ORT Braude, Carmiel. Lecturer: Dr. Samuel Kosolapov Introduction To Electronics.

Basic Semiconductors

BASIC SEMICONDUCTORS FOR BEGINNERS

(For Engineers there is special (and extremely sophisticated) course: Semiconductors)

CONDUCTORS Metals (copper, aluminum, etc): Outer electrons of the metal atoms are loosely bound and free to move through the material. (Gas of electrons) When external voltage is applied, electrons are moving current. Ohms law: V = R*I R = L/S Can be proofed (physics)

INSULATORS Most of the materials (non-metals): Most atoms hold on to their electrons tightly. No free electrons Insulators (at least resistivity of insulators is huge) Glass: =1+12 ohm*m (Not very good example: -frozen electrolyte, heat and .) Quartz: =1+16 ohm*m

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ORT Braude, Carmiel. Lecturer: Dr. Samuel Kosolapov Introduction To Electronics. Basic Semiconductors

Copper: =1.78 ohm*m Silicon and Germanium Solid state electronics arises from the unique properties of silicon and germanium, each of which has four valence electrons and which form crystal lattices in which substituted atoms (dopants) can dramatically change the electrical properties.

Germanium will at a given temperature have more free electrons and a higher conductivity.

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ORT Braude, Carmiel. Lecturer: Dr. Samuel Kosolapov Introduction To Electronics. Basic Semiconductors

Silicon is by far the more widely used semiconductor for electronics, partly because it can be used at much higher temperatures than germanium. Silicon atoms form covalent bonds and can crystallize into a regular lattice.

Pure Silicon: there are no free electrons INSULATOR

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ORT Braude, Carmiel. Lecturer: Dr. Samuel Kosolapov Introduction To Electronics. Basic Semiconductors

The 2D illustrations are a simplified sketch; The actual 3D crystal structure of silicon is a diamond lattice:

The cube side for silicon is 0.543 nm.

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ORT Braude, Carmiel. Lecturer: Dr. Samuel Kosolapov Introduction To Electronics. Basic Semiconductors

Germanium has the same diamond structure with a cell dimension of 0.566 nm. This (pure) crystal is called an INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR.

The Doping of Semiconductors

The addition of a small percentage of foreign atoms in the regular crystal lattice of silicon or germanium produces dramatic changes in their electrical properties, producing n-type and p-type semiconductors.

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ORT Braude, Carmiel. Lecturer: Dr. Samuel Kosolapov Introduction To Electronics. Basic Semiconductors

Pentavalent impurities (5 valence electrons) produce n-type semiconductors by contributing extra electrons. Trivalent impurities (3 valence electrons) produce p-type semiconductors by producing a HOLE or electron deficiency. N-Type Semiconductor The addition of 5-valent impurities (such as antimony, arsenic or phosphorus)

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ORT Braude, Carmiel. Lecturer: Dr. Samuel Kosolapov Introduction To Electronics. Basic Semiconductors

contributes (donor) free electrons Conducts current. BUT: Number of free electrons < Number of doping atoms Conductivity is low Hence name: semiconductors.

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ORT Braude, Carmiel. Lecturer: Dr. Samuel Kosolapov Introduction To Electronics. Basic Semiconductors

P-Type Semiconductor The addition of trivalent impurities (acceptors) (such as boron, aluminum or gallium) to an intrinsic semiconductor creates deficiencies of valence electrons, called "holes".

How to produce: It is typical to use B2H6 diborane gas to diffuse boron into the silicon material.

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ORT Braude, Carmiel. Lecturer: Dr. Samuel Kosolapov Introduction To Electronics. Basic Semiconductors

Current in Doped Semiconductors Intrinsic (pure) silicon is basically INSULATOR: Doping (adding impurities) RADICALLY CHANGES CONDUCTIVITY (Donor: n-type, Acceptor: p-type) Example: Take nearly pure Ge. Add 1 (one) doping atom for each 108 atoms of Ge. Conductivity increases by factor of 12 ! Question: Why productions of electronics devices require extreme purity of materials? Question: Why parameters of electronics devices vary in a so huge scale?

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ORT Braude, Carmiel. Lecturer: Dr. Samuel Kosolapov Introduction To Electronics. Basic Semiconductors

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N-Type Semiconductor: FREE ELECTRONS.

IMPORTANT: TOTAL CRYSTAL CHARGE IS ZERO!!!

Like metal: Give to this electron some (thermal) energy free electron

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N-Type Semiconductor: CARRIERS ARE FREE ELECTRONS. (As in normal metal)

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P-Type Semiconductor: SOMETHING NEW

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P-Type Semiconductor: A MOMENT AFTER:

BEFORE

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Electric field is applied to the P-Type Semiconductor Electric field moves HOLES (in the direction opposite to the electron flow) CARRIERS ARE HOLES

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Next Level: Quantum Mechanics Band Theory of solids Fermi Levels Classical Mechanics: electron can have any energy.

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Pre-Quantum Mechanics: Bohr Model of atom: Electron can have only DISCRETE energy levels.

Energ y

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Advanced Quantum Mechanics: Crystal Instead of having discrete energies as in the case of free atoms, The available energy states form BANDS. (Zones) (Very complex math calculation) Valence BAND: something like Bohrs levels of energy for low n: electron is CLOSE to nuclei. Conductivity BAND: something like Bohrs levels of energy for high n: Electron is FAR from nuclei, may have nearly any energy.

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A useful way to visualize the difference between Conductors, Semiconductors, Insulators is to plot the available energies for electrons in the materials.

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Crucial to the conduction process is whether or not there are electrons in the conduction band. Insulators: the electrons in the valence band are separated by a large gap from the conduction band. At normal temperatures valence electron can not leave his parent nuclei There are no (free) electrons in the conductivity band Low (current and thermal!) conductivity. Conductors like metals: the valence band overlaps the conduction band. At normal temperatures valence electron can easily leave his parent nuclei and be in the conductivity zone. There are (free) electrons in the conductivity band High (current and thermal!) conductivity.

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Semiconductors: there is a small enough gap between the valence and conduction bands that thermal or other excitations can bridge the gap. With such a small gap, the presence of a small percentage of a doping material can increase conductivity dramatically. Next Level: Fermi Level - An important parameter in the band theory - the top of the available electron energy levels at low temperatures. The position of the Fermi level with the relation to the conduction band is a crucial factor in determining electrical properties of the material ALL THE REST: see Semiconductors for Professionals

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