Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management 1999 6|3, 276-286

The implications of environmental issues on UK construction management

CHRISTINE PASQUIRE Civil and Building Engineering, Loughborough University, Leicester LE11 3TU, UK

Abstract The paper identifies the broad environmental issues and legislation affecting the construction industry in the UK and goes on to place the environment firmly on the construction agenda, highlighting the major issues for concern. This paper summarizes work undertaken in five pilot studies. The work reveals that the consideration of environmental issues within a framework related to the construction process facilitates the allocation of man-

agement responsibility within the construction team. The illustrative representation of this framework forms a prototype decision-making strategy for use in construction procurement and methods for incorporating environmental issues into every day construction management are proposed. Keywords construction management, contractor, designer, environment, project management, quantity surveyor

INTRODUCTION Protecting the environment will be one of the major challenges confronting construction in the next century. Far from being an abstract concept, environmental issues are, and will continue to be, driven by legislation, client and public demand and commercial benefits. Environmental issues already pervade every aspect of construction, only they often fail to be recognized as such. Consequently the term 'environmental issues' conjures up a picture of highly specialized and technical knowledgethe domain of the 'environmental consultant'; which has little to do with construction management. There are aspects of environmental concern which are, and will always be, outside and beyond the scope of practice for the typical construction professional. It is the aim of this paper to demonstrate, however, that many environmental matters are well within the existing brief of the construction management team, if not already established considerations for them. This is achieved by achieving the following objectives: 1. to demonstrate the increasing social awareness of environmental issues; 2. to demonstrate the growing significance of environmental issues in construction by measuring their cost; 3. to classify environmental issues to reflect the construction process; 4. examining the decision-making process required to deal with those issues which have environmental consequences; 276

5. identify who, within the design and construction team, would be involved in that process; 6. propose a strategic framework to identify the decision-making responsibility within the construction process; and 7. propose techniques for incorporating environmental issues into everyday construction management processes.

METHODOLOGY The work described has its origins in research funded by the RICS under their Environmental Research Programme and combines the findings from five small research studies. These studies looked at qualitative topics such as defining the issues, services available, examining tasks undertaken; and quantitative cost based issues ranging from individual mitigating measures to whole project cost. Each study comprised an extensive literature review and interviews with contractors, consultants, client organizations and/or financial bodies. The quantitative cost issues were measured through case studies comprising construction project data provided by industry participants. The number of interviews undertaken varied from 14 to 40 depending on the extent of case study data collected and the type of information required. Validation of the research findings was undertaken on all the projects although this process was confined to interviews with up to three industry practitioners. These people were considered by the researchers to have relevant expertise and had not previously been

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involved with the research. Further methodological detail is given within the paper as specific examples are discussed.

I N C R E A S I N G SOCIAL A W A R E N E S S OF ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES Society expresses its self-awareness through its government and its legislation. The legislation concerning environmental issues is broad and varied and there is no single statute governing the environment as a whole. In addition, legislation is emanating from Europe and ultimately there will be global laws and conventions. In the UK, a legal definition of 'environment' has been given in the Environmental Protection Act 1990 as: The environment consists of all, or any, of the following media, namely, air, water and land; and the medium of air includes the air within buildings and the air within other natural or man-made structures above or below ground. Some 29 U K Acts of Parliament and Statutory Instruments were listed by the Construction Industry Research Information Association (CIRIA) (1994) as affecting environmental issues in construction. In addition to these, are the Environment Act 1995, a large

number of subordinate legislation and regulation, a range of Government White Papers and Reports, a variety of EU Directives and Regulations and quality standards such as BS7750 Specification for Environmental Management Systems, ISO 14001, etc. A simple analysis of the frequency of legislation coming into effect (Ashforth & Pasquire 1997) demonstrates the rising importance of environmental issues and is illustrated in Fig. 1. Although many of the earlier Acts may have been superseded by later ones, that no single statute governing the environment exists supports the theory that new legislation supplements rather than supersedes previous legislation in a cumulative way. Fig. 1 does not show the relative importance, impact or subject of each Act, it merely illustrates the historical trend. What the trend illustrates is increasing social awareness of environmental issues.

I N C R E A S I N G COST OF E N V I R O N M E N T A L PROTECTION A case study based on the construction of two waste incineration plants at Portrack, Cleveland, the first in 1976 the replacement in 1996 (Ashforth & Pasquire 1997). The unusual aspect of this case study is the number of repeated factors, for example adjacent site,

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same function, similar floor area, similar design specification (except for incineration plant). A simple index was constructed to supplement and validate the published ones used to level out the cost data. The comparison exercise excluded the incineration plant, as the technological specifications for these were too different and the work was highly specialized, thus falling outside what might be considered as normal construction components. The remaining work comprised a framed high bay structure with office and mess facilities. Little technological advance was made in the structure and fabric leading to the hypothesis that the environmental protection measures would account for much of any cost difference. The analysis found the cost of protecting the environment to be 2% of the total building cost in the 1970s and 14% in the 1990s. The surprising factor was the small overall increase in cost, only some 3.2%, which only served to emphasize the increase in the cost of environmental matters.

exist at a 'higher level' above and beyond the every day matters of construction management although the technical design of sustainable construction is a growing field. The provision of environmental services to the construction industry exists on two levels, first, services required by the industry as a client (at corporate level), and second, services needed in order to construct the development (the industry's core business). The first are services that will almost always be provided by an environmental consultant, the second has a number of services that are specialized and provided by environmental consultants but also includes many every day construction tasks that can be routinely performed by the members of the construction team.

Environmental services currently provided to the construction industry Undoubtedly, there is a fast growing band of specialized environmental consultants offering services to the construction industry. Some of the most common services were identified by Pasquire (1996) and are briefly outlined below: Corporate Environmental Strategy and Environmental Audit: involving the examination and monitoring of the environmental performance of a business, its equipment, mode of operation and management. These are activities superimposed over the core business. Environmental Impact Assessments: introduced into British law in 1988, these involve the consideration of the likely effects of proposed construction on the surrounding environment being contemplated as part of the planning and design phases. This consideration may be extended through the construction phase and into the completed project phase, then represented by means of an environmental statement (Griffith 1996). Water Pollution: a highly complex area involving the assessment of the effects of developments on the aquatic environment in and around sites in a wide range of geological strata, during such operations as mineral extraction, landfill and the development of ground water supplies. In addition, the quality of the water maintained within the building should be monitored and consideration given to the disposal of aqueous waste, principally the characterization of effluent and its treatment. Waste Management: becoming increasingly important and revolving around waste minimization. Onsite waste management comprises source reduction,

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES Much research into the identification of the environmental issues confronting construction has been undertaken and reported upon. Some of the commentators include: Bright (1991); the Construction Industry Research Information Association (1987, 1993, 1994); Department of the Environment (1990); Department of Trade and Industry (1994); Gilpin (1996); and Pasquire (1997). CIRIA (1993), have published a detailed and comprehensive categorization of the environmental issues in construction. These issues are defined as: energy use, global warming and climatic change; resources, waste and recycling; pollution and hazardous substances: pollution from the construction industry is considered in four broad groups: - atmospheric pollution, - water pollution, - noise and vibration pollution; - hazardous materials; internal environment; and planning, land use and conservation. The array of factors contributing to the environmental debate is vast and the classification and structuring of the information does not clearly relate to the construction process nor to the design and management procedures that are implemented. It is easy therefore to believe that these issues, regulations and legislation

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re-use, recycling treatment and disposal. Primary methods of waste disposal in the UK are currently landfill, incineration and treatment. Contaminated Land: involves an examination of all matters relating to health and safety, pollution control, land drainage, compliance with legislation, environmental monitoring, geotechnical engineering, re-vegetation and re-development. Once the contamination problems are identified, alternative clean-up technologies can be explored and a solution designed. This exploration process will include assessments of effectiveness and cost. See Baker (1993) and Hawkins (1993). Ecological and Land Management Surveys and Evaluations: assess the impact of proposed developments and include land-use surveys, landscape design, visual amenity, impact prediction, mitigation measures, advice on both restoration and cost effectiveness after use (RICS 1993). The type of services offered centre on a very wide range of highly specialized and technical skills, and cover both the actual construction and use of a structure and the management of the organizations involved. What has been described so far bears little relationship to the day to day construction procurement processes we are so familiar with. This is probably because the issue of 'The Environment' is largely defined and serviced by non-construction related parties and few construction professionals are contributing to or influencing the direction of environmental research.

There will be overlaps in the type of problem. For example, noise may be produced during construction as well as by the use of the structure, but the impact of the problem will differnoise from the construction process is temporary and will be different from noise produced by the operational structure (be it building, road, power station, etc.). These differences give rise to and are reflected within the definition of the categories. Therefore, it is much more effective to consider the issues within a framework defined in this way than to try to tackle the whole problem of noise for example, as one issue (CIRIA 1994).

Change of land use It is under this category that most of the highly specialized services offered by environmental consultancies would be used, in particular Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA or EA) required for planning decisions (Griffith 1996). However, there are aspects that would fall into the remit of the construction design team. Some examples from the U K include: Consideration of previous land use: brown field sites may be subject to anything from toxic contamination to derelict structures. Appropriate advice should be given regarding the commissioning of specialist site investigations and the selection of a procurement route that adequately recognizes the risks involved. The deeper implications of alternative measures to remedy contamination should be anticipated, for example the additional costs associated with disposal due to Land Fill Tax. Existing planning designation: all land in England has an official designation, all developments need planning permission. Even where the proposed development fulfils the need allocated by the Local Area Plan, appeals and protests are becoming more widespread. The design team should be able to anticipate the likely level of appeal and advise the client accordingly. The effect of these may vary from a delay in receiving planning permission to severe disruption caused by environmental protesters. It can probably be said that almost any greenfield development in the UK will be subjected to some sort of delay on environmental grounds. This can be guaranteed if the development uses land with rare habitats, outstanding natural beauty or has trees on it. Conservation: protests, delays and disruption can be mitigated by incorporating conserving solutions into the project design. These solutions can be

Environmental issues for construction professionals A re-classification of environmental issues into a more meaningful structure (Pasquire 1997) reveals the areas where the construction management team can and do make a significant contribution. The three categories are: 1. the overall effect the change of land use has on the immediate and surrounding environmentfor example, the loss of amenity, diversion of water courses; 2. the consequences of the construction methods and materials used, both locally and in the latter case, globallyfor example, disposal of construction waste, use of timber from sustainable sources; and 3. the continuing environmental impact of the use of the structure after constructionfor example, energy efficiency, process effluent and emissions.

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classified as preservation, protection, diversion and/ or relocation and any initiatives can bring widespread publicity that enhances a client's image. Conservation can be a positive force if harnessed at the outset of a project (RICS 1996). Commissioning of appropriate environmental services: as the legislative obligations increase, the project leader needs to be able to select and procure the relevant environmental services. The project leader must therefore be familiar with the legal requirements. In some cases this is straightforward, the need for an EIA is dictated by the type of development and these are clearly classified within the statute. The EIA should consider all the broader environmental issues of the land use. Not all countries have such stringent planning and environmental laws as the UK (though some have more) but the issues raised here must be a consideration for developers worldwide. In most cases economic need has to be balanced with environmental protection. The influence of the environmental lobby is growing rapidly and their protest expertise is influencing national actions. The disruption and consequent cost resulting from environmental protest is growing to such an extent that developers worldwide are altering or even abandoning their plans (BBC Business News 1997). The problem must not be underestimated.

The disposal/supply of material is subject to greater commercial incentive, or in the case of Land Fill Tax (UK), disincentive. Cost studies can reveal positive cash benefits in recycling, using materials from alternative sources, e.g. borrow pits, using more spoil in permanent landscaping. All of these have varying environmental impact or commercial benefit, not least the reduction of the need for transportation and consequently emissions, and reducing the demand for non-renewable resources such as aggregates Super-structure materials: all structural materials used in construction today have an environmental price tag. Concrete, stone, brick/block, steel/metal, timber and U/PVC all originate from non-renewable finite resources. T h e major differences in the environmental cost will be in the amounts of energy (embodied energy) required to extract and manufacture the individual materials and components and, again the distances and methods of transporting them. Consideration can also be given here to the amounts of energy required to incorporate the materials into the structure. Fixtures, fittings and finishes: the widest scope for choosing environmentally friendly and commercially sound materials exists within this element of building work. The farming of timber as a replenishable resource is becoming more common place and consideration of its use is growing as Tarmac have demonstrated (Anon 1997). Floor and wall coverings such as vinyl, PVC, nylon, etc., are all oil-based products and are therefore neither a sustainable resource nor environmentally friendly. Yet there are many natural fibres that can perform equally well as floor and wall coverings, e.g. wool, cotton, linen, flax, hessian, etc., although the environmental benefit may be reduced by certain dyeing, colouring or treatments of the fabric. Durability of components: a fundamental principle of environmentalism is the reduction of waste. One of the ways this manifests itself in construction is through more durable components and/or components that can lend themselves to recycling. One interesting feature noted during the research was the growing market in recycling stripped out materials to the extent of pre-selling items for recycling at the end of a pre-determined life span. In most projects, the contractor is responsible for the working environment during construction in terms of health and safety and the choice of construction method. This research showed that whilst contractors

Construction method and materials Again, many of the broader issues resulting from the construction method should be investigated during the EIA, for example, the identification of sensitive areas surrounding the site and measures required to protect them. A large number of more specific issues such as noise levels, access, supply and removal of temporary and waste water, etc., will be governed by statute, local bylaws and consents. The scope and content of this legislation should be well known by all parties to the contract and may form part of an EIA. T h e contract documentation provides the vehicle for dealing with these issues. However, there are a growing number of environmental matters which are well within the remit of the parties to the contract that are not subject to legislation but are influenced by commercial factors (Anon 1997). These matters often involve both the construction method and the materials used. Some of the major issues include: Groundwork: most scope is offered in the Groundwork, especially for filling and stabilizing the site.

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are certainly motivated by legislation and commercial consideration, many of the largest organizations wished to be seen to be 'green'. This desire came about from pressure of both public and staff opinion and to appeal to client organizations many of whom were also found to desire a 'green' image. The specification of materials and components is the responsibility of the designer (client and/or contractor) environmentally aware specification merely involves keeping up to date with current product information and/or asking a few pertinent questions about an item's origin and manufacture.

Use of the structure Certain aspects of the use of the structure will be investigated by the EIA, such as traffic flows, emissions and effluent, noise. It will also recommend mitigating actions to help reduce or overcome any problems identified. However, errors and omissions do occur; for example, an incineration plant was originally design to discharge cooling water directly into the river. Part way through construction, it was discovered that the waste water temperature was too high to be discharged directly and expensive redesigning was needed to overcome the situation. The designers will often know more about the operation of a structure than the environmental consultants. Consequently, the designers should become more involved in this part of an EIA. Three major environmental considerations use of structures which fall within the remit design team are the health and safety of the energy efficiency and the reduction of consumption. in the of the users, water

ronmentally friendly it is. It might be envisaged in the future that energy greedy structures may be penalized in some way, for example, through higher energy charges or by fines for heat loss measured by infrared photography. Energy efficiency is achieved in three ways. First, through the design of the structure and fabric; second, through the sophistication of the services systems themselves or by a combination of both. Although the main benefits are achieved through advanced HVAC design, improvements in lighting systems can also be made. Reduction of water consumption: decreasing rainfall and increased consumption combined with distribution problems all add up to more expensive water for the UK (Craven & Pasquire 1997). There are already many innovations that can reduce domestic and industrial water consumption, not least the re-use of waste white water from washing machines, baths, etc., for flushing toilets, cooling processes, etc. An examination of environmental issues in this way reveals that the protection of the environment is not a single 'big issue' with little relevance to construction, but rather a whole series of small issues that affect every aspect of the construction process. More importandy, this series of small issues need managing, effectively broadening the role of the project leader and/or construction manager.

D E C I S I O N PROCESS There is little formally structured information about the procedures associated with the inclusion of environmental issues in the construction procurement process (Pasquire 1997). Clearly there is a need for the development of specific procedural information. This research has identified a broad allocation of decision-making responsibility to various construction management roles showing the relationship of environmental issues to the pre-design, design and construction phases of a project. More importantly, the outline of which team members could have the decision-making responsibility for particular environmental issues shows how interwoven the environment and construction management are. This decision-making process is represented by a prototype model shown in Figs 2 - 4 (Harun 1997). The personnel associated with the decision making are described mainly by their function rather than their professional designation. This is because many of the roles, such as project leader, designer, etc., can be

Health and safety: this concerns the health and safety of the end users of the building. Some of the environmental issues concerning users include conditions resulting from the use of the building such as Legionnella, Sick Building Syndrome, hazardous processes, etc., or external factors that need to be controlled such as radon, methane, etc. Energy efficiency: most energy produced in the U K comes from a finite source, e.g. oil, coal, gas, whilst nuclear power although more sustainable, undoubtedly has environmental problems. The conversion of these fuels into power or heat (be it at the power station or within the building itself) releases harmful gases into the atmosphere. These are thought to contribute to the greenhouse effect. Therefore, the more energy efficient a structure is the more envi-

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fulfilled by people from a variety of professions or organizations. It can be seen from these figures and the earlier discussion, mat much of what is required to place environmental issues under the remit of construction management only involves the extension of existing tasks to incorporate the consideration of environmental implications combined with the recognition that many of the aspects already included are indeed environmental considerations. The construction management team must recognize the role of the environmental and specialist consultants as an integral part of the procurement process.

making process. The main points to be addressed for both issues are: what specialist environmental advice is required? who will provide these services? and where will the management responsibility lie? This latter point will be crucial to the selection of the construction procurement method and only full consideration of the issue of allocation of responsibility will enable appropriate procurement advice to be given.

Cost advice T E C H N I Q U E S USED Continuing professional development Much of what is required involves keeping up to date with new legislation and technology. This already forms part of CPD and is undertaken by professionals whatever their discipline. However, such is the vastness of the subject matter that this is unlikely to be achieved in its entirety by individuals, the logical result of this is the development of niche specialisms. The opportunities to incorporate environmental cost advice are varied and many (Pasquire 1996). It has already been suggested that the cost of protecting the environment may be as great as 14% of the capital cost of a project so there is certainly a cost issue. The type of cost advice ranges from the traditional function of component cost comparison through to costing environmental protection measures. However, to counter this, there is a distinct lack of quantitative information about the cost implications of environmentally friendly options. In may be argued that this is itself an environmental protection measure, as once something has a price then it becomes available for purchase (Corr & Pasquire 1997), this is undesirable for the environment in its widest sense. There is a need though, for cost information concerning the smaller detail and the industry must look to the supply chain for this, e.g. specific costs for construction methods and materials. Designers have a role to play here as the supply chain will only be able to supply cost information in response to customer demand.

Risk analysis Many of the decisions to be made in the early stages of the project development will involve the analysis of the risks and options involved. Although risk analysis is not new, it is not a technique widely used by construction professionals. In general terms, it involves the consideration of the probability of an event occurring, combined with an assessment of how sensitive the project, client or other pertinent factor, is to the occurrence. Most often, this sensitivity is expressed in monetary terms. One disadvantage to the use of risk analysis is the need for construction consultants to check professional indemnity insurance for cover if they are going to incorporate it into their portfolio of services. This is an express concern if the risk being considered can be viewed by the insurance company as a long-term environmental risk.

Life-cycle costing Life-cycle costing is an extension of general cost advice, but is singled out here because durability is a major part of the design of environmentally friendly structures. The concept of durability necessitates consideration of the life span of the structure at an early stage and opens up opportunities to provide long-term cost projections on a variety of construction design options.

Procurement The issues to be tackled under procurement are twofold. First, there is the appointment of specialist environmental consultants, which will be dictated by the scale and scope of the proposed project. The second issue is the effect the need for environmental services has on the overall construction procurement decision-

Value engineering Value engineering seeks to identify those aspects of design which have little value to the client and those

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which offer a d d e d value. Aspects such as p u b l i c opinion a n d customer care are increasingly b e c o m i n g areas w h e r e clients can seek a n d obtain a d d e d value. It is in these areas t h a t environmental issues can play a major role especially t h r o u g h construction m e t h o d s and the incorporation of t h e various aspects of conservation. In m a n y cases, small gestures m a y cost little b u t a d d a great deal to the client's image a n d , as a c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e other parties involved in the project.

CONCLUSIONS
T h e research u n d e r t a k e n so far, clearly indicates that m e a s u r e s taken to safeguard the e n v i r o n m e n t are alr e a d y a major cost item in construction a n d that this cost h a s increased from 2 % of building cost t o 1 4 % of building cost in just 2 0 years. T h e cost increase is in parallel with increasing legislation, which in t u r n can b e attributed to heightened public awareness. T h e s t u d y also demonstrates m a t m u c h of the w o r k already u n d e r t a k e n b y construction professionals involves m a k i n g decisions a b o u t environmental issues during t h e construction m a n a g e m e n t process. It is shown t h r o u g h the flow charts that, despite the shortfalls in available data a n d s t a n d a r d p r o c e d u r e s , construction professionals have a major role t o play in m a n a g i n g environmental issues within construction, a n d t h a t it is possible to define t h e processes involved. M o r e research is n e e d e d to identify the issues m o r e clearly, provide qualitative a n d quantitative data a n d develop formal p r o c e d u r e s for t h e p r o c u r e m e n t a n d m a n a g e m e n t of environmental issues in construction.

REFERENCES
Anon (1997) Tarmac makes 'green' timber pledge. Construction News, February 6. Ashforth, S. & Pasquire, C.L. (1997) The cost significance of environmental issues. Unpublished Research Report, Loughborough University.

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