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Lecture Notes 1: Vectors

As an introduction to vectors we need to do some revision of coordinate geometry. 2D Coordinate Geometry Y P (x, y ) y 2 1 O x X r y

The point P has coordinates (x, y ). The distance OP is r where r 2 = x2 + y 2 1 is the angle between OP and the X -axis. 2 is the angle between OP and the Y -axis. Clearly cos 1 = x r and cos 2 = y . r

These are called the direction cosines of the line OP , written as l and m l = x r m = y r

For two points P , Q, with coordinates (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2)

Y y2 d 1 y1 P (x1 , y1 ) A Q(x2 , y2 )

x1

x2

the distance d between P and Q is given by d2 = (x2 x1 )2 + (y2 y1 )2 . Also and l = cos 1 = m = PA (x2 x1 ) = PQ d

(y 2 y 1 ) AQ = PQ d

are the direction cosines. 3D Coordinate Geometry Since we live in 3D not 2D we often have to use 3D coordinate geometry rather than 2D. We rst set up 3 mutually perpendicular coordinate axes:-

Z P (x, y, z )

r z

O x A X y Q

B Y

This is called a right-handed set (RHS) of axes since if we use our right hand in a corkscrew motion rotating from the X -axis to the Y -axis, we should move in the Z direction. Any point P can be located with respect to these axes by giving its coordinates (x, y, z ) as shown. Obviously Also OQ2 = x2 + y 2 . r 2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 . OP 2 = OQ2 + z 2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 .

Let the length of OP be r then Direction cosines

We dene the three direction cosines l, m, n of the line OP as the cosines of the three angles between OP and each of the three axes. = x l = cos X OP r since the triangle AOP has a right angle at A (not shown on the diagram for reasons of clarity.) 3

Similarly = m = cos Y OP y r and = n = cos Z OP z r

Furthermore, since x2 + y 2 + z 2 = r 2 , we have l2 + m2 + n2 = 1 . Every line parallel to OP makes the same angles with the axes and therefore has the same direction cosines. Thus (l, m, n) determine the direction of the line which is the reason for the name direction cosines. End of coordinate geometry revision

Scalars are quantities which have a magnitude but no direction. e.g. mass, volume, density, temperature, energy, electric charge etc. To specify a scalar we need to know (i) units (ii) how many units e.g.s (mass) 1 kg (energy) 2.3 joules (volume) 2 million litres Vectors are quantities which have magnitude and direction. e.g. velocity, acceleration, force, magnetic and electric elds, displacement. Displacement is the change in position of an object. It is a useful example. To specify a vector we need to know (i) units (ii) how many units (iii) direction e.g.s (velocity) 90 ms1 North East (acceleration) 9.81 ms2 downwards (force) 4 Newtons parallel to the X -axis (displacement) 6 mm upwards To deal with vectors we can use components of a vector (see later) which are scalars. However this is very cumbersome. Instead we use vector algebra which tells us how to add, subtract and multiply vectors (but not divide). Notation To denote a vector we use underline. e.g. force F, velocity v. Books, exam papers, example sheets often use a bold type e.g. F but this is not easy on the board or in ordinary writing.

Graphical Representation A line from point A to point B has a direction and a length. It is actually a displacement vector. B

A We can use it to represent the direction and magnitude of any vector, but not the units.

We write AB for the displacement vector from A to B . For a force (for example) we can write

F =AB

which means that the force F is represented by AB . Line of Action Two vectors F1 and F2 are equal if they have the same magnitude, direction and units, even if they do not act along the same line. e.g.

F1

F2

In other words, a vector can be moved parallel to itself without aecting its value. However, Some physical properties do depend on the line of action and these cannot be fully described just by giving the vector. The line of action has to be given as an extra piece of information.

Negative vector F means a vector of the same magnitude as F but in the opposite direction.

Magnitude of a vector The magnitude of vector F is denoted by F , i.e. no underline. Alternatively we can use the modulus sign |F |, which is useful if we have a complicated expression for the vector.

The magnitude of a vector is ALWAYS positive. Multiplication of a vector by a scalar If we have (i) a scalar a and (ii) a vector F , then we dene aF as follows. aF is a vector.

Its magnitude is aF . Its direction is the same as F . Also, for two scalars a and b aF + bF = (a + b)F , and a(bF ) = (ab)F . (The denition of vector addition follows shortly.) Unit Vectors As the name implies these have magnitude 1 unit. If n is a unit vector in the direction of F then F = F n, and so n = 1 F. F

Sometimes we use F for a unit vector in the direction of F so n=F = 1 F. F 7

Addition of Vectors We use the triangle law. C

Clearly for displacements AB + BC =AC . This is dened as the method of adding any two vectors. It is called the TRIANGLE LAW (le law). The sum of two or more vectors is called the RESULTANT. Alternatively we can use the parallelogram law. D C

As before AB + BC =AC . But BC =AD so AB + AD =AC . tors act at the same point.

This is called the PARALLELOGRAM LAW (||el -gram law). It is useful if two vec

Also note that since AD + DC =AC and AD =BC and DC =AB we have BC + AB =AC . Hence BC + AB =AB + BC, so vector addition is commutative.

Associative Law

for vectors is

(F1 + F2 ) + F3 = F1 + (F2 + F3 ) Proof for displacements:8

From the diagram, using the triangle law, we have

1. AB + BC =AC AC + CD =AD (AB + BC )+ CD =AD .

2. BC + CD =BD AB + BD =AD AB +(BC + CD) =AD .

This proves the associative law for displacement vectors. You may assume it is true for all types of vector.

Fundamental Cartesian Unit Vectors Three special vectors play an important role and have a special notation. They are:A unit vector parallel to the X -axis, denoted by i A unit vector parallel to the Y -axis, denoted by j A unit vector parallel to the Z -axis, denoted by k

(Cartesian) Components of a vector Any vector can be written in terms of i, j and k as follows v = p1 i + p2 j + p3 k where p1 , p2 , p3 are scalars. It is easiest to see this in 2D rst. Y B v

Since OA is in the X -direction we can write OA = p1 i. Similarly AB = p2 j . In 3D Z C v v = p1 i + p2 j.

O Y A X B

v = OA + AB + BC

= p1 i + p2 j + p3 k.

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p1 , p2 , p3 are the (Cartesian) components of v . They are scalars. Clearly, if we know p1 , p2 , p3 we can nd v and so we often write (p1 , p2 , p3 ) for the vector v . e.g. v = 2i + 3j 4k = (2, 3, 4).

(You may if you prefer write the vector as a column.) Addition in terms of components is easy. v1 v2 so = = a1 i + b1 j + c1 k a2 i + b2 j + c2 k = (a1 + a2 )i + (b1 + b2 )j + (c1 + c2 )k

v1 + v2

i.e. components just add. e.g. (1, 4, 2) + (2, 2, 3) Position Vectors If we have a set of axes XY Z with origin O , then we can describe the position of any point P by giving its coordinates (x, y, z ). Z P (x, y, z ) r z O Y y B = (3, 2, 1).

x A X

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However, we could instead specify it by giving its position vector which is OP .

We often write r for the position vector, so r

= OP .

We can now show that the components of the position vector of P are the same as the coordinates of P . Proof

From the diagram

OB r

= OA + AB

xi + yj .

= OP r =

= OB + BP (x, y, z )

xi + yj + zk .

coordinates of P AND components of r .

Also, as before, the magnitude (length) of r is given by r2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 .

This result is true for any vector, not just a position vector, namely that the magnitude is the square root of the sum of the squares of its components. The direction is given by the direction cosines any vector. E.g.1 A has position vector a. B has position vector b. Find the position vector of point P which lies on the line AB and divides it in the ratio l : m. x y z , , , and again this is true for r r r

A a r

P B b

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Let the position vector of P be r, then

a + AP = r

(1)

+ P B = b (2)

But m AP

l P B.

Take (1) m (2) l ma lr E.g.2 Find the direction cosines of the line from A(2, 3, 1) to B (5, 1, 4). A B r = = mr lb ma + lb . (m + l )

OA =

2i + 3j + k 5i + j + 4k

OB

OA + AB

= OB

AB

= OB OA =

Magnitude | AB | = r =

3i 2j + 3k 32 + (2)2 + 32 = 22. 3 2 3 , , 22 22 22 .

Direction cosines are thus

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Products of Vectors There is no obvious way of multiplying one vector by another. Therefore we simply dene what we mean by the product in the way that is most useful in practice. In fact there are two types of product which are useful: a) Scalar product the result is a scalar b) Vector product the result is a vector Scalar Product We dene the scalar product (or dot product) of two vectors a and b as

a.b = ab cos

a b

where is the angle between them and a, b are the magnitudes. N.B. It is a SCALAR. Note b.a = ba cos() = a.b, since cos() = cos().

Special Cases (i) If a is perpendicular to b then = 90 and so a.b = 0. (ii) a.a = a2 since = 0, and cos() = 1. This means that the scalar product

of any vector with itself gives the square of the magnitude of the vector. Sometimes we write a2 as a shorthand for a.a, which is useful if we have a long expression for a. Hence we have (iii) and a.a = a2 = a2 .

i.i = j.j = k.k = 1. i.j = j.k = k.i = 0.

Other Properties 1. For a scalar m (ma).b = mab cos = m(a.b) = a.(mb). 2. (a.b)c is the product of a scalar a.b with a vector c.

Recalling that mc is a vector in the direction of c with magnitude mc we see that (a.b)c is a vector in the direction of c with magnitude (a.b)c.

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3. We can divide by (a.b) since it is a scalar. 4. An important result is a.(b + c) = a.b + a.c The distributive law.

This law can be proved from the denition a.b = ab cos but the proof is rather lengthy and is not given here. Aside You may nd a book with a proof which is incorrect or which states that it is obvious. Stroud simply assumes it is true. Correct proofs are dicult to nd and usually involve a geometric interpretation of the scalar product which we have not covered. End of aside You may assume the distributive law is true and important. E.g. Simplify (a + b)2 . (a + b)2 = (a + b).(a + b) = (a + b).a + (a + b).b = a.a + b.a + a.b + b.b = a2 + b2 + 2a.b Component form of the scalar product Let a = (ax , ay , az ) and b = (bx , by , bz ). then a.b = (ax i + ay j + az k).b Because of the distributive law = ax i.b + ay j.b + az k.b Also i.b = i.(bx i + by j + bz k) = bx i.i + by i.j + bz i.k = bx Similarly Therefore j.b = by and k.b = bz . using the law again using the distributive law using the law again

a.b = ax bx + ay by + az bz .

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This is a very important result. E.g.1 Find the angle between vector a = (3, 2, 1)

and vector b = (2, 5, 3).

a.b = 3 2 + 2 (5) + (1) 3 = 7 Also a = |a| = and b = |b| = 38 . and since a.b = ab cos we have 7 = 14 38 cos 7 cos = = 0.3035 14 38 22 32 + 22 + (1)2 = + (5)2 + 32 = 14

and hence = 107.67 = 107 40 . E.g.2 Find a unit vector which is perpendicular to (1, 2, 1) and has zero y -component. Clearly the vector must have the form a = (ax , 0, az ). Because this is perpendicular to (1, 2, 1) the scalar product will be zero: 1ax + 0 + (1)az = 0 az = ax

and so the vector has the form a = (ax , 0, ax ). Since it is a unit vector the magnitude is 1 so
2 a2 x + 0 + ax = 1 2ax = 1

1 ax = 2

Choosing the positive sign we have a = 1 1 ,0 , 2 2

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A simple application of the scalar product Work is (force) (distance moved in the direction of the force). This is often represented by a scalar product. Consider a railway wagon moving along a straight track from A to B under the action of a force F applied at an angle to the track as shown.

B d A F Let the distance moved from A to B be d. The distance moved in the direction of F is d cos .

Therefore the work done is F (d cos ) = F.d where d is the vector AB . E.g. A force F = 2i + 3j k newtons is applied to a particle which moves along

a straight wire from A(1, 0, 0) to B (2, 2, 1). Find the work done. Work = F.d = (2, 3, 1).(1, 2, 1) = 2 + 6 + 1 = 9 joules. d = AB = (1, 2, 1).

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It is also called the cross product. Denition

Vector Product of a and b is written a b or (less commonly) a b.

a b is a vector, so we need to specify its magnitude and its direction. The magnitude is ab sin where is the angle between the two vectors. b a The direction is perpendicular to both a and b in such a way that the three vectors {a, b, a b} form a right-handed set. ab

b a

Right-handed set means that if we use our right hand in a corkscrew motion from the direction of a to the direction of b we move in the direction of a b. be a unit vector in the direction of a b, then Now let n a b = ab sin n Now direction of b to the direction of a. (Note that the magnitude does not change since this must always be positive.) NOT commutative, in other words it matters which comes rst. Special cases and other properties 1. Parallel vectors. If a is parallel to b then a b = 0 since = 0 and hence sin = 0. 2. Perpendicular vectors. If a and b are perpendicular then the three vectors {a, b, a b} are all mutually perpendicular. Also the magnitude of the vector product, |a b| = ab since = 90 and hence sin = 1. 18 This result that b a = a b is important. It means that the vector product is ) = b a = ba sin (n a b, since we are now moving from the

3. i, j, and k are special cases of the above. ii = jj = kk = 0 ij = k jk = i ki = j ji = k kj = i ik = j

Note that if the cyclic order is . . . i, j, k, i, j, . . . then we get a positive sign but if it is . . . k, j, i, k, j, . . . then the sign is negative. then 4. If a b = ab sin n

= m(a b) = a (mb) for any scalar m. (ma) b = (ma)b sin n

5. Distributive Law for the vector product is a (b + c ) = a b + a c This is not proved here. You may assume it is true (and important). 6. Component Form of the vector product.

a b = (ax i + ay j + az k) (bx i + by j + bz k) = ax bx i i + ax by i j + ax bz i k + ay bx j i + ay by j j + ay bz j k + az bx k i + az by k j + az bz k k = i(ay bz az by ) + j(az bx ax bz ) + k(ax by ay bx ) Again this is an important result. It is given in the formula book. If you are familiar with determinants, a shorthand form is i ab = j k

ax ay az bx by bz

but you do not need to know this. E.g. a = (6, 1, 3) b = (2, 0, 4).

a b = (1 4 3 0)i + (3 (2) 6 4)j + (6 0 1 (2))k = (4, 30, 2) 19

It is useful to check this as follows. If it is perpendicular to a then the scalar product is 0: Scalar product is 6 4 + 1 (30) + 3 2 = 0 Likewise with b: CORRECT. CORRECT.

Scalar product is (2) 4 + 0 (30) + 4 2 = 0 An example of Vector Product in practice Torque

P d O r

The diagram represents a block in the shape of a parallelogram which is free to turn about the point O which is the origin. A force F is applied at P which has position vector r. is the angle between r and F. N.B. The shape (here a parallelogram) is irrelevant. The strength of the turning force is (the magnitude of the force, F) times (the perpendicular distance from the turning point to the line of action of the force, d) and is called the torque. Clearly d = r sin so the strength i.e. the magnitude of the torque is F r sin . The turning occurs about an axis which is perpendicular to the block and through O and this is taken as the direction of the torque. Thus the torque is a vector T given by T = rF choosing the direction as into the paper.

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Products of three vectors Since b c is a vector we can form the product of this with a third vector a in two dierent ways. 1. Scalar Triple Product (STP) is the scalar product of a with b c. It is a SCALAR. The component form is: a.(b c) = ax (b c)x + ay (b c)y + az (b c)z = ax (by cz bz cy ) + ay (bz cx bx cz ) + az (bx cy by cx ) = ax by cz + ay bz cx + az bx cy ax bz cy ay bx cz az by cx Again there is a shorthand form in terms of a determinant ax ay az a.(b c) = bx by bz cx cy cz (1)

but you do not need to know this. Now consider b.(c a). In component form we get bx (cy az cz ay ) + by (cz ax cx az ) + bz (cx ay cy ax ) (2)

and comparing this term by term with (1) we see it is the same. Thus b.(c a) = a.(b c) Similarly we can show that c.(a b) = a.(b c) and recalling that the we can write the scalar product either way round, all the following are equal a.(b c) = (b c).a = b.(c a) = (c a).b = c.(a b) = (a b).c Note the following: a. All the terms in (3) have the same cyclic order {. . . a, b, c, a, b, c . . . }. 21 (3)

b. Sometimes we write a.(b c) = [a, b, c] to indicate that all the vectors are treated equally. It does not matter which comes rst. c. If the cyclic order is reversed to {. . . a, c, b, a, c, b . . . } then we get a negative sign a.(c b) = a.(b c) since we have reversed a vector product. d. If any two vectors are the same then the STP equals 0. To see this we simply rearrange to the vector product of a vector with itself using (2) a.(b a) = b.(a a) = 0 This is also true if any two vectors are parallel. 2. Vector Triple Product (VTP) N.B. The position of the bracket is important here. is the vector product of a with b c. i.e. a (b c).

Clearly this is a vector. It is useful because it can be simplied using the formula a (b c) = (a.c)b (a.b)c which has no vector products. To prove this let us write out the x- component of both sides of (1). LHS = ay (b c)z az (b c)y = ay (bx cy by cx ) az (bz cx bx cz ) RHS = (ax cx + ay cy + az cz )bx (ax bx + ay by + az bz )cx Comparing, we see these are the same. Similarly the two y -components and the two z -components are the same. E.g. Prove that a (b c) + b (c a) + c (a b) = 0 Expanding the VTPs LHS = (a.c)b (a.b)c + (b.a)c (b.c)a + (c.b)a (c.a)b = 0 22 (1)

Vector equation of a straight line In 2D the usual equation of a straight line is y = mx + c.

Y P (x, y )

where x and y are the coordinates of any point P on the line. In 3D we need an equation which involves the three coordinates (x, y, z ) of any point on the line. The most compact way to do this is to obtain an equation for the position vector of a point on the line, since the components of the position vector are the same as the coordinates of the point. r = xi + y j + z k = (x, y, z ) On the following diagram we do not show the axes, only the origin, the line in 3D, a point P on the line and its position vector r.

P (x, y, z ) r

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To specify a line we need to give its direction, and also its line of action. The rst is given by giving a (constant) vector d (for direction). The second is given by giving the position vector of a known point on the line. Let this be A with position vector a. P A d r a

Now vector AP is in the same direction as d but its length will vary as P moves along

the line. Thus we put AP

= d where is a variable.

Using the triangle law r = OA + AP and so r = a+d This is the vector equation of the straight line. The variable is a parameter so this is a parametric equation. varies as we move along the line. E.g.1 Find the equation of the line through A(2, 1, 4) and B (3, 2, 0).

The vector AB = (1, 1, 4). This can be used for d. The line passes through A whose position vector is equation of the line is r = (2, 1, 4) + (1, 1, 4) . We could combine these to write r = (2 + , 1 , 4 + 4) .

a = (2, 1, 4). Therefore the

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E.g.2

Show that the lines r = (1, 2, 3) + (4, 5, 6) and r = (1, 3, 1) + (2, 5, 1) line 1 (as before) line 2

intersect and nd the point of intersection. IF the lines intersect then one point lies on both lines. Let this point be P (x, y, z ). At this point (x, y, z ) = (1 + 4, 2 5, 3 + 6) line 1 line 2

(x, y, z ) = (1 + 2, 3 5, 1 + ) Comparing components (x = ) 1 + 4 = 1 + 2 (y = ) 2 5 = 3 5 (z = ) 3 + 6 = 1 + (1) (2) (3)

We now solve (1) and (2) for and . If these values also satisfy equation (3) then we have a point of intersection since all three equations are satised. From (1) From (2) = 1 4 = 2 = 2

5 5 = 5 = 10 and = 2

Substituting these values into (3) gives 3 + 6(1) = 1 + (2) Hence the two lines do intersect. 2 and is The point of intersection comes from putting the = 1 in line 1 or = 2 in line P (x, y, z ) = (3, 7, 3) which is CORRECT

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