70 CHAPTER IV

COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION

4.1 Introduction Composite construction offers many advantages in precast concrete design, particularly in enhancing the flexural and shear strength of prestressed beams where greater axial stresses may be generated in the precast unit than in ordinary non-composite designs. To most minds composite construction mean adding insitu concrete on top of precast components to form a single unit acting as though it were one. However, in the context of precast design there are many ways in which insitu concrete is used compositely in the structure. For example, composite action is used mainly to: to increase flexural and shear strength of floor slabs tie floor slabs to beams, thereby ensuring a secure bending, and increasing the flexural and shear strength of beams provide the compressive and/or shear transfer between adjacent precast units, e.g. between walls, shear walls and columns, and at column foundations ensure floor diaphragm action, with or without structural screeds anchor stability tie steel in to precast components

71 In all cases insitu concrete surrounds the precast components to form a monolithic structure. Shear and compressive forces are carried through the insitu concrete by shear friction, wedging and/or bearing. Tension is effected by fully

(a)

(b) (c)

(d)

(e) Figure 4.1 Composite slab and beam sections. (a) Composite hollow core slab; (b) composite double-tee slab; (c) composite plank floor; (d) composite beam action with structural screed and; (e) requirements for composite beam action without structural screed.

72 anchored rebars, or other mechanical means, so that the concrete is confined to prevent lateral splitting. Design values at the interface vary over a wide range depending on the surface characteristics of the joining faces, the loading, and the mode of failure, where non-ductile situations attract higher partial safety factors. The strength of two concretes may be different; usually the precast concrete is grade C40 to C60 and the insitu concrete is grade C25 or C30 (See Table 4.1), but this is taken into account in the analysis for both the service and ultimate limit states. Reference is also made to the design recommendations in BS 8110, Part 1, clause 5.4. Non-structural finishing screeds may be applied directly on to precast concrete slabs, but allowances for precamber should be made in calculating overall floor depth. It is only in the presence of very large line or point loads, or in cases where the dynamic or acoustic characteristics of the precast slab are judged to be inadequate that a structural insitu rc screed might be required. Structural screeds are nearly always necessary where double-tee units are used and are an obvious prerequisite for flat plank construction. For a screed to act compositely with the precast slab, in a structural sense, the concrete must be reinforced and unbroken by service chases, etc. Table 4.1 Strengths and short-term elastic modulus for typical concrete used in composite construction. Type of concrete fcu (N/mm2) fct (N/mm2) Ec (kN/mm2) Insitu 25.0 25 Insitu 30.0 26 Precast reinforced 40.0 28 Prestressed 50.0 3.2 30 Prestressed 60.0 3.5 32

The two main areas where composite construction is carried out is in floor slabs and beams.(Figure 4.1(a)-(e)). The structural function of some precast elements, e.g. precast planks (Figure 4.1(c)) rely implicity on composite action.

73 However, composite action in other elements, e.g. hollow core slabs and beams *Figure 4.1(a) and (e)) is optional and may be used at the discretion of the designer wishing to increase flexural and shear capacities, stiffness, fire resistance and vibration characteristics. Composite construction may also be used to create extended bearings at the ends of units. The design is carried out in two stages, before and after the insitu concrete has reached its design strength. The main design criteria are: flexural and shear strength, serviceability and ultimate states confinement or reinforcing of insitu concrete to avoid separation, called delamination, from precast concrete interface shear transfer constraint of insitu concrete shrinkage

4.2 Calculation of stresses at the interface Shear at the interface need only be checked for the ultimate limit state. The design method used, based on experimental evidence, will ensure that serviceability conditions are satisfied. The average ultimate shear stresses at the interface may be calculated using Equation (3.1). The design values in Table 3.2 are based on the use of this formula, and allowance has been made for the small errors in defining the shear stress that occur in the equation:
v ave := Fv b L z

(4.1)

where

74 vave = the average shear stress at the cross section of the interface considered at ultimate limit state Fv = the design force in the concrete to one side of the interface b = the transverse width of the interface moment If the interface is in a compression zone, then Fv is equal to the compression force in the insitu concrete only, i.e. above the interface. If the interface is in a tension zone, then Fv is equal to the total compression or tension calculated from the ultimate loads. The force is distributed evenly over the contact interface breadth and over the length of the beam between points of maximum and zero moment, thus giving the average interface shear stress vave. The average stress is then distributed in accordance with the magnitude of the vertical shear at any section, to give the design shear stress vh. Thus, for uniformly distributed stress vh = 2 vave. For a pint load at mid-span vh = vave and so on. Horizontal interface shear stresses vh are checked for the uncracked section (BS 8110, Part 1, clause 5.4.7.2) against values in Table 3.2 (reproduced from BS 8110, Part 1, Table 5.5). If vh is greater than the ultimate stress in Table 4.2 then reinforcement (per 1 m run) is provided (according to Equation (62) in BS 8110), as follows: Lz = distance between the points of minimum and maximum bending

A f :=

1000 b v h 0.87 fy

(4.2)

The reinforcement should be adequately anchored on both sides of the interface. If loops are used, as shown in Figure 4.2, the clear space beneath the bend should be at least 5 mm + size of aggregate. It is found that the bend radius need not comply with bursting requirements, only the minimum of 3 is required.

75

Design ultimate horizontal shear stress at interface (N/mm2) Grade of insitu concrete Precast unit Surface type 25 30 40+ Without links As cast or as extruded 0.40 0.55 0.65 Brushed, screeded or rough 0.60 0.65 0.75 tamped Washed to remove laitance, or 0.70 0.75 0.80 treated with retarding agent and cleaned Table 4.2 Nominal links projecting into insitu concrete As cast or as extruded Brushed, screeded or rough tamped Washed to remove laitance or treated with retarding agent and cleaned 1.20 1.80 2.1 1.80 2.00 2.2 2.00 2.20 2.5

The bars are uniformly distributed along the length of the interface, although the spacing could in fact be reduced towards the point of zero shear. Nominal links should be at least equal to 0.15 per cent of the contact area. The spacing of links should not be too large, with 1.2 m being typical for hollow core slabs. Where links are provided in ribs of T-beams the spacing should not exceed four times the minimum thickness of the insitu concrete, nor 600 mm. The permissible interface shear stress for hollow core and double-tee units is therefore 0.4 N/mm2 and 0.6 N/mm2, respectively, for normally produced units. In short spans where the shear is large (compacted with flexural requirements) interface links can be left projecting in the longitudinal joints between hollow core units using loops (T10 at 1.2 m centres for example) as shown in Figure 4.2.

76

4.3 Losses and differential shrinkage effects 4.3.1 Losses in prestressed composite sections It is difficult to make an assessment of the losses of prestress that occur in a composite section, as it obviously depends on when the insitu concrete is added to the prestressed component, normally between one and four months. Although it may be assumed that most of the losses occur before this addition, in many cases this will not be stricken correct and the effects of differential shrinkage and creep should at least taken into account. If little or no losses have taken place in the prestressed component before the screed is placed (i.e. in less than seven days), then the shortening of the precast unit will be restrained to some extent by the added concrete, though the amount of the actual restraint will depend on the shape of the section and the quantity of the insitu concrete used.

Figure 4.2

Projecting loops placed in the longitudinal joints between hollow core units.

77 Any bending moment that is induced in the composite section as a result of differential shrinkage affects only the elastic stress conditions, and does not affect the ultimate behaviour (in the same way that the level of prestress has a small influence on the ultimate strength). Because it is difficult (and probably unnecessary) to make a 100 per cent correct assessment of the differential deformations due to shrinkage and creep, it seems sensible to first compute the shrinkage and creep movement taking place in the precast beam, and then to add the effects of the relative movement in the topping concrete. To proceed in this manner will usually lead to slightly conservative results, as the relative shrinkage strain in the interface will be greater than if all the shrinkages are assumed to occur simultaneously.

4.3.2

Design method for differential shrinkage

t bt b
(a)

bt
(b)

bb

bb

Figure 4.3

Theoretical approach to shrinkage-induced deflections in sections;

composite construction. (a) Definitions; (b) shrinkage effect in reinforced

78

(c)

(d)

Figure 4.3 (continued)

Theoretical approach to shrinkage-induced

deflections in composite construction. (c) Effective eccentric force due to differential shrinkage and (d) shrinkage-induced deflection. The forces due to differential shrinkage may be calculated by the following method. In this analysis, the term differential shrinkage is used to describe the difference in the free strains due to the shrinkage of the insitu concrete and the combined shrinkage and creep of the precast concrete. At the end of the span, the stress in the precast concrete due to dead load and prestress is small and the differential strain should be normally be taken as the difference in the free shrinkage values of the two concretes. If the beam or slab reinforcement is placed non-symmetrically, a bending moment is induced by shrinkage due to non-uniform restraint by the

79 reinforcement and, as a result, shrinkage increases the curvature and consequently the flexural deflection of the components. In the following equivalent tensile force method for estimating shrinkageinduced stresses, applied loads and shrinkage forces are resisted by an uncracked, cracked or partially cracked member. In the case of the cracked or partially cracked member, the assumption is made that the shrinkage occurring prior to cracking is insignificant. It is therefore possible to treat shrinkage-induced stress in a similar way to load-induced stress at the serviceability limit state. Consider a unit length of the composite precast beam of precast depth h, and topping screed depth hs, shown in Figure 4.3(a) in which, after any interval of time following the casting of the insitu concrete flange, the free shrinkage of the flange is f, and the combined free shrinkage and creep of the beam is b at the centroid, with values of bt and bb at the top and bottom fibres, respectively. Refer also to the deign guidance given in BS 8110, Part 2, clause 7.4. The analysis considers that the concrete member is free to shrink, and when this happens the compression and tension steels are compressed by fictitious force b AsEs and b As Es respectively, where As and As are the areas of the compression steel and tension steel, respectively, and Es is the Youngs modulus of steel bars or tendons. When these loads are released, it is equivalent to eccentric tension loads b AsEs and b As Es applied at the steel level to the entire transformed area of the member, as shown in Figure 4.3(b). These forces produce a bending moment and consequently a curvature and flexural deflection of the concrete member. If As > As then the deflection is downwards. These forces also produce an interface shear stress as follows. The bending moment Mb produced by the effects of the beam shrinkage is given by: Mb = b Es [As (d-x) - As (x d)] (4.3)

80

where d and d are the depths of the tension and compression reinforcement respectively, and x is the distance from the top of the screed to the neutral axis of the transformed composite section. In multi-layered reinforcement use the sum of each layer in the term As (d x). The strains in the top and bottom surfaces of the beam are given by Equations (4.4) and (4.5) (assuming b > bb):

M b h

bt bb = E c Ic

(4.4)

where Ec is the modulus of elasticity of beam concrete, and Ic is the second moment of area of the transformed composite section. Also, the strain at the interface between the precast and screed:

bt :=

M b x h s E c I c

+ b

(4.5)

The relative shrinkage strain between the flanged screed (bt) is given by: s = f - bt (4.6)

The modification factor for the restraining effect of the mesh in the screed (1 + K) (where = 0.13 to 0.24 per cent, and K = 15 to 25, typically) is not significant in screeds. A tensile force F is applied at the centroid of the flange to overcome the strain differential between the flange and the beam (Figure 4.3 (c)) and is given by:

81

F = s E c m A f

(4.7)

where m = Ec/ Ec is the modulus ratio, and Af is the area of flange section. In composite beams the effective width of the flange is the same as for any T section according to BS 8110, Part 1, clause 3.4.1.5 [3.1]. The two concretes may now be joined together (theoretically) and the external actions released if a compressive force F and a balancing Mc are applied to the composite section, such that: Mc = F e + M b (4.8)

where e is the distance between the centroid of the flange and the centroid of the composite section. The contribution of Mb is usually not more than about five per cent of the total moment Mc. The resultant longitudinal force Fv (of these two actions) to one side of the interface (tension in the flange and compression in the beam) is given by:

F v := F + M c

Sc Ic

(4.9)

where Sc is the first moment of area to one side of the interface about the centroid of the transformed composite section and Ic is the second moment of area of the transformed composite section. This is the value for Fv that must be used in Equation (4.1). The resulting induced bending moment Mc causes a sagging deflection s (Figure 4.3(d)) over a simply supported span L of:

82
2

s := 8 E c.I.c

M c L

(4.10)

and so on depending on the beam geometry and loading conditions. Note that in the unlikely event of f < bt, then F will be negative. In this case use F = 0 and so Mc = Mb and Fv = Mb Sc/Ic. Shear lag effects in the insitu concrete will reduce the relative shrinkage strains. This will be noticeable in depths of screed greater that about 100 mm. However, in most applications in precast work where thickness of insitu concrete are usually less than 75 mm, the simplified version given above is adequate for design purposes. A further complication in the analysis is the changing thickness of insitu screeds on precambered prestressed beams and slabs. In a typical situation the depth of creed used on hollow core or double-tee floor slab is 50 mm at the crown (mid-span) of the floor slab and up to 80 mm at the supports. Thus the composite section properties calculated at the crown of the floor are not appropriate to the situation at the supports where the effects of differential shrinkage are the greatest. For the same reason neither are the section properties at the support correct. The usual practise is to calculate the interface stresses based on the composite section properties at the position of the mean depth of the screed.

4.3.3

Cracking in the precast and insitu concrete The question often arises as to whether the insitu concrete at the interface

cracks when the unaxial cracking strain is exceeded, or whether the precast concrete unit retrains the insitu concrete. Some restraint is given to weaker in these situations. If the bond at the interface is sufficient for the two concretes to act monolithically then a linear strain distribution may be assumed throughout the

83 entire section. Also flexural cracking at the interface propagates simultaneously in the precast and insitu concrete. The precast unit, which covers the entire bottom surface of the insitu concrete, behaves in a similar manner to reinforcing bars, in that it eliminates any concentration of strain at any section where the concrete quality is below average for the specimen; thus the average strain before cracking is greater than that for an unrestrained plain concrete having the same overall properties. It has been seen that the assumption of linear strain distribution depends in the fact that the connection between the two concretes that make up the composite section is strong enough to ensure that the longitudinal shearing forces cause no relative movement at the interface. A rough tamped top surface of the precast unit will be sufficient to ensure that a horizontal shear failure does not occur, though it may take place as a secondary effect after some other factor has caused the primary failure. As far as cracking is concerned, a rough surface by itself will also prove to be a better interlocking medium than the corresponding smooth surface that also has either castellations or projecting steel stirrups.