Tim Evans

S00107220

EDMA310

Understandings required to build understanding of equivalence: The following table outlines the learning focuses required to be in place to ensure students understanding of equivalence, according to both AusVELS (2012) and VELS (2012).

Lower: AusVELS
Establish understanding of the language and processes of counting by naming numbers in sequences, initially to and from 20, moving from any starting point. Connect number names, numerals and quantities, including zero, initially up to 10 and then beyond. Develop confidence with number sequences to and from 100 by ones from any starting point. Skip count by twos, fives and tens starting from zero. Represent and solve simple addition and subtraction problems using a range of strategies including counting on, partitioning and rearranging parts. Investigate and describe number patterns formed by skip counting and patterns with objects. Investigate number sequences, initially those increasing and decreasing by twos, threes, fives and ten from any starting point, then moving to other sequences. Explore the connection between addition and subtraction. Solve simple addition and subtraction problems using a range of efficient mental and written strategies. Describe patterns with numbers and identify missing elements. Solve problems by using number sentences for addition or subtraction.

VELS
Manipulate and group physical objects and drawings to develop basic understanding of the concepts of number and numerals. Group objects into collections and form simple relations between two sets Count the number of objects up to 20 and relate the number counted to the use of a numeral. Model addition subtraction Create number patterns mentally, by hand and with the use of the constant addition facility of calculators. Use models and arrays to support the development of skip counting up to 100. Recognise patterns created by skip counting Perform simple addition (count on) and subtraction (count back) using numbers up to 100.

Tim Evans

S00107220

EDMA310

Middle:
Recognise and explain the connection between addition and subtraction Recall multiplication facts of two, three, five and ten and related division facts Represent and solve problems involving multiplication using efficient mental and written strategies and appropriate digital technologies. Describe, continue, and create number patterns resulting from performing addition or subtraction. Explore and describe number patterns resulting from performing multiplication. Use equivalent number sentences involving addition and subtraction to find unknown quantities. Extend addition and subtraction computations to three digit numbers. Learn to multiply and divide by single digit numbers.

Upper:
Use equivalent number sentences involving multiplication and division to find unknown quantities. Explore the use of brackets and order of operations to write number sentences

Devise and use mental and written methods (algorithms) to add, subtract, multiply and divide whole numbers

Tim Evans

S00107220

EDMA310

Literature Synthesis: Algebra (Equivalence/Equity/Equality).

Learning Focus: Students recognise equivalence and solve equations and inequalities. They apply their number and algebra skills to conduct investigations, solve problems and communicate their reasoning.

Insights Related to Key Understandings of Equivalence: Many mathematics educators believe that algebra should be taught as a continuous strand from prep to year 12, due to the fact that [b]y viewing algebra as a strand in the curriculum from prekindergarten on, teachers can help students to build a solid foundation of understanding and experience as a preparation for more sophisticated work in algebra in the middle grades and high school (NCTM, 2000 as cited in Knuth, Stephens, McNeil & Alibali, 2006, p. 298). Based on this key insight is the realisation that young children often understand much more than traditionally thought. However, despite this, it is often difficult for adults to conceptualise what would constitute appropriate algebra for early childhood years. Students come to school with a natural ability for algebraic reasoning, the development of which is a matter of tapping into and building on this naturally occurring ability. A crucial idea to assist young childrens development of algebraic reasoning is the concept of equality or equivalence. Equivalence is a relationship that expresses the

Tim Evans

S00107220

EDMA310

idea that two mathematical expressions hold the same value (Falkner, Levi & Carpenter, 1999, p. 234). By introducing algebraic concepts early, topics that students would traditionally meet at later grades will have already been studied; therefore, in later years students will be able to revisit and build on these understandings, rather than attempting to learn a completely new topic (Lins & Kaput, 2004; Mann, 2004; Knuth et al., 2006).

Possible Misconceptions and Difficulties: In mathematics, each concept has a name used in everyday language, and a symbol used to represent this concept; this conceptualizing, nominalizing, and symbolizing activity of mathematicians has taken place through the centuries and across civilizations (Saenz-Ludlow & Walgamuth, 1998, p. 153). It is when children are asked to interpret the symbols in order to understand the underlying mathematical concepts that challenges are likely to occur. The main difficulties associated with the concept of equivalence stem from the fact that children interpret the equal symbol as a prompt to perform a mathematical operation, and the number after the equal symbol is the answer to the calculation that precedes it (Kieran, 1981; Saenz-Ludlow & Walgamuth, 1998; Falkner et al., 1999). This limited understanding of equality and the equals sign representing a prompt to perform a calculation is highlighted by Falkner et al. (1999) when they discuss a sixth grade teachers scepticism towards the validity of posing the supposedly trivial

Tim Evans

S00107220

EDMA310

problem, 8 + 4 = ? + 5 to their class. In this sample, all twenty four of the teachers students thought that the unknown value would be 12. Clearly, thinking of the concept of equality as a relational symbol to compare two quantities does not come naturally to children. Part of the complexity involved with interpreting the equal symbol is that it can be used to refer to a number of different concepts. For instance, it can be used in the context of the equation 3 + 5 = to state find the result, while in the context of fractions, it can be used to state that two fractions mean the same rational number, e.g. 2/5 = 4/10 (Saenz-Ludlow & Walgamuth, 1998). A further consequence of childrens interpretation of the equal symbol in terms of operators is that they find it difficult to read number sentences that dont reflect the order of their calculation; therefore, many children cannot read sentences that express relationships like 6 = 6 or 6 = 2 + 4 (Kieran, 1981).

Practical Implications for Teaching Equivalence Effectively The importance of a relational understanding of equality can be seen when students are given a problem such as 4x + 27 = 87. Without understanding that what is done to one side of the equation must also be done to the other, and why this is the case, a student can only try to memorise a series of rules, and therefore has an instrumental understanding. Because these rules wont be reinforced by understanding, students are unlikely to remember them accurately or be able to apply them flexibly (Falkner et al., 1999).

Tim Evans

S00107220

EDMA310

Results of a study undertaken by Knuth et al. (2006) have found that a relational view of the equal sign is necessary not only to meaningfully generate and interpret equations but also to meaningfully operate on equations (p. 309). In fact, even students with no experience with formal algebra were better at solving equations when they had a relational understanding of the equal sign. There are a number of activities that will allow students to develop their understanding of equality; for example, providing them with open number sentences with varied locations of the unknown e.g. ? = 8 +4 or 8 + 9 = ? + 11. Also, presenting true and false number sentences can be useful in order to encourage students to reflect on the meaning of the equals sign (Falkner et al., 1999, p. 235). Falkner et al. (1999) also discuss a practical activity a prep teacher uses to discuss the problem 4 + 5 = ? + 6. While initially all the students believed the unknown should be 9, as a class, the teacher had the students make a stack of four and five cubes, then in another space make stacks of nine and six cubes to test their initial answer. When asked if each grouping had the same number of cubes, the class were able to determine this was not the case, and some were able to discuss how to make the groupings the same. However, after the activity, all children still believed the unknown in this problem was 9. This highlights that children in their first year of school already have enduring misconceptions about the meaning of the equal symbol that cannot be eliminated with one or two examples. It is therefore important that thinking algebraically should not be the domain of middle school or high school students. The foundation can be, and should be, set during the primary years (Mann, 2004, p. 64).

Tim Evans

S00107220

EDMA310

References Australian Curriculum in Victoria [AusVELS], (2012). AusVELS: Mathematics. Retrieved on 16th August, 2012 from AusVELS website, http://ausvels.vcaa.vic.edu.au/Mathematics/Curriculum/F-10 Falkner, K. P., Levi, L. & Carpenter, T. P., (1999). Childrens understanding of equality: A foundation for algebra. Teaching children mathematics, 6(4), 232 236. Kieran, C., (1981). Concepts associated with the equality symbol. Educational studies in mathematics, 12(3), 317 326. Knuth, E. J., Stephens, A. C., McNeil, N. M. & Alibali, M. W., (2006). Does understanding the equal sign matter? Evidence from solving equations. Journal for research in mathematics education, 37(4), 297 312. Lins, R. & Kaput, J., (2004). The early development of algebraic reasoning: The current state of the field. In K. Stacey, H. Chick & M. Kendal (Eds.), The future of the teaching and learning of algebra (pp. 47 70). Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Mann, R., (2004). Balancing act: The truth behind the equals sign. Teaching children mathematics, 11(2), 65 69. Saenz-Ludlow, S. & Walgamuth, C., (1998). Third graders interpretations of equality and the equal symbol. Educational studies in mathematics, 35(2), 153-187. Victorian Essential Learning Standards [VELS], (2012). VELS: Mathematics. Retrieved on 16th August, 2012 from VELS website, http://vels.vcaa.vic.edu.au/vels/maths.html

Bibliography

Van de Walle, J., Karp. S., & Bay-Williams, J. M. (2010). Elementary and middle school mathematics: Teaching developmentally (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.