and shear force (V) 10 the beam.
Step 3 Take abt= abc = 0,66fY.
. Step 4 Find section modulus (Z) of the beam :
'. Z M
, =
abc
242
243
DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES
Step 5 : From the steel tables, choose a suitable rolled beam section which has Z value
very near to the one found above. .
. Step 6 : Check for shear.
Step 7 : Check for deflection.
In addition to the above checks, the beam is also checked for web crippling and web
/\.,., bucking as discussed in 8.12 and 8.13 respectively. 'l
",";/ Example 8.1. A simply supported beam has an effective span of 7 m and carries a uniformly
1)-/ distributed load of 50 kN/m. Taking fy :;:: 250 Nlmm2 and E = 2 x 10' Nlmm2, design the beam,
if it is laterally supported.
Solution
Step 1 : Effective span L = 7 m.
. W 50x7
Assume self weIght = - = --= 1 kN/m
350 350
Total U.D.L. = W = 50 + 1 = 51 kN/m.
Step 2 M = W;2 = 51 f)2 = 312:375 kN-m= 312.375 x 10
6
N-mm
V:;:: W L = SIP) = 178.5 kN.
2
Step 3 : Take O"bt = O"bc = O.66fy= 0.66 x 250 = 165 N/mm2 0/)
Step 4 : Required Z = ! = 1893.2 x 10' mm' 'I
Step 5 : From steel tables, try ISWB 500 @ 95.2 kg/m, having the properties:
. ZXlC =2091.6cm
3
:;:: 2091.6 x 10
3
mm
3
; lxx= 52209.9 x 10
4
mm
4
h :;:: 500 mm ; t[ = 14.7 mm ; t w =9.9 mm
Step 6 : Check for shear
3
V
178.5 X 10 =36 1 NI 2
Average shear stress, Tva cal =-
, h x tw
= 500 X 9.9 . mm
Permissible value, Tva =O.4fy =0.4 x 250 =_ 100 N/mm2
Hence safe.
Step 7: Check for deflection
_ 5 W L
4
_ 5 (51 X 10
3
) (7)4 X (1000)3
Ymax - 384 E 1 - 384 x. (2 X 10
5
) (52209.9 X 10
4
)
= 15.3 mm
. . Span 7000
Allowable deflectlon = 325 = 325 =21.54 mm. Hence safe.
Note: students may also try a lighter section viz_ ISLB 550 @ 86.3 kg/m.
Example 8.2. A beam, consisting of ISMB 600 @ 122.6 kg/m, is simply supported over a
span of 8.5 m. Determine the safe load the beam cancany, assuming that the beam is laterally
supported. Take fy =250Nlmm
2
and E =2 x 10' Nlmm
2
Hence
Obe 165
Step 3. Since the total depth of beam is restricted to 500 mm, try
kg/m, .with cover plates. The properties of the section are as follows :
. Ixx =35057.6 X 10
4
mm
4
; Zxx= 1558.1 x 10
3
mm
3
= Zi
h =450 mm; b=200 mm; hz=33.0 mm; hl=384.0 mm
tw = 9.2 mm; tf = 15.4 mm; g= 100 mm.
The area af plate is approximately given by Eq. 8.27
A = Z - Zi = (3681.8 - 1558.1) IcY = 471933 mm
2
p 450' .
Provide 10% more area for rivet holes. Hence
2
Ap = 1.1 x 4719.33= 5192 mm .
Using 16 mm thick plates, B= 5i:Z =324.5 mm.
Provide trial width 10% more than this.
Hence provide, 16 x 360 mm thick plate on each flange.
Step 4. Check for out stand: Projection of cover plate beyond
the rivet line in compression flange .
ISWB 450@ 79.4
FlO. 8.24.
= i (B - g)= i(360 - 100) = 130 mm.
Maximum permissible outstand = 16 t = 16 x 16 =256 mm. Hence OK.
Step 5. Check of bending stresses : Let us use 20 mm dia. rivets.
2
Gross area of each tension flange = (200 x 15.4)+ (360 x 16) = 8840 mm
2
Net area of each tension flange =8840 - 21.5(15.4 + 16)= 8165 mm
Gross moment of inertia of built-up section :
1 =Ixx=35057.6x 10
4
mm
4
0. = 607.5 X 10
6
x 241 = 150 < 165.
be ,cal 97598.5 x
Gross area of tension flange 150 x 8840
Obt ,cal = Obe, cal X Net area of tension flange = 8165
=162.41 N/mm2 < 165 N/mm
2
. Hence safe.
Step 6.; Check for shear
I
j
:I
ova, cal = V ",; 270 x 10 = 65.2 N/mmz
x tw 450 x 9.2
. z
ova =0.4t;. = 0.4 x 250 = 100 N/mm. Hence safe.
276.
DESIGN OF STEEL S:rRUCIURES
. Step 7. Check for deflection
4
mDl! = wL = x (60 X 1000)(9)4 x (1000)3:::: 263
Y 384 E I 384 2 x lOs x 97598.5 X 104 . mm.
L 9000
mm. Hence safe.
Yal/ow. = 325 = 325 = 27.7
Step 8. Check for web crippling
Reaction R = V = 270 kN.
b = width of support =200 mm,
h2 = 33.0 mm.
Web crippling stress = R . = 270 x 1000 = 114 N/mm2
(b + h2 ..(3 ) tw (200 + 33..(3) 9.2
Permissible value = op = 0.75fY = 0.75 x 250 = 187.5 N/mm
2
. Hence safe.
Step 9. Check for web buckling
'. h
Aw = where hI = 384 mm
tw V 3
384
Aw = . V3 = 24.1
9.2
Hence for fY= 250 and A = 24.1, oac=148-(148-145) = 146.77
:. Allowable reaction, Ra =Oac tw B,
1 482
where B =b +'2h=2oo+T=441 mm
Ra = 146.77 x9.2x441 x 10-
3
= 595.5 kN (R=270 kN)
Hence safe.
Step 10. Design of riveted joint
The flange plates will be riveted to the flange by two rows of rivets, with staggered pitCh.
Using 20mm dia. power driven rivets:
Strength. of rivet in single shear = (21.5)2 X 10-
3
=36.3 kN
Strength,lof rivet in bearing = 300x21.5x15.4xlO-
3
=99.33kN
I, Rivet value R = 36.3 kN. :
The pitch of rivets is given by Eq. 8:32 : l
4IR
p = VB tp (h + t )
p
where I = 97598.5 X 10
4
; R = 36.3 kN; B= 360 mm
tp = 16 mm; h = 450 mm; V= 270 kN
4 I
= 4 x 97598.5 x 10 x 36.3 =
mm.
P 270 x 360 x 16 (450 + 16)
MaximuIIl pitch in compression flange = 12 t = 12 x 16 = 192 mm, or 200 mm whichever
is lmyer. Maximum pitch in tensio.n flange = 16 t = 16 x 16 = 256 mm or 200 mm, whichever
is lower. . .
DESIGN OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS; BEAMS 277
Hence provide p :::: 190 mm for compression flange
and p :::: 195 mm for tension flange
Note: 1. Since both the values of p are practically the same; it is desirable to provide an uniform
pitch of 190 mm in both the tension flange as well as compression flange.
2. An alternative method to design the riveted joint will be to find the value of shear force per unit
length, at the level of rivet as follows :
V 270 x 10
3
q :::: Tv. Z :::: -[ (AY) :::: - 4 (360 x 16) (225 + 8) = 371.3 N/mm.
97598.5 x 10
Force in each rivet =! qp, where p is the pitch in each row
R =!qp
3
= 2R :::: 2 x 36.3 x 10 =1955 b "
or
P q 371.3 . . mm, as elore.
3. If it is required to design a welded jOint, proceed as follows :
q =371.3 Nlmm
Unit stress in weld =220 N/mm2
Hence q =220 t, from which t = = =1.688 mm
s = size of fillet weld = = =2.41 mm.
Example 8.9. A laterally supported beam having an effective span of 8 m consists of ISMB
550 @ 103.7 kg/m and cover plate of 250 mm x 16 mm connected to each flange by' 20 nun
dia. rivets. Determine the safe U.D.L. which the beam can carry in addition of its own weight
Solution
ISWB 550 @ 103.7 kg/m has the following properties :
Ixx = 64893.6 X 10 mm
4
3
4
T
5011WIl-tn
..
Zxx = 2359.8 X 10
3
mm
h = 550 mm, b = 190 mm 190
tf = 19.3 mm ; tw =11.2 mm Ciill'l
N ....
E E
a = 13211 mm
2
E E
Ix of built-up section = [64893.6xI0
4
+2x250x 16 (8 + 275)2)J
++ 11111'1
= 128965 X 10
4
mm4.
(neglecting the moment of inertia of the plate about their own axes)
Gross area of flange = Afg=(190x 19.3) + (250 x 16)= 7667mm
2
Net area of flange= Afh = 7667 - 21.5 (16 + 19.3)= 6908 mm
2
(only one rivet hole has been deducted since the pitch is staggered
on the two rows of rivets on each flange)
FIG. 8.25.
. 'M)
Obc, cal = l7 , YmDl!
M = Obc,cal X I
.( YmDl!
.. 2
Limiting Obt , cal = O.66fY =0.66 x 250 =165 N/mm
Afh 6908 2
Obc,cal = Obl,cal XAfg =165X =148.67 N/mm
7667
279 278 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES
. M = 148.67 x x 10
4
= X 10
6
N-mm= 659.87 kN-m
Now
w = 8M =8 x 659.87 = 82.359 kN/m
L2 (8)2
Mass of ISMB 550 = 103.7 kg/m.
Mass of 250 mmx 16 mm plates= 2 [ 7.85 x 25 x 1.6 x = 62.8 kg/m
Total mass/m == 103.7 + 62.8 = 166.5 kg/m
Weight/m = 166.5 x 9.81 x 10- 3 = 1.633 kN/m.
Permissible w = 82.359 - 1.633 =80.726 kN/m
Checks: The section should be checked for deflection and shear for this value of W. It'
is left on the students to carry out these checks.
Example 8.10. Determine the safe U.D.L. that could be placed over the beam designed in
Example 8.8 if ,built-up beam is not laterally restrained. Assume that each end of the beam is
restrained against torsion, and ends of the compression flanges are fully restrained against lateral
bending. (b) What will be the safe U.D.L. if the ends of the compression flanges are unrestrained
against lateral bending while each end of the beam is restrained against torsion ?
Solution For ISWB 450 @ 79.4 kg/m, we have
Iyy =1706.7 X 10
4
mm
4
and a = 10115 mm
2
.. Iy of built-up section = x 10
4
+ 2 x x 16 (360)3= 14148.3 x 10
4
mm
4
Ix of built-up section = 97598.5 x 10
4
mm
4
Zx of built-up section = 10
4
= 4049.7 x mm
3
Total area of cross-section of built-up beam= 10115+2x16x360= il.635 mm
2
4
.. ry of built-up section = {7j = V 10 = 80.86 mm
Overall D = 482 mm.
Case (a) : Ends of compression flange fully restrained against lateral bending:
Since the ends of the compression flange are fully restrailled against lateral bending, i.e.
they are not free to rotate in plan at the bearings, effective length, (l) of compression flange
=0.7x span.
1 = 0.7 L =0.7 x 9 =6.3 m
i = 6.3 x 1000 = 78
ry 80.86
Mean thickness of compressian flange
= T =(360 x 16) + (200 x 15.42 =24.56
360
D482
T = 24.56 = 19.63
D I
Hence from Table 8.3, for T =19.63 and - =78, we get
ry
DESIGN OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS: BEAMS .
x == 584.85 and y== 436.8
C1 == C2 == 241; C1/C2== 'I
\II = 1.0 and hence kl = 1.0
(l) =0.5 and hence kz = 0.0
Now fd> ::;:: k1(X+kzy) (584.85+0)x 1= 584.85 N/mm
2
T == 24.56 == 2.67 > 2
Ratio
tw 9.2
d1 =h - 2'tf = 450 - 2 x 15.4 == 419.2 mm.
d
1
== d
1
= 419.2 =45.56
t tw 9.2
1344 = 1344 == 85
VJ; V250
Since d
1
is not greater than 85 but T is greater than 2, value of feb is not increased .
by 20%.
feb =584.85 N/mm
2
From Table 8.4, for feb = 584.85 and h = 250, we get
(Jbe = 136 + (137 - 136) 136.24 N/mm2
.. M,= (Jbc.Zx = 136.24 X 4049.7 x 10
3
= 551.74 X 10
6
N-mm= 551.74 kN-m.
WL2
M=Mr =-8
w = 8 Mr = 8 x 551.74 = 54.493 kN/m.
L2 (9)2
Mass of I-section = 79.4 kg/m
. (360 1 )
Mass of 16 mm thIck flange plates = 2 251.2 x 1000 x 2" = 90.43 kg/m
(from section tables).'
.... Total mass of section/m = 79.4 + 90.43 = 169.83 kg/m
Self weight/m = 169.83 x 9.81 x 10- 3 1.665 kN/m
Permissible super-imposed load =54.493 - 1.665= 52.828 kN/m
Checks : This value of w should be for (i) deflection (ii) average shear stress
(iii) web crippling and (iv) web buckling. These checks have not been applied here because
this built-up section is safe against these for w= 60 kN/m.
Case (b) : Compression flanges unrestrained against lateral bending:
Since the ends of the compression flanges are unrestrained against lateral bendings, Le. .
they are free to rotate in plan at the bearings, the effective length of the compression flange
is equal to the effective span.
I=L=9m.
,
..
. i = 9 x 1000 = 111.3
ry 80.86
284 . DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCIi.!RES
2R
P =
q
Here, the rivet is in single shear, R = x 72.6 = 36.3 kN.
= 2 x 36.3 x 1000 = 184 mm
p 394.2
But Maximum permissible p = 12 x t = 12 x 12 = 144 mm
Hence keep p= 140 mm, from support to .the point of cut off.
Step 9. Design of riveted joint beyond point of cut off (towards mid span)
Here the S.F. is less and R is more (since rivets are in double shear). Hence p will
come out to be still more. However, keep p =140 mm.
Example 8.12. A beam of 9 m span consists of ISWB 450 @ 79.4 kg/m, with two flange
plates of 300 mm x 12 mm each, provided on the compression side, and no additional flange plate
on the tension side. Determine the moment of resistance of the beam section at the mid-span,
if it is proposed to curtail one of the two plates at 2 m from either end. Assume that the
compression flange is torsionally restained at the ends only, and the beam is laterally unsupported
throughout the length. The flange plates are connected by 20 mm dia. rivets.
Solution. The composite beam has (i) un
symmetrical section, and (ii) its moment of inertia
(ly) changes. Hence the factors kl' kz and r--300 ---1
C1 , C2 are to determined. IOO--+joo....!;ool
(i) Properties of primary section T .. ! T
For the primary beam ISWB 450 @ 79.4 . yc.cl
kglm, we have the following properties x x t
4 4 x x
Ixx = 35057.6 X 10 mm ; 225_. __
Iyy = 1706.7 X 10
4
mm
4
:: t
a := 10115 mm
2
., h= 450 mm', .
y,-
c
2
. b 200 mm; g = 100 mm . 1 1
tf = 15.4 mm; tw = 9.2 mm; ry= 41.1 mm 225
D := 450 + 2 x 12 = 474 mm
1
...
r-
!t"'4
200
-l
1-2 0-1
T = 2 x 300 x 12 + 200 x 15.4 34.27 mm
Iy
300
(0' SECTION AT (b) SECTION AT
T 34.27
MID-SPAN SUPPORTS
,'. - = -92 =3.72 >2.0
tw .
(U) Determination of k1 FIG. 8.28.
Area of both flanges at max. section =' (2 x 12 x 300) + (2 x 15.4 x 200) = 13360 mm
2
Area of both flanges at min. section =(12x3OO)+(2xI5.4x200)= 9760cm
2
' = O.'ZlJ., forwhich k1= 0.931 (from
(iii) Determination of kz
. 1 3 1706.7 04 6253 104
Iyy of compressIoN flange =2x 12 x 12(300) +-2-.x1 = x
.. 1 3 4 7 06 04 4
Iyy of whole sectlOn = 2x 12XI2(300) + 1706.7x 10 = 1 .7xl mm
4
w = 6253 X 10 :::0 0.88. Hence k2 = 0.38 (From Table 82)
7106.7 x 10
4
DESIGN OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS: BEAMS 28S
(iv) Determination of ry
z
Total area A = 10115 + 2 x 12 x 300 =17315 mm
4
ry =V?i =V 10 =64.07 mm
.!... = 9000 = 140.5
ry 64.07
(v) Determination of C1 and C'1..
C1 = lesser distance of extreme fibre from N.A.= Yc
Cz =greater distance of extreme fibre from N.A.= Yl
To determine Ye, take moments about top fibre.
_ (2x12x3OO)12 + 10115(225 + 24) 150.4 mm = C
Ye - (2 x 12 x 300) + 10115
1
Yl = 474 - 150.4 = 323.6 mm =C2
(vi) Determination of 1u and Zu .
Ixx = {35057.6 X 10
4
+ 10115(323.6 - 225)2}+ 2 x 12 x 300(150.4 - 12)2
=58682.6 X 10
4
mm
4
.
4
j . fl - 58682.6 X 10 3901.8 X 10
3
mm
3
(Zxx)e with respect to compression ange - 150.4
. 58682.6 x 10
4
3
(ZXX)1 with respect to tenSIon flange = 323.6 1813.4 x 10
3
mm
Note that there are no holes in the tension flange.
(vii) Determination of critical stress feb
C2
. feb =k 1(X +k2 y) C
1
5 5
Y = 26.5 X 10 = 26.5 X 10 = 134.24
where
(1Iry)2 (140.5)2
X - y- '1+ .1.. (i T)2 = 13424
4
'I + .1.. ( 140 5 x 34.27 ) 2 =333.16
- r V 20 r
y
' D . V 20 . 474,
Alternatively, X and Y can be found from Table 8.3,
D 474 I
for - =--= 13.83 and - = 140.5.
T 34.27 ry
323.6 9 55 NI 2
Hence feb =0.931(333:16+0.38X 134.24) x 150.4 ::::;;76 . mm
T
Since - > 2.0, no increase in feb is allowed.
tw
feb = 769.55 N/mm2
(viii) Determination of abc
feb .fY 0.66 x 769.55 x 250
144.23 N/mm2
Obc =0.66 = 1
[ (j'ebr + (fYr]iI [(769.55)1.4 + (250)1.4] 1.4
(Alternatively, abc can be determined from Table 8.4, for feb =769.55 and fY =250;
DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES
(i) MULTIPLE NORTH LIGHT TRUSS
(k ) MULTIPLE FINK TRUSS
FIG. 25,17. VARIOUS TYPES OF TRUSSES USED IN INDUSTRIES.
Plastic Analysis and Design
26.1. INTRODUCTION
liThe ability to carry the load is termed as 'structural strength' of the member. There are
three methods of structural design (i) the elastic design (ii) the limit state design, and (iii)
the plastic design or ultimate load design. The elastic design or the working stress design limits
the. usefulness of the structural material upto a certain load at which the maximum stress
in extreme fibres reaches the yield stress of the material in bending. In such a method, the
rest of the cross-section remains under-stressed. The working load or stress is determined by
applying a certain factor of safety to the guaranteed minimum yield stress of steel, and this
factor of safety accounts for the unpredictable overload, imperfections of the structure, defective
material, residual stresses etc. Broadly speaking, the structural strength or design loaf.! is controlled
by a number of factors - factors that have been called limits of structural usefulness. These
factors are (i) first attainment of yield stress (conventional design or elastic design). (ii) brittle
fracture, (iii) fatigue, (iv) instability, (v) deflection, and (vi) attainment of maximum plastic
strengh. Strictly speaking, a design based on anyone of the above six factors is known as
~ limit design. The plastic design is an aspect of limit design which is based on the attainment
of maximum plastic strength. The unique feature of the .plastic design is that the ultimate
load (rather than the yield stress) is regarded as the design criterion. The term 'plastic' is
used because the ultimate load is found from the strength of steel in the plastic range. The
method is also known as the load factor design or ultimate load design. The concept of ductility
of structural steel forms the basis for the plastic designv,::::.-
The rigorous analysis of a structure according to the theory of elasticity demands that
the stress satisfy two sets of conditions : (1) the equilibrium condition and (2) compatibility
conditions. The first set of conditions m.!,lst be invariably. satisfied in any material. However,
the second condition ceases to be valid as soon as plastic yielding occurs. The dastic method
of design assumes that a frame will become useless as soon as yield stress is reached. The
working stress is, therefore, kept much below the yield stress. The design so produced gives
a structure of unknown ultimate strength. The elastic methods of analysis are also very cumbersome,
specially for redundant frames. In plastic method of design, the limit load of a system is a
statically determinate quantity. The limit load is independent of all imperfections of the structure,.
such as faulty length of bars, settlement of supports and residual stresses caused by rolling
or welding. The plastic method of design gives an economical design. The margin of safety
provided in this method is not less than that provided according to . the past practice.,
(797)
798
DESIGN OF STEEL STRUcruRES
The need1'or /the study of plastic behaviour was appreciated by A.E.H. Love in 1892.
The possibility of the development of plastic hinge was first suggested by G.V. Kazinczy in
1914. Prof. H. Maier-Leibnitz of Germany carried out load tests on encastre and continuous
beams, carrying them out of the elastic into the plastic range, and showed that the ultimate
/y capacity was not affected by settlement of supports of continuous beams. Further work was
done by Vander Brock in United States and J.F. Baker and his associates in Great Britain.
26.2. THE DUCTILIlY OF STEEL
V
lV
The plastic theory is based on the ductility of steel. Through ductility, structural steel
G.; has capacity of absorbing large deformation beyond elastic limit without the danger of fracture.
However, in the plastic range,
the behaviour of steel depends
strongly not only on its chemi
cal composition but also on
the mechanical and thermal
treatments to which it has been
subjected.
Fig. 26.1 (a) shows the
complete stress-strain curve of
, mild steel. Fig. 26.1 (b) shows
the portion ABC enlarged. It
will be seen that the stress
strain relation is linear in the
elastic range. The upper yield
is reached at pointA, and then
the stress suddenly drops to
lower ,yield stress at B. The
strain then increases upto C , 3
'at constant stress. This' rep 3
resents the plastic range.
Beyond C the strain increases
N
E 25
E
z200 with further increase of stress
and the material is said to be
in strain hardening range. For
ordinary steel the elastic strain
is about 1/12 to 1/15 of strain
;:;:; 150
(/)
Ii; 50
00
N
E
E
"
t:;
STRAIN
(0) COMPLETE STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
(JL =cry
C
05 1'0 2-0 0 0-5 1'0
I
N I
10 _I
><.
.:..,
11'1
.... ,
<1)1
I.VI
I
STRAIN (%) STRAIN (%)
1'5
at the beginning of the strain
hardening and about 1/200 of
I118ximum strain.
Experience shows that
the metal of rolled beams does
(b) PORTION A 8 C ENLARGED (c) IDEALISED CURVE
not usually exhibit any upper FIG. 26.1. STRESS-STRAIN CURVES .
yield point and that even when an upper yield pO.int it. can be removed by cold. working
sUcch as -straightening. Hence the theory of plastIC .bendmg IS based on the a
steel without upper yield point. The strain upto point C is about 1.5%. In deSign,
at ultimate load the critical straining will' not have exceeded about 1.5% elongatIOn. Hence
the strain hardening range is neglected in simple theory of plastic bending. This reduces complicati<?ns
in the calculations, and still leaves available a major portion of reserve ductility of steel which
can be used as an added margin of safety. Fig. 26.1 (c) shows the indealised stress-stain curve
which forms the basis of plastic design:/ /
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
26.3. ULTIMATE LOAD CARRYING CAPACIlY OF MEMBERS CARRYING
AXIAL TENSION
799
1. Single member carrying axial tension. 'Fig. 26.2 (a) shows. a member (such
as an eye bar), subjected to axial tension P . If A is the area of cross-section of the member,
Stress (I = PIA
As the load P is increased, the elongation
A of the bar takes place elastically and its value
is given by
A =PL
AE
, The load versus deflection is shown in Fig.
26.2 (b). The relationship between load and
deflection will be elastic until the yield point
to reached corresponding to the load P'I . The
deflection of the bar is given by
A _Py.L
'1 AE
where P
y
is the load at yield point.
Since the stress distribution is uniform at
the cross- section, unrestricted plastic flow will
,set in. The value of this load is the ultimate
load Pu , given by
p
(0 )
(c l
UNRESTRICTED
PLASTC FLOW
-I::.
(b)
Pu =Py =(ly.A ...(26.1) FIG. MAXIMUM STRENGTH 0F AN
The ultimate load ( Pu ) is the maximum EYE BAR (DETERMINATE STRucruRE)
load the structure will carry without the onset
of the unrestricted plastic flow. The deflection bar is about I.? perce!lt of the length
of the bar. The bar does not remain structurally lusefql after the yIeld pomt.
2. Three parallel bars I
structure T
' Fig. 26.3 (a) shows a sys a
tern consisting ofthree parallel
bars 1, 2 and 3. The structure 0 L
is statically indeterminate. 1 2
Consider the elastic state first. C====t====:=:J
Let the loads in bars 1 and
3 be P
t
each and that in bar
2 be Pz . From equilibrium
condition, ,we have
2Pt +Pz =P ...(i)
From compatibility of
deflection,
PtL1 P;Lz
AE = AE
But L2 =kL
.. P1L =PzkL
'or Pl = kP2 ...(ii)
PCP
y
(0) (b ) PARTIALLY PLASTIC
Pu ----..----
I I
: : Py -
(G) PLASTIC
(d )
FIG. 26.3. THREE BAR STRUcruRE (INDETERMINATE SYSTEM) /
804 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES
Taking moments about A, we get
PI + 2P2 =2.5 P ...(2)
Fig. 26.6 (b) shows the deformed shape
of the arrangement. If L11 and L12 are the vertical
extensions of the two bars.
or
or.
L11 1
L12 =2:
2 L11 =L1z
2 PI X 1 =Pz(1.5)
AE AE
2
CD
PI
A 8
1m -I
A 8
T
I
2m
1m
P2
C 0
(0 )
1m 1O5m P
C 0
i ,
... (3) or Pz =-PI
1.5
_ ;42 I
----J... I(b)
Eq. (3) shows that P2 is greater than Pl.
Since the area of sections of both the bars
are equal, it is evident that yield first occurs
in bar 2. As the load P is increased, the force
FIG. 26.6
Pz will go on increasing till yield occurs in it. Hence, at the first yield,
Pz =Oy A =250 x 200 =50000 N
Corresponding value of Pl is . PI = 1.5 P2 = 0.75 P
2
2
Substituting these in Eq. (2) the load at the first yield is given by
1
Pel 2.5 [PI + 2 P2]
= 2.75 P
2
= 2.75 X 50000 =55000 N
2.5 2.5
C ---..J
I 01
Thus according to the elastic solution, the load carrying capacity of structure is 55000
N.
(b) Load at complete coUapse
When the load P is further increased, the load in rod 1 increases while the load in rod
2 remains constant at a value of 50000 N. When yield is reached in bar 1, the whole structure
collapses. The force PI corresponding .to yield in the first rod is evidently equal to
Oy =250 x 200 =50000 N . Substituting these values of PI and Pz (each equal to 50000 N)
in Eq. (2), we get
Pu =_1_ [PI + 2 Pz] = 23
5
x 50000 ::::; 60000 N
2.5 .
It should be noted that in plastic analysis, compatibility equation 3 is no longe:
However, the equilibrium equations (Eqs. 1 and 2) still hold good. This shows the SimpliCity.
of plastic analysis.
Example 26.3. Compute the ultimate load P at the collapse of the structure shown in Fig.
, 26.7. All the four rods have equal area of cross-section. .
The structure will collapse when it is turned into a mechanism. There are two
and both of these should be investigated. In the first possibility, rods 1 and 2
and the collapse may take place by rotation about point C. In the second possIbIhty, rod
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
4, 3 and 2 may become plastic
and failure may take place by rota
tion about A . The free body
diagrams for both these pos
sibilities are shown in Fig. 26.8
(a), (b).
The first possibility of col
lapse is shown in Fig. 26.8 (a).
By inspection, rod 1will yield first,
when the force in it is
A
2
B
. -I' L/3
PI= oy.A . With the further in- FIG. 26.7
805
2L13 -....j
crease in the external load, PI will remain constant at oy.A while P
z
will increase till it also
becomes equal to Oy. A . At this stage, the structure will turn into mechanism, and collapse
will take place by rotation about C . Just before such collapse, we get, by taking moments
about C .
or
Oy A . 2L + Oy A . L PLl ( 2;- )
9
hl=2: 0y .
A ...(1)
Let us now consider the second possibility, when the rod 4, --3 and 2 yield, and collapse
takes place by rotation about A. At
the yield stage, force carried by each
of these rods is equal to oy.A . Hence
we get by taking moments about A,
oy.A .L+ 2oy .A cos 8 . 2L
I
\A
1-1.,--- L ---+-!
4
=h2. '3 L ay.A\43!a/oy.
A
3 I I
or P
L2
=-4 Oy A (1 + 4 cos 8) A!..,I_______.2 8..1.:..:,..__,.-___ (b)
1-1"4<---- L -o.. -"I._-2L13---l
... (2) ;P
L2
It will be seen that PL2 is less
than hI for all values of 8 . Hence FIG. 26.8
the colipase load is given by Eq. (2).
3
Thus, Pu =4'0y.A(1 + 4 cos 8)
PLASTIC BENDING OF BEAMS
.'. . . Let a beam be subjected to an increaSing beading moment M (pure bending). The beam
. has atleast one axis of symmetry so that bending is symmetrical about that axis. When the
bending stresses are within the elastic range, the bending stress distribution will be as shown
in Fig. 26.9 (b - 1). The neutral axis will pass through the centroid of the section. As the
. is increased, yield stress will appear either in the top most or in the bottom most
fib.re as the case may be with the neutral axis still passing through the centroid of the section
[FIg. 26.9 (b - 2)]. The moment at which the first yield has occurred is called the yield moment
\. My further increase of M, the yield will also occur in the bottom fibre and it will
.. inwards in the top portion [Fig. 26.9 (b - 3)]. The neutral axis no longer passes through
.,.the centroid, its location being determined by the fact that the total compressive force is equal
to the total tensile force over the cross-section.
806
Further increase of
bending moment will cause
the yield to spread further
inwards towards neutral
axis. [Fig. 26.9 (b 4)]. A
stage is ultimately reached
when the yield spreads
right up to the neutral axis
and the section becomes
fully plastic [Fig. 26.9
(b 5)]. The corresponding
bending moment is called
thefuily plastic moment and
is denoted by Mp . Neglect
ing strain hardening in the
outer fibres, no further in
crease in the bending mo
ment can be attained. The
plastic moment, therefore,
represents the limiting
strength of the beam in
bending. The neutral axis
in case of'fully plastic sec
tion will pass through the
I a)
cr<cr
y
( t )
STRAIN
cr<.cry
12 )
DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTIJRES
cry
13 )
(b)
cry
(4 )
M=Mp
o-y
( 5)
Ie) STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
<1>:: J (CURVATURE)
(d) MOMENT-CURVATURE
. RELATIONHIP
FIG. 26.9. PLASTIC BENDING OF BEAMS
equal area axis. In case of sections having two axes of symmetry, the location of neutral axis
in elastic and fully plastic conditions remain unchanged. When the fully plastic moment is
reached, the section will act as a hinge permitting rotation. With further increase of the load,
the yield will spread in longit?dinal directi0o/ /
26.5. STAGES OF BENDING OF RECTANGULAR SECTIONS
Consider a beam of rectangular section, subjected to gradually increasing load. As the
load is increased, the maximum moment on the beam increases linearly. The fibre strains, as
well as the stress, also increase linearly with load so long as the beam remains elastic at all
sections. The moment at which first yield has occurred is known as yield moment (My). AS
the load is increased, plastiCity grows on the section from the extreme fibres towards the neutral
axis. As the load is further increased, the whole section ultimately becomes fully plastic, as
indicated in Fig. 26.9 (b - 5). The corresponding moment is known as fully plastic moment
(Mp ). At this stage, when the section becomes fully plastic, there is unrestricted flow of material'
and the resulting large deflections render the beam useless.
Thus, we find the follOwing three stages in the history of bending of the beam : (i) elastic
stage bending (it) elasto plastic stage bending, and (iii) fully plastic stage bending (Fig. 26.9d).
1. Elastic stage
In this stage, stress a < ay and strain e is less than Ey . Hence
M=aZ
where a is the extreme fibre stress and Z is the section modulus of the beam. When
a = ay , first yield occurs at the extreme fibres and the section develops its yield moment,
My given by
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
bd
2
My =ay .Z=ay .
6
.
where b is the width and d is the depth of the section.
2. EJasto plastic stage. The elasto-plastic stage is
one in which is partially yielded or plas
tlclSed as shown III Fig. 26.10. The middle layer of
depth 2 yo remains elastic and this layer is known as
the elastic-core. The total moment of resistance consists
of the moment (Ml ) resisted by the elastic core plUS
the. moment ( M2 ) resisted by the fibres in the plastic
region.
Here,
M b(2yo)z 2 1
1 = ay 6 = a
y3
b yo ...(a)
Mz =a
y
[b:
2
[bt
...(b)
and
Hence
M = Ml + Mz = ay. b + ay (b:
2
- b )
FIG. 26.10
bd
2
, [2 ] bd
2
b
2
M = aY "4 +ay '3 - b =ay - ay t
or
or
The above relationship can also be written as
M = a
y
b d
2
_
. 6 2 d
2
807
... (26.6)
... (26.7)
...(26.8 a)
or
M =M y 2 dZ ...(26.8)
From Eq. 26.8, it is evident that M > My and its value increases as Yo decreases. The
value of Yo decreases as extreme fibre strain increases. At a particular stage, let e =12 e
y
Then yo =(1112) x dl2 = d/24
.. M = My 24 24 ] = 1.4965 My
(iii) Plastic stage
This stage occurs when the stress a , in both
tensile as well as compressive zones, at all points
of the section, is equal to ay , as shown in Fig.
26.11. '
or
The fully plastic moment is given by
Mp = force x lever arm
= ( a y b.i )i = a y b:
Z
... (26.10)
3 bd
2
.
Mp = 2" .ay 6""' = 1.5 My ...(26.10 a)
... (26.9)
l
d/2
___1
FIG. 26.11
808 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES
This fully plastic moment Mp is theoretically obtained when the strain e becomes infinite.
However, by comparing Mp =1.5 My (at e becoming infinite) to Mp = 1.4965 My ( at
e =12 ey ), we find that the difference between the two values is hardly 0.23%. We find from
Fig. 26.1 (c) that strain est (at strain hardening stage) is 12 times ey . Hence it can be concluded
that the beam section becomes almost fully plastic before the strain hardening of the material
occurs.
/x. 26.6. EVALUATION OF FULLY PLASTIC MOMENT
G / The moment of resistance developed by a fully plastic section is called the fully plastic
0moment My . The following simplitying assumptions are made for evaluation of fully plastic
moment (Baker, 1956).
1. The material obeys Hooke's law until the stress reaches the upper yield value; on further
straining the stress drops to the lower yield value and thereafter remains. constant.
2. The upper and lower yield stresses and the modulus of elasticity have the same values
of compression as in tension.
3. The material is homogeneous and isotropic in both the elastic and plastic states.
4. Plane transverse sections remain plane and normal to the longitudinal axis after bending,
the effect of shear being neglected.
5. There is no resultant axial force on the beam.
6. The cross-section of beam is symmetrical about an axis through its centroid parallel
to the plane of bending.
7. Every layer of the material is free to expand and contract longitudinally and laterally
under stress as if separated from the other layers.
Consider a cross-section of a beam subjected to a fully plastic moment Mp of sagging
nature. Under the action of this fully plastic moment every fibre of the cross-section will be
stressed to the yield stress Oy and the stress distribution will be rectangular as shown in Fig.
26.12 (c). The stress in the fibres above the neutral axis will be of compressive nature while
the stress of fibres located below the neutral axis will be of tensile nature. Let A I be the
area of the portion of the section situated above the neutral axis, its CO. ( gI ) being at
YI from the N.A. Similarly,
let Az be the tensile area,
with its CO. (gz ) situated
the neutral axis.
The compressive
force acting over the cross
section =Al x Oy
Total tensile force ac
ting over the cross-section
=Az x Oy ...(1)
.. AI0y=Azoy or
At A z . But
A =Al +A2 (total area)
A
:.At A2 =2"
<Ty
-) -
Mp
2
(a) (b) {e)
FIG. 26.12. EVALUATION OF FULLY PLASTIC MOMENT
'0
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
809
Thus the neutral axis divides the section into two equal parts, ie. it passes through the
equal area axis.
Again these two forces should form a couple such that its magnitude is equal to the
externally applied moment Mp . Hence
,....
oJ'
But
Aloy .YI +AzoyYz =Mp
Al =Az =A
A
Mp =Oy 2 (yl +yz)
... (2)
... (26.11 a)
...(26.11)
where Zp = (yl +yz) ... (26.11 b)
Z is the first moment of'area about neutral axis is termed as plastic section modulus.
It be noted that the fully plastic moment Mp is constant for a particular cross-section
of a given material.
Also, yield moment My (Le., the moment at which the first yield occurs, section still being
elastic) is given by
My =OyZ
...(26.6)
where Z =elastic section mod:ulus
The ratio of plastic moment to the yield moment is
called the shape factor s.
S =Mp = Oy Zp =Zp
My OyZ Z
... (26.12)
26.7. EVALUATION OF SHAPE FACTOR
The shape factor is the property of a section and depends solely on
cross-section. We shall evaluate the shape factor of some of the standar
the shape of the
sections.
(a) Rectangular Section [Fig. 26.13( a)]
b d
2
Elastic section modulus, Zp =
Plastic section modulus,
A
Zp =2" (yt +Y2)
b xd [d dJ bd
2
=-- - +- = ...26.13(a)
2 4 4 4
Z bd
2
bd
2
S= 2. = + =1.5 ...(26.13b)
Z
(b) Triangular Section [Fig. 26.13 (b)]
1=
bh
3
The distance of extrme fibre from the
elas tic netural axis = h
. b h
3
3 b h
2
.. Z = x 2h = 24
IT
h
I-r ..o----b(b) 1
(0 )
(e)
(d)
FIG. 26.13.
812 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTIJRES
The moment curvature relationship is of grest importance in the plastic theory. When
an unloaded beam is subjected to increasing B.M., the curvature first increases linearly with
the B.M., as represented by the line OA. This is elastic range. With the appearance of first
yield under the action of yield moment My -, the linear relation no longer holds good. As
the B.M. is increased further, the curvature will increase at the faster rate which corresponds
to the spread of yield in inward direction. As the B.M. approaches fully plastic value, the
curvature will tend to be infinity. This corresponds to fully plastic section. When at a particular
section, the B.M. reaches Mp, the B.M. on either side of it will be lesser than Mp. With the
attainment of fully plastic moment at a section, the curvature at this section becomes infinitely
large. Thus, a finite change of
_slope can occur over an infinitely
small length of the member at
- this section. This section will,
therefore, act as if a hinge has
been inserted in the member at
'this section.
(b) I-Section
The moment curvature
relationship may be developed for
wide- flange sections, by the
similar procedure outlined above
{or rectangular section. Due to
variation of width of section with
the depth, separate expressions
are necessary when yielding is
limited to the flanges and when
yielding has penetrated to the web
1-14
__ _
'-0 A
0'9
T*I1/- J2-cP
234 5 e 7 9 9
-l/()y
FIG. 26.16. MOMENT CURVATURE RELATIONSHIP
FOR WIDE FLANGE BEAM
II
Case I : For yield zones within flanges
M =!l!.. (1 _b d
2
) + b d
2
[1 _1. (12) 2 ]
My cpy 6 Z 4 Z 3 cp
... (26.19 a)
Case II : For yield zone extending into the web
M _ Mp _ td
2
(12)2
My - My 12Z cp
=f- td
2
(12)2
12Z cp
....(26.19 b)
Fig. 26.16 shows the non
dimensional M - cp curve for
a typical wide flange beam.
(c) Other sections
The moment-curvature
relationship for various shapes
of cross- section are shown in
Fig. 26.17.
2
MlMy
t
SHAPE Mp/My
__-------A TRIANGE 2'34
---------, DIAMOND 2'0
-----,------. ROUND "70
----------1 RECTANGLE 1'50
TUBE "27 IJ. I WF "14
- l/4ly
FIG. 26.17. MOMENT CURVATURE RELATIONSHIP
FOR VARIOUS SHAPES
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
813
26.9. PlASTIC HINGE
O
A plastic hinge is a zone of yielding due to flexure in a structural member. At those
Q, (' se.ctions where plastic hinges are located, the member acts as if it were hinged, except with
a constant restraining moment Mp . Just like any ordinary hinge, the plastic hinge allows the
rotation of members on its two sides without change in curvature of members. The plastic
hinge is capable of resisting rotation until fully plastic moment is developed and then permitting
rotation of any magnitude while the bending moment remaing constant at Mp .
The hinge extends over a length of member that is dependent on loading and the geometry.
The hinge length AL is the length of the beam over which the bending moment is greater
than the yield moment My . However in -all of its length A L the sections are not plastic
to its full depth. To illustrate this we shall consider the case of a simply supported beam
loaded with a central point load W, the section of the beam being rectangular.
Let the yielded portion (i.e. the plastic hinge) extreme points be distant x from either
end. The moment at these extreme points is My and the moment at other points beyond these
is less than My . p
F'rom Fig. 26.18 (b) we get }:
Mp =L12 A c,!l ID :!_ B
My x [ I I
A 1-11L= ;; --: tol
Mp 3 .
But M =S == 2' for a rectangular section
y
or
3 L
2' = 2x
L
X=
3
Hence A L =L _ 2x = L _ 2 L = L
. 3 3
Similarly it can be shown that if the
beam is of I-section the length A L i<; about
The length /). L, in fact, represents the
length of elasto-plastic zone.
Because of the shape of the moment
""" : L.: '"I
1----1 'I" L/3 "I' 1---1
: Mp :
E
Q
curvature diagram [Fig. 26.16] the curvature FIG. 26.18
remains very small near ends C and D of the plastic region, while in the neighbourhood of
point E, the curvature is extremely high as shown in Fig. 26.18 (c). The beam therefore, deforms
,very nearly as if it consisted of two rigid portions connected by a binge in E [Fig. 26. 18(d)].
In most of the analytical work, it is assumed that all plastic rotations occur at a point, i.e. length
Of the hinge approaches zero,#,
26.10. LOAD FACTOR
The load factor is the ratio of the collapse load to the working load
Q = We or W
L
or Wu
W W W
...(26.20)
DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 814
where Q = Load factor
We or WL = Collapse load or limit load
W =Working load
The value of load factor depends upon type of loading, the end conditions of the supports
and the cross-section of the member.
Let Mmax = maximum bending moment corresponding to working load W
Mp = fully plastic moment. corresponding to collapse load We
Since bending moment at a given section is directly proportional to load, we have
MaWor M = a W ...(1)
( For simply supported beam Mmax = W L/4 and hence a = L/4 )
Similarly, Mp a Wp
or Mp ;:::: a We = a . Q W ... (2)
Mp =Q ...(1)
Mmax
ow
. od I Mmax
N eIaStiC
section m u us reqUlr
. ed
;::::
Z
= -- ... (3)
It
where It = allowable stress in bending
Plastic section modulus required ;:::: Zp = Mp ... (4)
O'y
ZP _ Mp . Mmax _ Mp fi
...(II)
z - a; -:- - Mmax O'y
Mp =Q ;Zp =S
But
Mmax Z
and
O'y ;:::: F;:::: factor of safety in elastic method
It
Substituting these in (II), we get
S;::::Q
F
or
Q = S x F ...(26.21)
The above relation shows that the load factor is equal to the shape factor multiplied by
the factor of safety used in elastic design.
As per IS : 800 the conventional or elastic design factor of safety is 1.65. The
factor for WF beam varies from about 1.09 to about 1.23. Hence the load factor for vanous
WF beams works out as. under
Factor of safety Shape factor Load factor
1.65 1.09 1.65 x 1.09 ;:::: 1.80
1.65 1.12 1.65 X 1.12 = 1.85
1.65 1.14
1.65 X 1.14 1.88
1.65 1.23
1.65 X 1.23 ;:::: 2.03
Thus the load factor varies from 1.80 to 2.03.
A most common shape factor value of 1.12 is usually adopted corresponding. to which
load factor ;:::: 1.65 X 1.12 ;:::: 1.85 . '
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN \ 815
In case of wind, earthquake, and other forces, specification normally provide, a one-third
increase in stresses. Hence load factor for combined dead, live and wind loading would be:
Q = '4
3
x 1.85 =1.40. The load factors recommended by SP : 6(6) : 1972 are as follows :
(i) Dead plus live load Q =1.85
(ii) Dead plus live load, plus wind, earthquake etc: Q;:::: 1.40
In general, the load factor is selected in such a way that the real factor of safety for
any structure is at least as great as that afforded in the conventional design of simple beam.
IS 800-1984 recommends a min. load factor values of 1.7 and 1.3 respectively. See 26.14.
MARGIN OF 'SAFElY
The load factor Q accounts for the margin of safety in the plastic design. The Collapse
load or ultimate load is found by multiplying the working load by the load factor .
Thus We =FW
In the case of dead loads, live loads plus wind or earthquake
Wcw =FwWw
In the case of elastic design, the margin of safety provided is 1.65. For mild steel used
<"\ as structural steel, there is an additional reserve strength of 12% of yield load, due to ductility
steel. Hence in the plastic design also, there is a margin of safety of
Q;'- 1.12 X 1.65 ;:::: 1.85 . Thus, in plastic design, the margin of safety provided is in no way less than
" that provided in the elastic design.
b26.11. CONDITIONS AND BASIC THEOREMS OF PLASTIC ANALYSIS
lr"'.6/ 1. Conditions of plastic analysis .
T In the elastic mehtod of analYSiS, three conditions must be satisfied: (1) continuity condition,
(2) equilibrium condition, and (3) limiting stress condition. Thus, an elastic analysiS requires
that the deformations must be compatible, the structure should be in equilibrium and the bending
moments anywhere in the structure should be less than My (or the stress should be less than
O'y).
Compared to this, an analysis according to the plastic method must satisfy the following
,fundamental conditions : .
1. Mechanism condition. The ultimate load or collapse load is reached when a mechanism
. is formed. There must, however, be just enough plastic hinges that a mechanism is formed.
2. Equilibrium condition. The summation of the forces and moments acting on a structure
must be equal to zero.
3. Plastic moment condition. The bending moment anywhere must not exceed the fully
. plastic moment. .
Actually, these conditions are similar to those in elastic analysis which requires a consideration
?f (i) the continuity, (ii) the equlibrium, and (iii) the limiting stress condition. The similarity
IS demonstrated in Fig. 26.19.
regard to continuity, in plastic analysis, the situation is just the reverse. Theoretically, .
.. plastIC hmges interrupt continuity, so the requirement is that sufficient plastic hinges form
to structure (or past of it) to deform as a mechanism. This could be termed as a mechanism
COMmon. The equilibrium condition is the same: However, instead of initial yield, the limit of
DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTIJRES
816
Elastic Analysis Plastic Analysis
Continuity Condition Mechanism Condition 1...............::;:;;=1
'fIHHHHlp
Equilibrium Condition BUlB I Up
Less than My
.........-r--..
'J
Plastic moment Condition
V
Initial Yield
[7 "'J
My. My
(Limiting Stress condition)
Mp Mp
. FIG. 26.19. CONDITIONS FOR ELASTIC AND PLASTIC ANALYSIS
usefulness is the attainment of plastic hinge moments; not only at one cross-section but at
each of the critical sections; this condition is termed as plastic moment condition.
It should however, be noted that all the three conditions cannot be satisfied in one operation.
Two theorem's have been evolved which must be satisfied to ensure that all the conditions
are fulfilled. The general method of plastic analysiS and design are based on the two fundamental
theorems evolved by Greenberg and Prager. The first theorem, called the static or lowe:
theorem, furnishes a lower boundary for the limit load, while second theorem, called the kinematzc
/ or upper bound theorem gives an uppper boundary for the limit
/-.?Z 2. Basic Theorems of Plastic Analysis
..( 1. Static theorem or lower bound theorem. The static theorem states that for a given frame
tr and loading, if there exists any distribution of bending moment throughout the frame which is
both safe and statically admissible, with a set of loads W, the value of W must be less than
or equal to the collapse load We . .
The distribution of bending moment, such that it satisfies all the conditions of equilibrium
is called statically admissible distribution. If the distribution of bending moment that
the fully plastic moment is not exceeded anywhere in frame, it is called safe dzstnbutwn.
2. Kinematic or Upper Bound Theorem. The upper bound theorem states that for a given
frame subjected to a set of loads W, the value
of W which is found to correspond to any assumed
KINEMATIC THEOREM
mechanism will always be greater than of equal
to the actual collapse load We. This theorem satisfies
the equilibrium condition as well as mechanism g
condition, and provides the upper bound or limit
of collapse load. If the values of W corresponding :)
to a number of mechanisms for a given frame 8
STATIC THEOREM
under given set of loading are found, the collapse t
Wr;;;.Wc
load We will be the smallest of all these found.
Uniqueness Theorem or Combined Theorem
_ CURVATURE
This theorem combines both static as well
as kinematic theorems The Uniqueness Theorem
FIG. 26.20. BASIC lBEOREMS OF PLASTIC
states that if for a given frame/and loading at
ANALYSIS
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN 817
least one safe and statically admissible bending moment distribution can be found and in this
distribution, the bending moment is equal to the fully plastic at sufficient cross-sections
to' cause failure of the frame as a mechanism due to rotations of the plastic hinges at these
. /: sections, the corresponding load would be the collapse load (i.e. W = We).
f All these theorems are represented diagramatically in Fig. 26.20.
\.. 7' 3. Methods of Analysis
0/
S
Based on the above two theorems, there are two basic methods of plastic analysis: (1)
Static (or equibrium) method (2) Kinematic (or mechanism) method.
Pla.StiC moment condition
(a) Static or equilibrium method
Equilibrium condition
(b) Kinematic or mechanism method
Mechanism condition
In the static or equilibrium method, an equilibrium moment diagram is drawn such that
M :5 Mp . The resulting ultimate load is only the correct value if sufficient plastic hinges are
assumed to create a mechanism. On the other hand, in kinematic (or mechanism) method,
mechanism is assumed and the resulting equilibrium equations are solved for the ultimate load.
This value is only correct if the plastic moment condition is also satisified.
1. Static method. Static method is based on the static or lower bound theorem according
to which a load computed on the basis of an assumed equilbrium moment diagram in which
the moments not greater than Mp, is less than or at best equal to the true ultimate load. In
this method, a mOlnent diagram is sketched in such a way that the conditions of equilibrium
are satisified. The moments must either be less than or equal to Mp . If a mechanism is
formed, then the solution of equilibrium equation will give true collapse load. If the mechanism
is not formed, the moment at some of the sections will have to be increased so as to obtain
a mechanism, i.e. the existing load will have to be increased ..The load will become equal to
the collapse load when a mechanism is formed. The procedure for application of static theorem
is as follows :
1. Convert the structure into statically determinate structure by removing the redundant
forces.
2 Draw free bending moment diagram for the structure.
3. Draw the bending moment diagram for the redundant forces.
4. Draw the composite bending moment diagram in such a way that mechanism is obtained.
5. Find out the value of collapse load by solving equilibrium equations.
6. Check the moments to ensure that M < Mp . If it is so, correct value of collapse load
is obtained.
The method is suitable only for simple structures. For complicated frames, the method
becomes very difficult and, therefore, kinematic method is preferred.
2. Kinematic or Mechnism method. Kinematic method is based on the kinematic or upper
bound. theorem according to which a load computed on the basis of an assumed mechanism
will always be greater than or at best equal to the true ultimate load. For / the application of
_ this methOd, it is very essential to know the possible types and number of mechanisms. There
are four types of independent mechanisms (Fig. 26.21) : (i) beam mechanism, (ii) panel mechanism,
(iii) gable mechanism, and (iv) joint mechanism. Various combination ofthe independent mechanisms
may be' made to obtain certain number of composite mechanisms.
818 DESIGN OF STEELSmUCTIJRES
For a particular structure
With a loading, the number of
independent mechanisms is given
by N =n T ... (26.22)
where N = Number of inde
pendent mechanisms
n = number of possible hinges
T= number of redundancies.
A number of possible col
lapse mechanisms may be ob
tained by the combination of
independent mechanisms. The
correct mechanism will be the one
which results in the lowest pos
___
(0) BEAM MECHANISMS
-v
\
\
\
sibleload(upperboundtheorem) (b) PANEL MECHANISM (c)GABLE MECHANISM (d) JOINT
and for which the moment does MECHANISM
not exceed the plastic moment
. at any section of the structure
(lower bound theorem). The pro
FIG. 26.21. TYPES OF INDEPENDENT MECHANISMS
cedure of application of the kinematic theorem is as follows:
1. Determine the location of possible plastic hinges.
2. Select possible independent and composite mechanisms.
3. Solve equilibrium equation by virtual displacements method for the lowest load.
4. Check that M s Mp
PrinCiple of virtual work. It is as follows :
"If a deformable structure in equilibrium under the action of a system of external forces is
subjected to a virtual deformation compatible with its conditions of support, the work done by
these. forces on the displacements associated with the virtual deformation is equal to the work
done by the internal stresses on the strains associated with this deformation. U This principle has
wide utility for the structure at collapse. During collapse there is no change in the elastic
strain energy stored in the beam since the bending moment and, therefore, the curvature remains
the same. So the work done during small motion of collapse mechanism is equal to' the work
absorbed by the plastic hinge. The work absorbed in the hinges is always positive irrespective
of the sign of B.M.
Note : From Eq. 26.22, we get n = N + T . In case of beams, only beam mechanism
is possible. Hence N (i.e. number of independent mechanisms) is equal to 1. Thus,
n = 1 + T , which means number of hinges required will be one more than number of
26.12. DETERMINATION OF COLLAPSE LOAD FOR SOME STANDARD CASES OF BEAMS
1. Simply supported beam carrying a concentrated load W
Let the beam section have a plastic moment of resistance Mp . We shall solve the pr9blem
by both the methods. Since the beam is statically determinate, T = 0 . Hence only one hinge
is required for the collapse of the beam. .
(a) Static MetIwd. The maximum bending moment of W b evidently occurs under the
load. When the load is increased to the collapse load We , the maximum bending moment
will be equal to WeLab , as shown in Fg. 26.22 (b). This should evidently be equal to the
piasticmoment of resistance Mp .
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND pESIGN
We
ab
=M
p
L
or:
We =Mp.L
ab
Since the bending moment nowhere
in the beam exceeds Mp , the load given
by the above expression is the true col
lapse load.
(b) Kinematic Method: The col
lapse mechanism (beam mechanism)
is shown inFig. 26.22 (c). Collapse will
occur when a hinge is formed under
the load.
Let () angle of rotation of the left
portion of the beam.
Deflection below the load= a ().
W
E4:A .... __ (0 )
.' Mp -L (b)
e--------t------
09
b
(c)
FIG. 26.22
Hence angle of rotation of the right portion of the beam = ()t = a ()
819
Rotation of the hinge under the action of plastic moment = () + ()1 = () +' a () = () . ;
The work absorbed by the hinge = Mp . () L
The work done by
Equating the two, we get
or
the load =We. a ()
We . a () =Mp . () bL
We =Mp .L as before.
a b '
The value of B.M. anywhere does not exceed Mp , and hence above value of collapse
load is correct. If the load is acting at the centre of the beam, a =b =LI2 and hence
We =Mp . L = 4 Mp .
L L L
2. Simply supported beam carrying
nniformlydistributed load
Let WF total U.D.L.
Mp=full plastic moment of resistance
of the beam section
(a) Static method:
The maximum bending moment of
WL '11
T WI occur at the centre of the beam.
When the load Wis increased to the collapse
load We , the maximum bending moment
at the centre will' be equal to We. L
8
2'2
W=TOTAL LOAD
FIG. 26.23
824 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTIJRES
7. Three span continuous beam with U.D.L.
Let the total uniformly
distributed load on each span
be W. A continuous beam will
collapse in the same manner
as fixed beam by the formation
of three plastic hinges, two at
the supports and one between
the supports of any span. the
failure of one span will result
in the failure of the whole struc
wcL Wc L
ture.
8 8
Fig. 26.28 (b) shows the
FIG. 26.28
bending moment diagram at
collapse. During the elastic stage the ordinates of bending moment diagram will be W L at
. WL. 10
. the mner supports and -8- at the mId span. When the collapse load is applied, the plastic
hinges. will form at E, B, C and F, and the beams AB and CD will collapse. The beam BC
can stIll take more load, but for all practical purposes the continuous beam has been rendered
useless. The spans AB and CD may be looked upon as propped cantilevers with uniformly
distributed loading. The collapse load is, therefore, equal to 11.656 and the hinges in the
end span form at 0.414 L from the outer supports. The plastic bending moment diagram can'
now be drawn as shown in Fig. 26.28 (b).
Example 26.4 Calculate the plastic section modulus, shape factor and plastic moment of
the following sections :
(a) ISMB 200 (Fig. 26.29 (a)] having the following properties :
IX!:< =2235..4 cm
4
; Zxx: = 223.5 cm
2
;A = 3233 cm
2
; Thickness of web =5.7 mm; Thickness of flange
= 10.8 mm. .
(b) ISHT 150 [Fig. 10.29 (b)] having the following properties :
Ixx = 7 cm
4
;A =37.42 sq. cm and distance of e.G. from the top is 26.6 mm.
Take the yield stress for mid steel as 250 N Imm
2
Solution
(a) ISection : Given : Ixx: =2235.4 X 10
4
mm
4
; Zxx: =223.5 X 10
3
mm
3
and A =: 3233 mm
3
A
Zp ="2 (yt +Y2)
Since the equal area axis coincides with the centroidal axiS, Yl and Y2 are equal. To find
Yl of the upper half area, we have
Yl = 100 x 10.8 (100 - 5,4) + 5.7 (100 -10.8)(100 - 10.8) 102168 + 22676 = 78.6 mm
(100 x 10.8) + (5.7) (100 - 10.8) 1080 + 508,4
Zp =
A
2: 0'1 +Y2) =A .Yl =3233 x 78.6 == 254106 mm
2
Z = 223.5 X 10
3
mm
3
= 223500 mm
3
S = Zp =254106 =114
Z 223500 .
825
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
Mp == ZpOy = 254106 x 250
1-0-- 250mm ---!J:.
=63.53 x 10
6
N-mm
26-61 T
IO
'6f
=63.53 kNm 57mm _._. LcENTFiolDALI
AXIS l50mm
(b) Tee Section T
Given Ixx:= 573.7 x 10
4
mm
4
;
200mm-'
A = 3742 mm
2
--It-
Elastic section modulus Z
=;;""';;;;;;::1-* 10'8 76 1
4
T
=573.7 X 10 =46491 l
(0 ) (b)
150 _ 26.6 mm
Let the equal area axis pass . FlO. 26.29
through the flange at distance x
below the top fibre.
250 x == 250 (10.6 - x) + (150 - 10.6) x 7.6 or 500 x = 3709
From which x = 7,42 mm
Y1 = distance of e.G. of the top area from equal area axis= 7.4212 =3.71 mm
Distance of bottom flange from equal area axis = 10.6 - 7,42 = 3.18 mm
Y2 = distance of e.G. of bottom area from the equal area axis
250 x 3.18 x (3.18) i + (150 - 10.6) 7.6 [(150 - + 3.18)]
= =41.94 mm.
i (3742)
A 3742 3
:. Zp == -'- 0'1 +Y2) =-2- [3.71 + 41.94] = 85417 mm
. Z 46491
Mp =ZpOy =85417 x 250 == 21.35 x 10
6
N-mm= 21.35 kN-m
Example 26.5. A beam of rectangular cross-section b x d is subjected to a bending moment
0.9 Mp . Find out the depth of the elastic core.
Solution. Let the total depth of the elastic core =2yo Therefore, the depth of the plastic
zone == - yo , on either side. Distance of c.g. of force on one side from N.A
2
d {ld} 02
_ b ( '2 - yo) x Oy x Yo + "2 ('2 - yo) + bYo T . "3 yo
- b - yo ) Oy + byo 1
b d _ bYo\ + yo) + b
t--- b---i
_
(
2 ,4 2 3
T
- bd b + bl'o
d/2 TT 2- yo 2
1.
OF
_ 3d
2
- 4yij
'-'f ELASTIC
-- -'-'-'--l-- _.
- 12 (d - yo) x CORE
______L 1 Total internal moment of the forces
about N.A.
=2x{b )+ x } d
2
- 4
.2 Yo 2' Oy 12 (d - yo)
3d
2
_ -
- 12 x b x Oy
FIG. 26.30
826 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTIJRES
Externally applied t 0 9 M b d
2
b d
2
momen ;::::. p ;:::: 0.9
4
Oy ( since Mp ;:::: Zp . Oy ;:::: 4' Oy )
tx 3d
2
- 2
,\, Equating the two, we get b a ;:::: 09 x b d a
12 y' 4 y
or 3 d
2
- 4 ;:::: 2.7 d
2
'/:. = 0.3d
2
or Yo =0.274d
Hence of elastic core =2yo ;:::: 0.548 d
. Example FIXed beam of span L carries a uniformly distributed load W on the left half
l!0rtwn. Determme the value of W at collapse. The elastic moment of resistance of the beam
IS Mp .
Solution. Let the maximum
statics, RA ::::: W. Hence,
free bending moment occur at C, distant x from A. From
Mp ;:::: _ 3 Wx + 2 W x
2
4 L'2
= _ 3Wx + Wx
2
4 L
For maxima,
dMx =0= _ 3W + 2Wx
dx 4 L
w
Al 0 H H *H [7 II J I
11 4-j
\---- Ll2 .. I
:. x;::::
FIG. 26.31
3 W 3 W (3)2 9
Mmax;:::: -TXgL+y; 8
L
= - 64 WL
At collapse, it becomes equal to :4 We. L (Numerically)
Hence as per static method, the equilibrium equation is We L ;:::: Mp + Mp
We ;:::: 2
L
Mp x ,64 ;:::: 128 M
p
;:::: 1422 Mp (Answer)
9 9' L . L .
Example 26.7 A cantilever bea,m ABC, shown in Fig. 26.32 is subjected to a point load
W at the cantilever end. Find the vlaue
of the load at collapse.
Solution
There are two possible collapse
mechanisms. In the first mechanism
(Fig. 26.32 b), hinge may form at
B, corresponding to least plastic mo
ment of resistance Mp . The equi
librium equation is
L
We .
2
8 =Mp.8
From which We ::::: 2;!p ...(i)
/ 2MP. =--oJ :
E'
(0 )
A
A
----==:==-----_
....Jl
FIG. 26.32
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
In the second mechanism, Qinge may form at A. Then
2Mp8;:::: We.L8
827
From which
We::::: 2M
p
L
...(ii)
The actual collapse mechanism is the one which gives the minimum of collapse.load (upper
bound theorem). However, in the present case, both mechanisms give equal collapse load of
2Mp/L .
Example 26.8. A beam ABC of span L is fixed at the ends A and C, and carries a point
load at a distance from the left end. Find the value of the load. at collapse if the left half
of the beam has a plastic moment of resistance 2 Mp and the right half has a plastic moment
.
Solution
There are two possible collapse mechanisms. In the rust mechanism [Fig. 26.32 (b)], hinges
may form at A, D and C. The equilibrium equation is
3
We''4
L8
We;:::: 20M
p
L
In the second mechanism (Fig.
26.33 (c)], hinges may form at A, B
and C. The hinge at B will work cor
responding to the least moment of res is
tance at B, i.e. Mp . The equilibrium
equation is
L
We. 4"8::::: 2Mp.8 + Mp. 28 + M
p
8
W
p
;:::: 20Mp
:Wc
-e-+1.
e
---;-----e-.-
M
4' P
_-....'.-('"> (c I
L FIG. 26.33
The actual collapse mechanism is the one which gives the minimum of the collapse load
(upper bound theorem). However, in the present case, both mechanisms give equal collapse
load of 20M
p
L .
Example 26.9. A fixed beam ABCD, with variable plastic moment of resistance is loaded
as shown in Fig. 26.34. Find the value of the collapse load.
Solution
There are two possible collapse mechanisms. In the first mechanism (Fig. 26.34b), hinges
may form at A, Band D. Then .
W.
3 Mp
e. 3 L 8 + We . 2 L e ;:::: Mp 3 e+ "2' 4 e+ Mp 8
From which
4Mp
We=-
3 L
...(1)