-

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING;

WITH

SPECIAL

REFERENCE

TO

HIGH

BUILDING

CONSTRUCTION,

INCLUDING

MANY

EXAMPLES

OF

CHICAGO

OFFICE

BUILDINGS.

BY

JOSEPH

KENDALL

FREITAG,

B.S., C.E.

FIRST
FIRST

EDITION.
THOUSAND.

OF
"

THE

NEW

YORK:

JOHN
LONDON:

WILEY
"

"

SONS.
LIMITED.

CHAPMAN

HALL,

1895.

T HI toll

COPYRIGHT, 1895,
Bi

JOSEPH

K.

FREITAG.

ROBERT

DRUMMOND,

ELECTROTVPER

AND

PRINTER,

NEW

YORK.

^"X

TT) J
L-"
-^

PREFACE.

THE define such modern and

author and of

has

attempted,
a manner

in the
as

following-pages,
the useful

to

illustrate,in
the fundamental

practicable as possible, design

to

principlesin
as

of

the

high building
alike. technical attention the

may

prove

architects

engineers

vWhile
considerable here data induced As

press
to

of

the
of the

country

has

devoted

many

individual
a

subjects
has

considered, yet the

on

realisation of
of Architectural

want

of collective

the the

subject
to

Engineering
construction

writer and
to
more

present this volume.

of the

more

principlesof
of
our

are

being
and
as

added many

the
our

curricula

architectural students is
are

schools,

of

engineering
as a

adopting
that of this the

building
effort will
one

construction
serve

it specialty,
more

hoped

to

unite

still

closelythe
the

work

with The

that author and

of

the

other. mention beloved has

would

efforts

of

one

highly

esteemed Mr.
to
see

dearly

in the been

engineering profession,
several years national Interas
a an by establishing

E. L. the

Corthell, who
two

strivingfor

professionsunited
of of of
warm

Institute technical
new

Engineers
Architecture

and

Architects, as
and

well
at

School

Engineering
writer in would

the also

University
the former

Chicago.
interest

The

acknowledge
his the

displayed

this work

by
of

professor of engineering,Prof.

C. E. Greene,

University of Michigan.
iii

IV

PREFA

CE.

The

following
the calculations

chapters
for

are

arranged
structural

in

the

order

in

which

such

work

must

ceed, prothence

starting through
latter would the

with

the

load-bearing
stages
to

floor

system,
foundations.

successive

the

The

seem

to

require

the

first

attention

but

as

they
other

are

the

last

to

be

calculated,
have here

being
been

dependent placed
been last.

on

all

considerations,
and

they
examples
courtesy
An endeavor

The

trations illus-

given
of the

have

largely
of the

obtained

through buildings.
most

the

architects

respective

has

been

made

to

present

only

the

practical

methods.

JOSEPH
CHICAGO,

KENDALL

FREITAG.

MAY,

1895.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

I.
PAGE

INTRODUCTORY

CHAPTER

II.

FIRE

PROTECTION

CHAPTER

III.

SKELETON

CONSTRUCTION"

EXAMPLES"

ERECTION,

ETC

24

CHAPTER

IV.

FLOORS

AND

FLOOR

FRAMING

54

CHAPTER

V.

EXTERIOR

WALLS"

PIERS

88

CHAPTER

VI.

SPANDRELS

AND

SPANDREL

SECTIONS"

BAY

WINDOWS

100

CHAPTER

VII.

COLUMNS

113

CHAPTER

VIII.

WIND

BRACING
V

136

VI

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

IX.

PARIITIONS"

ROOFS"

MISCELLANEOUS

163

CHAPTER

X.

FOUNDATIONS

".

171

CHAPTER

XL

UNIT-STRAINS"SPECIFICATIONS

201

CHAPTER

XII.

BUILDING

LAWS..

216

LIST

OF

ILLUSTRATIONS.

FIG.
1.

PAGE

Reliance

Building,
for

Chicago Pipe-space
in

17
22

2.

Arrangement Chicago Chicago Chicago Chicago Marquette Marquette

Reliance Masonic New
.

Halls

3. 4.

Stock Stock Stock Stock

Exchange Exchange Exchange Exchange

Building. Building. Building. Building.

Perspective
Basement Ground Plan Floor Office Plan Floor Plan.

25 27
28

5.
6.

Typical

29 30

7.
8.

Building, Building, Building. Temple,

Chicago. Chicago. Typical

Perspective Typical
Office Floor Office Plan
"
.

Floor

Plan

31 32 34

9.
10.

Chicago
Insurance Insurance Insurance

1 1

York York York Plan

Life Life Life

Building. Building.

Perspective
Plan
of

35 Floor.
..

12.

New New

Banking
Office

36

13.

Building.

Typical

Floor 37

14.

Fort Fort

Dearborn Dearborn

Building.

Perspective Typical
Office Floor Floor Plan Plan

38
40 41 42

15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

20.

Building. Building. Building.

Plan Plan of of

Champlain
Old

Typical

Office

Colony

Perspective
Fort Reliance Dearborn

Typical Typical
Reliance Reliance Brick

Framing Framing Building Building

Building

43
44

Building

during during

Construction Construction

48
49

21.

22.

Arch

Construction Iron used used used in in in Tile

Arch
,

55 55

23.
24.

Corrugated
Tile Tile Tile Arch Arch Arch Arch

Equitable
Montauk Home

Building, Building,

Chicago Chicago

(1872) (1881)

55

25. 26.
27.

56
(1884)
. .

Insurance Blocks

Building,
used in

Chicago
Woman's

56

showing

Filling

Temple,
57

Chicago

VI 1 1

LIST

OF

ILL

US

TRA

TIONS.

FIG.

PAGE

28.

Panelled

Beam,

Fire-proofed

58 58
59

29.
30. 31.

Fire-proofed Girder
The The

Lee

Flat

Arch of Flat Arch

.

Johnson Type
Austria Melan Melan of
Tile

61

32. The 33. The

34.

Arch

65 Span
..

Arch,
Arch,
Metal

Short

67 67

The Arch Arch

Long Span
and

35.

Straps
and
and

Concrete Panelled Flush Soffit Soffit

69 69
70

36.

of Wire of Wire

Concrete,

37. Arch

Concrete,
Arch

Concrete 38. Elliptical 39.

40. 41 42.
.

71 72

Segmental
Segmental
Standard Standard Isometrical Detail Section

Tile Tile

Arch Arch used

in

Sibley Warehouse,

Chicago

72

Connection-angles Connection-angles
View of Connection Front.
at

85
86

43. 44. 45.

of

Floor-beam

to

Girder

87
93

of Terra-cotta

Reliance Entrance

Building
to

through
of Corner of Wall of

Wall Pier

Main

Masonic

Temple.

94 97

46. Detail
47. Detail

for Reliance in Reliance for

Building

Girders

Building Buildings Devoted

to

98
Sale
99

48. Diagram
and 49.

Thickness of

of Walls

Storage

Merchandise of Walls for Hotels

and

Diagram
other

of Thickness than of Skeleton

Office

Buildings
99

Construction of Walls for Office

50.

Diagram
Wall

Thickness

Buildings carrying
99

Weight
Section. Section. of

only
Ashland Reliance Mullions. floor. floor. floor.
and

51. 52.

Spandrel Spandrel

Block

101

Building
Reliance Fort Fort Fort

101

53. Connection
54.

Cast
nth

Building
Building Building Building
Dearborn

101

Spandrel Section, Spandrel Section,

Dearborn Dearborn Dearborn Fort

102

55.

I2th
ist

103
103

56. Spandrel Section,

57.

Spandrel

Section, Roof
Section. Section. Section. Section Section

Cornice.

Building.

104

58. Spandrel
59.
60.

Marquette Building
Marshall
Marshall

105
106 106

Spandrel Spandrel Spandrel Spandrel

Field
Field

Building Building
of Marshall Wall Field

61. 62.

through

Court

Wall

Building

107 108

through Typical

Court

"LIS

OF

IL

L US

TRA

T1ONS.

1X

FIG.

PAGE

63. Spandrel

Section

through Bay
at

Window.

Masonic

Temple

....

109

64. Spandrel Section

Bottom
in

of

Bay

Window.

Masonic Reliance

Temple. Building.
.

109
no

65.
66.

Half Half

Plan Plan

of Metal-work

Bay

Window. Walls. of

through Bay-window through

at

Reliance Reliance

Building....

no

67. Spandrel Section

68.

Centre of Bay.
in

Bay.

Building.
.

in

Spandrel
and

Section

Side

Reliance Window.

Building
Reliance

1 1 1

69. F'loor
70. 71.

Ceiling Supports Joints

for Cast Column Column
and

Bay

Building

112

Details Detail

of

Columns

114
122

of Larimer of Larimer

72. Detail 73. DetalTof 74. 75. Detail Detail

122

Gray

Column Column Column.

Connecting

Girders

125 125

of Phcenix of Z-bar of Phcenix

Monadnock

Building

127 128

76. Detail
77.

Column Column
used

Detail

of Phcenix of Box

in Old

Colony Building
"

129
129

78. Detail
79. Section

Column Column used

in
"

of Z-bar of of of of

The Column

Fair

Building

130

80. Method
81. Method 82. Method Method

Fire-proofingPhcenix
Fire-proofing
Box

134 134
134

Column Column
in

Fire-proofing Z-bar Fire-proofing Columns Bracing by Bracing by Bracing by Bracing by

of

83.

Monadnock of of

Building.
.

134
139

84. Diagram

of Wind of Wind of Wind of Wind

means

Sway-rods Sway-rods

85. Diagram
86.

means

139 139
139 141

Diagram

means

of Portals of Knee-braces

87. Diagram
88.

means

Figure showing Analysis

Sway-rod Bracing

89. Figure showing Typical Sway-rod Bracing

90. 91.
Wind

143
144 144

Bracing
Plan

used

in Masonic

Temple

Floor

of Venetian
in Venetian

Building Building
Venetian Venetian of Venetian of Portal

92. Wind 93. 94. 95. Detail Detail Partial

Bracing

145

of Channel-struts. of Cast Blocks.

Building Building Building Bracing Building

146 146
147

Cross-section

96. Figure showing Analysis

97. Portal-strut Cross-section Detail used

149 151 151 152 153

in Monadnock Portals

98.
99.
100.

showing
in Old

in Old

Colony Building

of Portal

Colony Building
of

Figure showing Analysis

Knee-bracing

LIST

OF

ILLUSTRATIONS.

FIG.

PAGE

101.

Detail

of

Knee-bracing
and

used

in

Isabella

Building
Exterior Walls of Fort

154

102.

Channel-struts

Gussets

used

in

Dearborn

Building
Column

155
in

103.

Detail

of

Joint Splice
Tile

Pabst

Building, Building

Milwaukee

158
159

104.

Detail

of

Column

in

Reliance

105. 106.

Detail

of

Book

164

Hall

and

Main

Entrance

to

Marquette
to

Building
York Life Insurance

166

107.

Hall

and

Main

Entrance

New

Building
108. Hall
and

167
Entrance Fort Dearborn

Main.

to

Building

168

109.

Rail

Footing Footing
and Rail

174

10.

Masonry
Beam

174

in.

Footing
used in

181

112.

Beam

Footing Footing
of Cantilever

Marquette
in

Building
,

184 184
86

113.

Double

used

Marquette

Building

14.

Plan

Footing Footing
Continuous Girder

115. 116.

Elevation

of

Cantilever

186

Line

of

Flexure

for

187

117. 118.

Figure Figure
Plan

showing showing
of Foundations.

Analysis Analysis

of

Cantilever

Footing
,

187 189

of

Continuous

Girder

119.

Manhattan

Life

Insurance

Building,
199

New

York

120.

Cross-section

showing

Foundations

of

Manhattan

Life

ance Insur-

Building,

New

York

200

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

CHAPTER

I.

INTRODUCTORY.

AMONG

the

most

noteworthy examples
"

of Architectural
"

Engineering
"

in recent

years,

Le of

Tour this

Eifel

stands

unique
term,

most

perfect expression
union

recently coined
art

signifying a complete
and
as

of the

great

of architecture

the

science

of

engineering.
beauty
that
"

While

universally accepted
tower

an distinctly

engineering feat,this
it may

possesses

such
to

perfectstructural
eulogies of
the
more

well

lay claim
should how of

the all and

architectural when

critics
we

eulogies that
to

be

emphatic

stop
are

consider creations
to

few
the

far between, that artist the

or

in modern
at

times,
same

the

neer engi-

can,

the

time, appeal
the

the

architectural of form may claim with

designer, as

embodying
;

beauty
the who
reverse

excellence

of construction architecture.

while For

truly justly

be said that
our

of modern

may

present architectural
of modern

efforts

are

true, characteristic
of the progress

expressions
that has

life,or
our

reflections
"

characterized
classical ? of pace the

age

as

classical architecture

architecture

embodied
mediaevalism The

life and

mediaeval

expressed

science

engineering has, at least,been

with modern

ive, progresstecture, archito

keeping
for

developments, while
been
content stationary,

most

part, has

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

copy has

the

original form
ages of

of

civilization Hence
two

whose

substance
causes

undergone

evolution.
in these
none,

arise the

for the

present antagonism
There should of the be

related closely that there

fessions. proone

but

is,no
of

will

deny.

One has

most

prominent
to
"
"

engineers

the
as

United
"

States

been

heard
as

characterize

architects
"

milliners/'and

their work the

millinery
his
own

or

gingerbread pedestalof
the of

decoration pure art,

"; while
scorns

architect,on
as

little

the

engineer

incapable of producing
blind hindrance devotion
to

beautiful.
these forms aims from the

There

is, doubtless, partialjustice in each

architect's of the
a

criticisms; the

to

classic

becoming
of the
a

as

much

the

practical

engineer, as

barren is

stamp
an

of

glaring utility,
to

purely engineering work,

designer.
a

offence has

the

eye

of

artistic for each

But

the

keynote
between

already
these
two

been fessions, pro-

sounded

more

perfect union
is the

of which

necessary

complement

of the

other.

Although

the

term use, arts

architectural the

engineering
of the

has
two

but
arts

recentlysprung
is
as

into the

perfect union

old

as

themselves. show
as

Pyramids, obelisks,
that the architects well.

and temples, palaces, of

sepulchres,all
the

earlydays
ancient for

were

engineers
on

Vitruvius, the
have' been served pre-

only
in
two

whose
us,

ideas

architecture

established

three

qualitiesas

indispensable
the first science

and utility, perfectbuilding : stability, of which

beauty,"
of the

certainlylie
As
a

within that

the

range

of
were

engineering.

proof
laws of

those

early
we

architects but
to

governed by
upon the the

the

of Vitruvius,

have

look

pyramids
of

Egypt,
the and

the

vast

monoliths Parthenon.

of

Rome,
Their for

temples

or Sicily,

massive of

graceful proportions
centuries their made of the massiveness and

harmony
an

design

have

architect

admiring copyist,
to

while

stability suggest

the

en-

IN

TR

OD

UCTOR

Y.

3 Take the
lor

gineer
one

the

of possibilities

human
not

power. far from of its masonry

example
Cairo.
acres

of the

largest pyramids
mass

cityof
11

This of

rough, awe-inspiring
of the

covers

the sands
our

Nile, while

height
or

is but

little less 500

in

than

Washington
the of blocks

Monument,
of

nearly
feet in and
a

feet.

Again,
built

consider

temple
stone
20

Babylon, 660 long,used

broad

height,

of

feet

brick-like
;

fashion, some
or

of them remains found

to

being
of be
an

15 feet

7 feet thick the the and walls

the

massive
were

Egyptian temple,
feet
were

of which of Thebes

24

thick; while

at

gates
fectly per-

the

foundation

walls

50 feet thick

solid. The the and

ethnologist

tells of

an

age
an

of of

clay, then

stone

in

rough and, later,polished;

now as we

age

bronze, then

iron ;

add

steel

and in

the

newer

materials.

ture, Architec-

represented
of
man,

the

temples, tombs,
like

palaces, and
literature, the
needs of the

habitations
surest

has of the it
"

always been,
customs,
in

indication who

arts, and

people

produced
in which

fact,a perfectreflection of the

"

civilization builded of reeds

a

it is found. rude mud

Cain, the
or

son

of

Adam,

city,"
"

the
as

hut

the

flimsystructure
still exist
as

serving
nests

man's

habitation

in

tating primitive times, imi-

the in China

of other

birds, of which
Eastern The
were

modifications
as

and

countries,
later

well

in
straw

many and

parts of dark
then burned such

Africa. brick
a

days

of

clay and
the age

succeeded of excellence castles

by

of

stone,
of the of the

reaching
Greeks middle
at

height
and

in the and

works

and ages.

Romans,
The
was,

the of Bible

cathedrals rebuilt

temple
so

Solomon,

by
in

Herod

Jerusalem,
stones
some

the

states, 46 years

erection, thick,
it

with while
not

46 feet
were

long, 21
the

feet

high,

and
82
our

14

feet

of

great length of
an

feet.
own

Would

tax to

the handle

ingenuityof
such
masses

engineer
of
stone

in

advanced
and
en-

age

Architecture

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

worked gineering certainly which

must
ever

in

harmony

in

these

examples,
of
man.

rank the

with

the greatest creations strides of

Now,
demand

with for of of
a

hurrying
and

civilization,comes
medium blocks
and

cheaper
more

quicker construction, a
than the

capable
of the
ever we

being

easilyhandled
while the construction for is

huge

stone

early ages;
of clamor age

principles of
present
and

statics

economics

themselves

with

increasing
boast

solution
one

application,until

that

our

of in the

specialties, involvingan
observance into exact
we

exactness

hitherto

unknown
as

of

all the

laws It

of nature
was

formulated,

they

are,

sciences.

but

natural, in the examples

should
was

have with

considered,,

that architecture for the architect

go

hand

in hand

engineering,
rule of thumb the laws of

the

engineer, employing

methods,
statics
or

to

be

sure,

and Indeed

knowing
it
was

little of
not

dynamics.
that the

till the arches relation

thirteenth and of vaults ship friendarts

century
was

solution

of the

theory of
the

attempted.
that has

Old, old

indeed, is the

existed and

between
"

naturallyallied
bond, which

of

architecture
we

engineering
us

mutual

will,
of the

believe, give
and

still that

more

perfect examples
engineering
the
to

strength

beauty

architectural

makes and
not

in reference possible: architectural,

expression

beauty

of the edifice from

"

if engineering(perhaps partially,

wholly, hidden

the

and eye),in construction, durability, the which possibilities

to

magnitude
before and the forces
wants
assume

that mind

result

from

open

up

accustomed and

dealing
them The
in the
more

with the

the

matter

of nature, of
an

adapting

to

ing ever-increasof of
nature

exacting public.
and

materials fulfilment of the

higher
as

higher planes

man's

needs,

he

constantly overcomes
and
to to

natural

structive dewith

elements

agencies by applying
every detail of work.
seems

himself

scrupulous
the

exactness

Considering
absurd
to

present

tendency

it specialization,

IN

TROD

UCTOR

Y.

suppose

that
as
an

the

architect

may

eventually be
the
to

employed
architect. in itself

simply
that the Either
to to

ornamental may
too

draughtsman by
become noble subservient and

engineer, or
the

engineer

professionis
of such

comprehensive
a

permit

absorption.
to

It is but
own

natural

prejudice
;

give first importance

the of and

one's

branch
a

of work

and,

indeed, the engineer quite justlyclaims

upon of the accuracy his calculations

prerogative, since
the

depend
tenants.

stability
on

structure

the

safetyof
of
even

the

But,

the

other

hand,

one

cannot

severely censure
as

the best

architect

for
send It is life

such ridiculing

work of

many
or

our

engineers
of line. of
our

forth, as devoid

beauty
be

harmony

apparent, therefore, that

and civilization
two must

the

truest

expression
a more

found

in

perfect harmony
of

of these enabled

professions.The
rule

architect

early days
structures

was a

by

of thumb

methods, good
to

judgment,
the

and

knowledge
the

of past
the

examples
exactness

produce
our

he
at
prehensive com-

built; but with

of

work professional necessities who of

our

present time, and

the

multifold

civilization,the
compass the

architect trained

endeavors will find

to

sphere
Methuselah

of

the

engineer

the Let

longevityof
the let the and the

desirable of
as

for his education.

engineer know
architect laws of the the

more

art

and
as

appreciate its value, and possible of

But that construction either may

know

much

forces

of

nature.

fullygrasp
The

details

of both

seems professions

well-nigh
that such

impossible.
architect is has been accustomed
to

say

union perfect

but impracticable,

the architectural

critics of
"

to-day are
art,
as

demanding
an

it,as is shown

by

the

following:
of

In

in nature,

organism
the the That

is

an

assemblage

pendent interde-

parts, of which

structure

is determined is
an

by
of

the the

function, and
structure."

of which

form form

expression
to

Again

"

is

pleasing

good

taste

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

which
use

shows

and

reveals

its

use.

That and

form outlines and

reveals and
are

the

most

whose successfully
or

surface for

whose
not

skeleton

frame

speak

themselves,

scured ob-

by misplaced
If without then these

ornament." from

quotations
to

purely
are

architectural
to

critics,

reference
more

engineering,
rational union

be

given value,
structural

surely a
on

of

excellent

design

economic the for of

our

with principles,

perfect
is not of
our
"

architectural

expressionof
but The necessary

underlying organism,
a

only possible
civilization.

proper

reflection have demanded

people

country
the been

sky-scrapers,"
centralization. necessities front with
as

in accordance Newr

with have

strong

tendency
and
to
new

to

problems
and the

created has
come

posed, imthe the

engineer
of
on

the

steel and
means

terra-cotta

the

"Chicago construction,"
;

of
to

solution
true

his

part

but

it remains

for the form union in the

to

tect archiwhat the of

give

expression
evolved.

and It

permanent
is from of the labor

the

engineer
obtained that

has

of
art

results

by
we

rational for

division

building

hope

the

perfect architecture

of the

present age.
It has medium been said that
our more our

civilization in accord

has with

demanded the

of construction and economy of

push

and
sive mas-

hurry

day
;
a

than

is found

in the

masonry

construction

substance

combining
the

the mands de-

and strength, durability, of

commerce

required by adaptability rapid

progress.
we

and
our one
own

In the have
to not

tural architecconfined for

history
ourselves it
a

of

country

to

any

material

long enough style

of been

develop

unique,

characteristic form

representation.
a

Our

architectural

has, rather,
and sober way
our

series of
our

of

rapid

changes.
forefathers efforts of

The

refined

examples
to

colonial

rapidly
the

gave in

the

more

ostentatious this

jig-saw

frame

construction, and

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

zation

of business

operations

is attended of

by

many has

vexingcaused
a

the attempted difficulties, number of clauses laws.

solution
to

which

of restriction

appear

in the

municipal going damp,

lurk
on

building
about the

Considerable of

discussion this

has

been the

sanitary aspect
and

question ;
must

wholesome, un-

microbe-laden
streets

air which mountainous

in the
on

deep valleys or
each side
;

between and
soon

structures

the

dark would of is

uninviting
become

offices
;

of and

the the

lower
gested con-

stories,which
condition

vacant

our

sidewalks than
our

when

our

vertical
or

ing carrystreet

capacity
capacity
"

greater

horizontal

ail

are

considerations

of grave

importance.

But with

that

the

proper

regulation of building operations,

future of possibilities be

their

attendant and

difficulties and

development

style, may
of the

successfully accomplished
is very doubtful. The

by general municipal building laws

a

ordinances

of many

larger cities already prescribe

but

maximum

height for

all structures; that

consideringhigh
so

buildings,/^ se,
is laws
to

it is evident

it is not that

much is

tion legislaas

of design the possibilities limiting

needed,

it

compelling
the

the

appointment

of competent

engineers
of

supervise

and designs, specifications,

execution of

large buildings,and
to

possiblya competent
proposed
be location well if of
we

board
an

tects archi-

pass

on

the

extraordinarily
more

high
the
our

structure.

It would

adopted

of
to

European

practice, giving
of
an

harmonious the

appearance

thoroughfares and
each
new

considering
monumental inflexible

conditions specific instead pretensions,

of of
on

structure

binding

all

through

law. be

Edifices treated

fronting
in
more

parks

or

open

spaces

might
those ups and of

then
narrow

heroic

proportionsthan
mixture
to
some

by-ways,

and

the

incongruous

of

downs, side by side, might

of

give place
neighbor
and

semblance

harmony

between

neighbor.

CHAPTER

II.

FIRE

PROTECTION.

BEFORE it will be

considering
well
to

the

details the

of

skeleton

construction of

consider

general

subject

ing, fire-proof-

with The

its effectiveness total fire loss in

and the

its limitation. United of which States the

during
insurance This may value

the

year
panies com-

1894

was

about

$128,000,000,
their the
we

paid,
drain

as

share,
resources

some

$81,000,000.
of the the
was

dous stupenbe better the

on

nation full about the

appreciated
iron

if

consider for the fire

same

that year
we

of

pig

production
When
to to

$75,000,000.
amount to

this

loss the

add

estimated and total

necessary the fire

maintain

fire

departments,
the

sustain exceed

insurance

companies,

grand

will

$175,000,000 annually.
If, then,
per
cent
a

it is all

true, fires

as

stated

by

underwriters
to
causes

that

forty
vented, precomes be-

of

are

attributable of the fire

easily

proper very

treatment

problem

certainly

practical and
of and proper

economic fire

inquiry.
is
now

The
as
a

subject

protection
branch
to

recognized
It is

legitimate longer

important

of

engineering.
to

no

confined
is

exclusively

endeavors
in

protect

human very The

a

life, but
careful
old

greatly increasing
from
ounce

scope,

demanding
as

thought
of
an

its economic

standpoint

well. than its

adage
of
cure

of

prevention
but of this
causes

being

better

pound
as

is
to

slowly
ravages
enters meet

surely demonstrating
fire, as
broad and well field effects
as

truth and and

applied

the who
must

of of

disease,
research
a

the

specialist

improvement

with

pre-

10

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

cision

not

less exact has

than

does

his

medical upon
as

brother.
an

flagration Con-

formerly been
a

looked

inevitable

calamity, inflicted by
owners

supernatural agency
year after year,
to

and pay

propertyenormous

have

been

content,

insurance of Add their

to

rates,

suffering with
and the

resignation the
of

destruction business.
"

property
these and the

annihilation of

their

loss of

articles of art

peculiar associations,
science," and
sword of the

heirlooms

treasures

and

bility possi-

of relief from is is
a

this Damoclean And that

conflagration
fire
waste

liberation

indeed.

this

question of

being seriously considered

of of in

in all its aspects

and

by

all

classes the
use

society

is shown

by

the

widening
The served
to

facilities for of low

construction. fire-proof the

realization

prices
many

building market
and the

has

overthrow
to
as

of the

hitherto

unquestioned prejudices in regard

economy
so

construction, fire-proof

of

such

design
is and the
not
now

opposed
technical

to

the

methods fire-trap

long

in vogue

being daily emphasized

press. And is of that this economy

by architects, engineers,
what is most
to

the fact

gratifyingis
be

beginning

appreciated

only
nificent magas

by

the

owners

palatialoffice buildings, stores,

also

and
means,

residences, but
is evidenced

by people

of

limited

by

the

start at
was
a

already made figure not

found
cost

in

the fire-proofing the

cost

ordinary city house,

present
for
a

exceeding

of

methods. in

It

in taking figures recently,

building

Philadelphia to

$125,000,that
cost

oughly thorper
crease in-

fire-proofed construction
cent
more

would of
in
a

only 3.6
This time short

than be

the

ordinary method
for

building.
very

would the decreased The progress will tide

compensated

by

insurance. has

turned, and

nothing
dawn

can

stay the

flood

of

in this direction.

The
see

of the all of

twentieth
our

tury cen-

undoubtedly
and
even

nearly

mercantile,
those of

manufacturing,

dwelling houses, except

FIRE

PROTECTION.

II

the

very

ing cheapest description,built according to fire-resistthe

principles.Steel,
concrete
are

clay products,
of the of

and

cement

or

the" materials

future, permanent,

firecost.

and of ready adaptability, resisting, The timber fire-trap of

our

remarkably

low

construction, threatening the

tion exhaus-

vast

forestry resources, by
the

accompanied

by

its

to dampness, drought, heat, and susceptibility

as dry-rot,

ing cold, involvago

new

shown in

collapse some
must

years way
to

of

prominent
and The human

hotel

Washington,
improvement
will be

give
a

ditions, con-

further

in

field of such

promise.
and

insurance

burden

gradually lightened,
with

life be better

protected.
be their and erected

While inflammable still remain feed

buildings could
material the in furniture This
to
as

absolutely no
would
to tenants

construction, there property

of

of the
cannot

possiblefire.
; and

element
are

danger dangers

be
come

nated elimifrom

added well

this

the

that
as

without

as

from

within.
even

For

as

long
most

flammabl highly inof

surround buildings modern

structures fire-proof must

the
term

excellent

the stand in
to

is but

mockery.
Hence

Fire-proofstructures
the word
not
mean
"

cities. fire-proof modern from

as applied fire-proof,"

structures, does
all used

one

that

claims

immunity
must
are

danger
in

of

fire,

for and but the

considerable the average claim

woodwork
contents to

still be

interiors,
extreme
;

dangerous
and

in the have
to
a

it does fire

embody principleswhich
interior skill and

reduced

hazard, both
to

exterior,

minimum,

according
term

the that

best

judgment

of the

day.
must

The be

implies

all structural

parts of the edifice material,

the
or

formed which
extreme
new

entirelyof
will heat.

non-combustible

material of the

withstand successfully

injurious action given

in

Following
of

is the

definition
"

building ordinance
'

Chicago:
all

The

term

'fire-proof
all

construction

shall

apply

to

buildingsin

which

parts

12

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

that

carry

weights

or

resist and

strains,and

also
are

all stairs and made

all elevator

enclosures

their contents, in which the

be

entirely
tural struc-

of incombustible members
are

material, and

all metallic

protected against
which
must

effects of fire

by

coverings

of
a

material slow

bustible entirelyincommaterials of which

and shall be

heat-conductor.
as

The

considered
are:

the fulfilling

conditions hollow of shall each the

fire-proof
burnt
structed con-

coverings

First, brick; second,

to

tiles of and

clay applied
in

the
manner

metal

in

bed

mortar, be
two

such

that of
an

there

air-spaces
width of the
;

of at least metal

three-fourths
to

inch

by

the

surface

be

covered, within
which

said
at

clay covering
least two metal in metal be
a

third, porous thick, and

of mortar;
so

terra-cotta,

shall be
to

inches
a

shall also be

applied direct furring that

one-half the metallic of
an

the

bed

fourth, three
upon metal
at

layers of plastering on
there shall inch thick

lath,
solid the airtween be-

applied
of
to

layer
metal spaces

mortar

least and

between then
two

be covered least

lath,and
inch

of at the

three-fourths

in the

clear the

first-mentioned

and layer of plastering

outer

surface There

of the finished
are

covering."
materials

many

quite satisfactory
parts of
a

as

fire-

proofing
but the

mediums inventor material

for the has

constructional
to

building,
bustible incomcan

yet

supply
the confine

an

acceptable
The best

for the
is

interior reduce
to

finish.

that

be
to

done,
a

at

present,
and and

to

inflammable the fire

it

elements

minimum,

endeavor

by
do and

means

of

floors fire-proof

so partitions,

that

may

no

injury
ings. furnishof

beyond

the This

consumption
may be
or

of

local

woodwork

accomplished
terra-cotta

largely by

means

floors of concrete
or

with wood

I-beams, using mosaic

marble

tile instead
cement
or

of

flooring, partitions
lath, or
terra-cotta

of

plasterboard,
and bases and

metallic of

blocks,

wainscoting

marble.

The

of possibility

FIRE

PROTECTION.

using
either covered
time

frames of

and

casings
sheet

for

doors
over

and

windows and

made doors of short

metat^o^
with sheet

metal
seems

wood,
a

metal,

but

question

in

adding
A

further

to efficiency

high-class fire-proof
has

structures.

metal-covered

door
a

lately been

duced intro-

in this incombustible barrier attended

country,

giving

and well-appearing, light,

contrivance, and

serving
The

as

an

effectual that has has also

against the spread of

the the
use

flames.

success

of

wire

glass in
reduce the

skylights
exterior
most

prompted

suggestion to

hazard

by

protecting

all windows,

which
a

offer

the

vulnerable silvered
or
or

points of attack, by using

gilded
wires imbedded the

plate glass with

therein, in graceful patterns

of additional The fire

work, net-

serving
well and power
as

purpose effect.

protection, as
the the become

architectural proper

planning of
of

building,
various vital

the

location and

and

installation

plants
in

mechanical

features, also

problems
The may afforded

fire-proofing.
that has attended such tion past efforts in this direcof fire
as

success

be in

judged by
protected
such
tests

examples
The
new

have and the

been
most

structures.

largest
was

interestingof
of the

of the

methods

ing burnunder

Chicago
Though

Athletic
not
u

Club

building

while
a

construction.

as entirely satisfactory

test
ance assur-

of

present building methods,

that
was

this
"

building furnishes
that the metal

an

lacking

before

parts of

building
put
the
is

if

thoroughly protected by fire-proofing, properly

on,

will

safelywithstand

any

if ordinary conflagration, the

quantity of combustible

materials which

building
into

contains the
struction con-

not

greatly in
of the

excess

of that

enters

building itself."
from 'the

This

extract

report
its

of

experts

employed
two

to

investigate this

fire and

effects,emphasizes

very

important facts, namely,

the

danger

of

the

indiscriminate

14

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

use

of combustible

material

not

absolutely necessary
evident of superiority

in the
cotta terra-

construction, and
as a

second, the

substance. fire-proofing which fire,

case on

The
was

above first

occurred of the
a

on

November
a

i,

1892,

the be

record

fire in loss
to

building

intended
panies com-

tc

where fullyfire-proof
was

the of

insurance its value.

more

than in the

thirtyper
"

cent

It is been

further

stated

report that
never

if the

building had

completed,
material heat

it would

have

contained have

combustible

to enough (or so distributed) to

produced

cient suffito

have

done

any

considerable

damage

the

building by burning."
The
as a

fire in

question
of

was

of very

intense

heat, inasmuch
etc.,
was

vast

quantity
in mass,
no

trim, scaffolding, flooring,

to
use

collected there

preparatory
reason

but,

in

spite of this,
and integrity and fire, the
no

seemed of the

for
a

questioning

the

strength
doubt saved

building,as
that the
utter

whole, after

the

existed them until

around fire-proofing

columns in

from the The

collapse, because
had the fed the flames

it

remained
was

place

fuel

that
to

well-nigh
the entire

exhausted. destruction

result

building

included

of all the
well
as

interior

finish, plastering, piping,and

elaborate the of front of Bedford beams tected unpro-

wiring, as
stone
were

parts of the
brick.
a

and

pressed

But few

steel columns the latter end

and where

uninjured, except
;

and
were

the

tile arches, built after the almost heat

construction the combined cold

method,
action
water.

uninjured,
and

in

spite of

of

great

frequent applications of

It is not when
as

advocated the

that

as fire-proofing

efficient

(or

efficient in-

preservation of
is

human for

life is

considered)
needsbeen

the

foregoing example
not.

sufficient

present

it

is certainly

But

certain

underlying facts
taking
these

have

clearlyproved by

this test, and

essential

points

l6

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

First
courses,

used

in interior

work

only, it

soon

appeared
and modelled
use

in belt work

sills, caps,
hard-finished

ornamental terra-cotta, stone,

panels
until

in the
more

to-day its
in entire

is almost
a

general
The

than

appearing

fronts, as

bold-faced

itself. impersonationof solidity field of architectural been widened

to
a

expression
still in
more

in

terra-cotta

has

recently by
the the this the

remarkable

degree
of

successful the

completion
Reliance

enamelled

terra-cotta

fa"adesof
Northwestern material and did

Building, Chicago, supplied by

Co.

Terra-Cotta

(see Fig. i). Should

our

successfullywithstand
undergo
the
more

severe

climatic

changes,
as

the

same

course

of used

rapid improvement
in

ordinary
extensive architect in the The that the
soot

terra-cotta

exteriors,
then
"

vast

field for up
to

coloring effects
who smoke strives and
to

would
create

be

opened
of

the

thing
our

beauty

forever" cities.

soot-laden idea of

air of

American

underlying they
may be
so

enamelled

teriors ex-

is,of
and cleansed
at

course,

readilywashed
soon

down
at-

of

which

destroys any
problem,
evident and that

tempts
With
as

lightcoloring.
this

general
of
must

review

of the

fire

cotta terraa

weapon

defence, it becomes
possess of
:

proof fire-

structure
1.

General All

excellence

design.

2.

floors of columns

construction. fire-proof of masonry

or

3. All 4.

steel,protected from
of masonry
or

fire.

All outside from fire.

piers

and

walls

steel, protected

5. All There
at
"

and partitions
are

construction. furring of fire-proof of of the

three time

methods
as means

general design reducing

so-called the
"

advocated
"

the slow

present

fire risk mill

the

burning construction,"
and the
"

tion," construc-

still more

effectual

construction." "fire-proof
"

The

term

slow

burning

construction

is

applied

to

build-

FIRE

PROTECTION.

FIG.

i.

"

The

Reliance

Building.

D.

H.

Burnham

"

Co., architects.

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

ings
and

in

which

the
are

structural made from

members,
of

carrying

the

floor
but ol

roof

loads,

combustible

material,
means

protected throughout
coverings
Thus side the of wooden floor

injury by fire, by
protected
metal

incombustible, non-heat-conducting materials.

are joists

on

the

under
a

by

single covering
of
I

of

plaster on
or

lath, while
ing deaden-

thickness is
a

j-inches

of the

mortar

incombustible

required above
area

joists. Columns,
inches
or

if of oak, with need

not

sectional

of

100

square

over,

have
closures en-

coverings. special fire-proof

must

Partitions

and

elevator

be

wholly

of incombustible

material, and

no

wood

furring is Buildings
of

allowed.
"

mill construction

"

are
a

those

in which
area

all of at less be

floor and

roof

and girders have joists

sectional

least 72 square than

inches, with
in thickness.

solid Columns

timber

flooringnot
need
not

3f inches

of wood
area

but protected,
100

they

should

have

sectional elevator wooden

of at least
are

square

inches.

Partitions

and
no

enclosures

of incombustible is used.
"

material, and

furring or
defined.
on

ing lath-

construction" Fire-proof

has

alreadybeen
depend
on

The
use

two

types first mentioned

do

not, then,
but

the

of

materials

wholly incombustible,
and careful
to
use

rather

the

judicious
free from
to
are a

design
aim

of

ordinary building materials, the

so

being

provide
that

structures

open
no

and

fire-lurkingcorners

they

may

offer

obstacles

speedy suppression
adapted peculiarly
The in may
a

of the
to

conflagration.These
and

types
the
not

large mills,warehouses,
a

like.
sist con-

scientific
proper

of fire-proofing

building

does
a

selection
secure

of materials

alone, for
accidental

structure

be

reasonably
of

against

fire,or

the
;

extension
nor

fire, even

when in

built of combustible

materials the
causes

does It

it lie
can

merely
secured

guarding against
a

of

fire.

be

only by

thorough acquaintance

FIRE

PROTECTION.

19 minutest details
"

with kinds
numerous

all the of

general
of

features

and
a

of for

all the

structures,
elements

and

by

quick perception
that
are

danger
of

constantly creeping
The

into

modern

systems
to

buildings."
means

plan

must

be

studied carefully between

secure

of

cutting off
between

cation communiaround

floor

and

floor, and

and

dangerous

sources,

if possible, all stairways and isolating,

means

elevator-shafts all power there that

can

by
and

of

walls, fire-resisting

and way

fining con-

mechanical

plants in
not

such

that

be

no

means possible

of fire extension.

It is true the isolated

care

most

high
or

office

buildings do
if

possess
do

stair- well
must

elevator-shaft,but
in

they
and

not, great
of

be

taken

making
of smoke

the

halls

corridors the
means

more

than

ordinary security. They

distribution the
to

will still be floor

assume

for

rapid
make

from

to

floor, and
an

thus

danger
that

from

suffocation
This

importance
not

equal

of fire. and itself,

has threatening possibility be

yet verified
denied No the less

it is to

hoped
of

that

it will

be

opportunity.
important pipeshould and be is the

cuttingoft

all communication and

a

between of all kinds fundamental

air-passages.Piping
considered carefully
as

passages

part of the

design,
their make

for

they

not

only

become

great eyesores

from
serve

but exposed positionsin offices, many of

our

they

also

to

endeavors fire-proofing

quite

useless. The in architect

to
or

engineer
and

must

be finally
uses

well

informed firein all

regard

the

details These

varied
must

of

approved

proofing materials.
the different

include the

terra-cotta

shapes
economic the
most

made

by

terra-cotta

companies,
etc.

cement,

concrete,

fire-brick, asbestos,
use

mackolite,
materials may be

judicious and
so secure

of all these

is

sary, neces-

that the

form practicable

chosen

to

desired

end.

20

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

Some detailed
a

of these

important
we

minutiae remember

may that

properly receive
the

attention, when
is metal safe

strength

of

structure

gauged

by

its weakest for

point.
are

The for their

to

columns,

example,
from

properly figured
step
and
a on

dimensions, but
a

this

they
owner,

are

apt

become

bug-bear
to

to

both their the of

architect size
to

the
on

former
account

desiring

reduce while
revenue

minimum that

of appearance, him of the

latter considers

they

deprive Any

just so
to

much reduce

floor-space.
their
run

measures

are

therefore

adopted

size. up

First,the various

waste-, heat-,and
from

supply-pipesare
For in the made the

alongsidethe
of these

columns

floor to floor.
must

passage tile floor

never

pipes openings

be

arches, which, in the rush

be the
one

of

buildingoperations,may
These of the

properly
line

filled up

again.

openings
column,
to

come

inside

of the

slabs fire-proof flue from

thus

forming
The

long

continuous of the than

basement

roof. column

finished often
not

line
more

fire-proofedand
2

plastered
extreme
or

is the

in. from

the

points of

metal-work, and
little various
even

then, deducting " in.

left for the

" in. for plaster,

The

enough pipes

is

fire-proofing proper.
will very often

before the and

mentioned column shave

project

farther

than trim

itself, thereby tempting the

till the

to fire-proofer

originallittle has
of these A steel used

come be-

still less. In the

were

Athletic

Club with

Building

fire

some

points
work frameas

illustrated and

glaring prominence.
been

covering having fire-proof

of

the

main

elements
were

construction, further
In

consideration
no case

of fire the fire-

hazards

apparently slighted.
more

did

proofing extend
of the in the the floor

than while

in. from

the

outermost

edge
bedded em-

ironwork,

wooden

nailing-stripswere
of about
3

tile at intervals

ft. starting from ft. of.

(a 4-in.face exposed), making

successively 3

FIRE

PROTECTION.

21

tile and
as error

4 in. of wood.

These

were nailing-strips

employed
a

grounds
was

for the in back

to

and panelledoak wainscoting,

further

made
no
"

leaving
"

an

air-space behind

this

ling, panelleft
an

with

plastering. The
the wooden

ceiling also

due air-space, As column sections.

a

i-in. raised of
course

nailing-strips. grounds
around in the

matter

burned
It
so

out,

fall letting the fire-proofing that but

two
can

3-foot
were

happened
intense

columns say what

badly they
streams

bent

by

the

heat, but who

unbent columns

the Were

of stability cooled

those

re-used

is ? really the

slowly, or
and

suddenly by
rendered

application of
were

of water,

thus

and brittle,
strain
was
in

they
of
be

heated
on

unevenly, thus
one

causing great
column? ? No and
state

the material
amount

but

side of the and

What

the

expansion
made with

contraction

experiments

could

reasonable

economy

these safetyto satisfy of the

queries, leaving the

present

building an

certain un-

conjecture.
The proper in installation
a

and

distribution

cal of the mechanibeen

features considerable

modern

office

building have
M.

given

attention

by John
system
the

Carrere

(see Eng. Mag.,

him will
doubtedly un-

October,

1892),and
add

the

proposed by

greatlyto
of the

of fire-proofing, and efficiency details

remedy
order the
to

many avoid

weak

just considered.

In of

chases, or

continuous
"

flues,the

lowering
a

hall

is ceilings suggested, thereby obtaining

zontal hori-

space lined and

steam

under

the

floors of

the

halls

at

each

story,
features

where fire-proofed, heat

can

all the
"

mechanical An

except

be

placed

(see Fig. 2).

for

ment arrange-

of this

character
it would

would

certainly possess
be accessible would

many repairs,
as a

great
easy

advantages
of and

"

always
all hidden

connection
at

with
same

offices,and
conduit

serve

safe

the

time

for all
exhaust

wiring, piping,
or

and

ventilatingair-ducts, either

indriven.

22

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

The when

additional its

expense is

would

not

be
never

great

either, and

permanency

considered,
as

being affected
the
case,

by

the

moving
that

of

etc., partitions,
a

is

now

it is
more

surprising general use.

At
or

such

system

has

not

attained

the

ends built

of these

horizontal

ducts

are

vertical
or

chases from hori-

ducts
to

blocks solidlyof fire-proof connected

at

brick the

cellar

roof, and

each

floor

with

OFFICE

OFFICE

OFFICE

FIG.

2.

zontal and fire.

off leads, but still partitioned

at

each

floor with
of

wire

to plaster partitions,

prevent
risers

the

spread
be

possible
in the these office the

All

of the

vertical the

could

placed
pipes
in

chases, thus
space, column The
or

avoiding

of unsightliness

the

necessity of placing such

of

piping

within

space.

growing
judged

importance
the the
care new

adequate

fire the

protection encasing
of

may
the These

be

from

displayed in
Tremont of great would

large girders at girders carry

tendency
from results. of The

Temple
load, and
be
were

in Boston. any ing warpmost

columns

great

heat

attended

by

serious

steel
on

girders
all

first surrounded these blocks

was

by
were

blocks then

terra-cotta

sides, and
Over with these
a

bound

by

iron metal

bands.

blocks
coat

stretched

expanded

lathing

heavy

of

CHAPTER

III.

SKELETON

CONSTRUCTION"

EXAMPLES,

ERECTION,

ETC.

MANY

of pages

the may

details be

which better if
a

will

be

discussed in

in their

the

lowing fol-

appreciated

relation

to

the

whole

subject
The of the

few of

typical
this outline

skeleton will
not

structures

are

examined. discussion of
a

scope

permit
in

of the the

architectural office
are

problems

involved
or

design
structures

modern which

building, hotel,
built considered But the

any
to

of

now

according
are,

skeleton of

methods. construction view of the

The

points
pure and

here

rather, those

simple.
to

the architect

comprehensive
or

subject
may the

necessary

tural architecaccurate

engineer
knowledge
successful lie within of

only
manifold These

be

obtained items which

to

through
become the
mere

an

part

of

plan.
the and of

accessories of in the

frame-work
well
as

province
here,
as

engineer
execution

as

of

the
pression ex-

architect,

the

of
a

the

external

architectural between the

engineering,
two

perfect
the be

harmony
of

must

exist mechanical be The when

branches
are

in
to

perfection
secured which

all may

details, if results
upon of such
as

looked

creditable
accessories

to

both be

professions.
more

value
the all the
are

may
a

fully

ized real-

self-sufficiencyof
modern

modern is

office considered. and

building,
tric Elec-

containing light,
toilet-rooms while late

improvements,
mail-chutes,
demanded
as

telephone,

well-appointed
necessities,
vice, ser-

already

absolute and

examples
and

provide
news-stands

telegraph
and

messenger

cigar-

barber-shops,

besides
24

SKELETON

CONSTRUCTION.

2$ It is true

restaurants

and

cafes

in would

the

basements.
seem

that

many

of these

factors

to. have

little bearing on

the duties

of the
on

engineer, and
the

yet it
of the

was

justsuch

tions, condiof office of the ments base-

imposed
so-called raft

designer
the

foundations

buildings,that produced
or

successful

development
that the the

floatingfoundations,
be

in order

might

unencumbered

by

large pyramidal

FIG.

3."

Chicago

Stock

Exchange.

Adler

"

Sullivan, architects.

masses

-of stone space

previously used
be added
to

as

and footings,

the

ment baseor

might

the

available The

rentingarea,
rigid
be economy obtained
to

be used floor

for the which

mechanical is demanded
to

plants.
may

of

space

only
structure

by

careful

attention

the

most
rooms

advantageous
in the

uses

which

the different

floors and

may

be put.

Some
in

examples
will here

of office be

buildingsrecentlyconstructed

Chicago

given.

26

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

THE

CHICAGO

STOCK

EXCHANGE.

perspective

of in

this

building by
The with white

Adler
are

"

Sullivan,

architects, is shown
of the
a

Fig. 3.

facades

constructed brick in

yellow-drab terra-cotta,
interior
court.

enamelled

Fig.
and

shows

the

basement

the plan,containing
etc.

boiler-

restaurants, engine-rooms,

Fig. 5

is

plan

of

the

ground
the

floor,showing the
etc.

trance en-

vestibules,elevators, store

areas,

Fig. 6 gives a plan of

etc., on
spaces, shown.
THE

arrangement

of

the

offices,

the sixth and

floor.

The

toilet-rooms,barber-shop, vent
of the

the arrangement

lightingcourts

are

plainly

MARQUETTE

BUILDING.

This Holabird The

office
"

building (see Fig. 7), designed by

but
a

Messrs.

Roche, architects,has
walls
are

justbeen
dark red

completed.
brick, with

exterior

built

mainly of

terra-cotta

base, cornice, and

trimmings. possible sub-divisions, is

floors until be made
in

showing typicalfloorplan,
in

given
the

Fig.

8.

Many

of

the

the

larger office
that the
tenant.

are buildings

never

subdivided of offices may

RELIANCE

rented, in order
to

arrangement

suit

BUILDING.

Fig. 9 gives a
D. H. Burnham " offices is intended

typical floor plan

Co., architects.
for side
rooms

of This used

this

building by
of The for
as

arrangement
in suites. the space

to

be

pipe
is the

space

at

the

of the the

elevators, and
are

counterweights
circular elevator
seen on

behind

elevators,

shown, plainly

smoke

flue.
in these

The may be

accommodations the be

various

buildings freight
space
as

plans. Rapid

passenger the

and

service allowed well

as

must

both the the

provided for,and

necessary

for for

hydraulic cylinders in
vertical

the

basement,
must

counterweights.

Beams

be

SKELE

TON

CONS

TR

UCTION.

Dd

28

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

SKELETON

CONSTRUCTION.

29

---"--.

3O

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

FIG.

7.

"

The

Marquette

Building.

Holabird

"

Roche,

architects.

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

FIG.

9.

"

Typical

Office

Floor

Plan

of

the

Reliance

Building.

SKELETON

CONSTRUCTION.

33 water-tanks

supplied
located
to

to

support the

elevator

sheaves, and

supply the hydrauliccylinders.

as

If the basement, and and the

it

in

Fig.4,

lies below

the

sewer

level,
boilerto

is to be

occupied by
an

stores, cafes,or
be

by

the

engine-rooms,
sewage
to

ejector pit will

level.

necessary for

raise

the

proper

Pumps
and

water-supply,
plant
for

dynamos
power and the

for and

electric

light, boilers
all
must

steam

heating
"

be

determined definitely
to

weighed carefully building,and

as

in their

relation

the

character

of and

the design of affecting

foundations

all structural details. The

some

following data
of the mechanical

may

be

of interest

as

of descriptive
of

furnishingsof
buildings, the

one

Chicago's Temple,

most

celebrated
in

office

Masonic

shown The
means

Fig.

10.

entire of
a

drainage

is carried

through

the

building by
half of which

about system of vertical risers, the

street

one

connect

directly with
from the all
are

mains, through piping

remainder and of ment base-

suspended
the

basement from

The ceiling.the
a

risers,and
space,

drainage
connected

boiler-room of

by

system

underground
in
to
a

piping,with
in the
street

two

5o-gallonShone
from which
was

ejectors, placed
sewage in is forced order
to

pit
the the All

basement,
sewer.

the

This stores,

necessary

keep

basement

cafes, etc., free from

the

exposed pipes.
for

vertical

pipes
were

in

building,both
in

water-supply and
from
to

drainage,

carried

fire-proof pipe-spaces especially

is

provided.
the

The

water-supply
located

pumped

the

city
tanks

mains, by pumps
on

in the basement,
a

storage

twentieth
On tanks the

floor,with
twentieth

combined also
are

capacity
four

of 7000

gallons.
elevator and
a

floor

compression
For elevator

total. of 18,500 gallons capacity

seven 2000

water-supplyservice capacity of
from

pumps
to

are

required,having
minute.

total

3800 gallons per

34

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

FIG.

io."

The

Masonic

Temple.

Burnham

"

Root,

architects.

SKELE

TON

CONS

TR

UCTION.

35 with eral gen-

Each

office and

store

has

privatewash-basin,
the

toilet-rooms The
main
rooms

and

barber-shop on
contains and twelfth each.

nineteenth

floor.
tional addiment, base-

toilet-room
on

64 closets, besides
floors and in the

the third
8 to

with

from

18 closets

FIG.

ii."

The

New

York

Life

Insurance

Building. Jenney

"

Mundie,

architects.

Forty
"

thousand

square

feet of radiation
The
steam

surface

are

quired, re-

all in direct radiation. overhead

"

is

supplied on

the

system

through

i6-in. mains

running directly

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

to

the

thence attic,

around

the

exterior

walls

and

down.
For the
are

Six

dynamos supply 7000 i6-candle-power lamps.

and
steam
a are

power

planteight horizontal
of
1000

tubular

boilers

used, with
There

total

horse-power.
in the Several Masonic of the

several of

features

Temple
upper

sign de-

worthy

note. especial

floors

FIG.

12.

"

Banking
to

Floor,

New

York

Life Insurance

Building.

are

devoted

Masonic

purposes,
were

and

the free

largeassembly-,
from columns
rest court at

drill- and

banquet-rooms
the
areas

kept

by
the also each

spanning
arched possesses

with roof

lattice
trusses.

girders,on
The

which

ceiling and

interior

specialfeatures

in

the

galleries provided

SKELE

TON

CONS

TR

UCTION.

37

story for the

attract

lower

ten

floors.

This the like

plan
as

was

intended

to

small

storekeepers and
or

occupants of the
many

adjoiningstores

thus offices,

concentrating

trades-

"5

/"

reef

FlG.
men

13."

Typical
one

Office

Floor

Plan, New

York

Lhe

insurance

Building.
a success.
an

under
The

roof. of the

The Masonic
as

scheme

has not

proved

roof of

Temple
a

is covered and

by

closure en-

serving glass,

summer-garden

place of

observation.
NEW YORK LIFE INSURANCE

BUILDING.

perspectiveof

this

building, designed by Jenney

in

"

Mundie,

architects, is shown

Fig. n.

The

lower

three

38
floors
The shown
are

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

built of the

with granite,

brick
to

and

terra-cotta

above. is in

plan of
in

first floor, devoted the

banking

purposes, is shown

Fig.

12, while

typicaloffice plan

Fig. 13.

FIG.

14.

"

The

Fort

Dearborn

Building.

Jenney
BUILDING.

"

Mundie,

architects.

FORT

DEARBORN

This It
was

building,shown

in

Fig.
" in

14, is but

just completed. architects, and

will
a

designed by Jenney
of the details used

Mundie,

number

its construction

be

ARCHITECTURA

ENGINEERING.

FIG.

15."

Typical

Office

Floor

Plan,

Fort

Dearborn

Building.

SKELE

TON

CONS

TR

UCTION.

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

FlG.

17.

"

The

Old

Colony

Building.

Holabird

"

Roche,

architects.

SKELETON

CONSTRUCTION.

43

It is for the

comparatively seldom
of
a

that

complete
made

detail

plans

steelwork

buildingare
the
cases

by
such

the

architect.

Still less
could be

frequent
used
as

are

where

detail

plans

actual

shop drawings by

the

contractor,

L/N"

FIG.

18.

"

Typical Framing

Plan

of

the

Fort

Dearborn

Building.

as

in

nearly every
his
own

case

the

manufacturer conform

much
to

prefers to
the usage
content

make his
to
own

shop drawings, to
The architect and has

of

plant.

generallybeen
material
to

specifythe

sizes

weights

of the

be

used"

44

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

leaving the
the

details to

be

worked

out

by

the

contractor

with

approval
The

of the architect.

trained

engineer, however,
--[

is not

usually satisfied

FIG.

19.

"

Typical Framing
on

Plan

of

the

Reliance

Building.

with best

such classes

license of work

the
are

part
made

of
in

the

contractor,
with

and

the

accordance
a

definite

details

furnished

by

the

engineer, after

careful

considera-

SKELETON

CONSTRUCTION.

45 This does but

not

tion that

of the

conditions

to- be

fulfilled.
are

mean

complete shop drawings

and

made,

rather
as

such ticular parbe

gineer, en-

connections

points special
The balance

in the of

design

need

attention. made
to

the the

detailingmay approval
of the marked

suit the

contractor,
the

with

in the

conformity with
the of

sizes of material

on

plan, and
The idea details

drawn carefully the

specifications.
to

allowing
his
own

manufacturer

prepare and

plete com-

after

general scheme,
consistent with such that

following
results, in

only, is specifications
the has very

not

best
an

judgment
often
common

of

the

writer,

though
It is true

arrangement
it has
to to

been

advocated.

been

practicewith
and

bridge engineers
allow the
as

furnish

the

moving-load diagram,
structure
as

bidders

design the
ments requirebeen
one

they

saw

fit, so

long

it fulfilled all has

of the
reason

This specifications.

probably
shown bidder

for the better his

high degree

of excellence
as

in the

work

of the
to
a

bridge companies,
to

each

endeavors Such
a

use

material

the

best

possible advantage.

will require however, in building work practice, careful supervisionof the work by the engineer, and various
contractors

very the

as

will

use

those

shapes most
the
over

in

favor, or

of least cost, at their

works, particular
all be gone may
case,

calculations,connections,
and

details, etc., must checked, that all conditions

thoroughly
careful

be

A satisfactory. where such

checking
freedom is able
to to

is necessary is accorded grasp the

in any the

but

complete
that he
as

bidder, it will
ensemble in the

rarely be
a

general

in such

manner

make

details satisfactory
most

required

time.

Again,
could be

only the
intrusted

responsibleand
such
a

experienced firms
and

with

task.

Carefully drawn
details, with

specifications, complete
sections of and dimensions

accurate

framing plans,sufficient spandrel

all sizes and

any

special

material, will insure

46

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

rapid

and

work satisfactory The

on

the may

part of the
then be

iron

tractor. con-

shop drawings
the

examined, and
received.

stamped

with

approval of
ERECTION.

the

engineer as

In

skeleton
very

construction, the

erection

of the framework is
once

progresses
on

rapidlyafter
All

the material and

delivered members and field-

the

ground.
at

punching
the

of riveting the

the

is done

the be

shop, leaving only

done
on

assembling
the

riveting to
of the
use were

ground,

besides

adjustment
the

laterals.

has entirely superseded Field-riveting best class of work.

on

of bolts

in the
were

Bolt

connections of the

tried, but
which the due Steam

soon

discarded

account

cracks
from
was

developed
the

in the

plastered ceilings, radiating

with the floor holes. purpose
were

column
to

connections

system.

This

play of
built
cases

the

bolts in the

cranes some

expresslyfor
Chicago.

the

have

been
on

used tracks these

in

in

They
over

operated

which
cranes

were

quickly laid
pull
as

the up

floor
an

system, and

would

themselves The

incline, from
boom the and members derricks
contractors at
a

story

to

story, as fast
little

erected.
on
a

crane

gine en-

platform
required
or

revolved

pivot, so
The

that

very

handling.

old-fashioned
some

are, however, gin-poles

generally used,
one

preferring the
while
stones

short
use a

gin-pole,erecting large
$6
to

story

time,

others in

boom

derrick, setting several

derrick.
ton.

place
costs

before from
can

shifting the
$8 per

The

erection

of ironwork Two hours

stories

generallybe
the basement
in

erected of

in six

days
the

of ten the

each.

In the from

Unity Building
nine

seventeen

stories

metal-work, roof, was

The of erection

columns weeks.
a

to

finished

accomplished following
of the New data

Avill

give
in

better

idea
as

of

the
in

pidity ra-

building operations
York Life

Chicago
:

shown

the

Building

48

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

SKELETON

CONSTRUCTION.

49

FIG.

21.

"

The

Reliance

Building

during

Construction,

August

I,

1894.

5O

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

Figs. 20

and

21

show

the

Reliance

Building during

struction. con-

PERMANENCY

OF

SKELETON

CONSTRUCTION.

Aside discussion skeleton and

from has

the

question of
of late This of

fire

resistance,considerable
the permanency of

arisen

concerning

construction. observers the

controversy
skeleton of the

between has

friends been

indifferent

methods

aggravated by
of the

reluctance

supervisingarchitect
such construction edifices"
as

to Treasury seriously

consider

worthy
notably

the in

dignityand
the While the

of government solidity
new

proposed
concrete not

Post-Office
pros and

building
cons

for

Chicago.
and construction side of

architectural and be
nes

of

cotta terra-

steel,or
may
matter

steel,versus
gone
one

solid

masonry

here beer

into, the
of

engineering importance. depending

reliable data
are

this
as

great
as

Serious

it

is,it

must

still be for the

admitted
want

largely on
under
to

personal views,
conditions.

of

present

Many

architects

not

slow others with

pronounce

judgment against
the
cause

such steel

while practice, in combination of

warmly champion
tile, concrete,
or

of The

cement.

divergence
discussion
on

present
the

opinion
American where

was

well

shown of

in

recent

before

Institute

Architects deterioration

this

very
or

subject,
under instances tions. condi-

examples

of

the
were

of iron

steel

peculiar conditions
of remarkable The conditions. have
mortar to

emphatically
under
seem

offset

by

preservation point
would then

other
to

peculiar
to

be

define these engineers

if
not
no

Prominent that

Chicago
seems

architects
to

and that will

said

experience
the be corrosion of any

show metal

lime

is used
to

of the

amount to

enough

danger,

while of
or

others

point

the its

well-known exclusive of
use

preservativequalities
in connection

lime, and
steel. Our

urge

with
or

iron

edge knowldefinite

wrought

iron

steel,therefore, under

SKELETON

CONSTRUCTION.

5
in

variations

of

heat and
to

and

moisture, and
as

association

with

limes, cements,
must accurate

concrete,
be

found

in present defined

practice,

continue data.

until unsatisfactory

by
show this

more

Chicago engineersand
comDinations
of

builders

their

daily faith
in the The
mortar

in such is

material, and
more

type

of construction United

rapidlybecoming
lime, whether
as a

and

more

general

States.
as one

effects of
or

of the

ingredientsof
in connection the
are

limestone,
seem

corrosive

factor

with

ironwork

to

depend
cables
on

very

largely upon Examples

after had

peculiarconditions
recorded of

of each

case. particular

anchorage
were

in

American

suspension
some come

bridges which
to

found,
away with

disclosure the

years, into ence pres-

be

partlyeaten
contact
was

where the

strands

permanent

limestone

masonry.
for
matter

The

of water action masonry

;

possibly accountable
a

this
to

corrosive
construct

but

it becomes will

very
of

difficult
no

which

allow

permeation
as

of

moisture,
in but ing build-

in walls, piers,or especially

foundations,
pure
water
"

found

practice. Dry oxidizing effects

becomes
on

air and iron the is

or

produce
but
or

slight
former

steel

when

the

moist, and

latter

impure
up,

tion acidulated, oxidawhen

once menced, com-

of the material
unless becomes
mortar
a

speedilyset
is

and

the

process

arrested, its ultimate

of time."
to

tion destruc-

simple question
be

The

use

of lime
where
no

would, therefore, seem

of moisture with may the

limited

localities

fear

anticipated ;
must
soon

for any show

dampness
its effects

in
on

combination the metal-work.

lime,

Considering the parts

exposed
we

of
or

skeleton

structure

which of the

are

to

the
:

weather,

liable to the

presence

ture, moisbase

have

all exterior

walls, piers,etc., and

From
not

ment

members,
seem

includingfoundations.
that lime
mortar

the

foregoing
in
any

it would

should

be used

52 of these

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

positions.
etc.,
are

The

foundations
surrounded

and

basement

walls, moisture,
walls

columns,
or

either
or

by

constant

by

wet

clay

earth

itself,while
are

the
to

exterior the

and

supporting
later

steelwork

subjected

climatic
must

changes, frost,rain, and

sooner or so

penetrating dampness,
terra-cotta

which

pierce the
metal-work.

and such

brick

envelope,

and

reach should

the

For be used

positions cement
a

mortar

undoubtedly
of in

; it seems

most

fect per-

conservator

metal-work, and

instances
a

are

recorded

of iron found
in cement in American

perfectcondition
concrete

after
water.

ment entomb4OO-years' Links of

below

anchorages
up after
bedded emuse

suspension bridges have

in
a

been

taken

many

years

perfect state
A the is further fact that

of

preservation

where of the

in cement.

recommendation the thermic

as

of cement Portland
fact which

lies in
cement

expansion
that any of iron
"

of
a

the practically

same

insures

perfect cohesion
of the

under

changes
not

of

temperature.
The interior members

framework
at
a

do
more

need uniform

as

careful

consideration, being maintained

aad

temperature,
Interior

protected
the floor

from

the

exterior and with work wind

dampness.
bracing
mortar,
not

columns,

system,

would, therefore^ seem

but it is

safe in connection the

even

lime

questionablewhether
mortar

best
cement

should

call for

cement

and

plaster throughout.
of
on

Cement
cement

has

rapidly cheapened largelybeing

to

late
account

years,

and

are plasters

used

of their

better

qualities. fire-resisting
been

It has

suggested
rather

on rely entirely on
a

the

preserving
the

of qualities

cement

than

proper that

paintingof
his after This is but

metal-work.
show
a

Prof.

Bauschinger
iron and square

states

experiments

cohesion
570
to

between

concrete

hardening
even more

of from than the

640 Ibs. per

inch.

tensile

strength

of the

best

concrete,

in build-

SKELETON

CONSTRUCTION.

53
cement mortar

ing

work

perfect union
can never

between be attained

the
at

and
a

metal-work

all

points, and
upon.

thorough coating
All

of

paint must
ironwork

largelybe
mixed with

relied

constructive
with either The oxide

should, therefore, be oil,or

should red be

well lead
ployed. em-

coated
and

lampblack
very of best iron

linseed-oil.
The

of materials
mineral

or

paint
the

which

has

generallybeen
has been

for specified
to

all

paintingof
the

metal-work form
an

found
of the

separate from
behind
now

steel,and
A mixture the best

oxidation lead and

metal

the

paint.
as

of red

linseed-oil is
for iron
at
or

considered
A

tive protecall

coating
both painting, enforced. The

steel. and

careful

inspectionof
be

the

shop
the
to

in the

should field,

rigidly
York steel

following are
in

requirements
the

of

the

New'
or

building law
work
"

regard
etc
:

protection of
used made of in in the iron

iron

against rust,
All

ironwork
of the best

and

steelwork
and oxide in

any best

building
manner,

shall be and

material

properly painted with

being placed

and

linseed-oil
with
some

paint before
other

or position, or

coated

equally good
Chicago
to

preparation
makes in the

suitably treated
mention of

for

preservationagainst rust."
The ordinance
rust
no

paint or
except
"

coatings

prevent

metal

framework
as

as

specifiedfor
cases

fire-proofing purposes
or

follows
bedded

In
mortar

all

the up

brick
to tne

hollow
or

tile shall

be

in

close
be

iron

steel members,

and

all

joints shall
heat

made The

full and Boston

solid."
law

requires a protection from

or

only,
of
an

by
inch

means

of brick, terra-cotta,

by

three

fourths

of The

plastering.
requirements
for

metal-work

in

foundations

are

given

in

Chapter

XII.

CHAPTER

IV.

FLOORS

AND

FLOOR

FRAMING.

THERE

is

scarce

subject or
improvement

detail has

in the

present field
such spread widethe is

of architectural

engineeringthat
at

provoked

attempts

and

perfection as
The

question

of

floor systems. fire-proof

new

present

day

in prolific especially
a

patents and
in

systems, all claiming

until both in
tinually con-

complete
and endeavors

revolution

existing methods,
are

architect their

engineer
to

alike

well-nighbewildered
that
are
"

keep

track of the novelties

the
"

being presented as
of A
or a

cheapest and
by
each

best

tion solu-

much-discussed solution

problem.
cannot

proper

be realized

either

architect fection per-

engineer working independentlyof

in

other, and
from the

present attempts
the

must

result
as

legitimate adaptability
the

criticism
of the

on

part of the architect

to

to
as

material

exterior of statics

form,
as

as

well

from
the

cation appli-

of the laws
Before

demanded methods examine

by

engineer.
future

investigating present
it will be
to profitable
causes

and

abilities prob-

earlier

systems,

with

their

weak

pointsand
so-called 5 feet

of failure. consisted of I

The

oldest

arches fire-proof

beams, placed about

turned the

centres, with
up with

4-inch brick arches

concrete

between,

then

levelled the
to

containing

for nailing-strips from

wooden

flooring.
also may

Corrugated
in

iron, sprung
of the
some

flange

was flange,

used still be

place
in which
54

brickwork, and
of the
more

this

latter

type

seen

substantial

buildings ot

that

epoch,

56
manufacture

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

into

floor of the

required strength,and

bility relia-

against fire.
TILE

ARCHES.

The which

earlier forms shows the

of tile arches used in

were

made

as

in

Fig. 24,
in in the

arch

the

Equitable Building
shows tile arch

and Chicago (1872),

Fig. 25,

which

FIG.

25.

Montauk
to

Building, Chicago (1881).

been the
were

The

latter may

be

said

have

first
6

buildingof

modern
a

design in Chicago.
span of 3 the
to

The But

arches
as

inches

deep, with
lower

feet.

these

forms

still left the

were soon

of flanges the

I beams

unprotected,they
".

superseded by

type shown

$0*-.

FIG.

26.

in

Fig.

26.

This

arch

was

used tile

in

the
9

Home' inches

Insurance

the Building, Chicago (1884),

6 foot

being

deep

and

span.
were

This

was

the

first instance
fire

in which

the beam
more

soffits

protected against
and
same as

by anything
in this arch tile arches
as

than
tially essen-

plaster;
the

many
as

of in the

the

features of

are

types

found

in

a brief description will here present practice,

be in

place.

The
or
on

pieces form

radial with
a

joints, as
"

in any

segmental arch,
arches
are

are
"

key-shaped
centres
"

centre

key."
the in

The

set

of

plank, hung
should

from

beams

by hook-bolts,
at

and

these

centres

remain

place

least twenty-

FLOORS

AND

FLOOR

FRAMING.

57
"

four
or

hours

after

the

arches the

are

set.

The

skew-backs,"

butment

piecesof

arch, take the shape of the I beam

against which
beam
use

they bear, settingfirmly and

sized skew-backs
as

squarely on
are
are

the for

flanges. Different
with different beams sized

at

hand

beams,

arches The

often

sprung
the tile

between arch and

a

of different
one

depths.
below made may the in be beam

soffit of of the
a

extends the

about

inch

the bottoms in such

beams,
that

skew-back of

pieces are

manner

piece

tile fire-proofing

slipped in
A
coat

and

ported sup-

directlyunderneath
the
or as fire-proofing,

to flange, complete

shown

Fig.
whole

26.

of

plaster
it

cement

is then such

given

the

surface, after which

as

is

for read}7 A
concrete

decorative

treatment
over

may

be desired.
to

is placed filling block

to

the
to

arch,
receive

distribute
embed

the the The

load wooden metal

from

block, and

and

which nailing-strips beams and

are

take

the

finished

flooring.

thus

surrounded entirely

by fire-clay,
the and

concrete,
The the load

cement.

depth
to

of

the

tile arch The

depends

upon spans

span,

be

carried.

maximum

of the

various

CONCRETE-

TILLING

FIG.

27.

depths

are

generallyfurnished
such will from data be tests,

by

the

manufacturer
be

of the

type in question, but

should

established fully later. of beams

by adequate
variations made

as

pointed
to
"

out

Slight
are

in the
"

span half

centre

centre

by using
The

intermediate
are

and tile, lime

different-sized
or

keys.

tile blocks

laid with

mortar

cement

58
and joints, thickness. In of
a

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

in

no

case

should

the

joint exceed

\ inch

in

many

cases,

where

the

panel length required

than the tile arch

beams

considerably greater depth

were filling-blocks

itself,
the from skewof

tile

used,
"

as

being
in

lighter

than

ordinary
the Woman's

concrete

fillingas

shown

Fig. 27,

taken for

Temple,

Chicago.
etc., made and 29.

Special shapes
in this character

backs, panelled beams,

are

tile,

shown

in

Figs.28

FIG.

28.

FIG.

29.
was

The from

best

semi-porous tile
at

used

in these
at

types

made in

clay
the
"

found

Chaska,

Minn.,

Brazil, Ind., and

parts of
In
as

eastern

New

Jersey.
of

foregoing examples
Pioneer
"

arches, known
made the

generally
the Pioneer tile the also line of
area

the

arches of the

(because

by
voids

Company Fire-proofing
blocks
ran

Chicago),

in the hence

to parallel

supporting beams,
the
at

and

principalor
ran

side the arch. bottom

webs

of
or

individual

tile blocks
to

to parallel

beams,
This

right angles
the effective
a

the arch

thrust the

in the and

limited

to

top

flanges,involving

serious

waste

of

material.
To
a

remedy
years
ran

this

defect
as

new

arch
"

was

patented
which

few

ago,

known

the

Lee of

"

arch, in
or

the

voids
to

parallel to supporting
30,

the beams.

line

thrust,
of

at

right
is

angles
shown
area now

the

One be
seen
as

these the
as

arches

in

Fig.

and the

it will vertical

that well

effective the zontal hori-

comprises
ribs; in other

webs,

words,
arch.

all of A

the

material

performs
was

useful

work

as

an

further

improvement

attempted

by

the

use

of

porous

terra-cotta, made

from

FLOORS

AND

FLOOR

FRAMING.

59
with
dust sawsumed cona

which, fire-clay
and

before

it is burned, These the

is mixed

finely cut
the

straw.

ingredients are
material
in

during
porous

leaving firing,
thus

very

condition, and

greatly reducing

the

dead

"^i

A....

I.
FIG.

"
"

30.

weight
the old follows

of

the

arch and

itself. the

A
newer

comparison
Lee arch
: foot)

of the

weights
be made

of
as

Pioneer

may

(weight given
9"
10" 12" arch
"

is per

square

Pioneer.

Lee.

33 Ibs. 37 40
"

25 Ibs. 30 35
40
"

"

"

"

15"
Another
ment

"

"

step of progress
gave
a

lay in
better

the

skew-back

or

butbeam

pieces,which by
means

bearing against the

as

webs

of intermediate

well cross-ribs, as

by

the

top and
Some floor

bottom very

flanges.
interesting and
of

valuable
and

tests

of

fire-proof
were

arches in

built after the

No.

Pioneer

Lee

methods
and

published
News
"

796

the American
one

Architect of
tests

ing Buildtory satisfacon

undoubtedly forming
extensive
series

the

most

and such

of

public
were

yet attempted
in

construction.
Denver
a

The

trials

made

Denver, Col.,
under
were

1892, for the

the

Equitable Building Company,

board of architects. 5 ft. centres, static
as

supervisionof
from beams the conditions
water

The shown

arches in

sprung and

placed
included
a

Fig. 30,
test, a

a loading, drop

fire and

test, and
for

continuous the Lee

fire test. arch

In the test

static loads

deflected

grad-

6O

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

uallyunder
a

the

increased of 15,145

weights to .065 of
Ibs. for two the hours. haunches

ing foot, sustainThe

a

final load gave way

Pioneer load of

arch

suddenly at
test

under

5,429 Ibs.
In the

drop
a

piece

of

wood

12" Pioneer

12" X arch
was

4'

was

let fall from

at

height

of 6' o".

The the Lee

tered shatsame

the first up
to

blow, while
the eleventh

arch, under
former

the blows

test, stood
but In the

drop, the

tering shat-

parts of the arch.

fire and with fire
water

tests, three
the

of applications

water

combined
Lee end arch of

destroyed
eleven

Pioneer

arch, while
water,
and
at

the the

received

of applications remained the

ram

twenty-threehours
blows

practically uninjured,
to
was

requiring eleven
In the

from

break

it.
tinuously con-

continuous beneath
a

fire test Lee

a

the fire for of

maintained

arch load

twenty-four hours,
bricks

and
on

the
a

arch

then

supported
in the the
:

of

12,500

Ibs.

space

3' o" wide

central

portion of
results

the arch. may be better

Considering judged
as

static

loads, the

follows

This the Lee

shows certainly

great
a

step of advancement
factor of load

for

arch, but, assuming

safety of
of

8,

as

recommended
square

by Rankme, (85
1320 Ibs. dead Ibs. per

and

total

165 Ibs. per

ing-load breakthe

foot of

80

Ibs. foot

a uniform live),

square

is

needed

before

tile arch Tests

can

be considered the 12" also blocks be

fullyacceptable.
of the

of

Empire
in

Fire-proofing
1891 by the
in the

Company

might
of

mentioned, made
Va. A
variation

city engineer

Richmond,

break-

FLOORS

AND

FLOOR

FRAMING.

6l H"s. Per much

was ing-load

recorded it must
not

of from be remembered
on

554

to

1057
too

square

foot.

But
must

that maximum
must

tance imporThe
a

be

placed

these
tests

figures.
be
run

average

breaking-loads of
which
use

such the

considered of arches

fair

figureat

to

judge
by
these

general

as

placed in
the
room

actual and

companies;

and

in this

light

actual

necessityfor
known
one
"

still further

ment improvepatent flat

the

becomes A

self-evident.

still later

patent

as

Johnson's

arch," (seeFig. 31),is the

used

most

in extensively

FIG.

31.

buildingsof
with the
in
"

late erection. webs than

were

It is made

of

hard

terra-cotta

thinner end Lee

at

formerly employed,
all utilizing
to

and

is of
as

construction," thus
arch. This
it

of the
meet
a

material with
number
seem

the

type seemed
was

much of
to

favor

first,and
best

used

in

quite

Chicago's
point
its
to

buildings, but
tile
as

experience
far
more

would

the

porous

being
the

in satisfactory

qualitiesthan fire-resisting
water

hard

tile.

test
some

by

fire and time ago

of the

wall
rear

of hard of the
action to

tile blocks Schiller of

an

occurred

in

Theatre and

Building,
cold
water
soon

Chicago.
caused fell from Soft the

The blocks

combined
to

heat
extent

crack

such

that
areas.

they

the metal tile

or

uprights in
terra-cotta

considerable has been

porous
in

for specified

all Mr.

work fire-proofing W. and L. the B.

the

latest the

buildingsdesigned by
New York Life

Jenney, notably
Dearborn

Insurance

Fort

buildings.

62

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

Tie-rods take up the

are

necessary

in

all these without

are

forms

of

arches, to
on

horizontal Such 5 to

thrusts rods

dependence
inch

the

arches. adjoiningand

generally f
All
tests

diameter,

spaced
rods

from

7 feet apart.
to

of tile arches
;

should if the strain

require the
be
to

tie-rods up

be

without

initial strain
an

for

screwed the

to sufficiently give

initial
ing cement-

equal
material

tensile the for

strength

of the

tile is

or

between the arch be the

blocks, then

the

tensile
to

strength
and the

of

the

breaking-loadreduced
to

o,

beam

may
to

reloaded

the table

same

amount.

Reference

Appendix
in that the either arch

giving
office

the

principal
in
or
"

points

of

construction will
"

notable the is
"

buildings
Lee,"

Chicago
"

show

Pioneer,"
in such

Johnson's

type of floor
it must

used that
a

nearly
a

every
use

case,

although

be admitted

general

of tile construction

is far from
it is
no

being

guarantee
to

of its perfection. there work of is in its in

Indeed,

exaggeration
used
as

say

that

scarcely a regard
general
terra-cotta
to
or

single material
which
we

in constructional limited
a

have

knowledge
as

specific propertiesof
or

resistance

is found

tilework

and floor

yet, in the
has become

modern
so

building

the

use

of this that

style of
or

widely
one

tended ex-

terra-cotta

hollow of

tile has

become

of the
are
or

most
no

ordinary materials
less

construction. of
it

Its functions steelwork

area

positive than
and live loads

those

the

structural

masonry-work, forming, as
all dead
in

does, the supporting

on

for

coming other

the floor system of

"

crowds

halls, theatres, and

as

places
the

public gathering, as
articles

well

small

safes,desks, and
loads.
in

many

forming
to
as

concentrated

Any
in

failure
as

the

hollow
or

tile would
loss

be

apt
limb

result would It hoi-

quite

great disaster
any failure

of life and iron

or

proceed
is

from

in

the
the

steel

skeleton. of

apparent,

therefore,

that

sustaining power

64

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

figuresinto deceiving records

to

of tests, material

as
as

is often

done,

or

furnish and Rankine

poorer

and

poorer

creases competition in-

searching inquirydecreases.
advises the
use

of

to

\ the ultimate
in masonry.

strength
ing Consider-

in metals, hollow class of

to

-^ in wood, and
as

to

tile

coming
an

under

the

head

of the

poorest
be

masonry, of

ultimate the

strength
allowable
a

should

therefore

required
to

eight times

stress, if it is wished and tile

procure

uniform safetyin

floor of steel beams

live load

arches. per Ibs.

tests

Assuming

an

arch load

carrying a
of should be

of 80 Ibs. foot
to

square

foot,a dead

85 Ibs. per square

(or 165 by

the total),
on
a

manufacturer the

required

show

the load

site that of
to

type

submitted
square

is able

safely to
before The
to cost.

stand

1320

Ibs. per in

foot, and

this

being
writer

allowed is
aware

compete
the

the

question
time and

of

of

of objections

cost

such tained, mainis

methods, but
and what The

in this way
assurance

only can
provided

the

excellence the floor

be

be

that

arch

it should unusual of

be.
interest

which

is

being displayed in
other but of

the

subject
evidenced

floors,of fire-proof
by
the series
to

tile and

materials, is
in
a

of

articles interests

latelybegun
the

periodicaldevoted
This far
as

the

clay products.
as

series

of articles

contemplates a complete record,

on

of possible,
to

all tests

arches fire-proof
comments
on

of

ordinary
causes

patterns, up
of failure

present date, with

the Such

and be

of improvement. possibilities

work

cannot

fail to writer
in

productive

of the

most

beneficial devoted
to

results.

The

believes

that the tile floors

section

the

archis

like action indicated haunches

present
the

is still too of many

also

small. arches
seem,

This
at

by

sudden under

collapse
test.

the

while

It would has
between

through
in the

past tests, that

use

too

much

reliance materials

been

placed
the

of strong

cementing

blocks, thus

FLOORS

AND

FLOOR

FRAMING.

65,
Hollow
be tile
sidered con-

making
blocks,

the
as as

arch in

act

as

monolithic of the

piece.
arches,
best of

used
a

present forms
even
a

cannot cement

beam,

with flat

joints.
segmental

They
must

must

still form

arch, whose
same are as

line

of resistance

be

determined fact that way and

the precisely the arch the

in any
a

arch.
cannot

The

blocks

of

uniform

depth
under

in any the

change

mechanical forces do
not act.

conditions

which

loads

supporting
dimensions the

Present

types of tile arches

of their
are

admit
to

of the

proper

calculation
which

according
horizontal up well the
as

loads

for

they
height

designed ;
to

bearing-ribsare

still relied the

upon

help make
section
as

required section, and

the thickness of the

of the under

tile webs,
to

different

spans

and

loads, is left entirely

None

the

option

of the

manufacturer. for spans the

of the

building
of
to

laws floor define

prescribe any
arches
a

conditions

proper and

calculation

under

varying
depth
tile arch I

loads, except

minimum

of arch

blocks. be in

The

depth
of the

of the

should

nearly equal
to
secure

to the

depth
most

supporting
cost

beams,

order

the be the

economical in the

results,for this arrangement

of the floor per the
square

will

cheapest

ing foot, consider-

tile and the dead An evident load.

concrete

and filling,

lightest, considering
in

arch that

has the

been

patented
or

as

shown

Fig. 32,
the

but

it is

concrete

cinder

at filling

haunches

"

FIG.

32.

will

cause

the up
to

arch the

to

weigh

more

than

if the the

tile blocks
mere

extended

tops of the beams

; while

fact

66

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

of the arch
to the

being made

with

segmental top adds nothing

strength.
CONCRETE ARCHES.

As

has

been

stated

before, the

widespread
the is
a

interest

played disthe

in the
numerous

floors subjectof fire-proof

have entered

is indicated field in

by

types which
with the hollow-tile
to

tion competicult diffiwill be

flooring. It
and of
construct

no certainly

problem
of sufficient
out

design

floor which

strengthand

satisfactory fire-resisting ties properor

of

cement, fire-clay,
cost

concrete.

But

when
must

the be
so

elements

of minimum with maximum

and

minimum

weight
solution

considered

the efficiency,

is not

apparent.

Up
most to

to

the

floors have present day fire-proof

dead

been

mously enor-

heavy, consistinglargely of
literal
cost
sense

weight
add
or

in

the

of

the

word.

Such
serve

weights
to

greatly
no

the

of

and yet building,

little

pose purHence

in the

strengthening or
to

the stiffening
a

structure.

endeavor

provide yield an
dead

substitute

for unit

the

hollow-tile

floor which
thus A
as

shall the

increase
and

in

strength, and
cost. concrete

decrease

weight

consequent
or

varietyof
to

combinations

of iron

steel and

applied to
seem

floorings has
possess
features

lately been
of constructed

employed,
and of
concrete

and

would

great merit

of widespread and
sion, corro-

application. Floors
steel, with
would
the latter

thoroughly protected against

the

certainlypossess
and of

great
has

advantages long
been contraction

of incombustib

durability. It
under

claimed
of iron
soon

that and

the

unequal rates
or a

expansion and
thermic but
rates

concrete

cement

changes

would have

destroy such
made that

combination,
that these

experiments
are so

been
same re-

which

show may

nearly the
The

they

properly be

considered

identical.

FLOORS

AND

FLOOR

FRAMING.

67
J. (seeEngineering
seem

cent

tests

of such

at Trenton, flooring

N.

Record, December
the

22,

1894),would
of such

also

to

point

to

successful
The weakest

fire endurance

combinations. would appear

to

points against fire

of
cement
a

be

the the the

thin beam

coating
heated the

plaster directlyunderneath
stream

where flanges,
cement

of cold

water

applied to
it to crack

highly
and

would

probably cause
to

off,

leave

metal-work

exposed.
ascertain
these the

It is of great
means

importance
tests

points by
same as

of
case

actual

before
; while

final the

adoption,
most

in the the

of tile arches

form judicious of the with moulded the

of

metal-work, and the shape and character

to
must

concrete

develop the. maximum

also be determined

resistance

least

weight,
The

by repeated tests.
metal-work three steel in

different character
the I

of the

tion combina:

with

concrete,

presents

varieties

floors
those

using

curved

beams, those

using

straps,and

using wires.
i.

Curved

I Beams.

"

This

system, shown
the

in

Figs.33

and

34, is called

the

Melan

system, from

inventor, J. Melan,
rp

/"CONCRETE

vPILLIING

FIG.

33.

FIG.

34.

who

has

constructed
of bent

many

bridges

of this about

type in Europe.

It consists

I beams,

spaced

5 ft. centres, with

68

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

concrete

body
the

or

slabs

between. used

A
to

of filling level other up

cinders the

or

other and

light material
receive in dead

is then

surface A

as nailing-strips,

in

floors. for

great

saving
but it

weight

and

cost

is claimed

this system, in the

still possesses the

great

disadvantages which,
use.

opinion of
The
to

restrict its writer, will seriously

must

concrete

perform
beam

twofold

duty.
at

It the

helps
same

take

up

the
act

compression
as a

of the

arch, and
the curved strain of

time fibres

must
are

between maximum usage

ribs. in two
no

The tions, direc-

then if
we

brought
adhere

under
to

and
in

the

allowing
poor

cement

tension, this

combination

becomes

engineering

practice.
In
most
cases

where will be

appearances necessary.

are

considered,
and sake of

pended sus-

ceiling
desire well
as a

Tenants the

owners

ceiling of
appearance.

unbroken If such will

a

plane, for

lightas
to

is suspended ceiling add necessarily of

be of

construction, it fire-proof
the

to materially
a

weight

and

cost

; or,

if it is not

material, fire-proof
is added in
a

large amount

of

combustible

material

very

dangerous position.

Exposed
be used. The
to
2.

tie-rods

are

necessary,

unless

suspended
careful
concrete

ing ceil-

workmanship
insure the and steel proper Steel

must

be

of from
"

the

most

ter, characbeams. in
bination com-

results

these

Concrete with

Straps.

Concrete
been used

floors
in

straps have

the

ing follow-

buildings :

Drexel and in

Institute, American

Philosophical
Sciences, in
of Rensselaer of

Society Building, Philadelphia, and

Academy
the
at

of

Natural

Alumni

Building
This I-beam be form

Polytechnic
shown S' o" which
to
are

Institute 35,

Troy.
of may

flooring,

in
1

Fig.
8' o"

consists
as

girders spaced required,

of from between
to

centres

hung

steel straps at intervals

12"

24",

FLOORS

AND

FLOOR

FRAMING.

69
top
of flanges the

with

their ends The

bent

or

hooked

over

the and

girders.

straps
close

curve

downward,
the

midway

in their
or

length hang

to

ceiling-line. A

concrete

jSigp^p^p^l^
FIG.
35-

cement

is used, embedding filling beams may show

are

the

straps and

girders.
the The

If the arch

of the

considerable

depth, the
as

soffit of

panelled beams,

in

Fig. 36.

FIG.

36.

upper

layerof
but

cement

may

be laid

in colored

geometrical
cement

patterns, or, if a wood

is made The i" in

floor is used, this upper

layerof
of the

thickness, with

embedded. nailing-strips from

two

following table gives

mentioned
:

data

ings build-

before

3. Concrete
"

Floors

with

Twisted
to

Wires the

or

Rods

(seeFig.36).
wires

This

method
are

is very used beams

similar instead

previous type, except

are

that

wires
to

of of

straps. The

secured

the

by

means

hooks, 3" long, made

of

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

y
No.

square
12

iron.

The
a

wires

are

of twisted

double
on

strand,
at

gauge, of the

with span
to

length

of

gas-pipe laid
a

them The

the

centre

give them
by weight

uniform

sag.

filling
one

consists

of five parts

of

plasterof Paris, and

sufficient
water to

part of wood
the laid
mass on
a

shavings,mixed
the
as centering,

with
a

bring

to

consistencyof
the for. wires is

thin

paste.

This

is filling The the tance disload

level

in the

previous type.
to

between
to

varied, according

be

provided
a

Where
as

flat

ceilingsurface

is

fied, desired, this type is modion

shown

in

Fig.37.

The

is constructed floor-plate

VFLAT5
FIG. 37.

wires

as

before, while
with

the

is ceiling-plate embedded

made

of

the

same

composition,but
on

flat bars the

therein, resting

the Tests

lower of
:

flangesof
this

I beams. static loads have been made

under flooring

as

follows

72

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

SEGMENTAL

ARCHES

OF

TILE.

For

long
as

spans in

in

buildingswhere
a

flat

ceilingis

not

necessary,

warehouses, etc.,
curve

segmentalarch
as

is often

used,

followingthe

of pressure,

shown

in

Fig. 39.

FIG.

39.

The

tie-rods, are spaced equally,

The arch shown

encased in

in tile to
40
was

give
with

panelled effect.

Fig.

used

FIG.

40.

extra
use

heavy
of such

tiles in the

Sibley Warehouse,
arches
in

Chicago.*
has

The been

segmental
after A
a

for the

office

buildings

abandoned

trial

Rand-McNally
was

Building,
under has

Chicago.
a

ceiling of
but

flat tile
not

there

suspended

segmental arch,
since The been floor
use

it did

prove

successful,and

not

used. of of N. Poulson also deserves arches

special notice,
seems

but

the

these

particular
to

somewhat

limited

up

to

the

present time
arch

public buildings,libraries,
suitable of the The than
in

etc., where
structures.

the

groined
is
no

is

more

office in be into
con-

There
to
as

example knowledge.
total way
~p

Poulson

arch may

Chicago,
described

the

writer's
:

system

follows

The

is floor-space

divided

panels
*

of about
at

25' each
D.

by

the

columns, with
on a

Tests

Washington, using

C., March
8"
Ibs.
at

26, 1894,
the haunches foot

segmental
6"
at

arch

15' 4"
veloped de-

span,

-fa" rise, and

a

blocks
1000

and of

the

centre,

safe

capacity of

per

square

bearing surface.

FLOORS

AND

FLOOR

FRAMING.

73

necting
system
1

lattice of arched thrust

girders.
of the in

These

panels
i

are
"
,

spanned by
with
a

flats,generally 3"x
arches each
are

rise

of

8".

The of

is taken

up

by

an

octagonal

frame
are

angle irons
These
.

panel.
built the
on

All

arch the
on

intersections

bolted.

flats which

into

lower

parts of
upper

concrete

beams,
curved

carry

floor the held

their

edges, and
the

.plastersoffits
A rubber into
a

under up

ing sides,forman

ceilingribs.

bag,

by
space
or

umbrella formed

scaffold,is pressed up
the

the

triangular
Paris

by
soffit steel

intersectingribs,and
with then the curved

of plaster

cement

is formed wires turn, then

are

bag
over

for the

support.

Heavy

stretched

system, which
A

wires, in
is filling

support galvanizedwire

cloth.

3"

cement

placed on

top

to

hold

the

nailing-strips.
ARCH.

"GUASTAVINO" The

peculiarstrength of

the

or egg-shell, or

of

any

tinuous con-

curved, layer of material, flat,

dished, like
the

the

for example, undoubtedly suggested buckle-plate of the small Guastavino arch. tiles of of \" Arch hard
or

form

dome

shells

are

built of
or

rectangular

terra-cotta,

three

four in

layers being used,

either used shells. that
square
or

thickness bond.

each, laid
Portland concentric

together
cement

herring-bone
between

is

for

the

joints and

the

layers or
fact thus ing avoidthe open
cessive suc-

The

great strength of these

the closely
curve

arches of

lies in the

they
tension

follow

pressure, fact

in the

voussoirs, and

in the

that
to

layers break
joint
several in the

joint so
be of this

perfectly that
sheared off.

any

tiles must
use

The

advantage great disor

type in mercantile
and soffit, spans in
the
occur

office
use

buildings
of

lies in tie-rods

the

curved

necessary side

exposed

where

several
as

by

side.

In solid

masonry

construction,
the walls
or

ings, libraries, public build-

etc., where

piers are

capable

of

resisting

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

the

horizontal

thrusts, and
possesses that of

where

curved

soffit is in

keeping, this type

It will the be

great advantages.
little has the been said
as

noticed
cost

regards
tioned. men-

comparative
This in
as

types of flooringhere
serve as a

question
a

will

undoubtedly
between the

prime

factor

making

choice

various

methods,
should be and
a

but,
held

stated

before, the
to

question
that of

of expense

subservient entirely Two different variance

both present safety,

future.

types
in the

of floor ultimate

construction, with
cannot capacity,

considerable
be
meet

erly prop-

compared
maximum
cost

in the

question

of cost.

If all methods
are

the the

requirements, the
be considered
as

conditions

equal,

and The

may

the

determining factor.
costs

following table gives the comparative

and Melan floors.*

of the

low-tile hol-

CHICAGO

BUILDING

LAWS"

FLOOR

ARCHES.

The

following requirements
117 steel

are
"

in specified The

the

Chicago
the of

building ordinance, Section

individual
iron
or

between filling the

beams be made

supporting
of brick
or

floors
or

buildings shall fire-proof

arches,
Brick have
a or

arches,

crete con-

hollow-tile be

arches,
4

Spanish
inches

tile arches. shall

arches

shall not

less than
to

thick,and

rise of at least If the of the

i^ inches
of such

each arches

foot of span is
more

between
5

the beams. the thickness

*

span
same Am.

than

feet,
If

shall not
Soc.

be less than

8 inches.
No.
4.

See

Transactions

Civil Engineers, vol. xxxi.

FLOORS

AND

FLOOR

FRAMING.

75
are

hollow-tile thickness

arches of such per

are

having
arches foot made

straight
If the

soffit

used, the
the
rate

shall not of span.

as

be less than

at

of
are

\\ inches used, they

each
to

Spanish

tile arches

be

per

published formulas

of

the Guastavino and

concrete

Construction the

Company, subject to
Commissioner
concrete

the verification If

approval of
are

of in the

Buildings.
same

arches
more

used, the
than
100

shall not

be

strained

pounds
stone,
nor

per

square than

inch, if the
50

concrete

is made

of crushed

more

pounds
In all arches beams

per

square
no

inch, if the
matter

concrete

is made
or

of cinders. form of the the

cases,

what

the the

material bottom
same

used, the
and the
so

protection of
of the shall and be web made

flanges of
as

much

of the
as

is not

covered the
ing cover-

by

arches of beams

before

for specified

girders."
88
"

Again,
may be

Section in roofs

Hollow of

tile and flat arches

porous for
a

terra-cotta

used

the

form

the

support
at

of floors and least

so

; such

floor arches foot of span.

having
The
same

height of
must to
a

i^ inches

for each that the

arches

be
mon com-

constructed
centre

jointsof
arches

the

point

; the

butts

of the

shall be there

fitted carefully shall be

a

to

the

beams every and

supporting them
6 inches
to
or

; and

cross-

rib

for

fractional
there made be the

part
shall

thereof
be form upon

in

height ;
segment
same

in addition

these

also

onal diagof
a

ribs in the of
a

butts.
or

Floor

arches

in the

circle

must ellipsis

constructed

the

but principles, the arch span

in such
not

cases

individual

voussoirs
one

forming

shall

be

less in Such

height

than

tieth thirflat
or

of the

of the arch. their beds be struck

arches, whether
mortar,
has

curved, shall have

centres

well filled with until the

mortar

and

the set."

shall

not

been

Before well the

to
case

leaving

the

floors subjectof fire-proof

of hollow-tile Club arches

it will be in

mention of the

the

test

provided

Chicago

Athletic

Building, before

76
mentioned.

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

The where
in

steel the

beams ends

where
were

not not

were fire-proofed

badly bent
portions were
remained since made

held, but
the

the

metal

perfect condition
Not the
a

where floor
ones

fire-proofing
"

intact.
on

single

arch have square

and fell,

tests
a

worst-looking
450 Ibs.

developed
foot without

sustaining capacity of sign

of

per

rupture."
arches of treated of the of in this

The method
are

article, as

the affecting

design

floor-beams, girders,and
"

columns,
Pioneer similar
to

the

ordinary

tile arches Lee

be
or

they

of the

older

construction, the
the

form,

the

newer

arches

Johnson type.
FLOOR LOADS.

Before of

considering

the

most

economical

arrangement
will be be

floor-beams, the
the loads

question
of the

of

loads, which
system,
must

largely

govern The

design
in

floor

examined.
as

building
and

construction loads.

may

classified will The all

dead,

live, wind,
in their

eccentric

These pages.
:

be

considered loads
Dead

proper

placesin
all of the

these
are

cipal prin-

affectingthe

floor system

Loads,

comprising
the other

static loads

due

to

the

constructive

parts of
any

stationary machinery, building,

permanent
loads.

water-tanks, and
Live

Loads, comprising the people in the

stocks of

building,office (large safes

character.
sumed usually as-

furniture, movable

goods,

small loads

safes of any is

or require specialprovision), varying

The

maximum
as

live

load

per

square

foot

follows: crowd of

For For For For For For

people
and
or

80 40 80

Ibs.
"

floors of houses theatres ball-rooms churches drill-halls

etc

"

"

90 from
200

warehouses,
factories

250 450

"

up. Ibs.

to

FLOORS

AND

FLOOR

FRAMING.

77 live

While square foot

80

Ibs.
a

is the crowd
can

maximum of

possible

load
be

per
sidered), con-

from
we

people (unless dancing

expect
to
an

still load under crowds

on

hardly

realize office

any

such

the

conditions very seldom three and

governing
collect lower in floors

building.

Large

offices,except, perhaps,
devoted
are

the

two

or

to

stores

or

banking
made for

purposes, such

greater
The

allowances office

generally
will allowed

places.
exceed, and
and hence his
sq.
"

ordinary

furniture

certainlynot
for Prof. persons,

seldom additional
on

equal, the weight

security is Masonry
load for

introduced.

Baker, in
10

Treatise ft. movable

Construction,"
Ibs.

gives
for

Ibs. per office

100

dwellings,20

large

buildings,100
to to

Ibs. for for

churches, theatres,
and

etc., and

from

400

Ibs.

stores, warehouses,

factories,according
A 2O-lb. unit

contents.

load

in

office be

buildings,as
would

recommended and late the ficient sufthat

by

Prof.

Baker,
in

might
this
20

seriously questioned,
seem

experiments
criticism.

direction Ibs. per

at

to

sustain be

While

square
we

foot

may

amply

for average the

use

loads is
not
or

present,

must

remember while

of be

an

average but

always dangerous,
all future. An article the " all

provision
tremes, ex-

should

made,

for recklessly,

of possibilities in the

either

present

can Amerisome

Architect, August

26, 1893, gives

Messrs. Blackall of

results

of

experiments
architects, on
some

made the

by

Everett, Boston

actual Boston due

to

weights
office

moving
The

loads loads

in
sidered con-

of the
were

larger
those

buildings.
and all

people

possible
such

movable
were a

articles,including all office fittings except

part
of the
were

as

floors
as

or

radiators partitions, In
210

excepted.

The

results and
was

follows:

offices in the of

Rogers, Ames,
sq. ft

Adams found

buildings, an
for the

average

16.3 Ibs. per

Ibs. for the

Rogers

Building, 17

Ames

7$
and load sq. of

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

16.2 Ibs. for the in any while ft., these

one

Adams

Building.
three for the 33.3 heaviest

The

greatest
40.2

moving
Ibs. per in each Blackall

office in the the

average
was

buildings was
ten

offices Mr.
to

buildings
"

Ibs. per
to

sq.

ft.

concludes

If these
even

figuresare
under of the
one

be
most

trusted

any

extent

whatever,

then

the

extreme

stances, circumin the

taking the pick

and

heaviest

offices

city

combining
per square

them foot for

into would

tier of ten be

stories,the average
over

load

only a

trifle

33
20

while Ibs., Ibs. would the dations, foun-

for all purposes be

strength,an
in
on

assumption
the of the for

of

amply
as

sufficient well
a as

determining
columns

loads lower maximum

on

the

stories." loads Prof. in

With the is not floor

proper

then, provision,
20

system, the

Ibs. recommended
an

by

Baker

enough, though safe, perhaps, for

before, the
a

average. and

But,

as

remarked

use

of averages
to

is

dangerous,

it becomes with

very

nice

problem

balance
or

present economy
future may the and
not

maximum the
as

present requirements
square

possibilities ; for

present weight per

the maximum

foot

safelybe
the

taken

occurring during
laws
100

life of Boston

building.
for

The
a

municipal
load

of

New

York sq.

provide
of

moving

of

Ibs. per per. the

while ft.,
on

those floor

Chicago
With

require
proper proper

70 Ibs. live load reductions for

sq. ft. columns

100

the and

system, with
a

footings.
sq.

regard
seem

for

economy

Ibs. per lower

ft. would busier

tainly cer-

too

large ;

So Ibs. for the

or

and

floors,

and and used

not

40

Ibs. for the averages,

upper

office in

floors,are
all

certainly safe,
These

good

considered

lights.
metal loads the
areas

loads,
must

in all calculations be the

affecting the
the

framing,
for the

confounded
individual foot may be

with tile

required
While

strength
load per

of

arches.
over

live in

square the

reduced
the

large

ing proportionload
must

metal-work,

maximum

possible live

8o

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

Upper
Second,
First

floors

35 Ibs. fourth floors 60

80
"

third, and

floor

"

Girders The

carry dead the

80

per
to

cent, columns
be considered
concrete

50 per in the

cent.

loads

floor

system

clude in-

arch

beams, itself,

floors (wood, filling,

marble,
The
are

or

and mosaic),ceilings, of the iron for

or
a

partitions.
and tile

weights

steel beams

partitions
then

actually calculated
at
so

typical floor plan, and

floor surface. This office suit

rated

much in

per

sq. ft. of

is absolutely

necessary
as

regard to partitionsin
to

buildings,
ience conven-

they
of

are

constantly being changed

The is

the

tenants.

weight of
on

the the

arch span.

varies In the

with the

the

depth
of the

; the

depth
used

dependent

annex

Marshall

Field
:

Building, Chicago,

following

weights were

Flooring, 1-inchmaple

4 Ibs.
"

Deadening
1

5-inch tile

arch

45
12

"

Iron Plaster

"

5
20

"

Partitions, 3-inch mackolite

Total

"

95 Ibs. dead
dead loads
as

load.

We

have, therefore, for live and

follows

FLOORS

AND

FLOOR

FRAMING.

8r

The

dead

loads

assumed

in

the

Old

Colony Building,

comprised : Chicago (1893),

Flooring Deadening
Tile Iron Plaster Partitions Total The floor per dead and and
:

4 Ibs.
1

"

arches.

35
10

"

"

5
18

"

"

90 Ibs. live loads used of this in the calculations in of the

systems

columns

buildingwere,
Columns.

pounds

square Live Dead

foot

Beams.

Girders.

Footings.

70 90 Total 160 for the Fort the

50 90 140 Dearborn

40

90 130

90 90

The

floors

Building were
:

lated calcu-

in accordance

with

followingdata

The

live floor

load

on

the
was

beams taken Ibs. per

from
at

the

second
sq.

to

teenth thir-

inclusive load
care

70

Ibs. per
was were

ft.,and
to

an

additional load
at to

of for

20

sq.

ft.

added

the be

dead moved

all

which partitions

to likely

any

time.
were

The

girders

figured for partition loads

at

20

Ibs.

82

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

per loads

sq.

ft. for

all movable

and partitions,

for

the

actual

of the main live load the

partitions.
on

The

the
to

columns the

was

taken floor

at

50

Ibs. per

sq. ft. from

second for

twelfth

inclusive, plus

the

girder reactions
The

partitions.
the unit loads used in

following table gives

:

figuring

the

columns

The
a

dead

load

on

the

floor-beams arch

was

made

up

as

lows, fol:

9"

porous

end-construction

having been
26 Ibs. per
4 30
10
" " "

used

9" 9"

arch 2i-lb. I beams

i

sq. ft.
"

6 to

cinder and

concrete

".
"

"

"

"

Mosaic Plaster

wood

floors, average..

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Total

76
FLOOR FRAMING" BEAMS.

"

"

"

"

The be

distance

centre

to

centre to

of the the

floor-beams of floor

must

determined

with

reference

type

arch

used. has

Ordinary practice in Chicago

made from 5
to

skeleton span

construction

6 feet the

usual

for tile arches, in

FLOORS

AND

FLOOR

FRAMING.

83
where the columns
are

panels
are

01

ordinary lengths ;
a

but

in

cases

spaced
nearer

considerable

distance Reference

apart the floor-beams

to

placed
show skeleton The had

together. practice
in

Figs. 18
in late

and

19 will of

the

beam-spacing
arrangement
there

examples

buildingsin Chicago.
most

economical

of
seems

floor-beams
to

has formity unibe

so

little of

investigation,and

be could

no

practice.
the

If the

framing plans
and

arranged
to

that

floor-beams

girderswould

be strained
more use

the

full allowable than

fibre strain,it would

the those

be certainly

economical beams

where than

framing plans require the

of
ample, ex-

heavier
a

actuallyneeded.
a

Take, for
moment

framing plan callingfor

of of resistance of 48.72, is

bending
moment

in

a a

floor-beam
moment

65,000 foot-pounds. This

The

would

require
of resistance

for beam
excess

12" is

4o-lb. beam

only 46.9,while
have per
to

R be and

for

15" 4i-lb.
an

56.6.

The

latter would
some
a

used, with
if such of
an

in

strength of

16

cent;
an

panels
16

occurred
cent

frequentlyin
therefore

floor

system,

excess

per
nomical eco-

would

occur

throughout.
be
one

Hence which
to

framing plan
are so

would and

in

the

beams
as

arranged
a

in span

distance the very

centre

centre,
to

to

carry

given floor
fibre

load

with A

beams small

strained variation

the

full make

allowable this

strain.

may

or impossible. possible

Again,
weight
There ends
as
more

it

is seldom

economical if
a

to

use

the
can

heaviest be used. the

of any is

depth
rolled of the

of beam,

deeper
of
as

beam

a necessarily great

waste

material

toward

of

heavy
square

beams,

and the

the

strength increases
beam is

the

depth,
the the

deeper

always
for
R
"

the 12"

economical.

Thus

moment

of resistance

32-lb.beam
The former

is 37, while is

10"

33-lb.beam
A

has 20"

32.3.

and lighter, than

a

far stronger.
80 Ib. beam.

64-lb.beam

is also stronger

15"

84
The

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

coefficient

for
"

a
"

15" 5o-lb.beam 15" ss-lb. i5"6o-lb.

"

is 753,000.
"

792,000.

"

"

"

"

916,300.

Hence

the

use

of

beam 15" 55-lb. vary between For

is not the
a

economical,

as

the

coefficient does
in

not

50- and

6o-lb. limits

proportion to
these

the

weight.
are

uniformly distributed
by

load

coefficients

obtained

multiplying
the span
centre

the

load, in
in feet. span,

pounds uniformly distributed, by

If the load be load The concentrated
at

length
of the
as

the

multiply the
distributed. I beams in the of

by

2, and

then

consider of
are

it

formly uni-

maximum

coefficients and

strength

for

different

depths

weights by
the

usually
steel Co. book all of is "

given

pocket companions
The handbook of

issued

various

companies.

Carnegie, Phipps
engineers.
are

generallyused
the the maximum

by

architects

and

In

that for

permissiblecoefficients
rolled fibre inch

given
of

ordinary
inch

shapes,

on

basis
on

16,000 Ibs. per

of 12,500 Ibs.

square per in

strain, and
strain.

also The

basis is

square

fibre

former

generallyused
cross-section The sections from

buildingwork.
The distribution the
some

of of will

the

material

in

the
R.

affects from others Care the

moment

and inertia, be found

hence better

mills

than

those

in this respect.
must

be

taken span the

in

figuringfloor-beams
too

to
a

see

that

length

of clear crack

is not

great, giving

deflection A tion deflecper the

sufficient

to

plaster ceiling beneath.

clear span,
or

of about

ffa of the
found

-fa of

an

inch be

foot, has been

maximum
d
=

by experiment
deflection deflection of span for
"

and
d
"

practice to
L X 0.33,
at

permissible
allowable
"

or

where of

greatest
and
L

in

inches,
This

centre

beam,
limit

length
indicated

in feet.

safe

deflection of beam

is also

each

size and

weight

FLOORS

AND

FLOOR

FRAMING.

85
I beams in the

given
handbook

in

the of

tables

for

uniformly
" Co. also need
are

loaded

Carnegie, Phipps
may

Lateral
cases.

stiffness

consideration of the
a

in

some as

Where

the floor-beams is necessary,

to

same

depth

the

girders, "coping"
ends of the

or

cutting away
the

of the the tween be-

floor-beams

fit

against
is

flangesof

girders.

About

-J inch
and

clearance

usually allowed
between erection.

floor-beams
and

girders,and

inch

columns

girders.
The

This

is sufficient

for easy

standard

connection-anglesmanufactured
" Co.
are

negie, by Carticable, prac-

Phipps
as

generally
given
iron basis Ibs. of

used

whenever and various the

connections

between

floor-beams for the in

10,000
on

girders. depths
handbook.

These and

connection-angles are
and
a

weights of steel designed on They are

beams

Ibs. allowable
rivets
or

and shearing-strain, per square

20,000
are

bearing
The

bolts for

inch, and
as

usually of sufficient
in

strength
of

regular

details

found

practice.

adoption

such

FIG.

41.

uniform and the be

"

standards iron the of

"

is

a great certainly help

to

the

mills in
to

bridge or
hands
an

shops,as
careless weakness.
as
or

well

as

to

the

but designer, is apt

of

ignorant designer
From in careful

element methods that

observation the
even

of is

building
convinced

practiced

Chicago,
an

writer

faulty details
in the

constitute

greater

part of the

defects

general run

of

buildings,than

86 arises from features used

use

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

poor

materials
"

employed,
standards
"

or are

imperfect general
therefore
to

of

design. Any
caution,
as

be

with them

they tempt

the

careless

designerto
or

under
are

all

conditions, whether

they be adequate
must

not.

They

standard, hence

they

be

all-sufficient.

H_"LE5
I
.

"*!*"

3T/}NDARD CONNECTION
r"R
FIG.
42.
"

L.

Figs. 41
beams
as

and

42

show

standard

for connection-angles

the

given.
GIRDERS.

The

running girders,
transfer

from

column

to

column, support the

the columns.
two

floor-beams, and
As before

their loads

to directly to
use

mentioned, it is often necessary

as a or

I beams

side in

by

side

girder,or
under the
on a

even

plate or

latticed

girders

longer
be

spans used

specialloads.
case

Separators should
beams,
in order
to
act

always

in

of double
two

to
as

equalize
spacers,

the

loads

the

beams, and
distance
as

also

keeping them
are

proper

apart.

Carnegie's
to

separators
It is the

generallytaken
of short columns in

standard. any for

to quite impracticable

make spans with

comparisons as
girders with
many

relative

economy fewer be found

columns, and types

are are

longer girders.
even

Both but
tempts at-

to

Chicago,
of conditions

to

extremes,
than the

they
of any in
one

usually the
economy.

results The

conditions, rather

at

governing
in the

design
The

building are particular

case

usually so potent exception piers,the

and

that the rule

next.

might
of the

prove

the

arrangement
striven

exterior

architectural

effect
of the

for, the

arrangement

proper

planning

CHAPTER

V.

EXTERIOR

WALLS"PIERS.

THE

subject
floor

of and is

the roof

exterior

piers

which the

carry

their of the

tributary
walls

loads, besides
of its three
own

weight

themselves,
of which
Where

capable
under outside all of

separate

treatments,

each

is used the

peculiar circumstances.
are

First.

piers
the
means

constructed

entirely
roof-loads Such and the

of

masonry,
come

carrying
on

wall-, floor-vand
of of masonry moderate

which

them,
in

by

alone.

construction
constitutes

is used the

buildings
type
sixteen in
to

height,
But in

ordinary
of from

of

building.
to

higher
are

structures

twenty

stories, which
rare

here
at

being considered
the

it particular,

is the

tion, excep-

present

time,
such

rely entirelyon piers of

solid

masonry
are

piers.
fold three-

The
:

objections to

masonry

a.

The

modern

requirements
that
narrow.

of

plenty

of be

light

and

air and

in

all

offices, demand
and the

the

windows In the

broad

numerous

piers

highest buildings
construction and floor-loads and with
so

of

the

present

day
to

hardly
the for

any

masonry roofa

is

strong
besides small office
a

enough
its
own

carry

necessary
so

weight,
as

great

height
are

cross-section in

is desired. and

There

prominent
the
;
terior ex-

buildings
walls

Chicago
their will of

elsewhere,
share
in of

in which all loads

carry

proper that
tenants

but

little

observation the

show the

high buildings
a

of

this

type
been
b.

comforts
for

have, in
effect. such

large

measure,

sacrificed
The second

architectural

objection

to

large

masonry

piers

is

EXTERIOR

WALLS"

PIERS.

89

that the

they
rent

take

up

too

much

valuable

renting-space. When
so

of offices
a

is

proportioned at
of
no

much

per

square

foot, this becomes

to

matter

inconsiderable

importance
add that

the
c.

owner.

The load of

weight
per

of these

solid masonry
on

pierswould
foundations of

so

to

the

square
most

foot

the

clay or

many

the

remarkable be

examples

architectural

engineering
In the
new

would

well-nighimpossible.
Field

Marshall
to

Building in Chicago, masonry

loads, but
a

pierswere
structure
an

used

carry
not

all exterior

tile mercanas

does

present
the

as

exacting conditions
piers may
be widened

office

and building,

exterior

for the

architectural

effect without
interior. second
treatment

seriouslyinconveniencing
of metal
are

plan

of the The

Second.

which

the

exterior

piers are
the

capable is
piers,while

that in which and the roof latter

columns, carrying

tributaryfloor

loads,

placed
themselves

inside and

the the

masonry

support

"spandrels" only.
of the under exterior the walls

The

spandrels constitute
the

those and

portions
over

lying between

piers

and

window-spaces.
method is does

If this that the may

numerous

employed, great
not

care

must

be

taken that

the

masonry

touch

the

columns, in order
and the

unequal settlement
not
cause

of the

metal- work strains. masonry under

an

masonry of the

undesirable

On

account

the mortar-joints, will the metal

structure.

will the

settle

much

faster than
of the in of that
a

columns As

ment gradual settleof initial B.

pression com-

whole

example
Geo.

freshlylaid
New York

mortar,
Produce of

Mr.

tect Post, archi-

the

Exchange
6"
at

states building,

measured about inch

was

height

9'
a

the

time

of

building,
of 62 Ibs. The

compressed
per
square

J" under

maximum

pressure finished

of base, induced built very

by

the

wall.

whole

wall

rapidly.

9O

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

If, then, the

connections which in such
to
on

masonry the

bears
a

on

rivet-heads, plates, or
strain
care

columns,

heavy
Great

is

produced

has

not

been

provided
of metal
"

for.

is necessary masonry
over

combinations sufficient

columns
"

and

piers
cornices for

leave the

open

joints
will

at

points
is not the

and such
as

like,where

they
Also

least be the
mass

noticed, to allow

settlement.

where brick fewer

homogeneous,
is
to likely

in stone the
more

facingand
stone, with than

backing,

result

be that receives

settles mortar-joints, of the

less and

its share the

load, thus
was

producing
case

cracks
old

and

off spalling the

angles.
and

This

the

in the

portionof
The this

Washington
size in the the of

Monument.

of objections

weight

will

also

hold

in the

piersof
very

type,
Thus

as

first method,

if the of

building be
twenty-one
were

high.

in

Masonic

Temple
found
square be

stories, metal
within the

columns

platesand
it
tons
was

angles

placed
the
on

masonry

but piers, of
12

that

mum maxiwork, brickat

allowable
as

pressure

per

foot
reached the

used

by

the
;

engineer,would
hence below that resistance roof

the
ceeded ex-

level of the the this without

fifth floor

level

load
;

safe

compressive
floor metal
or

of the
as

material latter The

and

any the

loads,
within of the

the

were pedient ex-

carried

by
was

columns

the

piers.
the columns the and

therefore

adopted
to

carrying
metal

masonryat

work

on

brackets and

attached

the
sist conone

sixteenthof

levels,thus fifth-story
separate
column. third
one
more

making
masonry,

pier
the

three

columns

cf

continuous Third.

metal The

method

of

constructing
at

the

exterior

piers

is the

approved
"

the

present
has

stage

of

architectural

engineering
the
means

the

one

which the

undoubtedly
structures.

opened
in

up

for
are

building
on

highest

In this,all

weights

thrown

the metal

columns, which,.
a

place

of solid

piers, are

surrounded

with

protective

EXTERIOR

WALLS"

PIERS.

91
terra-cotta

shell

or

covering- only, made

of ornamental
to

or

brickwork,
columns This
at

securely anchored
the various

and

supported by
the minimum

the

floor levels.

construction
per
are

undoubtedly
height, and
makes

gives

weight piers
The
a
"

foot

of

possiblesuch
desirable for this

small offices.

as

indispensablefor light and

"

Chicago type
has

is

popular
fast and

name

method the

type which
ten

developed
has

remarkably during
the

past

years

of Western

architecture, while
been

height of
ten

municipal buildings
to

from increasingsteadily of the

twenty stories.
demands for

The

increasingvalue
and the

ground-space,
for necessity all
tributed con-

the the

rapid construction,
on

lightest possibleloads
to

subsoil, have

the

success

of this type. thus does

Chicago
a

construction

away

with

masonry brick
wall

as or or

supporting member, and the load-bearing pier is replaced by an envelope of masonry

brickwoik, enclosing the steel columns
or

terra-cotta

and

the filling

drels spanis

spaces
as a

between

the

windows. the

This

envelope dangers
and

not
as
a

used

strengthenerto
wall, once
now

supporting members,
and the

but of

protection against the

The brick

elements

fire.

the

fundamental

ing factor in buildtective pro-

construction,
function.

fulfils

simply a
terra-cotta

decorative

The of brick

for external great possibility and in connection

a

effect
with
to

through
skeleton

this

use

construction, has
of fine

opened

up

vast

market

the

manufacturers and
terra-cotta

of face-brick,moulded qualities

brick,

in all its varieties.

The

terra-cotta

companies
to

design
to,
or

their

pieces

with them

special
from
becomes with
an

reference
a

tying
; so
nor

them

suspending

such

framework
more

the that, in reality,

a

buildingof

nothing

less than

vital skeleton

steel,

architectural

and

protective wrapper
and outside.

of terra-cotta, The
terra-cotta

tile, or

brickwork,

inside

92

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

arches, which

to

'the casual

observer
to to

seem

to

carry

some

heavy

wall

or

pier above, by
wires
or

prove

be the

made

of hollow beams-

clay
or

blocks, held

clamps
the

concealed

girderswhich
Brick and

really support
terra-cotta
are

loads. other

generally preferred to
walls of
a

building materials
on

for the
ease

exterior with which

tali be may

building,
handled be built Stone
struction con-

account

of for about

the the the

they
and

may

as

well and

as

with facility forms driven of

which beams the

they

into has

columns.

gradually been
in

from

field of skeleton
as

exterior
a

walls, except
for the been

used

in the brick
or

lower
cotta terra-

stories

only,as
work. in

base has

superimposed
due the also
to

This

the

experienced difficulty
of used
stone to

properly attaching
Stone in has
as stories,

masses

the slabs

metal in the

framework.
lower

been

in thin

the

first floor of

of the

Reliance
closed en-

Building,where
in the

highly polished slabs

frames
as or

granitewere
metal-work

ornamental

of grilles in the lower main

rounding sur-

columns,
the

shown
over

part of Fig. 44.

entrance to

Fig. 45
Masonic In and the be

shows

girder
the

the

Temple.
to

order thus very

render

exterior

impervious to moisture,
burned
brick should the

protect the metal

hardest Portland of and
most cement

framing againstcorrosion, only thoroughly

mortar

used.

is also

in specified and is

best

classes and of

work,

with In

well-filled other
as
a

joints

careful
now quired re-

bonding

anchoring.
brick the but wall walls much

words,

less

the

supporting member
function of

than

formerly,when
dead
to

fulfilled the
more

bearing
of it hence has
as
a

loads

only ;

is

now

demanded
and wall

quality and
constructed
in the

perfection of
and
more

workmanship, thoroughly
knit

better

sulted re-

best

examples building

of

Chicago

construction. skeleton
con-

The

Chicago

ordinance

defines

EXTERIOR

WALLS"

PIERS.

93

FIG.

44."

Detajl

of

Terra

Cotta,

Reliance

Building.

94 struction shall loads

to

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

as

follows
to

"

The

term

'

skeleton all external

construction and internal

'

apply
and the

all

buildings wherein
are

strains

transmitted

from
or

the

ing top of the buildof metal. be riveted

foundations the

by

skeleton and

framework

In such

framework

beams

girders shall

_^r"....L
FIG. 45.
"

SJ.X

Section

over

Main

Entrance, Masonic

Temple. if

to

each of be

other

at

their iron
to
or

respectivejunction points,
steel
are

pillars
parts

made shall

rolled riveted

used, their different

the
beams

each shall

other, and
have

and

girders
to

resting

upon

them

riveted

connections

unite

9
"

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

If

terra-cotta

is used be backed

as

part
with

of

such
or

closure, enfire-proof

it shall whichever laid the up

up

brick of such

hollow

tile and into

is used in such

being, however,
that the

dimensions be
as

manner

backing
manner

will

built
to

cavities

of the

terra-cotta

in such
terra-cotta

secure

perfect bond
"

between

the

facing and
for such

its backing.

If hollow of the

tile alone
same

is used
made

enclosure,

the

thickness

shall be and law

to

in at least two each other."

"

courses,

with breaking joints The columns New

are

bonded

into

York used

prescribes
iron

the

following:

Where

support

or

steel

girders carrying
iron, wrought
and
a inner

curtain-walls, the said columns

shall be of cast their

iron, or
surfaces

rolled be

steel,and
to

on

exposed

outer

constructed less than of

resist fire inches in

by having
thickness the with

casing of
bonded
faces sur-

brickwork'not into the

and

brickwork said

the

curtain-walls,or
may be covered

inside
an

of the shell of iron sides

columns
an

outer

having
or

between air-space

; and

the

exposed

of the iron
in and

steel

girders shall

also

be

ered covsimilarly

tied and

bonded." of
a

The

first

example

purely skeleton
wall of the

construction Phenix

in

Chicago
now

occurred Western

in the Union In

rear

Building,
Burnham

the

Telegraph
the
two

Building,by
behind the of horizontal
were

"
cast at

Root,
columns

architects.
were

wall
sets

elevators, supports
of I beams I beams ports sup-

used The

with

each

story.
on
a

outside connected

supports
to

made

resting

brackets

the

columns, these
brick. between tile. held The the Thus

carrying

4^-inch wall of enamelled

of I beams

inner

consisted

placed
of
or

columns,
the

supporting
was

4-inch wall

hollow "skins" W.

wall
the

formed

of two
etc.

layers
To

together by

window-frames,
credit of

Mr.
the

L. B.

Jenney belongs

the

having designed

first skeleton

building erected

EX

TERIOR

WA

LL

S"

PIERS.

97
in

in

Chicago;
structure

the

Home

Insurance the

Building-,built
first Bessemer

1883.

This used To

also

contained

steel beams

in

building construction.
avoid any

injury
the

to

the

walls

or

piers in
contraction
must

skeleton of be the
so

construction
tall

through
be

expansion
masonry
or

and

columns

of steel,the
as

envelope
for each

constructed This each of the is and

to

independent
means

story length.
brackets
entire that removed In the
were

provided by
every floor
to

of

shelf-angles or

at

level, thus
built masonry in

allowing
a manner

the

front
or

building

be
or

such

any

all of the

envelope
to

facing

may

be

out withHome used signed de-

injury
Insurance
to

the

load-bearing

members.
cast at

Building just mentioned,

the soffits the
a

lintels

form

of the walls
corner

windows for the

each

floor,and

to

carry shows

story above.
the Reliance

Fig. 46

pier from

Building,

"T

FIG.

46.

"

Detail

of Corner

Pier, Reliance

Building.

and
same.

Fig.
A

47

is

plan

of

the

supporting
has been

framework

for

strikingexample
construction of

of

what

made

possible
methods

in is

the

exterior

piers by

skeleton

98
shown of the in the

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

difference

between

the

old

and in the the

new

portions
(see portion
of the of

mammoth

Monadnock the time

owner,

Building
of in

Chicago
older

frontispiece). At
of this

designing spite
the
a

building, the
on

of

protests

architects, insisted
solid masonry

having
for

conservative

practice

which, piers,
some

height
at

of

sixteen
street

stories,
level. A half of

resulted few of

in walls later
an

feet
was

thick

the

years
the
new

addition

designed
in in

for

the

south walls

block,

seventeen
were

stories built

height, and
veneer

the

this

building

the

pattern, which

had

previously

been

rejected by proved
an

the

owner

of

the

other for the

portion.
A Life

It doubtless

expensive

lesson

first investor. brick Insurance

to

wall

carried

to

the New

height
York of
use

of

the

Manhattan

Building
the

in

City (241') would,

have cities, skeleton made
to

according
about

building

laws the

most

be

6 feet thick.

Through
walls

of

tion construc-

the and

enclosing

in this

building were
thickness

only
under
the

12

16 inches

thick. the

Fig. 48 Chicago
storage,

shows ordinance

required
for

of walls
to

the

buildings
of

devoted

sale,
is for

and

manufacture

merchandise.

Fig.

49,

EXTERIOR

WALLS"

PIERS.

99

the

walls

of

hotels,
other than

apartments,
the skeleton

and

office

buildings Fig.
50 shows

of

construction

type.

r
i

"T

t
U

*?

"ii

%i

4~
|

j
i-

4- HI
i

"

FIG.

48.

FIG.

49.

FIG.

50.

the

requirements
carry

for

masonry

walls

(in

office

buildings)

which

their

own

weight

only.

CHAPTER

VI.

SPANDRELS

AND

SPANDREL

SECTIONS"

BAY

WINDOWS,

THE

spandrels constitute
on

those
or

portions of
in the the

the

exterior

walls,either
which of

the

street

fronts

interior

court,

lie between

the

piersand
"

between

window-spaces
as

successive

stories. be made

Spandrel sections,"
every different
must

they

are

called, must
support

for

type of spandrel

in the

building, and
or

they
desired. the

clearlyshow
to

the the vary

templated conterial, ma-

supporting
veneer

beams in the

metal-work
manner

required
These

carry

walls

sections effect of the

depending largelyon greatly,

by
and the

architectural

designer in

his arrangement

of spandrelscan general descriptions

hardly be
of methods

given
numerous

as

applicableto examples
will

general practice. Illustrations

better
serve

to

show

the

employed.
The where
are spandrel-beams

supported by
used,
in the flush the
"

the masonry
or,

piers
veneer

such

load-bearing piers are

columns be
"

in

the

construction,by the metal

of
"

walls. the

The

face

the

spandrel-walls may
case

with

or piers,

in

reveal," that is,set back

first the wall

from
a

face of the

piers.
while

In

the

presents

nearlyunbroken
window-caps, piers, and
is

surface,
the the will

except for the

second method

terra-cotta accentuates

sills and the The The

as

throws

spandrel-wallsin
determine far
or

reveal.

architectural former
case

treatment

these

conditions.

of generally
come

simpler construction,
near

the

spandrel-beams
the

at
barrassments em-

the

centres

of the

columns, thus avoiding many

100

in the

irregularbracketingfrom

columns,,

SPANDRELS

AND

SPANDREL

SECTIONS.

IOI

which beams

becomes where 51 the shows

necessary

in the

support

of
are

the

spandrel-

spandrel-or
a

curtain-walls form of

recessed. section

Fig.

very

simple

spandrel

FIG.

51.

FIG.

52.

from
used. The

the The
use

Ashland
veneer

Block, Chicago, where

wall

flush

walls

were

is but

9 inches the main

a

thick.

of in

plategirders,as

spandrel supports,

is shown taken liance these from

Fig. 52,
the The

which
corner

is

section
Re-

near

of the

Building.
shown in

connections the

of

plate girders to
are

Gray
cast

columns VII.

used,
The
to

Fig. 104, Chapter

of
the mullions shown
are

connections

uprights
tween bein

support
the

the

terra-cotta
are

windows,
54 and and the

Fig.
from
spectively re-

53.

Figs.

55

taken

the eleventhof

twelfth-floor
Fort

levels

Dearborn
in

Buildis taken
at

FIG.

53.

ing.

The

section

given

Fig. 56

the first-floor

102

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

or

sidewalk
as

level,and
well
as

shows small

the

prismatic lights in
which 57 is
a

the

sidewalk,
the
at

the

windows

help
section and

to

light
taken
struction. con-

basement the attic

restaurant

space. the

Fig.
main

floor,showing

cornice

roof

FIG.
"

54.

The
as

materials
before

generallyused
for the

for

veneer

sist, buildings con-

stated, of pressed brick

used

and and
or

terra-cotta, the
horizontal sills,
even

latter

being

window-caps

bands, ornamental fronts,as

Reliance The
seen

brackets, capitals,
the Stock enamelled of the
to

etc.,

in entire
or

in

Exchange

Building,

in

the

Building of
brick
or

terra-cotta.

tile work

piers
the

is

usually supported
as

by bracket-angles, attached
described
in

columns,

has

been the

Chapter V,

while

the

body

or

backing of

IO4

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

is supported directly spandrel-walls by

the

main

spandrel-

beams,
The be

as

indicated

in the

previousfigures.
work, however,
can a

ornamental

terra-cotta

seldom

supported directly by
must

the

and spandrel-beams, to, to

system

of anchors

be resorted

properly tie

the individual

FIG.

57-

blocks

either

to

the

brick
are

backing

or

to

the

metal-work square
or

itself. These
round iron

anchors

usually made
are

of

^ inch
ribs

rods, which

hooked then

into drawn of
nuts

the

provided
work the brick-

in the terra-cotta
or

blocks, and

tight to
and

metal-work

by

means

screw-ends.

SPANDRELS

AND

SPANDREL

SECTIONS.

105

Such

anchors

are

shown

in

Fig. 59.
the
or

Hook-bolts
ends beams.
are

are

also
bent
are

largelyused, as
around the

in

Fig. 55,

where

shown

spandrel-channels
where
as flange,

Clamps
block

frequently employed snugly against a

many metal

the

terra-cotta

lies The
ing secur-

indicated may be

in

Fig. 59.
in

possiblemethods
proper and
a

which
cannot

employed
be shown
can

anchorage
proper

always
of the

by

ings, drawbe

execution

work

only

FIG.

58.

secured field.

by
The
on

most

careful

and superintendence,
must

study in
be

the cated indiin be

general scheme, however,

the

always
holes anchors
or

sprandrel sections, as
metaldetail work
to

the the

necessary should

the

structural in the

receive of the be done section

included order

drawings
may

iron
at

steel

work, in

that such shows

punching
a

the

shop.
the

Fig. 58

sprandrel

from

Marquette
separators

Building, at

the

fifteenth-floor

level.

Heavy

io6

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

FIG.

60.

SPANDRELS

AND

SPANDREL

SECTIONS.

ID/ the outside

were

used

between

the

I-beam

girder
section

and

spandrel-channel.
A
in

rather

complicated spandrel
taken from the

is that Field

indicated
store

Fig. 59,

Marshall

retail

building.
masonry shown the

The

spandrel-beams were
used
where

here walls.

carried The

by

the

piers
is taken

in

the

exterior ornamental

section
occur

small

balconies The vertical

in

recessed

wall

between

the

piers.

mullion-

angles are Fig.

where 60

shown. plainly is from the

same

building,taken
and the brick

at

the and

level
cotta terra-

the work

granite facing stops

begins.

COURT

WALLS.

The way,
as

spandrel
far
as

sections

of

the

court

walls

differ

in

no

are general principles

concerned, from
walls.

those

of the

exterior

They
due

are

generally simpler,
the
to

however,
of the

to

character plainer their

as

wall, and
in thickness walls.

usual

crease deto

compared glazed
to

the

exterior

brick

is all

commonly
of

employed,
the
terra-cotta

reflect

possiblelight,while
etc., are
A

sill-courses,
before. wall is in the in

as

section

of the

court

Marshall

Field

Building

given

Fig. 61.
A

simple
is shown

court-wall in

spandrel

tion sec-

Fig. 62.
WINDOWS.
FIG. 61.

BAY

With

the

introduction
came

of the

steel demand

construction

the

and possibility

for

the

bay

io8

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

window,

feature

which

has

become certainly hotel

very

nent promifor

in modern As in the

and office-building

design.
the material

ordinary spandrel section,

FIG.

62.

"

Typical
must

Court

Wall.

Practice

of

Jenney

"

Mundie,

Architects.

each

story

be

carried

in such

manner

as

to

make

it

independent of
means

the other
at

stories. floor

This

is

accomplished by
in order the that the

of brackets loads may

each

level,and
too

bracket

not

become

heavy

bay-window

SPANDRELS

AND

SPANDREL

SECTIONS.

109

walls
or

must

be

constructed
is

as

lightas possible. No
these

yielding
if the

deflection

permissiblein

brackets, and

FIG.

63.

"J

FIG.

64.

supporting

member

is

floor-beam
a

or

as floor-girder,

in

Fig. 63,

taken

through

bay

window

of

the

Masonic

no

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

Temple, weight
of

the

girder
to

should any is

be

rigidly connected
due the
in

to to

the the

floor system,
the

prevent

twisting tendency accomplished,as

bay.

This

above-

FIG.

65.

FIG.

66.

mentioned

figure,by
shows

means

of

the

top

and

bottom

tie-

plates shown. Fig. 64

in the
a

section

at

the

bottom

of

bay

window

Masonic
shows

Temple.
a

Fig. 65
State Street

half

plan

of

the

metal

framing

for

the

bay

window

in the

Reliance

Building.

112

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

The

terra-cotta

mullions

of

the

bay

and

the

pier

are

shown

in

plan

in

Fig.
bracket

66.

The

column

in

the

bay
bracket.

is

given

in

Fig.

67,

while

Fig.

68

is

section

at

the

side

The

method

of

supporting
69.

the

floors

and

ceilings

in

the

bays

is

shown

in

Fig.

CHAPTER

VII.

COLUMNS.

THE
most

subject

of

the

interior

columns

forms of

one

of

the

important
variations of the forms

steps in the
are

modern
to

problem
be
or

design, and
than in

greater
any The each

probably

found steel

here

other many

vital features
of
own

in iron
now

construction.

columns

in

the the

building market,
many and dozen each
to case,

having

its

enthusiasts, and
the of
a

types
with
or

of the

connections floor

between

columns choice

themselves
from in
a

system, permit
the details

more

types, with
the
more

varying widely
shall endeavor
out

to

suit the and eral gen-

shape

chosen.

We

investigate

prominent
of

forms, and
each
one.

point
The then

the

advantages

disadvantages
and the

most

for satisfactory

specificcases
desired.
as

may

be

selected,

as

combining

features A

discussion columns

to

the

relative

values
seem

of

cast

versus

wrought
present
in
ten-

should the

hardly
use

necessary cast-iron
even

at

the

time, but
to

repeated

of the
and

column

sixteen-storied their
use

buildings,
new

higher (as
Insurance

shown

by

in the

Manhattan that

Life the

Building
economy

of of

seventeen cast

stories), shows
does for has the

questionable
of
to
some

columns

in the still,

opinion
incident

architects, compensate
use.

dangers
so

their

The last

best few

practice

declared of is the
new

uniformly, during
columns that the
fined con-

the

years, of
cast

in favor metal very

steel

employment
to

pretty

generally
or

buildings

of

moderate

height

to

special
"3

114 where of
as

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING,

cases

advantages
ornamental the

are

to

be

gained, as
The

in the

use

of

number

cast

columns.
cast

great

tainty unceruse

to

uniformity of
assumed of the the
use

metal
case

led to the of steel reliance

more

of

very strains

low
can

unit-strain, while
be
on
a

in

the

the
on

unitthe

very

definite
our

trustworthiness

metal. of

Among
in would of

sive progres-

designers
become considered members in
a

cast-iron

large buildings has

no more

thing
than

of the would

past, and
the
use

be

seriously

cast-iron

compression-

bridges.
the
cast

Considering

sections and

in

more

general

use

as

columns, the circular, square,

connections

H-shaped, and
will be
seen

their that in
as

vidual indithese

(seeFig. 70),it

splicescannot
a

result
as

rigid

framework

the

riveted The umns col-

jointsin
in
must

steel-work. the modern of

so as

design

be

capable

affording
to

stiff connections both and the live loads floor the

stand withdead from

as

direct

transferred
as

system,
connections

well for

sufficient wind
FIG. 70.

the

bracing.
secured well of flanges

These

cannot
means

be the

by
cast

of

bolts
even

passing through
if the

horizontal be
can

columns,
The.
relied

workmanship
however,
the
"

considered

accurate.

workmanship,
upon
as

seldom,
never

if

ever,

be

perfect;
"

bolts

completely
to

fill their the

holes, and
columns. may

shims These

are

constantly employed
elements of distortion.
on

plumb
The

constitute

weakness

which

easily allow
to

considerable

girder

connections
bolted

the the

columns,

resting
bad

cast

brackets, and
extreme,
espe-

through

flanges,are

in

the

COL

UMNS.

1 1

for cially

cases

of eccentric

loading

and

the

irregularplacing

of beams. To
cast

offset columns than

these
are

dangers
cheaper
"

of

weak

design
and

it is true

that of

per

pound

perhaps
that But

easier

erection much

the steel with the

are

considerations of the
as
was

have naturally ing consider14

weight
the

owner

building.
eleven

risks that New

run,

in the blown

buildingat

Maiden
out

Lane,
of the will

York,

which the

inches
to

plumb through
wind pressure, the

inabilityof the cast-columns

to

resist

it is hard
use

understand

why
even

architects

persistin
owner.

of

such

methods,

if

requested
stiffness,

by
has

the
a

Cast lower when

iron, in spiteof its apparent

than elasticity steel
a

much

coefficient of
it breaks, rolled

ing breaksteel,

suddenly
Steel is the of its
now

while
at

suffers distortion.
sidering price that, con-

being

such

low

extra

weight
to

necessary

in cast
cost

iron, on
the
use

account

the unreliability, be found

saving in
be small
use.

by
even

of

the

latter will the

indeed,

disregarding
wrought

dangers
The
more

assumed

by

its

prominent
the and
newer

forms

of

American

columns

include channels and the

Phoenix, Keystone octagonal, latticed lattice, plates and

Larimer and

angles,
columns,
relative

angles,
types.
are

Z-bar The the

Gray
sections

advantages

of these

various

of

greatest

economical importance,as affecting In actual be the

and of these

successful

design. shapes
not

practicethe
to

treatment

different
"

will in

found

vary value

greatly
of the In

with

the

designer
in the the

only

relative
one

sections, but
the first

treatment

of differ

any

section. in

place,

formulas
but

not greatly,

fundamental often

principles, haps, pertaining con-

in the

treatment,
deduced

being
from

empirical,and

factors

some

special case. loading,which

no

These will

formulae
seldom

also
occur

generally assume
in the modern

ideal

and building,

or

very

few

Il6

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

full-sized tests

have

ever

been the have

most

made

on

the
tests too

effects of
on

tric eccen-

loading. Indeed,
concentric the relative loads values his
" "

full-sized been far

columns
to

of show

even,

limited

of the

ordinary column
and Resistance of

sections.

Burr, in
states

Strength

Materials,"
the
: sistance re-

that

The

general principleswhich
may be be summed up far

govern
as

of built columns
"

follows

The

material

should

disposed

as

as

possiblefrom
;

the
"

neutral There The

axis of the should individual

;

cross-section, thereby increasing R

no

be

initial internal the

stress

"

portions of portions of
each other the that

column

should

be

mutually supporting
"

The

individual
to

the
no

column relative may

should motion
as a

be

so
can

firmlysecured
take thus in place,

that column

order the

fail

whole,

maintaining

value original Burr

of R." would
an seem

The that the

a

experiments given by
closed column the is

to

indicate due
to

stronger than
of the

open
are

one,

fact that when

edges

segments

mutually supporting
closure. From is
as

held

in contact

by complete
the

theoretical

standpoint, therefore,
the
most

Phoenix for

column

undoubtedly
it forms and
as

favorable thus

form

compression,

closed, and
the

mutually supporting, section

columns of

because the metal

capacityof
from any that

equal
axis.

areas

varies also mum maxi-

is removed

the neutral

It must
a

be

remembered
and minimum
a

form of

of column,

having
not

radius

gyration,is
load, as
radius of the of

economical calculations The of

for
must

use

under be based

single concentric
on

the

the

minimum the
excess

gyration.

metal

represented by
of
or

maximum

radius

gyration is
is thus of the lost

disregarded, and necessity

wasted, when
But other
we

part of the section

the ideal

consider

efficiency
form arise

column. many

practice does
questions

not

always support
mere

theory, and

besides

COLUMNS.

117 of section. deed, Inin

in

connection
we

with
see

the that
in

judicious choice
several

shall of

practicalconsiderations
call for
;
a

the

use

columns the ideal

to

buildings

form

very

ent differas

from

circular the
centre

section of the

such

points

the

transfer of

loads

section, the maximum

and the

under efficiency for tend

eccentric around
or

loading,
included the
use

requirements
form, all
circular

pipe-space

in the of

column
or

seriouslyto

restrict

closed

sections. In the column

formula,/

"

"

"

^
^ "-*

(the
+
i

form

2 +
of Gordon's

x*x\

-^of eccentric kinds due

to

formula,
are

including

the for

effect the
"

loading), there
stresses

expressions
under that

three that

of the

in

column

compression
due
to

flexure that due

of the
to

column,

eccentric
load.

loading, and
The
term

the

uniformly distributed
does
not
occur

of

eccentric

loading
or

in the

so-called in

Gordon's

formula,

in those
term

derived
must
one

from be

it,but
omitted.

struction building con-

this columns of loads

are

not

The

placing
the

of

over centrally

another of the

necessitates

tions applicathe

loads

to

the

sides
on

columns,
sides side

and

unless

equal, and

opposite
stress
on

of the where

column, the
the greater

effect is to increase load

occurs.

the

the

/2

The

second

term

in the

denominator,
term

"

is
,

usuallyso

small in the columns Hence

that

it

reallymakes
equation, due buildings,and

this
to to

of

the

least

importance
of

above in in

the

short length ordinarily usual broad

their

flat bases.

one-story columns
the

umns), col(unless in long first-story

where in the and

length

is the

usuallyunder
various sections

90

ence radii,the differtends

answer

strength of
any of

sections will

to

pear, disapthe

almost

the

with

Il8

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

if ordinary unit-strains, loads

are

the

columns Eccentric

are

well

made

and

the

not

eccentric.
a

loading will
of

be considered various

later, under
sections. In than

general

discussion

the

longer columns, however,

90

where radius Theatre

a

the of

length

is greater becomes

radii,calculation
In the columns 25,000
new

by

the

gyration

necessary. Phcenix

Schiller

Building,Chicago,
of 92 ft.
10

were

used, of
Modern

length
columns

in.r
have

weighing

Ibs. each. the

buildingmethods
of

rapidlydeveloped

for necessity hitherto

800
tons
area

extraordinary
It is

length,carrying loads
not
uncommon

considered and of of
even

visionary.
more
on a

to

have

single
Edison used

column Electric columns

with

sectional

158
New

sq.

in. York

The

Illuminating Company
of the Phcenix all in

City
net

type, having loads

of 600

tons,
As

35 ft. 4 in. vibration

were

over

length,weighing
in the

15,000

Ibs. each.

occurred

building, very being

to

low

unit:strains

allowed, the

columns

further

strengthened by
of

disregarding
caused The

the increment

the

least radius

gyration

each by using eight fillers, formula used

was
one

^f

in. thick.

deduced
P

from

the

experi-

42,000
="

ments

at the

Watertown

Arsenal, namely,

-~

/_!_
\50,000
X

^'Y

f%)

for the

crushing

strain

per

sq. in.

Twelve-section

Phcenix of

columns ft.

were

also

used

in the
3

Chicago
3 in.

Board

Trade, 90

unsupported

length,

ft,

diameter, fire-proofed.

But

by

far the

larger number
are,
as

of columns has before

been

used

in modern

building
90

construction in

stated, under
from
10

radii,being used
The

lengths of single-story
factors columns the metal
are,

to

14

feet.

determining
as

therefore, such
these be

practical
so

considerations the ideal

affect

of
must

lengths;
considered

that
con-

dispositionof

in

I2O

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

prompt
of
a

delivery of
been

material

as

is the

required
contract

for the time.

tion compleThe
tracts con-

large building within

have executed four last three

that the the time

most

in the have in
;

city of Chicago undoubtedly

it is said of masonry
at

ing dur-

or

years

shown and

wonderful
the in

construction
has York laid
ever seen

points of
while the
mortar
more

excellence
a

that

world
New
was

large
the

building
twelfth
level
was

City
before
on

that the the

for

story

the

first-floor
of the
now

dry.
is

The

patent

important

patent sections
the Z section

has, however,

recentlyexpired, so
by
several much The

that

being

roiled

mills,and
more

it is not

only cheaper
being
rolled the
even

than
on

formerly, but
the Pacific
coast.

available,

Phoenix rolled

shape, by
but

although
one

patent has long since

country, the
The

expired, is

mill in this

Phcenixville,and
column

by

one

other

mill in

England.
of
of

Keystone

is but

little used. this advantage

Columns

platesand angles,or
a

channels, .possess
measure

in availability

greater

than
at

any

of the

other

sections,the parts being obtainable

any

mill,if not

in stock.
2.

Shopwork
low

and

Workmanship.
of most

"

With of the

the

present

form uni-

price per pound

of

column become

sections,
of far

the

items

shopwork
of the hence

and

workmanship
cost at

greater importance
than the
cost

in the

of the

the mill
"

completed assuming

column the
tional sec-

section
the

area,

and

weight

per

foot, to be the

same. more

Lattice

bars, fillers, gussets, etc., add

without

just so

much
must

weight,
be methods forms The of

increasingthe
from
an

section, and

fore thereThe

considered
of

economical

standpoint.
in the

riveting the
also be of taken

sections

together

various

must

into account. well

as

number

punching operations,as
sections
cost

the be

pense exsidered con-

rollingthe
as

employed,
of

will need

to

affectingthe

shopwork.

Thus

in the

COLUMNS.

121

Gray
are

column

no

less than four

rows

sixteen of

operations of punching
the additional the

required
of

for

rivets, with
bent

expense

hydraulic pressed
will

plates,connecting
the
cost

angles.

This

increase materially

of

ture. manufac-

(See following table.)

Larimer

column,

row

of rivets.

Z-bar

column,

without

covers,

rows.

4-section Phoenix
Channel

column,

rows.

column, with

platesor lattice, 4

rows.

Gray column,

rows.

Keystone octagonal column,

Z-bar

rows.

column, with

singlecovers,

rows.

Box

column

of

plates and
8

8 angles,

rows.

Latticed

angle column,

rows.

8-section Phcenix

column,

rows.

Z-bar

column

with

double

covers,

10

rows.

The

new

Larimer "

column,

but and

recently placed
first used
of in
two

on

the

market in the sections

two

by Jones Newberry
bent

Laughlins,

Chicago
I-beam

Library building,consists
along
riveted rivets the middle with
3

down

of
a

the small in.

web,

the

beams

being

together
are

I-beam for

filler between. about

centres.
1

The

spaced
the

centres

in. from

each

end

of

column, and

then

5 in.

122

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

Where made either the

on

necessary

to

strengthen

the
to

column, this filler is

out
on

of two side
as

channel-sections,back
far
as

back, extending

necessary.
a

Small

angles are
across

riveted

to

faces of the which the

I beams, and

plate is riveted
rest

the top, Where

girders and

column

(Fig. 71).

FIG.

71.

FIG.

72.

only
been square

two

girders occur,
upper column of instead the

the
to

remaining plate.

faces

are

used

to

rivet the

the

Another the from

method

has of
a

used
or

small which

angles,in
is cut the

shape
the
are

octagonal
to

sheet

centre

out, part way

down in
a

the thus

edge, and making

has been circular
a

lips so

formed continuous

bent

press,

solid and made

angle.
out

Still another

detail
a

by pressing
to

in lower

hydraulic machine
part
to

sheet

conform

in the the

the

shape
In

of the

outside
not

of the the

of flanges upper

column the

(Fig. 72).
vertical the

this way

only

flange,but
the

flangetoo,
Also

is made the

continuous of

around

top of

column.

thickness

the horizontal vertical

flangeis

retained somewhat This

uniform, the

thickness

of the

flangebeing
market
at

tapered.
column
is
one

of the

cheapest
one

on

the

the

present time, but it possesses

smaller the sized columns.
connect

great disadvantage in the

of driving difficulty with the
are

This the

lies in the

rivets

that In
a

bracket

angles
I 5-in.

I-beam

flanges.
in smaller

o-in.

column, where
it is often

beams
on

used,

or

columns,

very

difficult

account

of

COLUMNS.

123

interference
rivets
are

to

drive in

the rivets
a

through

the

holes, unless
This often

the
sults re-

driven

slanting

direction.

in weak

connections. have
a

urers Jones " Laughlins, the manufactmade marked

tests
a

of this column, built

over

large number

of tests

of

columns,
the Z-bar
a

showing
column

gain in
(6"
total

ultimate

strength
L.

published by

C.

Strobel.

Comparing

7" Larimer
area

column

I beams,

I2f Ibs. per

foot, of sectional

of
6"

9.261a",
column
1

length 120", gauged

length 100") with

"

Z-bar
=

(6" X 3" Z's, \" metal,

=

area

9.32

total
,

length
an

19.88", gauged length

with

80"),

the

Larimer Ibs. of

shows per sq.

ultimate

strengthof 346,300 Ibs., or

an

37"393

in., as
or Ibs.,

compared
failed

ultimate
the Z

strength
column. the ends.

293,200 Z-bar twisted Larimer Larimer

31,460 Ibs. per

sq. in. for the

The

column in
a

through

buckling of
the
two

Z's, and
The

spiral direction
deflected in

between
an

column columns

oblique
a

tion. direc-

Larger
A claims
are

also showed the Z-bar been is that the made but

mate greater ulti-

strengthper
point
for that the

sq. in. than

columns. much
two
rows

has

always
column
near

of

in

the

Z-bar

of rivets
;

required, and
to

those suppose tends

centre

of the in

column
outer
even is even

for

it is reasonable of the
a

that
to

punching
the
;

the

tions porwhen
more

column
most

weaken

member,
this

riveting is

done carefully

and

important

in small
to

columns, where
the column

the

ratio of the
is

radius where

of

gyration
we

the

length of

greatest, and
material
on

desire

the greatest of two used

rows

of efficiency of rivets

the

used.

But

is this claim columns indeed

were

founded

fact? claim

If Z-bar would umns colin the

without

the cover-plates,

be in the

true, but
Venetian No

take, for instance, the

large
Mr.

Z-bar

Building, quoted by
less than
ten
rows

Purdy
are

article named. with the

to

of rivets

required
when
we

heavy cover-plates used, and, indeed,

consider the

stop

large proportion

of

Z-bar

columns

124

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

which
assumes

liave
but

covers,

the

claim

of the

only
section

two

rows

of

rivets

little box

value, and
column of

proves

less desirable
"

than
as

the

plates and
the
centre
so

angles,
of the

inasmuch

the

material

of the

Z's, near

column, is
the

practicallywasted, though
weight.
It
can

adding
even

materially to
by
the
use

hardly be denied,
thrust far the than table in

most

siastic enthu-

supporters of the Z section, that the

has the A of bar

of this

shape

reallybeen
last few years the

upon
more

Chicago
its merits shows that

builders would

during
warrant. out

glance at
a

Appendix
in

twenty-two
used far the

total column.

of

forty buildings
Its
use

Chicago
cities

have

Z-

Eastern

has

been

more

limited.
It
is

hard any unless

to

see,

therefore, where

the
as

Z-bar

column is
cerned, con-

possesses

decided used

advantage
without the the Z

so

far

shopwork
The

cover-plates.
sections
are

columns
on a

of in

plates and angles and

these

about
are

par

respects, while
either.
as

channel

columns
are,

more

ble favorawhat somecan

than

The
to

channel

columns

however,

limited

section, while
area.

plates and
latter

angles
was

be used ple, Tem-

increased
in the

to

any

desired

The

section

highest

steel

buildingin Chicago, the

used
on

Masonic columns

being latticing
upper The stories. character well the

two

sides

of the

in the

of
as

^vorkmanship will vary

with the different

with

the used.

ent differThe termine de-

shops, as reputation of
the
3.

sections

shop,

aided of the

by

careful

inspection,will

excellence
to

workmanship.
to

Ability
"

Transfer Loads
seen

Centre

of Column
that many

"

tric Eccen-

Loading.
sections transfer
in

It will be

at
are

glance

of the for the

under of loads

consideration
to
a

totallyunfitted
column.
so

the

centre

of the
are

The

tions condias

designing require
many

framework of the

seldom
to

favorable unsym-

not

to

columns

be

loaded

COL

UMNS.

125 considered carefully

to

and metrically,

this

point has
modern

been

in

the details of the the

best

structures, in order
the material
to

obtain

in efficiency highest possible will

used. the

Every
of be

step in this direction

the
a

add certainly load than

capacityof
the
use can

column,
less

for
mean

an

eccentric unit-strain the axis.

will necessitate where shows beams the the

or

much

force

to applieddirectly

Fig. 73
between the

connection

girdersand
It is dent evi-

Gray

column. the

that,unless
column is very

top of the

rigidly bound

FIG.

73.

FIG.

74.

together by
eccentric,
are

outside borne

platesor
mainly by
not

angles,the girder loads,

the the T

if

shape
whole

to

which

the This

girder
lack of

is

connected, and

by
of

column.
a

to latticing

transmit
cases

shear

may

constitute

very

serious The

disadvantage in
use

heavy
would

eccentric

loading.
as

of

Phcenix Foster

plates with
Milhken,

pintle connections,

advocated

by

certainlyseem

to

126

ARCHIJ^ECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

possess

the

greatest
is
no

advantages
in this

under method

this
to

heading
tear

(Fig. joint
was

74).

There
as

leverage
is in any

the

asunder,

there

flange joint.

This of the

system

recentlyused
cable road

in the

large power-house

Broadway
eight
any feet form

in. New

York, with

over pintle-plates

deep.

Unless column here

can pintle-plates

be this

used, however,
consideration of

of closed

is bad the

under

of central columns

loads, and
conflicts The
most

method practical the

use

loading

with seriously Z-bar column

of

an

ideal closed

section. too,
over

possesses

advantages here,
and in be
as even

of the

forms

of closed
so

columns,
not

when
a so

cover-

plates are
as

used

this is may beam

(though

great

degree),
that the the Z

the

column

almost may is

always
be

turned

heavily loaded
flanges.
This where

introduced

between
at

advantage
small

especially great
without the be column taken

the

tops of

buildings
beams all four of the

columns

cover-plates carry
is open
to
on

with

heavy

loads, for here

all loads Z-bar this may

sides,so
column.

that

the

centre

(But
under

columns condition box

same

without

covers are

fail

by

wrinkling, and
of any of the

they
column

the of

weakest

sections.)The
possesses
extent

plates and
not

angles, however,
to
as

this the

advantage,though
The
so

great
of

an

in the

lighter sections.
of
a

bility possithe

changing gyration
the
on

section

column less
in

that

radius

of

shall be
must
a

greater
not

or

either

tion direc-

across

section
one

be

overlooked, for if all the

a

loads
to

occur

side of of

column, it is

great advantage
line of the

have

the

radius

gyration greater

in the

load. The follows calculation

:

for eccentric

loading should

be

treated

(a) Determine
eccentric
and

the section

required
whole

for the total load, both considered

as tric. concen-

concentric, the

128

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

plates and
one

angles.
smaller

The

connection
in

in Z-bar the
use

columns

forms
;

of the in the
are

greatest advantages
columns

of this section where the

and

without
most

covers,

nections con-

generally the
The taken from

the advantages difficult, of connections is

are

the in

greatest.

general system
the
to

shown

Fig. 75,

Monadnock
the

Building.
on

Angle-brackets are placed a plate"

the
over

riveted
I

column,

which
come

is

in. to

in. in

thickness, on
floor
are

top of which

the girders, the

one

column

of the next The

settingcentrally
or

below.

girders

riveted

bolted

through
an
"

to

the

bed-platebelow, by
as

the A

and through flanges, small the

angle above,
gib
"

shown is

in

Fig. 75.
in up

wrought-iron
top
end of

or

wedge
the If the bolsters

dropped
to

between any be

the

girder and

web,

take

possiblecompressive brought
to
one

strains.
cast-iron The in

girders are
are

all to

level,

used.
in the of

system followed

Phoenix

column
to

is the

as

shown

Fig. 76, consisting

angles riveted
which the
a

extended is

fillers, on

plate

placed,
imposed supercolumn
to

holding

girders and
The

the upper

column. is the held down

by

angles

riveted

bed-plate. Under
a

eccentric
movement tilting

ing load-

considerable
in

occurs

this

column,

unless before

used gested. sugin

with

pintle-plates,as
made with shown bent in offer

Connections
Old

were

plates

the

Colony Building,Chicago, as
Box columns
as

Fig. 77. quite

more,
as

of

plates and

angles

many any

advantages
other when

regards connections,
The details columns
a are

if not

than

section.
we

really the
a

simplest of all,
height only
is any where

consider the

of

single
one,

floor
nor

but (Fig.78),
a

is not joint

desirable

horizontal

plate separates

the two

columns

for it prevents

COL

UMNS

129

efficient

as splicing,

well up

as

good girder-connections.This
the head

point

will

be

taken

later under

of

"

Column

Joints."

tip

"

m
-L"zrZ
"v ""I-

\\ Xii*..

// .:~l'"'".*

Ctf""l~

e%... rf^
'.

/ FIG.

"^f^r^"^ " "

78

FIG.

77.

5. Relation

of Size of Section
in

to Small

Columns.
to

"

It is not
a

generallydesirable
small much column

buildingconstruction
because stories, the column
connect
in

have

very
are so

in the upper

girder loads
loads. with
cases a an

heavier,
as

than proportionately,
as six

times Someupper-

many

beams

must

story column

at

one

level, and

such with Section.

"

it is almost

impossible to
6. column
as

make

good

connections

small The

column.

Capabilities of the Fire-proofing

sections

rectangular compactly
thus lost is quent, freof

will

not, of course, when

as fire-proof

the for

circular
"

sections, but
is

the

room

used

as pipe-space,"

becoming
value

more

and

more

this architects. square

to

point
In
was

has

great

in

the

estimation

the
cut

Columbus
in

a Building, Chicago (1893),

hole

all of the of

of bed-plates of the be
too

the column

columns
area.

allow
a

the

passage of

pipes

inside

Such

cutting
The

bed-plates cannot
use,

demned. severely con-

increased

however,
bedand

of

vertical

splices

in columns,

instead

of horizontal and

allows cap-plates, up

all water-, waste-, side of the metal

to vent-pipes

be carried the

along the

columns, and

inside

slabs,. fire-proofing

13" where is not the

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

room

may
to

be

had any

without

too

much of

waste.

It metal

advisable

place
such
no

piping
as

inside

the and

columns, and

hence

sections

the

Phoenix

stone-oc KeyThe

offer columns of

advantages

in this Z's

respect.
and the the

plates and

angles, channels,

Gray
mum mini-

column,

all allow
or

considerable

pipe-spacewithin
for that the

circular It would

rectangular enclosure
however,
sides than in of such

fire-proofing.
ducts for risers. all in the

seem,

separate
columns

walls, or
would ducts offer

along

the

piping

be far would the

better result

concealed

Separate
would

increased of

outlay, but
desired. in
X
"

they

great

advantage
and wherever

allowing inspection
The
2

of

all

piping
The

whenever

largest Z-column
of 4
covers

section Z bars 16"

142 sq.

Fair webs

"

building,
X
an

Chicago, consists
H

6"
X

f",

16"

f",
area

yf", aggregating

of

in. and The

carrying largestZ

load

of in

1,700,000 the
new

Ibs. Y. M.

column

C. A.
a

Building,Chicago
two-story
as

(see Fig. 79),was

column
4 Z's

24' 3" long,composed

6"
X

follows:
X X

3"
1

"",
X

2 i

plates 24" plate 14"

4

f"

2 2

plates
plates
X

6"
X

J",
X

f",
X

26"

"", 4 angles 4"

"

4'

|f",

angles 5"
section
=

4"

I"

"

total

218

sq. in.

The

minimum web is 8"

never

Z
X

ally genersq.

used Metal

is 4

Z's

3"

i ""*",

Ty

12.4

in.

less than

in ""$"

thickness

used

in the

best

practice.
The

calculations
with
are

of the the

strengths of wrought
of New

columns,

in accordance and

building laws
in

York, Boston,
and the unitin

Chicago,
used XI.

given

Chapter

XII;

strains

in

several

prominent

buildings are
each of the

given

Chapter
It

is apparent,

therefore,

that

types of

COLUMNS.

131 but good points,

to

columns of one,
as

considered, has its

own

the

choice
be well-

decidedly superior
The Larimer columns Phoenix from
on or a

all

others, would
may lead

nigh impossible.
the the
most

column
are

in

ness, cheap-

or

box

superior for connections, Keystone

columns is

material, in the

placed
The signer, de-

advantageously
must
as

theoretical the

standpoint.
of the
to

choice, then,
as

depend
on

personal views
as

well the

the

local

conditions
in the of

cost,
at

facture, manu-

and The is writer

details the

employed
box column for of

problem

hand. It
a

favors

platesand angles.

obtained, cheap, good easily

and under for maximum eccentric continuous radius

connections, possesses
which gyration, it offers
a can

minimum utilized

be

and loading,

the

greatest
will be

advantages
considered A without

columns,
with

point which bracing.

be
on

later in connection
on

wind

discussion
some

columns
to

would
views
He

hardly
expressed
advises

complete
this
use

reference Wm.

the

ject subof

by
limestone action

Gen.

Sooysmith.
of steel under
"

the

instead pillars metal-work To

columns, declaring that the

heat would
may
so

of the

be

dangerous

in

the extreme. which the

quote

There been

be

steel

buildings in

has fire-proofing
an

well

done such

that

they

will if

pass
the be

through
steel

ordinary fire
even

without

failure.

But

becomes

moderately heated,
and
cause

its stiffness will the and

measurably diminished,
so

the

strength of
to

upright yield."
of ability

members While Gen.

reduced

as

to

them

bend

acknowledging

the

great

experience

and

Sooysmith
the such
not

in constructive would

in foundations, work, and especially

writer

question seriously
on

the

authority

for

an

apparent
be

reflection

methods. fire-proofing
are

There

only may
it is
a

buildingswhich
and do all

firesufficiently tects, builders, archi-

proofed,but
and

well-established
can

fact that

engineers

their buildings fire-proof

to sufficiently guard against

possible heat

from arising

132 the material

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

used

in the

building,or
And that

from

the

burning
no

of

surrounding
to

structures.

there

is almost

limit

the

of protection possibility in the immense

converters

from in
use

heat

is by fire-clay the

shown

by

large

steel

companies.
and in

They
a

are

made

of

steel,protected by fire-clay,
2000" years

spite of
last

temperature
as

of four

night
before

and

day, these
action of

furnaces

even

long

as

renewal. the

Again,

limestone

(CaCo3)
into lime

is friable under

heat, decomposing

(CaO)
Hence

and the

carbon limestone

di-oxide

(CO,) at
would
as

temperature

of 600".
as

pillars

require quite
steelwork. for
a

much

protection by fire-proofing
claims
2' in
a

the

Gen. of sq.

Sooysmith
limestone
at

safe load and

of 500

tons

column

2' X 5500

area

9' high. given by

of

This

equals 576
an

in., or

Ibs. per

sq. in.

Rankine, gives
tons.

ultimate
the factor
even 20 or

compressive
of less

resistance

1584

Allowing
we

safetyof
than
200

8, recommended tons,
sq. while the

by
Baker best
in the

Rankine,
recommends ashlar

have but

25
was

tons

per
maximum

ft. for pressure

masonry

(10

tons

the

Brooklyn bridge, and

100 200

19

tons

in the column.

St. Louis
This
same

bridge),or
load of

tons tons

for would
X

this be and

limestone

carried
i

by

12"
X

Z-bar
" =

column sq.
in. in

of 4 Z's
area, at

3"

6"

f ",

plate
The

8"

42

10,000

Ibs. per is at

sq. in.
once

economy
even

of space

this

latter fire-

column

apparent,
to
a

disregarding the pillar.

OF COLUMNS.

proofing necessary
THE

limestone

FIRE-PROOFING

As

the columns

carry
over

the

greatest loads found

the Ibs.),
a

in modern

buildings (some
of these

1,500,000 becomes

proper

ing fire-proofis this

members In
to
a

most

important subject for

cases,

consideration.
even slighted

only
very

too

many

however,
as was

dangerous extent,

proven
to.

by

the

Athletic

Club

before Building fire,

referred

COLUMNS.

133 columns fire-proof

one

The

first the

attempts
use

at

making

were

through
with
was

of

double

column,
filled with may

inside

the This such The

other,
idea
struction con-

the

interveningspace
reference New York in the

plaster.
to
:
"

patented,and
columns and
an

still be found
as

building laws,
constructed inner

said

column

or

shall be either inner

to

double, that
alone
to to

is,an

outer

column, the

be of posed im-

sufficient

strength

sustain

safely the weight

columns B.

be

thereon." The
terra-cotta

scientific
was

of fire-proofing

by
in "

means

of

started

by

Mr.

P.

Wight

1874, and

the

Chicago
was

Club

house, designed by Treat

where
terra-cotta

tects, Foltz, archigores since

were

the

first instance columns. both the

used

around and

Many
hard The

systems
tile and

have the

been

troduced in-

porous method

tile have has been

been

used the

extensively.
use

cheapest
hard
to

through
the

of shells of
not

terra-cotta

surrounding
This
in reliance
are

column,
is

but

fastened

the

metal-work.
much blocks metal

system
the

decidedlyfaultyin placing so
alone for
as stability,

joints
to

the the

simply
umns col-

hooked The
are 1. 2.

one

another, and
in the

not

to

column.

requirements
:

of adequate fire-proofing

The The

material material material be

must must

be indestructible be be

by
to

fire.

non-heat-conducting.
so

3. The it cannot The when the that heat

in
use

must

secured

the

column

that

dislodged.
of hard tiles
are

tiles fire-clay

is
a

only to
proper

be

recommended

such metal the

as

hollow, with
and
even
no

air-spacearound
seems

column,
hard

then way
as

experience

to

show

tile is in porous with

in

under satisfactory cold

great
water

the

more

kinds. heat have

Applicationsof
also

combination less reliable

proved

the

hard

tile

far

case

of

conflagration than

the

porous

134

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

tile.

The

hard
as

tile is very been stated blocks

seerns

apt

to

crack

off under
on

such

conditions,
The
use

has of

in the of

chapter

Floors. bedded

solid

porous
to

tile, well
the
one

againstthe
recommended.

metal

column,
Here,
as

be

most

highly

in

terra-cotta

floor
better

arches, the
article
or

competition in price, which

method drawn for
at
a are specifications

places
to

the

disadvantage, is
also

be

deplored.
a

Loosely
measure

responsible in
All

great
of
one

many

very blocks

common

defects.
to

wiring
or

the

vidual indi-

either

the

columns

to

another

FIG

8a

FIG

81.

FIG.

82.

should
82

be

made
the

by

means

of copper methods

wire.

Figs0 80, 81, and

the

show

ordinary
columns

of

placing
portion
shown
in

fire-proof
Monadup
to

furringfor
The nock

columns.
in the
newer

Z-bar

of the

Building were

as fire-proofed

Fig. 83

M0LL0W
FIG.

ffft/CK.S
83.

and
cement

including
mortar,

the
were

eighth
built

floor.

Hollow

bricks, laid
the columns
to

in
a

solidlyaround

CHAPTER

VIII.

WIND

BRACING.

A
as

CAREFUL

comparison
the mercantile that forces and the
to

of the

treatments

of wind

forces

applied to
the

buildingsof to-day leads, one designersdiffer

be very

to

conclusion
to

materially
of the
struction. con-

in

regard

the

resisted,the
most

strength

materials

employed, high
in the

the
are

efficient

details of
ten to

Indeed, there
stories
no

buildingsfrom

sixteen

cityof Chicago, that

attached

possess

absolutely

metallic

and others, scarcelybetter, where sway-bracing,

to

sway-rods,as wind-laterals,were lugs

on

pins through
of
an

the

cast

columns, which
25
on case

lugs
cent

were

ultimate H. H.

strength of, perhaps,

per
"

of

the

rods. in

Quimby,
*

in

his

paper the

Wind of
an 200

Bracing
office
ft. in and

High

ings," Build-

mentions
seventeen

building recently
height,and
60 ft.

erected, of
wide
;

stories, or
were

walls 13-in.

used with

front wind

back, broken

by

dows win-

and

bay windows,

bracing consisting solely

with tile,

of the

interior

of partitions

8-in. box

four ribs of

-ftin. each, or

2\ in. thickness
above
a

of tile in each

partition.This
or

building towers only,while

former, with
and 6-in. Some hollow but

its

neighbors
away
or

of is

five
one

six stories
seventeen

few

blocks

of

stories,also,but

150

ft. wide,

2j times

the

width

of the

channel-struts sway-bracing consistingof i5-in. Such is the

eye-bars.
architects for
*

diversityof practice.
the

depend
lateral
A.

solely upon
of stability
XXVII,

partitions of buildings,

tiles

the

their

Trans.

S. C.

E., Vol.

No.

3.

136

WIND

BRACING.

137 the introduction method of of

weak
numerous

as

the

must partitions

be

through
This

doors

and

office
the

lights.

filling
be
tainly cer-

in the

rectangles of
wind

frame but the

by lightpartitions may
best be

efficient

bracing,
that it

practice would
relied upon,
or

indicate

cannot

even.

vaguely
A safe if

estimated.
a

building with

well-constructed brick

iron

frame if the

should base

be is
a

provided
iron

with

and partitions,
to

large proportion of,or equal

of the walls would
were

the

or height,

if the

exterior masonry

framework

is covered
;

with

well-built

of sufficient thickness exceed the into be that of

a

for the frame

of rigidity
to

solid walls
extent

braced

such

an

that,

building to

sway

to bring the bracingsufficiently

rods could

play,the brought
the
or on

walls

would

be

damaged

before

the

rods

into action. either depend entirely

;
on

Hence masonry which

are

must stability

the

the

iron

framing
here

and in

in

veneer

buildings,
latter the

being
light

considered the

the particular, be

system
walls
as

of

bracing
as

metal-work

must

used, with

simply enclosing the possible,

and

building
has tects archias a

against
been

climatic

injuriousforces.
the be will alone

This best

practice

adopted quite uniformly by

and and engineers, of wind

Chicago
here

considered

method Each

bracing.
offers proper for
a

building
out

its

own

peculiar bracing,

conditions many The

as

to

the

carrying
must

of

wind

and

factors

be

considered

judicioussolution.
of the

height,
as

width, shape, and

character of the of the

exposure

structure,

well the

the

enclosing walls,
to

will determine

amount

wind

pressure

be

cared

for, while
and the

the

details

of
of in

construction, the
the which various this

internal will

appearance,

planning
manner

floors

largely
be

influence The

the

bracing
the

is to

treated. and

architectural raises

planning of

offices,rooms,

corridors, often

38
serious and

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

most

obstacles the

to

proper is

arrangement

of upon

wind
to

bracing,
make
most

engineer

frequently called
in

generous and

concessions
even
or

favor
as

of is and

dows, doors, winsometimes the like. of the of the the

care

passages,

whole

areas,

demanded
Such

in

bankingwind work

assembly-rooms
led
to

considerations
of

have

the
more

development
and
more

portal type
constructional
of the

bracing.
of

As

largebuildingsis placed in
to

engineer, as

opposed

the

purely architectural
the former value

or

decorative
a

draughtsman, just so regard for

construction the work.

will
is of

insist that with the

proper

equal
one

artistic the

portion of
of distinct
more

The
to

must

supplement

other, instead
Two

giving way
of workmen

irrationalities of
are

design.
tectural archiand
structional con-

corps

found

in the offices
:

of the

prominent draughtsmen,
the

architects

of the

day

the

for

all

decorative
have

design
of the

work,

and

engineers,who
indicated of made work
on

charge
be

problems, as
an

in this
can

outline. carried
on a

In such taneously, simultory satisfac-

office the

two

kinds

concessions medium reached. in his

both

sides,and

Quimby,
of strained
A.
a

article

on

wind

bracing, favors
iron
or

the

vision pro-

4O-lb.wind
over
a

pressure,

with

steel while
30

bracing George

not

J of the ultimate

strength ;
the
use

Just, in

discussion, advocates
must to
a

of

Ibs. choice

cumstances Cirof

great
and

extent

govern of

the the

the and

designer.
the

The

shape
the the

exposure

structure, said above,

to

of solidity

enveloping walls, will,as

amount
;

largely determine
by
upon The the metallic

of wind
but if such

pressure

be

ried car-

bracing
of
30

bracing be
as a

relied

unit a entirely,

Ibs. should E. C.

serve

minimum. gineer Enroof

following
of the

was

adopted by
Columbian

Shankland, Chief

World's

Exposition:
roof taken

For

trusses,

40

Ibs. per

horizontal

sq. ft. of

vertical,

WIND

BRACING.

139
in addition
to

or

25 Ibs. per
30

sq. ft. taken

vertical under
an

the with On sq.

effect
the lins pur-

of

Ibs.

wind

acting
will take

angle largest

of

20"

horizon, whichever
and

give
30

the

result.

jack

rafters take
80

Ibs. per

horizontal sq. A

ft;

on

galleryfloors
floors take
loo

Ibs. per horizontal

horizontal sq. ft. be

ft;

on

mainwind unless All and

Ibs per Ibs. per

horizontal
care

pressure
otherwise details shear.

of

30

sq. ft. shall the

taken of

of

decided
must

by

Engineer

Construction. for

be

carefullycalculated
the
on

both

bearing

Many
iron
as a

and

many

are

architects

who tile

have

used

cast-

columns

piled story

story, with
and
to

partitions only
stand,
to

medium, wind-resisting
a

their the

structures

become But in
a

source

of wonder

engineeringprofession.
insurance, and
never

field of such

great
nature

crease uncertainty any judiciousinof

must not

in be

safetyis
as

in the

regarded
Wind

wasted, simply because

must

destroyed.
connection
some

bracing

reach also be

to

some

solid in

at

the

ground.
relation and be

It should
to

arranged
outlines. with
one

rical symmet-

the

building
crosswise while

If

the

building

is

narrow

braced

ing system, the bracare

should

midway,

if two

systems

employed,

\
FIG.

XI

84.

FIG.
(4)

87.

(i)

they

should

be

placed equidistant from

to
secure

the

ends.

This of both

symmetry

is necessary

the

equal

services

systems, thus

preventing any twisting tendencies.

140

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

The in

more

common

forms

in

ordinary practice are

the
are

shown

Figs. 84, 85, 86, and

Each

87.
be

type

must

figured properly,as
and the The several columns

strains

in

the

horizontal

members

essentially capable
factors

"concerned of
exact enter

in the

calculations.
to

problem

is not

solution, owing
into of the

indeterminable the

that

computations,and
that
must

consequent
The the

equal
stresses

number in the the

assumptions
bracing
to

be

made. when

wind

will be the

maximum exterior

direction

of
the

wind of

is normal

wall, or

parallel to

plane
A

bracing. rigid
to

This is

condition made the

is, therefore, assumed.

that the floors shears
are

further

assumption

ciently suffidue
to

transmit

horizontal

wind. The four

external

forces

will

be

the

same

whichever is

of the

methods, shown

in the

figuresabove,
are

used, provided
Th.e
zontal horito

the

exposed
external

areas,

panels,etc.,
at

the

same.

force the

any

panel point will

floors

be

equal
to

the

distance times

between the

systems (at rightangles

between

the

ing) bracand sq.

or

distance times shear

taken.
are

half-wayabove
pressure 2 forces per
at

half-way below,
ft. above The
the total

the
at

assumed

wind

any

point equals
reduced

point
shears
extent

These

undoubtedly
many
structure

to

some

siderable con-

through
the offered

practicalconsiderations.
itself,the
stiff riveted
the
resistance

The
to

dead lateral

weight" of
strains

in

the and

connections the ing stiffen-

between

the

floor

systems

columns, and

effects of and

continuously partitions(if
all

stronglybuilt),
the ing distortcertainty un-

linings, coverings, etc.,

effects of the in wind
to

tend

to

decrease

pressure. the be

But, in view
these

of the latter

regard they
may

of efficiency relied upon,

siderations, con-

not

and

are

therefore

disregarded in

the

calculations.

WIND

BRACING.

141

SWAY-RODS

(l).

The

simplest case
one

of wind

bracing
as

is shown

in

Fig.
may

84.
be

Considering

bay
shown

alone

braced, the
to

system
upper

analyzed
a

as

follows:
as

Referring
in
on

the

story
where

of

framework,
resultant and

Fig.
upper

88,

Pt =^HJLl
=

Pl

wind

pressure

story,/

ure, unit-presswidth
con-

H^ and
area

the Ll equal respectively in the

height and panel

under

of the

the bracing affecting

p
must

sideration.

"

then

be

the

horizontal

component

of

Hoof.

C^
_.i

%.^l

FIG.

88.

the

stress
an

in the

diagonal,and
with the

the

tension

in this

diagonal,

making

angle Q

horizontal, must

be

Tt
The

sec

0.

diagonal tension T^"

I
-"

in the

second P=

story from
wind

the

top will
on

be

Pj sec

0, where
them
to be

pressure

any

single story, assuming compressive

level. The In
stress

of

equal height.
strut
\

in the

horizontal ip

at

the

top-floor

like manner, in the

Tt

"

P) sec
will

0. decrease

tension

diagonal

rods

cause

I42

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

in in

loads loads

on on

the the

windward leeward have

columns, and
columns.

an

equal

increase
or

Calling this

increase

decrease

F,,we

V,
In
a

where -',
/

*,

similar manner,

Fs must
T9,
on or

equal F, -f-the vertical component

P h

of the
serve as

diagonal
a

F3

"

Y^ -}~7~,sin
loads
on

"

This

will

check

the

calculations.
wind

These other

F,, F, etc., must

the columns. carried

be In

added the the

to

all the
i, 3,

regular loads
or

columns columns in the Thus

etc., the direct

the

dead

loads

by

resist rods the of the

or

upward
load

vertical
to

components
bottoms of

of the these

stresses

connected dead

the

columns. the full amount in that

or

in column

3 is reduced strain
were

by

upward
F,, and
load

compressive
if this
amount

from
to

wind

column,
the

equal
occur

exceed

dead of

in column
to

3, tension the
seen one

would

in the

connection

this column It will each floor

below. the increment

as

be

that
be

to

the in

stress

F 95,

at

may
arm

eccentric,

shown

Fig.
the
centre

the of

length

of the
to

equallingthe
the

distance
to

from the
at

point
of of

attachment column

horizontal

strut,
were

the

itself. If this
the load the in

connection
be load.

the
to

axis
o,

the the

column,
eccentric Take stories columns

eccentricitywould
become
case
a

reduced

and

dead

of

typical skeleton
12

building, fourteen
24

height,
12

of

feet

each,

foot of

front, and
the ing. buildis in

spaced,
Assuming

feet

apart in the

depth

that

stiffness

alone against side-yielding in each

necessary,

place diagonal

members

story,
with

as

Fig. 89, utilizing the

floor-girdersas

struts,

the

144

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

suit
were

halls
not

and

doorways.
to

In

this

building the sway-rods

themselves, but
and
to

connected beams

the

floor-beams the

I special the floor In lattice and

"

placed

between

columns

justbelow

system.
Fair"

The

Building, system
column the
same

was

used, but with

girders from
at

to

column,
time.

serving

as

struts

floor-beams below the of the

Gusset-plateswere
the

dropped
with

the

girder to
rods.

receive

pins for
wind writer

tion connec-

turnbuckle best

One

examples

of

system
in
to

(i)of

bracing
found

Chicago, the
be T. the that

described in his

by

Mr.

C.
in

Purdy

article of

Engineering

News

^!%!;%%%^;^%%^^/

FIG.

90.

FIG.

91

December,
veneer

1891.
and

This

building,the
some

Venetian,

is of

the The the

type,

contains in the

excellent

details.

floor

plan

is shown

accompanying

(91)with figure

WIND

BRACING.

145
set

four

sets

of

sway-rods given.
resist
a

Each

of

bracing is
/'-fi'

fore there-

figuredto
an

wind

pressure of

for
a/'-6"

area,

the
to

horizontal
one

width

which of the
2ffoos

is

equal

fifth the

depth
which
area

and building,

the

height of
The

is the tary tributhe

2

height of
to

the

building.
floor X
at

each

40

Ibs.

equals
or

horizontal

shear the
sum

each

floor
at

panelfloor

point,while
equals
the have the

total of the

shear

any

shears

acting on
as we

panel-pointsdirectly above,
seen

before.

It

was

not

considered the steel whole ing. bracwhich due

necessary,
amount

however,
shear

to

carry the

of this The

into

practicalconsiderations
the

tend
to
a

to

diminish

effect distorting
that
to

lateral

force, decided
shears

but be

70 per cared
cent

cent

of these

needed

for
to

by
be

the taken

bracing,leaving 30
up and

per

by

the

other for
one

factors.

The

strains

sections

bay

are

here

given (Fig.92).
the columns made

All

affected
continuous

by

this braethe used

FIG.

92.

ing

were

from

foundations
to

to

the

second-floor
of the

level,and

portalswere
instances
on
a

take rods

the
were

place
out to

diagonal rods
question.
This

in two

where main
moments

of the

occurred
The

floor devoted
due the
case

large banking-rooms. portals were

the
strut

bending

to

these where

taken
came

up

in the
to

columns. first-floor
so as

In

rods
was

down
to

the

level, the
to

bottom both
sion ten-

connected

the

columns

take
as

and

as compression horizontally,

well

to

resist

the

component
of both

of the

rod
to

strains. the

This

insured thrust

the of

resistance the

columns

horizontal

strut,

146
whichever

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

pair of
to

rods the

was

strained, and
moment

the

columns
as

were

calculated
as

resist

bending

incurred,

well

to

carry

the
use

regular column
of the

loads. columns
were

With

the

the portals,

designed

FJG.

93.

to

resist the

bending
be

moment
as
a

which

the

stopping
that

of the
nections con-

rods

necessitated, and
should
as

further
as

assurance

these

strong

the

rest

of the

system, the

FIG.

94.

top connections
and the

of all of the spaces

first-floor beams between all the

were

omitted,
beams and

clearance

WIND

BRACING.

columns the

were

driven beams in

tight with

thin

metal

wedges,
axes

until
were

girders and
and
are

passingalong
out

the
to

column the

continuous which The latter

compression by
the

sidewalk

walls,

backed

solid street.
are

horizontal
were

channel-struts
as

shown

in

Fig.

93.

They
floor.

used

shown
was was

up

to

and for

includingthe
the floors between
were

seventh A

section lighter

used made

above.

slight
struts

connection and the

no

only
columns.

the

channelat

The

struts

planed

both the

ends, with
columns.
holes
were

clearance, thus
bent rivets

making
the
to

butt

with joints

A four

plate

between

channels

provided
but of and

for

connecting

the

columns,
the ends column

they
these ported sup-

hardly
a

necessary.
block
was

Underneath bolted
to

struts

cast-iron

the with

by
to

two

beneath, bracket-angles
vertical

sufficient

rivets

resist the

compression of
other thus

the

rods

in this direction

(see Fig. 94).

Above
the ends of the
struts

cast-iron

blocks
to

were

used, planed top and

between tightly and These
recesses

bottom,

allowing them

fit in

the

tops of the
the

struts

the

cap-platesof
made
so

columns.

blocks, therefore, fitted into the

by

the

flanges of
the

the cap-

Z-bars

closely that
brought
into three shear with
more

f"
of of

plates were

direct sides

shear the the

entirely around
blocks. The

resistance the

plate, together
beam
to
on

weight
than

of the

it,was
the the this for the

sufficient
ponent com-

resist of

upward
rods.

vertical
Such

cast-iron
are

blocks

in

connection
use,

very

convenient pens that

for

it often

hapcannot

FIG.

95.

bracket-angles

be

brought directly

148
under the well the the
strut
as
a

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

channels and the

of the

struts, and
must

the

medium
act
as
a

between beam
as

bracket-angles Fig. 95
shows
etc.
a

filler.

partial cross-section
shows the with the column
reason

of for

buildingwith doorway,
the

This

placing
The resist

pin-points
are

so

far

from

centres. to

channel-struts the the

reinforced
on

cover-channels caused

bending

moment

the

strut

by

thus

moving
The
a

pin-centres.
in this

diagonal rods
20,000
were

building
All less "

were

proportionedon
had

basis of
no

Ibs. per of
an

sq. in.
area

rods than

turnbuckles,
square. The

and

rods

\"

Ashland
struts

Block, by Burnham
than used those in the in the

Root,

Chicago, has longer

channels floorstruts

Venetian

Building, 15"
as

being
beams.

floors, acting both

and

PORTAL

BRACING

(3).
bracing,
called the

The

third
be

method

of
as

wind

portal Taking
of A

system, may
the
as

analyzed

follows force

(see Fig. 96) :

Pt may
at

upper

the external floor first, horizontal floor

be considered the bottoms

producing equal
portal legs,or
moment

reactions

p
the wind
at

the

level,equal
at this

to

-J

each.

is also

produced

floor level,or,

PJi, where
,

h,

-.

Owing
moment

to

the be

rigidityof
by
the the

the

framework,

this of the

wind the

will

resisted

resistingmoment
connections
at

column line.

sections, and
This

by

portal
must

floorthe

moment resisting

equal
distance

"

where
,

y\

unit-strain

on

extreme

fibres,y^

of extreme

fibres

WIND

BRACING.

149 of
h
v

from

the

neutral
But M
"

axis, and

moment

inertia of the

section.

PJi, hence
on

/=
the of the

'*rj*
two

/ will be

different slightly

sides of the neutral will be taken

as

axis.

On

the

compression side

bay, /

IT
Y
I
"*
-r-

\\

4^1
i

f
i

i
^

-i-

*r

FIG.

96.

the

moment

of inertia of the
on

section

of the
must

column
taken the

and
for
a

the
tion sec-

portal,while
of the

the

tension and the

side, /
bolts

be

column
or

securing
If be
a

portalto

the

floor-beam
column of the
on

to

the

portalbelow.
side, /
the
must

spliceoccurs
for the the

in the

the

tension

taken

sections

bolts bolts

connecting
through
the of load
on

of cap-plates

column, and

for the
The increase

portaland
on

floor-beam.

decrease in load

the

one

column, and
will
be
as

the

equal
or

the

other

column

before,

15"
P h

ARCHITECTU"AL

ENGINEERING.

V,

-y2.
must

In column be added

2, the
to

vertical

column column also

load

Vl due
same

to

wind,
as

the

regular
Vl
must

load, the
the

in

previous

discussion.

equal

shear

on

all vertical The the

planes.
shear

horizontal shear

along

the
or

line

aa

Plt while
at

horizontal

in either

leg

portal
the

or

bottom

p
of the

leg

"

'. The
must

These

shears

will

determine

thickness column

of

webs. side

connections

of the

portal to
shear.

the

on

either

equal

the

total vertical the is

no

Taking
^M
=

moments

about

line dd, it will be

found

that the

O.

That

is,there
the

bending
nor

moment

along

line dd, and

neither
moment

floor-beams
this line. in line Then the

portalsare
take

strained

by bending
For
a

along
stress
x

maximum distant

flange C
the

point
at

in

flange A,
angles,
divided
x

from

dd, and
x

distant

y,

right
shear

from

flange C.
y
=

times

vertical

by
"

stress

at section

taken, and
The
stress

this is maximum in the

when may

has

its maximum in
a

value. similar
manner.

flange

be The

obtained

leg
as

of the

including portal,
the be
two

column

2, may

also

be

p
taken it.
a

cantilever, with

forces

"

and the

Vl acting
column
on

on

The

flange
as
a

will

in

compression,
Assume
x^ from
a

itself
centre

acting
line

tension

chord. distant

point
bottom

the

of the

column,
the

of

leg,

and
P
" -"

at
x
=

distance

y^ from

flange C, at right angles.

this is maximum in this is when

Then
x

strain

in

flange (7,and
is
a

"

is it

y,

y,

maximum. is
on

There side of

slighterror
If the the

treatment,

but

the

safety.
stresses,

flange C

proportioned for
will be fulfilled.

these

maximum

requirements

152 construction
the older The

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

was

through
the

the

use

of

used portal-strut in

in

portionof

Monadnock

Building, as
used in in the The

Fig. 97.
Colony
are one

portal system

(3)

was

Old

Building, Chicago, completed

1894.
"

portals
of

placed at
set

two

planes in
in

the

building
Wind
one

cross-section
was

being

shown

Fig. 98.
foot
was on

pressure side of the

figuredat
a

27

Ibs. per Each

square

building at
of

time. sections

portal

calculated
bottom

independently for
curved and flanges,

the

of both
on

top and
rivets

thickness flanges,

web,
for

cross-shear

connecting the

FIG.

99.

"

Detail

of

Portal, Old

Colony Building.
one

all in

splicesand Fig. 99.

connections.

detail of of wind

portal is

shown very

This

arrangement

bracing proved
to

in satisfactory
was

all respects, and, end than the

according

the

designer,
the

cheaper

in the

sway-rods provided in

WIND

BRACING.

153

first design; but

the

writer

would

question
than

whether

portal
as

bracing
claimed.

can

be

provided cheaper good

details in be in the location
can

tension-rods,
and

With
for their

connections

proper

regard
trouble. interior

originalplanning
without

of the
or

building,sway-rods
The

used

great

expense
a

portal arrangement
if the
treatment

certainlymakes
openings
was are

fine
a

appearance

arched in

given

slight decorative
Old the
rooms

as plaster,

done

in the

Colony Building.
use

The
or

floor
the

plan will generally govern

system,
whether
or

of
are

either
to

one

other

the small

be

connected

by large openings

doorways.
KNEE-BRACES

(4).
or

The wind

system

of
not

knee-braces,
an

arrangement

(4)

for

bracing,is

economical

method,

as

it

produces

".!"

j
~

"T

|
i

4
i

^
FIG.
100.

heavy bending
in the
as

moments

in both This

the

horizontal may be

struts

and

columns

themselves.

system

analyzed

follows

(see Fig. 100)

154

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

The

shear

at the

level top-floor

will be

--

at

each

column.

Then
The

as

before, F,
tension

'

in the

brace

cb is

nearly

There

will be brace.

an

equal

amount

of
use

compressionin
of knee-braces

the

site oppo-

This

suggests

the

capable
will

of be

both resisting
a

compression
at

and

tension. value is

There

bending
P h
l
" " "

moment

whose
h

approximately
as

Ph
=

M=

L
"

-.

The

factor
and

"

"

is

used,

the

column load

224 is considered
as

square-ended

fixed

by

the

static

FIG.

ioi.

"

Knee-bracing

used

in the Isabella

Building.

and

by
At
b

bolts. there

This

bending
a

moment

will also exist at d.

will be of wind

bending bracing

moment

M^
used

Fj/a
=

'

.'a.

This

type

was

in

the

Isabella

WIND

BRACING.

155
as

Building, by Fig. 101.

A

W.

L.

B.

Jenney, architect,
knee-brace
new

shown

in

modification
was

of the in " the

system

of

wind

ing brac-

employed
wind

Fort

Dearborn

Building
In this the

(1894-95,) by Jenney
case
a

Mundie, architects,Chicago.
sq. ft.
was

load
made

of 40 Ibs. per
that

taken, and

assumption
be resisted

25 per

cent

of this wind

load would
between
or

by

the

rigid connections
taken

provided
exterior

the 30 Ibs. This in

columns
per. sq.
was

and
to ft.,

the floor be

system, leaving75 per cent,

up

by the

columns. the columns

done

by using channel

girdersbetween

FIG.

102.

"

Gusset-plateBracing

used

in Fort

Dearborn

Building.
to

the

exterior
as

walls, with
shown in

gusset-plate connections
102,
10

the

columns,

Fig.
In

in. and

12

in. channels the

being
wind

used
moment

generally.
necessitated
was

the

lower double above

stories, where system

the channel of

it, a
and

gusset

connections

used, under

girdersr

156
A New somewhat York

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

similar

method ft. in

was

used and

in
24

building in
ft.

City,
L. de

120

height
The Z

frontage,
used,
At in the

designed by spaced
three exterior levels

C.

Berg.
and

columns
to

were

12-ft. centres,
in
;

anchored

foundations.

the the

building occur
girders
these
connect

riveted
to

girders
the columns

walls

by
tional addi-

At large gusset-plates.
are

levels, diagonal ties of flats

the floor system. An

also

run

over horizontally

load and of

of 15 Ibs. the

was vertically

figured in
wind. in the A old

the

columns

girders for
horizontal

effect
was

of

the used

similar

system

flats

also the from

Monadnock
the wind

Building, Chicago. In
strains
were

Reliance

Building
story
used
on

transferred

story
were

to

the

table-leg
exterior

principle. 24-in. plate girders

walls
at each

in the

floor

level,as

in

Fig. 73.
would

The

effects of

earthquakes
in his

scarcelyseem

to

rant war-

much and those

to
a

consideration who it. of

"

our

latitude, though Quimby

discuss The

article, give considerable

nence promiis

only safeguard against an earthquake

with
some
a

system

bracing
will
to
so

elastic
structure

material that

of

positive
hold

strength, that together, even

The San

unify

it will

the

point of overturningbodily."
construction fear of has been

Chicago

skeleton where
to

adopted

in

Francisco,
been

the

earthquakes has,
from and

fore, hereto-

sufficient The
new

keep

investors

erecting high
the Croker stories in twelve

buildings.
and and that Mills
over

Chronicle of the
nave

building
served

buildingsare
in

Chicago type,
as

height,and

precedents

locality.
From
a seem

consideration that under

"

of the

wind

strains be

in

building
to

it would list of

seventh the

point should
of

added

the
:

headings

discussion

columns, namely
the

7. Column columns in
a

Joints.
framed

"The
structure

stability of
is
an

individual of

element

of resistance

WIND

BRACING.

157
are

considerable
"

value

if

the

connections
not

rigid," and
the

wherever

adequate rod-bracing is by complete splices, making

provided, join

columns column
a

them

continuous, each

unit, to fail only by breaking or

bending."
of necessity is such

Although continuity to
the each be be writer and

Quimby
cases

seems

to
no

limit wind

the

in

which the

bracing
of

provided,

believes every
or

that

method

column wind should

jointsat bracing
rather riveted in the

floor level

is wrong, that the

whether

provided
toward

not, and
with

tendency
spandrel

design
for the should these have

continuous

columns, and
sections be

members walls.
even

main

girders and
efficient
wind

Nor with

bracing
of

neglected

additional

factors.

Columns
with
to

generally been
top, with

single floor lengths,

the both beams connected and bottom also

J" cap-plates on
the columns

by

rivets the

through
bottom the

top

flanges,those
through
beneath the

through

flange passing
to

bed-plate and
be

angle riveted
to

the

column

(see Fig. 78). Connections

the

bed-plateonly
strain
to

should

always
should
columns

avoided,
to

as

the and

lateral
not to

be

sisted re-

go
are

the

column

to

the

bed-plate. by
at

The least the the

usually connected
on as

each

other
as

four

rivets, spaced
of the
column

opposite sides,

far

from

centre

and passing through possible, each column.

tion connec-

cap-plateand
of the columns.

connection-anglesof
rivet

If

this is done, every

driven

tends

to

stiffen the
are

If the

girder loads
lower

heavy, bracket
to

angles must
shear off the
to

be

provided
beam,
and

in the

column

take in

the

cap-plate. At
the
at

least

3J-in.bearing
should be

full is

given

each the

columns

carefully
column

planed on
axes.

ends, and
of

true

right angles to
the tiers of columns
a

the

This

method of

bracketing
or

together
that

by

means

angles

bent

plates, gives

detail

is

158
sufficient
the
to

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

prevent
the

lateral brackets

displacement,
in

but and

because the

of

of elasticity the

bending,
to

large

ratio of

height
the the due

of the column the side

the

base, contributes
The
ing overturn-

very
or

little to lift on

of rigidity windward
to

structure.

is almost
; but to

always
the shear

less than is liable all of

the
to

resistance be

dead

weight

it does, as overlooked, tending, of

a

topple

over

the

columns

story.
to

The
a

column

connection

described

is not be

stiffenough

prevent

slightmovement,
and the
can even

which
with
at

can

prevented by
level,which

wind

bracing only ;
a

wind the

bracing,
floor

it introduces the

weakness

of

column be

writer

believes

obviated

by
two-

continuous In storied in the

columns. Masonic
was a

Temple,
tried, as

the
an

use

of

columns

of

lengths
so

additional the

factor

of stiffness

high

building, with

joints"staggered,"

FIG.

103.

or

each

column
was

breaking joints with

to

its

neighbor.

The

next

step

discard

the

bed-plates entirely, using splices. Fig.

103

vertical

connection-platesfor

all column

l6o

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

Fig.
the

104

shows

typicaldetail
where the

of

column for
a

splice bay

in

Reliance

Building,
column.
in

framing
of

dow win-

joinsthe
Foster

Milliken,

his discussion

Quimby's article,
follows
:

classifies the
1. 2.

constitutinga perfectjointas .points

column from for load cellar and
to

Continuityof
Proper
of Facility

roof. distribution.

connections

proper

3. 4.

connections

for wind

bracing.

Ready alignment.
erection. of design, facilitating Simplicity adds that the the ideal column would be
one

5. He

tapering

with uniformly, the

section

varying from
before

floor to floor with column with such

loads, advocating the continuous

as

Phcenix described.

connections, pintle-plate system

for
as

Any

this,demanding
of the
more

built sections of conventional efficient be

plates and

angles

instead girders,
much

rolled

beams, would
with the

certainlygive
columns;
the and

connections

jointsmay
the structure, is

designed adding greatly to

where the

of rigidity

even

regular

verse trans-

bracing
with For the

omitted,

or

where the

it interferes

seriously
building,
that the

the necessary

openings in
limit wind the may

partitions.
height
may
a

theoretical

in

the
we

of

considering the
wind that
acts

pressure,

assume

against
structure
as
a

building
be taken

in

horizontal

direction,so
the
at
one same

the

as

being
beam,
were

under

conditions and with such

to

uniformly loaded
end
we

fixed

end
case

with
a

the other

free.

If this make

the actually

steel beam,
it would the

should

the the
were

depth
amount

of

the

beam

that

deflect less than

the
one

necessary both

crack

plaster. If
be

beam

supported at
of the span.
to to
secure

ends, this depth would

The
same

twentieth
two

lengthsunder
deflections, must

these bear

conditions,
relation
one

the
as

the

the other

0.57

to

i.

WIND

BRACING.

l6l

If,then,
structure

we

have

an

office make be have

a

building
the 500

or

any

skeleton times the

25 ft. wide, and

height twenty
ft.

width, the

building

would

high,

and

reducing
of

this in the above This

8 in.
or

ratio,we
would give would

285 ft.
deflection
centre
some

height
9

theoretical the

in., which
wall

throw the
outer

of The

gravity of
maximum this

the

upper

beyond
would

edge.
2\ in.
or

allowable would The times ends.

deflection

be about

3 in.,and

give a height
load that If effect
a

of from
a

70 to 95 feet.

on

uniformly loaded
beam the

cantilever

is four
at

for
we

uniformly loaded
on

supported
that make the
its

both

work the
as

assumption
beam,
if it and
were

building is height one

at

analogous
fourth
as we

to

cantilever
we

great
should This

would the
a

supported
the 125

both
as

ends,
i

have

depth height
the

to

length
feet.

about

to

5.

would

give

of

Some

recent

experiments, however 1894),on

deflections

(see Engineering
of
to

News,

March

3,

tall

skeleton that any

construction
actual

buildings in Chicago, tend

in

show

deflections

well-designed and
very Two
sets

structed carefully conare

buildings, under
than any
one

heavy winds,

far

less
were

theoretical
on

assumptions.

of tests

made,
and

the
on were

Monadnock
the

Building of Building
transits
were

seventeen

stories,
stories.

the

other

Pontiac
with

of

fourteen
in sheltered

Observations
and

made

set

tions, posiof

these

observations in the the

checked

by
the

means

plumb-bobs, suspended
The
to

stair-wells from

top floor.
from
to
west

vibrations
or

in
narrow

Monadnock

Building
from

east,

in its

direction, were
showed

\ in.

"

in.

The
to
as

plumb-bob
be in the
a

test, and

however,
south of

the greatest variation

north

direction,or
four

longitudinally ; but
of this
3 ft. to 6

walls

in three of solid

the

separate divisions

building are
and the

brickwork, from
is several times

ft. in thickness,
it is diffi-

length

the

breadth,

62

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

cult

to

believe

that

any

actual

longitudinal

deflection

could

be

detected.
the

In

transverse

deflections

the

transits

showed

greater
than in

deflection

in

the

veneer

portion
as

of

the

building
be

the

more

solid

parts,
of
a

would

very vibration

naturally
was

expected.
seconds.

The

time

complete

two

The

experiments
type,

on

the

Pontiac

Building,
closely
with

which

is

of

the

veneer

compared
except
the

very

those

on

the

Monadnock

Building,
was

that

the

amplitude
due
to

of

the

vibration

less

in

former

building,
The
same

its

what some-

more

sheltered

position.

peculiarity
was

of

an

apparently
also. The

greater
wind
was

longitudinal
from the

vibration

noticed

here

northwest,

and

registered

eighty

miles

per

hour.

CHAPTER

IX.

PARTITIONS"

ROOFS"

MISCELLANEOUS.

PARTITIONS.

MOST

of

the made

partitionsnow
from the
same

placed

in

Chicago
of hollow

office
tile

buildings are
as
a

character

is used

in the floors and

around

the columns,
to

except that

soft tile is almost in

invariablyused
door-frames this

allow

the

driving of
thickness

nails blocks from

placing the
used
6 in

and

transom-lights.Tile
in

are

construction, varying 4-in. blocks

or are

in. to may

but in., either

the square

generally used.
are

They

be

brick-shaped, and
are

quently frebreak

clamped together,
to
as

but

always

laid

to

wood joint, At all openings in the partitions stiffen the well

as

frames

are

set

jambs,and
serve

to

afford

grounds

for the

plastering,
architraves.

to

for

the

attachment

of the

The

to plasteringis applieddirectly

the tile surface. down and shifted of the

These
to

partitions may
without walls.

be

readilytorn injuringthe
used has
to

suit the tenant,

or

construction
sustain

floors An

They
of

are

never

loads.

effective
consists

which partition metallic Each

been

used
to

quite

sively, exten-

lathing wired
side is then This and

light channel-

irons, spaced as studs.

a

plastered, making
of the
was partitions

partition only
in

in. thick.

type
in

adopted
Another
2

the

Armour

school

Dexter

office

buildingin Chicago.
method is to The
use

I beams i^-in. between

spaced as
163

studs
are

ft.

on

centres.

spaces

these

supports

164
filled in may of
metal

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

with then

scratch-coat be

mortar, side.

and

coat

of

ing plastersystems

given
is the

each
a

II either solution

of these of

studs be

used,

strong
coat

alum-water the

should

given
the

rough

of

to prevent plastering

stainingof

finished

plaster.
CONSTRUCTION.

ROOF

The here any the tile T

roof construction

in such should be

classes
as

of

as buildings

are

being considered,
other
use

as thoroughly fire-proof

part of the

structure.
as

This

is secured

through
of bookThe

of tile

arches,
T

in the

floors, or

by

means

supported on
are

irons,placed about
on

18 in. centres.

irons

supported
care

I-beam taken
to

and purlins,
see

if this
a

type is
form
ol
faces sur-

employed

must
as

be will A

that

such the

book-tile is used of the T

the

effectually protect
common

under
to

irons.
on

method the
a

has

been

place

book-tile surface
are

the of
now

flangesof
T's with which made

irons, thus

leaving the
the metal

lower

the

coating of plaster only.

project
below
a coating of clay offering

Book-tile

work,
as

as

do

the floor

arches, thus

against heat (see Fig. 105). protection

V-

16"

16"

""

'6"

FIG.

105.

Tile
roof

arches

of the and

segmental pattern
the whole
is

are

often covered

used with

in
a

construction,
concrete

then

layer of

which The

receives

the

composition roofing
and

(see Fig. 57).

also be

supporting girders
with

purlins should
or

covered, either
else

specialforms
metal lath
to

of tile blocks receive

a

slabs,or
coat

with

expanded
be taken

thick

of cement
Great
care

plaster.
should
to
see

that all spaces

between

PA

Tl

TIONS"

ROOFS"

MISCELLA

NEO

US.

6$
all

roofs and
their

suspended ceilingsare

rendered

in fire-proof

parts, that the

Much may

spread of
be
to

unseen

fire may
a

be

made

possible. imof the

done
a

through

judicioususe
in tile

metallic innumerable
becomes

lath

secured
instances

light iron
a

framework,
or

where

masonry

protection

impossible.
SUSPENDED CEILINGS.

Such

are ceilings

usuallymade

of book-tile
irons.

or

of

thin often that

are

T tile supported by light fire-clay made

not
i over

tile is Ceiling

% in. in thickness, with

inch
turn

grooved

edges

fit into

irons,spaced
3 in. T's

12

inch irom

centres, which
the roof

supported in

by

hung
TILE,

purlins.

FURRING

to

take

the

place of

the

wood

and
to

lath

furringused
These

in ordinary

construction,
of the made
moisture

is

employed
the

prevent the
walls. should

penetration
tiles are
be provided

through
to

exterior

similar with
an

the

and tile, partition insure walls

a

always
interior

to air-space,

circulation upon the

of air, that finish

the may

effects injurious be
overcome.

of

damp

FIRE-PROOF

VAULTS.

The

old system

of

building brick
office may

vaults The

in tiers is not vaults

are
now

followed

in the modern

building.
be desired

built of tile and floor

placed as
as

according to
are

each
not

plan,
in The
at

much

the should the

tile

partitions. They required,

or

usually shifted, but

would
tion.
no

it be floor be

the

operation,
thickness,
also does be
not

way

affect

load-bearingconstrue-,
considerable

tile walls
two

should

of

with made
run

least

and air-spaces, of tile in

the
case

top should
the vault

of two
to

thicknesses

the

ceiling.

66

ARCHITECTURA

ENGINEERING.

STAIRWAYS

AND

ELEVATOR

ENCLOSURES.

The and

stairways

are

usually
brass
are

made

of cast

risers,strings,
wooden
or

newel-posts, with
or

wrought

railings and
All

polished bronze
the
risers

hand-rail.

exposed parts
be

of

and

strings

to generally specified

panelled

FIG.

1 06."

Main

Entrance

and

Elevator-

hall, Marquette Building.

and

ornamented
and

as

per

detail

drawings,
the marble

and

provided
and the

with

lugs

flanges to
The

receive

treads and

forms. plat-

metal-work

for the

stairways

elevator

1 68

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

The

main

stairway
are

and
in

entrance-hall

to

the

Fort

born Dear-

Building

given

Fig. 108.

EfflBAflCE

^ELEWOR
"

HALL
,

-TO BANK
-ARCHITECT.?

JE/WEY

"MUM)IE

FIG

108."

Entrance-hall, Fort

Dearborn

Building.

COLUMN-SHEETS.

Before

the

column-sheets
in the

may

be started be

it is necessary

that all loads These the loads

occurring
of

structure

settled. definitely

include, as suggested in the previous chapters,

all structural besides like), material

weights

roof, piers, (floors,

snow,

spandrels,and
tank
a

the

wind,
may then

elevator, and

loads.

The

column-sheets all the loads

be

started,forming
to

tabulated

list of

transferred sheets
must

the be
at

footings
seen

through

the columns. load the that

From each

these column

may carry

the

approximate startingwith
,load
down

any

floor,

upper-story columns,
in

supporting
the successive

the roof floors

only, and
to

adding

the The

loads

at

the foundations.

column

weight

itself is first

PA

JK TIT

IONS"

ROOFS"

MIS

CELL

A NEO

US.

169
section is

assumed,
obtained. The
was

and

then

corrected, after the

proper

column-sheet
as

used
:

in the

Masonic

Temple

tions calcula-

follows

The made
as

column-sheet
in

used

in the table

Venetian
:

Building

was

the

accompanying

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

The

following
all

column-sheet
in
a

is tabulated

to

be

recommended

as

combining

requisites

statement:

The sheets
must

final will be

loads

on

the loads

basement for the which

columns the loads

taken

from

these

show

the

footings
on

themselves will

figured, weights

while

final the

the
must

footings
be

give
tioned.

the

for

which

clay

areas

propor

CHAPTER

X.

FOUNDATIONS.

No and
"

part

of the
the

work

of

the and

engineer
execution

requires
of the

more

care

skill

than

design
as

foundations.
the

Where
to

it is necessary,
erect

so

frequently
"

it is at

present
or

day,
span

gigantic
"

edifices
and

as

high buildings
soils, the
the
as

long-

bridges

on

weak is

treacherous
to

highest
of

constructive the it to natural sustain And

skill

required by
such

supplement
artificial
means

weakness will enable

foundation
such

massive

and is this
to

costly
more

burdens
true

with in

safety Chicago,
with

"

(Baker).
where

nowhere

than
to

it is almost

impossible

penetrate
where
a

bed-rock
soil loam

any
the

degree

of

practicability,and
of
12 or

the soft

underlying
or

city consists
at

blue
14

clay (below
feet below of The the

sand) quickand

about down

sidewalk

grade,
40
to

thence

to street

bed-rock
level. becomes

limestone

from
and
as

80

feet
the

below
upper often

the

clay
and

is

hard

firm it thus

in

strata,

but

soft
of

yielding
material,
of

descends,
tating necessities. locali-

containing
borings
for

pockets
reliable been

spongy

information

particular
both
an

Borings
parties
from
and
to
2

have the

extensively made, resulting

on

by private
allowance of

by

government,
per sq. ft.

in with

i"
for

tons

the Baker

clay,

due
as

ation considerfollows
on

proper
"

settlement. The

states

this called per with

subject clay,

stiffer

varieties will

of

what from become

is

ordinarily
4
to

when
the

kept dry,
same

safely
allowed bear

bear
to
more

tons

sq.

ft.,but

clay, if
trusted

saturated
2

water,

cannot

be

to

than

tons
171

per

I72 sq. ft. At

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

Chicago
above is

the load soft

2

ordinarily put
below, resting on
per and sq. ft., in
a

on
a

thin thick

layerof
stratum

clay (hard
of which per
ton

and

quicksand)

\\

to

tons
a

the

settlement,
i

usuallyreaches
of load." settlement

maximum

year,

is about

in.

Unequal

is thus

the great will come,

evil

that must

be

for guarded against, and in all the The

settlement is

slowly but surely,

for in the than
start

good designs it
structure
some

provided
5 in.

by

making
level.

3 in. to

higher

its final better

evil of

unequal
case

settlement of the

can

hardly be
States

exemplifiedthan
Post Office
now

in the and

United in

ment Governin

Custom
to

House

Chicago, built
a
new

1877, and
foundations

about consist of

be

replaced by
sheet 3 ft. 6

one.

The made Some others

continuous

of

concrete,

in different

but layers, the

altogether

in. thick.

portionsof
the

building were
the

heavy, extraordinarily

but comparatively light,

concrete

Washington though
it has
to
a

architects
were
a

thought sloughs
dismal settled

even sufficient,

there

bad
most

under

the

building.
even a

But

proved
limb. of

and failure,

menace

life and

It has

nearly 24
structure

in. in is
no

and places, unusual

this

dropping

some

part of the
but

occurrence.

After

eighteen
"

years and cago

of

service

example
been

of government
as
"

architecture Ruin in Chi

engineering has
and

known

The

vicinity.
of investigation
the of compressibility wish
to
areas

The
to

the

soil leads ment, settle-

the

conclusion
all

that, if we

procure
must

uniform be

parts of the foundation

to

exactlyproportioned
are

the

loads

they
and

have

to

carry.

Examples

not

lacking,in Chicago
of

elsewhere, of the actual

ing crushcause, be-

light piers,when
the Mills

alternating with

heavy
too

ones,
a

the lighter piershad proportionately,

area.

great

ing footthe the

In

Building
of the

in

New

York and

City
over

mullions

in the

lower

floors

building

FO

UNDA

TIONS.

73

light
down

foundations

were

seriously damaged
were

and
to

even

crushed, because
the

they

not too

strong
an

enough
area,
as

force
as

lighter piers

of

large

fast

the

heavy piers were

The
to

settling.
must
over

footings themselves
the

be

of the

sufficient

strength
;

distribute

applied loads
of

requisite area

in

this way The

in

only can
Chicago
him

results satisfactory

be obtained. cated first advoa

arrangement

independent piers was

Frederick

by
in

Bauman,
"

in Method

pamphlet
of Cono

published by
has

1872, entitled
on

The

structing Foundations
been certainly the

Isolated
to
a

Piers," and

this

method

brought

high degree
the

of

perfection
of in In

by

engineers of Chicago.
is well

The

rapid development
great

foundations methods

exemplified by
at

change

employed

the

site of the

Woman's stands
was

Temple.

1890 the lot where

the

this

buildingnow
here for

bought by
had
never

present

owners.

Extensive built the

was
a

masonry
structure

foundations
that
was

previouslybeen
erected, and
the first
a

upon

preparation of plans for

to
remove

the

Temple,
masonry old tem sys-

thing done
cost

these

massive The

piers at

of

many
stone

thousands

of dollars.

consisted

of

piers made
out

of successive
a

layers of
was

large

stones,

stepping
of these of the old

until
"

sufficient

base

tained. ob-

One
and also The
one

newer

raft"

footingsis

here
1
:

given/

masonry old

type (Figs. 109,

10).

to objections too

these much time

piers were
;

many
were

they heavy
and

were

bulky,occupying costlyas regarded

allowable

space necessary

they
for

and the the

the

building;

offsets of the

limited masonry-work seriously

surface load-bearing These with

10
a

of the

clay.
Temple
the
were

piers
bed

in the

Woman's

all underlaid about of the

of concrete,
street

resting on
A
as

clay stratum
of
some

ft. below

grade.
be made

comparison
follows:

above

points

may

1/4 I.
i

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

Space.
st.

Top
"

of concrete
" "

to bottom

of

casting
"

i' 8".

2d.

7'o".
of concrete,

Or,

comparing
This

the
=

parts above
217
cu.

the
=

common

bed
cu.

ist

ft., 2d
a

691

ft.
one,
as

point of

space

is

very

important
now

has

been valu-

before

mentioned, since basement-space is

quite as

FIG.

no.

able the

as

any

for office-space, and

use

as

restaurants,

cafes, or

for

large boiler

electric-light plants necessary.

to

Indeed,

it is of

frequent

occurrence

extend

the

basement-space

176
IV. Time.
new

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

"

In

the

time
are

required

for

building

tions opera-

the beams V.
are

foundations

as greatly superior,

rails and

easilyobtained
Area.
"

and As

cheaply
to

handled. fifth

Load-bearing
under

the

point,

stone out

foundations

side the

walls

frequently bearing
with
area

cannot

step

to get sufficiently

proper But

without
we

ing projectcombine
ing secur-

into several the As

the

next

lot.
use

iron

can

footings,or
desired may consists be

cantilever

foundations, thus

results.
seen

by Fig.
a

109,

the

new

tions type of foundaabout

2

first of
come

layer of
I

concrete,
beams
or or

ft. thick,

upon laid

which

layers of
those rammed the of the

rails, each
The

layer
spaces which

transverselyto
the the rails iron

just below

above.

between preserves

are

tight
action best

with

concrete,
water.

from

of air and

It is the of the the

judgment
on

the

engineers that
be theoretical been in been

the

area

foundations

clay should
not to

proportioned
or

to

dead

loads
Whenever columns

only, and
and

occasional both the

loads. interior the

more,

live loads
on

have

figured on
the found
a

the have

columns

exterior
to

walls,
settle

exterior from of

columns the the fact

always
live

that

the

load loads

forms than

larger percentage
the after
sq.

interior-column

of that

wallthe

column

loads. has been

Experience compressed
several

has

also load

shown of
no

clay
and

by

3000

Ibs. per

ft.,

allowed
to to
on

months'

repose, will it is

very without

perceptible
a

addition addition live loads loaded

that the

compression
load. So that

result

material

good practice to neglect

the

or clay for hotels, office buildings, lightly

retail

stores.

In

warehouses,
permanent
the

however,
or

or

in buildings

carrying
loads,
the
or

very

heavy
in the

shifting floor
of loads and very the

machinery
increase

motion,

change
of

jarring

compression

clay

FO

UNDA

TIONS.

77

largely.
instances.

Hence

we

must

make

extra

allowances

in such

In

all

cases

where

live

loads

have

been

figured on
loads

the been the

columns,

consistency requires that

on

whatever
must

have
on

figured
metal for dead

basement

columns,
; or

be

figured
are

in the foundations loads

are

the the dead

clay areas
+
some

proportioned
foundations
load.

themselves before

only, while figured for

of the
on

strengthsof

the

live

But,

as

said, many
live

best the

buildings have

regarded entirelydis-

footings. W. L. B. Jenney follows: and In hotels, office buildings, advocates retail as stores neglect the live loads on the footings,but figure in heavy warehouses, machinery plants, them etc. Where
loads much double
In
"

pounding
the The is Fair
"

occurs,
as

as

in load

machinery
that
a are we

in

motion,

use

weight

dead

figurefor

live load.
chandise mer-

Building,where
the aisles

largequantityof
used

stored, and

constantlyfilled by
was
:

throngs
the
one

of

people, the
carry all load

following system
the dead per
a

The

floor-beams
carry any

+
cent

live

loads, the
live the

girders
of the
total in the

dead column

+ 90

of the of

load, while
sum

carries

percentage
above that

live loads
dead load.

of all the The of the

stories

column is

-f-the

percentage

of live table

load
:

given

last column
Column.

accompanying
Live load
on

beams.

Per
100

cent

for column.

Attic i6th
1

per
"

cent.

story
"

75 Ibs.

90

5th

75 75 75

"

87*

"'

"

I4th
1

"

"

77^
72

"

"

3th

"

"

"

"

Decrease
cent

of 2J-per

in each 55 per
"

story.
cent.
"

6th

story
-

75 ibs.
130 130
"

5th

524
40

Basement

l-

"

"

178
No
allowable live

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

load

was

figured
square Ibs.

on

the
was

clay
taken

area,
at
a

but

the
servative con-

pressure
"

per

foot

very

figure 2850
The first
or use

in

Chicago
"

of iron

in connection rails, in The

stones

with

masonry

concrete

occurred footings,

the old

Montauk method used

Block, by Burnham
of with this have At but
now

Root, architects.
of dimension Iron

pyramidal
a

foundations base
to

was

concrete

18 in. thick.
a

rails than

were

built into

concrete

obtain

largeroffset employed
as

could

otherwise

been

obtained.
rails
were

first old

in

these

foundations,
in this
at

practicedemands
metal-work
as

reliable other.

material

tion por-

of the per

in any unless

Steel rails
are

75 Ibs.

yd. are

generallyused
are

steel beams beams The the

;

required.
iron is

Ordinarily, rails
required, but
is easier
to
ram

cheaper
than the

than in beams.

more

at

less cost between

concrete,
are

too,

and rails,

webs

always
become

thick.
Under necessary, very
10

heavy loads, or
in. to
20

long

spans,

beams

in. I beams

being frequentlyused.
strained
as

Only
the

the

projectingportions are
beams iron
or

beams, hence

place for

is at the

top of the

pile" the larger the

more

proportion of
the

steel uncovered Ibs. and beams limits inch.

the

economical been used the Ibs.

foundation.
strains

20,000
in

16,000 Ibs. have

and the In iron

for fibre
new

steel

rails,though
to

Chicago
11,000

ordinance
square

fibre strain the

are

14,000

and

Ibs. per

Old

Colony
to

ing Builda

the steel beams

strain

in the

foundations the dead

strained of the loads

fibre

of

14,000

Ibs. under maximum

weight

building
induce The
a

alone, while
fibre strain

the

dead

plus

live

of 21,000
at

Ibs. per the time

sq. in. of extreme of

fibre. the

Carnegie
of
so

strike

building precluded
than the

bility possi-

obtaining
was

heavier

beams under

I beams, I5~in.QO-lb. of circumstances.

the

strain

allowed

press

FOUNDATIONS.

179

RAIL

FOOTINGS.

The

raft the

footingsas
usual of method square

first of feet

employed
of

were

made
as

of rails
follows
:

only,
The

figuring being

number load
on

footing required equals

the result

column
sq. ft. on

pounds
the

per

earth of

"T-.

Multiply

by

250

(equalsapproximate weight
to

footingper

square

add foot),
then diately immeon

originalload,
above

and

refigure. The layer beyond

or

layers are
the
one

laid

of any off,the projection

being always 3' o"

the the divided

less.

The then

moments

the these per

projectingportions of
moments,

layers are
allowable

found, and
moment

by
at

bending
One
of

rail, usuallytaken

12,500

foot-lbs., give the

courses. a

number rail

of rails
is

required

in the each

different

extra

usuallyadded
The North

to

layer as

matter

safety.
the rails from
are

following table gives the propertiesof Chicago

used.

the
most

Rolling

Mills.

The

75-lb.rails

commonly

The Great of the

table Northern

following
the

is taken

from loads

the
on

footings of
columns,
square All foot

the

Hotel, giving the

calculated
in

areas

and footings, rails and

the

weights
the

per

of

concrete

footings.
table.

rails

were

rails,No. 75-lb.
courses

7503

in the
were

previous
of

The 12"

bottom

of 6"

all

footings
the

concrete,
course are

thick,

tending ex-

beyond
these

lower
courses

of
not

rails, but
included

the

weights of

concrete

in the

i8o

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

following.
columns. per cubic

Cast

shoes
concrete

4' o"
was

4' o"

were

used

under

all the 125 Ibs.

The foot.

figured as

weighing

BEAM

AND

RAIL

FOOTINGS.

The
was courses.

next

step made
the
use

in the of

development
for the which

of

the

raft footings
course or

in

I beams
a

upper
was

Fig. 1 1 1
column per
a

shows

foundation

figuredas
allowable
at

follows The pressure

(seeEngineering News, August, 1891)'load foot

was on

1,166,000 Ibs.
the

The

square

clay
The

was

taken lower the used

3,000

Ibs.,
crete con-

giving
of

footing
1

22' S" X

if 3".

layer of
lower
in

was

8"

8" beyond thick, projecting steel Ibs. per beams

mot.
were

course

rails.

Fifteen-inch 50

the
moment

top

course,
on

weighing
beam
were

The

allowable The

each

equalled
of steel with

117,700

ft.-lbs.

remaining
base, 75 Ibs.
ft.-lbs.

courses

rails, 4f" high and

an

4f

"

per per

yard weight,
rail. In the under
must

allowable

moment

of 12,100

upper the

course,

as

many

beams

are

used The

as

the

space
arms

column

casting will
be determined. fix the

allow. The width

ing projectlength
second

therefore
so

total of the

of

the

I beams

found

will

FOUNDATIONS.

181

course

from
course arms

the top, and

as

the

arms projecting case.

must

be found

for this The

in the first the lower

of

two

courses

are

fixed

bv

the

yj--//:

FIG.

in.

"

Beam

and

Rail

Footing

from

"The

Fair"

Building. of the

lengthsof
area;

the upper the

ones,

and

by

the dimensions
many
as

clay

hence formulae Let y

a
=

question is, how

may be derived

pieces are
follows
:

required?

The

used

arm projecting

in any

course
area

width

of

supporting

82

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

"

total load

on

footing ;
on or one

M" Then The the the

bending length
on

moment

side of the

layer.
2y. of

of

beam

rail and

"=.a-\-y-\-y=.a-\the have Iv*

=
-

ly
total load load
on

"

since
we

distribution

every M

+ 2/ layer is uniform,
"
-

ly
=
"

~-

lever

arm

2~2(a+2y)'
y becomes
a

-,"

In

the calculating
M
an

lower

two

courses,

known

quantityand
is

unknown.

In

the

upper

two

layers M
is unknown.

given by

the number the

we

of the beams

used under

and/
the

Considering now
5'o"
under for the M whole
X

top

course,

base be

casting,

5'o"
the

in area,

find that 9 beams sufficient

only can
space

placed
them

allowing casting,
of the beam
9 X
=

between

ramming
for each
=

concrete.

117,700

ft.-lbs.
=

Hence

for

the

layer
=

117,700

ft.-lbs.

1,059,300 ft.-lbs.
=

Then of

*2K I'"59"300f -f*2y)

this

whence

5'4".

The

length

layerthen
For the

becomes
course

+
we

2y

"

15' 8".
31 rails

second
may be

find that the

spaced about
Closer
load
now

6" centres

placed
be

under used

15' 8" beams.

The
course

spacing than

this may

if necessary. of the

equals 1,166,000Ibs. -f-the weight

19,000 The Then Ibs.).
-

top

(about
y
=

375, 100;
=

whence

2'

5"'.

length
For the

of the rails therefore of the the

5' o" + 4' IO//

courses,
we

9' IO//that 21'

calculation

lower

know
X

the This
a

area

covered
a

by

bottom

course

is

15'11"

4".

leaves

of 3'OiJ-" for projection 2' 10" third for the

or

the

bottom

course,

and

of projection Then for the

next to

to

the bottom

layer.
we

next

the bottom

course,

have

1.200,000

Ibs. x

*|

ft. X

iA
=

21$

S"/

84

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

Fig. 112
for
a

shows load

footingused

in the

Marquette Building

column

of 920,250

pounds.

T
5-2Q*J'totoaarfoi'

4*'
*w"

nil n ii n iiH LI ii

"

4.
_.i-

29 -1,0*0=320.250*63. C0t../Vo.

4-J0 C/967-"/)""" 3J 6 "x

FIG.
112.

"

"

730

tas.

FIG.

113.

Fig. 113
for loads
column In of

is taken

from
Ibs.

the
on

same

and building, 32, and

is

figured
Ibs.
on

406,340

column

561,790

44.

determining
must

the

sizes
to

of

the

beams sufficient

or

rails in any clearance

must

care layer,

be

taken

leave
the

tween bebe be

the rammed in

flanges to
place.
as a

admit

concrete to

which pass
a

If stone, broken between with

f-"ring
answer.

i" specified, In

minimum
these rails

the
concrete

will flanges
4

covering
should the

inches

of

crete con-

be left at the ends

and

sides is made

of the

and rails,
same

inch
as

on

tops.

plank
at

frame the

of the

size

the

concrete

bed, and

proper

height by
is made is made
to 4

the aid of for the best

levels.
next,

After

this is filled another and

so on.

frame

course,

The

concrete cement

of the

Portland
stone

cement,
2

usuallyi part
coarse

parts of broken
must

and

parts of
between

sand.

The and

concrete

be

well

tamped

the

beams,

the

whole

exterior

FO

UND

TIONS.

85

plastered with
metal-work is

pure

Portland A bed

cement

mortar,

so

that
or

no

exposed.

of concrete
to

18"

2' o" rails.

thick

comes

under

6" all, projecting

12"

beyond

the

COMBINED

FOOTINGS.

The

raft foundation loads

is

valuable particularly
to

where bad. several

the We

positionsof
may
means

in reference

each

other

are

then of One

use

compound foundations, combining

beams"
most
as

by
of

long

under

etc. smokestacks, party-walls,

of the

delicate the

problems
side of

is the

construction

very that

heavy building by
the latter will
not

one

alreadycompleted,
to

so

suffer

by settlement, due
remarkable

the

additional

weight
settlement

of the
was

new

building.
to
a

Such
the The

shown

degree
of

in

Studebaker
former
To

Building, next
from such
at

to the
to

Auditorium,
the old

Chicago.
the is carried The

settled obviate

10"

12" from the

weight
wall

latter.
on
new

settlement either end the

timbers, supported
wall is then

by jack-screws.
new

put in,and, with

foundation

which the the all

is

provided, settles gradully.

building
wall
at
are

The

jack-screwsunder
requires,to keep
is continued until
one

old old

turned

as

occasion This

its proper when

level. the

settlement
one,

ceases,
a new

jack-screws are
under the
manner

removed,
old

by
old

and If

wall
cannot

is substituted be had
to

the

building.
ot

access

basement above
must

the

or underpinning,in building,

the

described,

is The and

cantilever impossible, old

we

foundations
not
new

be

employed.
weight,
the usual and with

foundations
cannot

must

carry

any

additional hence

substitute

footings ;
several
are area

type of raft footing is used, but

the the
centre centre

combined,
coincides

of of

gravity

of the the

combined loads. On

gravity of
and

these

footingscome
girders
which

high
carry

cast-iron the

shoes, supporting cantilever

wall of the
new

columns

building, immedi-

86

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

ately next
with the

to

the

old

one,

and

yet

all transferring from

in the

the

load,
The used about

attendant

settlement, away

lot-line.
were

first cantilever in the the

same

footings introduced
and The

Chicago

Manhattan time.

Rand-McNally
boilers, etc., in the
not

buildings
basements
to

at

of allow

the the

adjoining buildings
introduction
were

could

be

disturbed the

of

new

so party-footings, new

cantilever the

types
of
ployed em-

adopted
old
ones

for the
were

structures, disturbed.

and This

foundations
was

the

not

method New

in the Western

Union

Building in

York, where

FIG.

114.

"

load

of 286

tons

was

transferred

from

corner

to

more

secure

footings.
Such
a

combined

footing maybe

analyzed

as

follows:

FO

UNDA

TIONS.

I87
as as an

Taking Fig. 114

line of flexure find the maximum

as

plan,and
15"
I beams

Fig. 115
will be
on

elevation, the

of the

in

Fig.

16.

To
must

bending

moment

these

beams

we

FIG.

116.

compute

the various
moment

bending

moments

and when the

compare. shear
"

The
o.

bending
this of
case

will be
are

maximum

In line each the

there
;

five such
we

sections, as
compute
The

shown
moment

by

the
at

flexure
to

hence the be

must

the

point
columns the

find will

greatest.

moments

under

+,

causing convexity downward,

the columns then be
are
"

while
vexity con-

moments

between

causing

upward.

Fig. 117

may

used.

\"-m

----

or-

IJjil/
H
f

li
1 T t

It ft

1 1 tt

nt

t
i

!
""

^__

pzzz
To from find the the distance
we

-/-.
FIG. 117.

of the centre

of

gravity of

the loads

left end

have

Pb

+ Ptf +

P
,

=?,,
a

and
I

A-

The

distances

from

the

left end

of the

beams

to

the

points

88

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

where

5
to

o,
as

or

the

distances
:

xl

x^, *,,

*4) and

x^,

are

then

found

be

follows

*..=*=

-*)ft

mp
or

*'=;

A
The

-A

bending
the

moments

at

these

pointsare
forces the

readilyfound
on one

by taking
the

moments

of the thus M

external
at

side of

point
that

in

question ;
Wl
--

first point (rememberis cantilever)

ing

M=

for

uniformly loaded

Mt

OT

"

"

"

a.

In

general

cases

and 7I/.,

jW, will be small

except

where

FO

UNDA

TIONS.

89

the
moment

columns will is the the

are

very
at

far

apart, and
,

the

maximum

bendingto

be

either

Ml

Mt,

or

Mt

according
are

which

column
to

heaviest.

If the

cast
on

bases

strong

enough
and

carry

superimposed
form reduced. the

loads

their the

perimeters,
values of

the and be

long
M6

beams be

top M9

course,

Mlt M3,

will

and

J/4 would

not,

however,

altered. Sufficient deflection

the could reaction

hardly
under but the if

take

place

to

crease inif the

118.

materially figured clay

as
a

central
so

column,

continuous would be of

girder ;
a

calculated,
in

reaction

as varying intensity,

Fig.

JIT/

FIG.

118.

Thus,

from

Clapyron's formula,

we

have

for
case

continuous

girder

of

two

equal

spans,

/.

But

in the

assumed

_t

Taking

now

the the have

shears reaction

5, and R1
,

53,
and

on

the

left and

right
that

respectively, of
Sl + S\
=

remembering

RI

we
,

5,
Then

"

L~7"~J)+

~"

and

5, =//,.

19"

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

where

is f/"/
same
as

the

reaction

due

to

the

loads

on

the

two

spnas

/, the
is the

in the due the

regular
the

formula

for two

spans,
-^~-

and//
is the

reaction
to

to

cantilever

load, while
a

effect due

use

of the beam

as

continuous

girder.

Also,
r,

5
.

i
,

pl?

These pressure In the

on

reactions the first from

show in
we

varying tendency
118.

in

the

unit

as clay,

Fig.

example
the

made uniform the law

the

assumption
per foot of

that

the of

reaction the

clay was
to
we

length

footing. According
not

of the continuous
seen

girder
we

this would that

be

true,

as are

have

but

when

sider con-

the

beams

generallyof
the

sufficient that the

act

depth

to

prevent
tendencies less
as a

any

appreciable deflection,and
concrete
cause

unifying
more or

of the

footingto

whole, the assumption is undoubtedly justifiable.

SETTLEMENT.

It must

not

be

forgottenthat
that
rest
on

the

footings
at

are

designed
of the

for the final loads construction the the

on

them, and
must

all stages

same

relation various

be

maintained
exist

between in the
was
pleted com-

weights

the

piers that
of the the
tower

will

state, if uniform

settlement

is desired. Auditorium main

This

well which

exemplified in
extends many

the

case

tower,

stories
on

above the

building,thus
Here of the

ing bringtower

greater weights
foundations the different
excess were

footings.

loaded

with

varying weights
should these
be

pig

iron

at

stages of construction, in order

on

that the proper

as

relative final

these

piers
all

preserved

in the

weight.

Even

with

precautions, and

after

192 the

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

pilethe
Pile

best

foundation, if its

use

can

be

effected

with

consistent

economy.
were

foundations
to

used

in of

Chicago

for

many

years

previous
and
on some

the

introduction oldest and

the

isolated

pier method,
are

of. the
;

heaviest elevators

buildings along

founded

them

notably the
in maintained
more

grain

the

Chicago

River, which,
have
so

spite of
trying
years ago of

their

constantlyvarying loads,
few ings build-

far be

their
on

though integrity,
any
use

could

type of foundations.
of

Some decried

twenty

the the Hall this

piles in Chicago
methods
as we

was

in consequence used in the the

very

slipshod
And

and look

designs
back that
some

City
of have

building.

upon

results

work, it is hardly surprising

viewed with

piles should
time the

been
at

suspicion for
no

after,by those, effect, without

least,who

looked
cause.

deeper
In this when The

than

considering the
driven its in
so near

building the
a

pileswere
was were

together
was

that up.

new

one

driven

neighbor

raised

foundations
was

put

uniformly,although
on

the

weight
even

far from the time

being
the

uniform
were

the different

piers;
of

and

by

floors

placed example
the surface

variation

7%' had

resulted

in the

settling.

Another about the

same

very

good
were

of

poor

at pile-driving

time
tower.

foundations material
a

for the consisted

Chicago
of about
was

water-works

The

if

of

pure
to

lake-shore drive
a

sand, and

very

heavy
the

hammer the

needed

pileeven
and
to

J" by measurement,
times. But and sand the

hammer

rebounding
as

three had and

four

specifications
piles
were

to

depth

be

complied with,
until
was

hammered

hammered

the

was

pierced

through,
After foundation

and

drop
and

of u" other

suddenly
the

noticed. and
concrete
"

these
was

failures the

stone

used, until
was

introduction

of the

raft

"

method,

which

almost

universally approved, and

so

FO

UND

TIONS.

1 93

used extensively

that But the The

the in

pile method
1889 Mr.

was

for

time

quite
the

dispensed with.
use

S. S. Beman

revived under

of

piles in
while per the

Wisconsin

Central itself
on

Depot,
is

tryingstories and

circumstances.

building
carried ft.

only eight
20

high,
more

tower,
240

piles at
There has

tons
no

pile,is
unequal
firm

high.

been

preciable ap-

settlement. advocate " of the

Another Adler

pile foundation
The built Schiller
on

is Felix

of the firm of Adler these

Sullivan.

Theatre
"

Building, by
enormous

architects,was
of

piles,

as

the

concentrations
it
seem

loads, next
use

to

adjacent walls,
and
concrete

made

almost without
to
use an

impossible to
expense driven piles,
cut

iron

foundations
was

almost

prohibitive." So
datum, loaded
oak

it

decided

50 ft. below

at
on

55

tons

per
a

and pile,

off at
concrete
one

datum,

with
over

grillage
entire
on
:

top and
Mr.

solid bed

of is

spread
the
as

the

area.

Adler, who
in

of

best

authorities
on

pilefoundations
"

Chicago, states
in watched
on

follows
to

this

case

As

the

tendency
\ve

was pile-driving

raise

the

rounding sur-

earth,
It
an

the

adjacent buildings carefully.

the
to

was

found

driving the pilesin

settled the 6 and in.,

first lot that

be raised
on

adjacentbuilding had
; and

had

screws were

throughout
of the

these pile-driving

settlements Another
prise surone

noticed, requiring the

was

greatest

care.

that least

four

surrounding buildings the

was

with

the

efficient

foundations the

the

only one
walls.

not

requiringsuch
to

attention, and

pileswere
of the

driven

right up
der Un-

the the

building-linewithout
Borden
movement

movement

of the

Block, the
was

heaviest
as

ings, adjoining buildand

the

such

to

require holding up,

to

new inserting
"

foundations.

Another of

which peculiarity,
the
was pile-driving,

seemed the into

be

legitimate
of

outcome

apparent
the

readjustment

of the

of clay and particles

sand

condition

jelly,

IQ4 thus soil

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

destroying the resistingqualities. The

is not
;

water

in the
strata
or

thoroughly mixed,
the

but

occurs

in the

pockets
and into
water

hence
to

jar of

the
a

driving

caused
water

sand, clay,
also rushed
doubtedly un-

mix, forming
site from

jelly. The
under the

the

Schiller

Borden

Block,

explainingsome
These work in remarks of
was

of the settlements." Adler

at

Mr.
not

certainlyshow
as

that

the the

question

all successful such

regards
was

adjacent property, and, indeed,

the
was owners

damage
of that
as a

done that

by
suit the

in pile-driving instituted of the A

the

case

of the
owners

Schiller

Theatre

against the
adjacent
similar suit

by building,
result of

Borden
was

Block,

damage
of the tion questerest in-

sustained. of the suits

now

tors brought againstthe propriethe results the foundation with in much

Stock

Exchange building,and
must

pending Chicago.
all of the

largelysettle
outcome

in

The

is awaited interested

by
methods. The
most
new

architects

high-building perhaps
Under
the

Chicago

Library foundations pile foundations

by
three Gen.
rows
:

are

executed carefully and executed

in

Chicago, being
the

designed
walls the
tests

Sooysmith.
of To

of this
were

building
made be in in
a

pileswere
give
the three
row

driven, and
conditions
rows was as

as

follows

they
were

would driven the

the

final structure, the

of
cut

piles
off four

trench, and
two,
thus

middle the

below

other

bringing all
row),
benefit the the

bearing on

only (two piles

the the
was

in each
to

outside

but

thereby allowing

outside earth done

42

rows

derive

of the

compression
The 4500 per

of

due

to
a

the

driving of

central

row.

work

by

Nasmyth
having
a

hammer,

weighing
54 blows

ing fallIbs., minute. The

and in.,
20

velocityof
with
to
an

The
were

last

ft. were
at

driven

oak

follower.
of 52

piles

driven

2\ ft. centres
hard

depth
2

ft., 27 ft. into

the

soft

clay, 23

ft. into

clay,and

ft. into

hard-pan.

FO

UND

TIONS.

19

Their small The Ibs. The sides

average end
80

diameter
sq. in.

was

13

in., and

the

area

at

the

bearing
sq.

power

of

the

hard-pan

was

taken about

at

200

per

in.

Rankine's

formula

gives

170

Ibs.

extreme

average

frictional from

resistance

per

sq. in. of the

of the

deduced piles,
was

experiments
sq. in. Ibs. X The
80
=

under

gous analoance resist-

conditions,
at

15 Ibs. per
200 one

extreme

the

pile point was

surface At 15

1600

Ibs.
12

The
X

average
=

external
sq.

of

pileequalled (52 X
sq. in. this the

41)

25,000

in.

Ibs. per

gives

375,000

Ibs.,or

195^-tons.
power of
a

Disregarding pilewould

point resistance,the
187
tons. wet
a

bearing

be about

Assuming

the ultimate

crushing strength of
sq.

Norway
factor of sq. in. sq.

pine
The which This the

not

over

1,600 Ibs. per

safe load
taken
over

in., and
over area

with

safety of

3, the

will
at
an

be not average

533 Ibs. per of

113

piles were gives gives a

at not

in.,

60,230 Ibs. per

of 3 for of

or pile, a

about factor timber

tons

30 tons.

factor

crushing,and
the soil.

of 6 for
were

frictional resistance
one

If the

loaded used A
on

half

its ultimate

strength, 45
of

could

be

per

pile.
hold of
a

platform to
outside
rows

load

pig
the

iron

was

built
was mass

resting

the

and piles, of eleven Ibs. taken

on

weight
the

gradually
was

increased

until at the

end

days

38 ft.

high, weighing 404,800

per
as no

or piles,

about
two

tons 5OT7Q-

pile.

Levels

were was

at

intervals of
30
tons

weeks, and
ered consid-

settlement
a

observed,

per

pile was

safe load.
were

Tests
an

also

made

of in

drawing piles at clay to

a

this

and site,

driven ordinary pile, Ibs. resistance. localities economy, where

depth

of 45

ft, gave

45,000 In with

bed-rock

itself cannot the

be

reached
factory satishard-

pileswill undoubtedly give

can

most
or

results,it they

be

driven

to

bed-rock

I96
pan. the

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

tops

cut

off below

the

water-line, and

all this without

damage
A
on

to

surrounding property.
the criticisms of Gen.

prominent point in

Sooysmith
5 ft. below

Chicago high-buildingmethods
deep piling to bed-rock,
While this would in the
reasons

is his

recommendation off
1

of

with

the tops cut be

a

datum.

doubtless

good thing,it is
writer, and
of far

entirely unnecessary
too
are on

opinion

of the

expensive,
the

Some A

for this difference

opinion
off at may has levels inch.
in

following:
to

number

of

high buildingssupported
the

driven piles
are

hard-pan only,with
very
Home Insurance the

tops

cut

datum,
be

proving
the

satisfactory. Among
greatest
variation

others

mentioned
so

Building, which
in
an

settled

uniformly
the whole bed-rock

that

throughout Piling to
many
80

is but

three-fourths very this

of

would

be necessarily

expensive
would
mean

and localities,

in parts of level
;

Chicago
and if the

ft. below
a

the sidewalk
as

pileswere

driven,

from trouble level proper

sub-basement,
and expense be very

proposed by
draining this
If hard

Gen.
area

Sooysmith, the
below the
at
sewer

of

would

great.
the

pilesare dry clay

with

to

be used
seem

all,a
cient, suffivators ele-

penetrationof
with the

would

tops

cut

off at datum.

The their

large grain

along

the

Chicago River,
prove
a

constantly varying
stood out with-

loads, which
blemish,
And
to
as

most

severe

test, have

before

said. the

that

such

piling is
as can

only system
that

of foundations
be

be

recommended,
There
to

Gen. be
no

Sooysmith thinks, might

doubt be proper

questioned.
caissons
cannot

or piling, room

sunk be had

bed-rock,
steel

must

employed
of
out.

where

for

foundations but
some

proportioned at
the The the

3000

Ibs. per of of

sq. ft. of

clay area,

disadvantages

pilinghave
damage
to

already been
and the

pointed

general law
driving of
in

adjacent property

includes

pile foundations,

encountered difficulty

caring

FO

UN

DA

TIONS.

1 97

for

surrounding buildingsmust
all need Another

not certainly
on

be overlooked.

Where

buildingsare
be

built

the adjacent proppiles, erty

not

injured.
to

objection to pilingnext
lies in the allow of
new

buildings supported

on

steel foundations
on screws

of supporting the difficulty settlement

walls and

to

for the

additional
new

during
This
can

after be

the done much

placing
when
more

foundations.
foundations
are

always

steel

used, but
the
use

it becomes

difficult and

dangerous
and

with

of

piles.
The method of

independent piers
with of the such
care

raft foundations
its

has
use

in proved quite satisfactory certainly in

very

extensive
as

Chicago, and,
account

uniform that
was

settlement taken of but be it. the

has

resulted, on
it has
answers
a

beforehand,
The writer tages advan-

all the

requirements

made

preference for pilefoundations,

that attend the other kind
must

many

edged. freelyacknowl-

PNEUMATIC

FOUNDATIONS.

Pneumatic notable York

caissons of

have

lately been
Life

employed
in

in New ing. Build-

example

high building
Manhattan is seventeen
a

construction

City,namely
The

in the

Insurance
stories The

building proper
on

high, with
main roof is from walk side-

tower
an

top, terminating in
of of

dome.

at

elevation
to

242' o" from

=

the

widewalk, and
from base

base
to

flagstaff 347' 6", and

of dome the
=

dations of founthe dome

top

408' o".

This

makes
"

6if o" The

higher than
area

neighboring spire of

Old

Trinity." deep
X

of the lot is,approximately,120' o"

67'

o"

or frontage,

8,000
of the

square

feet,which, with
some

the

estimated would

total

weight
load

building of
square the

30,000

tons,
area.

give a
The

of 7,500 Ibs. per soil at

foot of lot

natural

site consisted

of mud

and

quick-

198
sand
to
a

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

depth
used,

of
as or

some

54' o", down

to

bed-rock.
New
over

Had ing buildentire

an

pilesbeen
law
area,
some

close

together
centre to

as

the

York the

allows,
1323 load of

30"

centre, been This per

piles
45,300

could

have

driven, with
was

average
as

Ibs. each. the load

inadmissible,
40,000

the

building law
driven

limits

pile to

Ibs.

each, when
A
new

2' 6" in

centres.

departure
the

foundations

was

therefore

sary, neces-

as especially

surrounding buildingswere
them of increase decrease the

built
to

on

the

natural in
case

earth, making
of any

liable particularly pressure in pressure

concrete
on

jury in-

soil from

additional excavations the

loading,or
or

through deep
piers
below

trenches

for

pilesor
thus

adjacentfootings.
Pneumatic caissons
were

adopted,
was

the

work

being example

executed of the the

same

by Sooysmith

"

Co.
as

This

the

first

pneumatic system
caissons in the

applied
"

to

buildings, although
had

architects, Kimball
Fifth

Thompson,
Avenue of

before

used

smaller New

Theatre

building in
air. in diameter columns. of the about site.

York Fifteen

City,but

without

the

use

compressed 9' 9"

caissons, varying in size from

square,

to

25' o"

cast-iron supported the thirty-four

were

These

caissons
below the

sunk bottoms
were

to

an

average

depth
at

31'

6"

the

of

the
to

excavations the and

After
was

caissons
and

sunk
as

bed-rock

rock the

surface

dressed
shafts
were

stepped
then rammed
2

required,
with

chambers of

and
i

concrete,
4

composed

part

Alsen

cement,

parts sand,
were

parts broken

stone.

The laid
to
are

superimposed piers
in
cement mortar.

built

of hard-burned
were

brick

About The

eight days
of the

required
caissons

sink

each in

caisson.

locations

several

shown A very

Fig.

119.

elaborate the loads

system of cantilever
on

girders
the side

was

used
to

to

transfer

the

columns

in

walls

2OO

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

proper these

concentric

bearings
the load
was

over

the

caisson

piers.
over

From

bearings

distributed of

the

whole

masonry-work

by

means

large

steel

bolsters,

thus

FIG.

120.

diminishing
section of the

and

equalizing
caissons
and

the

unit-pressure.

cross-

cantilever

girders

is

shown

in

Fig.

120.

CHAPTER

XL

UNIT-STRAINS"SPECIFICATIONS.

THE

question of unit-strains
extent

will

naturally vary
the lower

to

siderable con-

with

the

personal opinionsof
his views the the

designer

"

the

more

conservative the

his allowances.

But, whatever
he

preferencesof
limited
to

engineer or architect,
the

is,to

large
he

measure,

by

city building laws

A

with

which the

is

required

conform.
of New

comparison

tween be-

building ordinances
next

York, Chicago, and

show the wide gence diver-

Boston, given in the

which A few

chapter, will

exists in their

requirements. respective
be mentioned
as

unit-strains in

will here

having been
the

employed
of the

Chicago

skeleton Cast

before buildings
iron and timber

adoption
be

present ordinance.
as

will not

considered

enteringinto

modern

tion. high-buildingconstruc-

BRICKWORK.

The
as

allowable in the

pressure

per

square

foot
in

on

brick

masonry

used

highest masonry
has been
"

piers

Chicago, namely, in
before
as 12

the

Masonic Prof. I. O.

Temple,
the

mentioned
on

tons.

Baker, in his

Treatise

Masonry
on

tion," Construcas

gives
the
10

following allowable
the
on

strains

brickwork
:

practice of
tons

leading Chicago
best
;

architects

per

sq. ft.
mortar

brickwork

laid in

to

Portland

cement

8 tons

per

sq.

ft. for

good

brick

laid

in

to

Rosendale

cement

mortar;
sq. ft. for

5 tons

per

ordinary brick,

laid in lime

mortar.
201

2O2

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

He
as

shows, however, that these figures are

his tables
no

very best
tons

tive, conserva-

of the ultimate with per lime

square
was

strength of
to

brickwork with the

12

give

from
cement

tons mortar

mortar

180

land Porttons

foot.
even

So

while

in

the

Masonic

Temple

greater
that
"

than

ordinary
of

Prof. Chicago practice,

brick
20

Baker should

adds

reasonably good
a

laid in lime per

mortar

be safe under

pressure

tons

sq. ft."

COLUMNS.

We

have of

few

experiments
columns

of of

value the
to

on

the
most

ultimate used
at too

strength
present.

full-sized

type
be

Building operations have

to

conducted

quickly using.
and
on

allow have

many been

tests

on

the
on

full-sized columns

before

Tests the

made
as

the full-sized before

were

Gray columns,
to.

Larimer
on

column,
Z-bar

referred
made

The

only
(see

full-sized tests then

columns

by

C. L.

Strobel,

Chief

Engineer
of the introduced these
tests

of the American this

are were

Keystone Bridge Company

into
ones

Transactions

Society of Engineers,April, shape

used for
a

1888), who
But
even as

the

United

States.
parisons, com-

hardly fair
much

for present of web

lattice bars
tests
were

instead

and plates, ratio is of the

almost radius
met

all the of with

higher
than
as

gyration to
in loads
as

the

length

of column
seems

ordinarily
higher
of

building
would
at the

work. be

It

though
the

breaking
columns

obtained

for

majority
"

used

present time.

Burr, in his
formulas for The the

Strength stone Keyor

and. Resistance
and the used box

of Materials," deduces

for the Z column

Phoenix of

columns,

but

none

column

plates and Temple

of the
in

angles.

latter

type

was

in the Masonic used instead

a

two-story lengths,lattice bars

the

being
as

plates in
was

lightercolumns.
12' o" Ibs. per

But

the

height of

singlestory
unit-strain

less than of 12,500

unsupported
sq.

length, a

uniform

in.

was

UNIT-S

TjRA

INS"SPECIFICA

TIONS.

203 all

used

without

reduction

by
of

the

radius with

of

gyration, for
loads
were

concentric

loading.
a

Columns

eccentric

figuredfor
Rankine's In from the wind

unit-strain

12,500 Ibs. per

sq. in. reduced

by

formula Venetian

for eccentric

loading.
the columns 15,000
an

Building
were

without
Ibs. per
extra

strains

bracing
dead loads.
were

figuredat
live columns

sq. in. for allowance

all concentric for eccentric wind

and The

loads, with

carrying strains
20,000

from

the all

bracing

figured at
"

Ibs. per
"

sq. in. for

an

concentric allowance strains

so

loads,

and dead, live,

wind,

with

additional the windtotal

for eccentric
to

loading.
35 to 40 of
to

In these per
cent
a

columns of the

amounted

from

load,

that this mode

a

of

treatment

using

higher
than

unit-strain if
a

gave

much had

greater section
been used and .been

the

column

lower

unit-strain These

the used

wind in
a

forces number rather

disregarded.
of
severe

unit-strains

have

Chicago
cism. criti-

high buildings,notwithstanding some

In
12,000
"

The
was

Fair" used

Building,by uniformly on
loading.

W. all

L. B.

Jenney, architect,
no

Ibs. for

columns, with

ance allowof the

eccentric in the

This

building

is

one

heaviest

cityof Chicago, being figuredfor

foot for the ist, Ibs. for the
to

130 Ibs. live

load per square

Ibs. for the the
was

2d, 3d, 4th, and 6th floors, 200

5th floor,100

7th
dead

and

8th

floors,with
Great
care

rest

at

all in addition 75 Ibs., in

loads.

taken In the

providing good
Dearborn

connections the

throughout.
same was a

Fort

Building,by
Ibs. per

architect, a
used
on

uniform

unit-strain

of 13,000

sq. in.

all

columns, made

of channels

and

with plates,

proper

tion reduc-

for eccentric The

an

loading.
that with the
to
use

writer

believes

of

mild

steel,of

ultimate
or

strength

of from

65,000

68,000 Ibs. per sq. in.,

15,000

16,000 Ibs. per dead, live, and

sq. in. may wind

safelybe
combined

used

for all

concentric

loads

(with

an

204 additional

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

allowance

for that sq.

eccentric wind

loading
pressure

as

before
at
on

scribed), denot

provided
less than floor
30

the

is taken live loads the

Ibs. per
are

and ft.,
as

that

the

the

systems

assumed With that

required by regard
of
a

municipal
lies in its
both satisfy

building laws.
and

careful the

for

all

connections,

remembering
conditions The
use

strength

structure
seem

weakest the

point, these

unit-strains

would and sq.

to

of proper of
20,000
seem

economy
Ibs. per

satisfactory design.
in the the and Venetian live load when
to

in.,as

Building,would
is but 50 per

too
on

when high,especially the floor systems,

as

35 Ibs. per
cent

sq. ft. this

but the

of

is considered

transferred

columns.

SPECIFICATIONS

FOR

STRUCTURAL

STEELWORK.

Material
as

and

Workmanship.

"

The

entire

structural

work, frameto

indicated

by

the

framing plans,or

sp^ified, is

be

of

wrought
to

steel,of quality hereinafter

designated, all
this All
contractor

material unless done and

be

provided

and
to

put
the

in

place by

stated specifically in
a

contrary.
as

work
or

to

be

neat

and

skilful
or

manner,

per

detail

specified, tendent superin-

if not
to

detailed his entire

as specified,

directed

by

the

satisfaction.
"

Qualityand
Bessemer
or

Material. open

Steel

may

be

made

by
be

either uniform

the in

hearth
not

process.
case

It shall contain
over

and quality,
cent

must

in any

o.io

of

per

of The

phosphorus. grade
of steel used when
:

shall (except for rivets) tested

to

fill the

followingrequirements
Ultimate Elastic tensile limit
: :

in small

specimens:
sq. in.

strength

60,000
one 20

68,000 Ibs. per

ultimate

Not

less than less than

:

half the
cent

strength.

Elongation
Reduction

Not
area

per

in 8 in.

in

Not

less than

40

per

cent

at

point of

fracture.

UNI7^-S

TRA

INS"SPECIFICA

TIONS.

2Q$ be

Bending
stand is

Test.

"

Duplicate specimens will

a

required

to

bending
to
one

180" around and

a

mandrel, the diameter

the thickness
on a

of which

equal

half times

of the
concave

specimen,
or vex con-

without

showing signs of rupture

After in
water

either dark

side.

being
at

heated 180"

to

cherry red, and

must

quenched
bending
as

Fahr., the

specimen

stand

before.
"

Inspection.All
melt The
to

steelwork

is to

be

inspected
on

front

the
cars.

final

deliveryof

finished

material

board

will inspection

include

surface, mill,and
the

tion shop inspecwhom be delivered

by
all until

an

to inspectorsatisfactory
are

engineer,to
shall

reports

to

be

made.

No the

work

approved
shall be
at

and the

stamped by
expense the
or

inspector. All inspection

material will be the blows

of this contractor. finished

cast.

Tests.

"

test

from blow

required
or

representing
from which

each

In

case

casts

'the
are

Blooms,

slabs, or
been

billets

in any
test

reheating
ing representconform
to

furnace

charge

taken, have
will be before
or

tested, a
must

the furnace the

heat
as

required, and specified.

requirements
The from the the

original blow
said

cast
or

number cast, and

must

be
same

stamped stamped

on

each

ingot

blow

this
must

number,
on or

together with
each

furnace finished

heat

number,
from

be

piece of
heat. Steel.
"

material

said

blow, cast,

furnace Rivet

The

steel

used

for rivets shall fulfil the

lowing fol-

requirements:
Ultimate Elastic tensile

strength : 56,000 to 62,000

less than less than
at

Ibs. per sq. in.

sq. in.

limit
:

Not Not
area

30,000

Ibs. per
cent

Elongation
Reduction 50 per

25 per of

in 8 in. shall be
at

of
cent.

point

fracture

least

Specimens
1

from down

the
on

original bar
themselves

must

stand

bending

80" and

close

without

sign of fracture

206

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

on

convex

side
to
one

of

curve.

Specimens
the stand

must

stand without
as

cold

hammering
or

third

originalthickness quenching
be of the

ing flay-

cracking, and
for rolled

must

heretofore

required
metal free

specimens.
cast

Cast Iron"Mi for the from

iron

shall

best

qualityof
and all
at

purpose of

intended. every

Castingsshall

be clean

defects

kind, and

boldly filleted

angles.
The A
cast

iron

must

stand

the

followingtest

bar
a

i" square,
centre
"

5' o" long,4' 6" between

of 550 Ibs. without architects'

shall bearings, fracture.

support

load All

sign of

Drawings.

copiesof
the

ings, drawings, shop drawall necessary this

must
tractor con-

templates,patterns, models,
measurements at at

etc., and be made

shall building, All of

by

his for

own

expense.

shop drawings
the
as

be such said

submitted

the

approval
shall be

architects, and
are

changes
architects

or or

additions their
"

made

required by

agent.
material shall any in be

Painting. by
the

No

painted until approved painting

be done when
dition. con-

nor inspector,

shall

material

is No

exposed
material

to

rain, or
shall be

otherwise

improper
the

shipped

until

paint
red

is

thoroughly dry.
All iron in and steel shall receive before all
one

coat

of

best

lead the
to

ground
framework touched receive oil.
Beams.
a

linseed-oil is

leaving

the

shop.

When
are

completed,

exposed portions
the whole mixed red lead

be

up

with

and paint as specified,

coat

shall then linseed-

second

of best

with

"

All
to

floor,roof, and
of size
to

other

beams

shown and
more

on

ing fram-

plans
located shown
at

be

and

weight shown,
Where
two
or

accurately
beams
cast
are

according
side

plan.

by side,they
8' o"

shall be

provided
never

with

tors separathree

least every

apart, but with

less than

208

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

All

columns, where

shall possible,

be

made

in
to

two-story
be built

lengths,breaking joints alternately.

with be
must

Columns

vertical in
"

all joints to connection-platesor splice-plates,

to

equal
be

strength
"

the

column

itself. white and

Bearing-surfaces
lead and
at

finished
must
"

and be

protectedby
will not used be

tallow.

All

columns

true perfectly

tested

frequent

intervals.

Shimming"
"

allowed.

Castings. Cast
or

iron be
so

in the

shape
that
sq.

of

lintels, corbels,

brackets does exceed

to

shall
not

proportioned
13,500 Ibs. per
sq. in.

the

compressive
the tensile be may
a

strain strain loaded be

exceed 3,000

in., nor

Ibs. per

Cast-iron

platesmay
bases shall not

15,0x30 Ibs. per sq. in.

to

Cast-iron

column

strained of

6,000 Ibs. fibre strain.

than per 15 tons sq. ft. on per

They
on

give
nor

pressure
more

more

sq. ft.

brickwork,

than Plates.
"

30 tons

granite.
be
set

Cast-iron

plates shall

under
so

ends

of

all

beams
not
more

and exceed than

girders, restingon
a

masonry, per

proportioned as,
brickwork,
nor

to

load

of

5 tons

sq. ft. on

30 tons
"

per
"

sq. ft. on

stone.

Connections be
on

Splices. All
hot rivets.
to

field-connections Where

and

to splices

riveted brackets

with

girders or
beams
to flanges

beams
or

rest

attached

the the

columns, such
bottom

girders
bracket,

shall be riveted and

to

through

the

also have the column. walls

connection-angles connecting
The
or

the

top flanges

ends

of all have

girdersor
anchors

beams

resting on
embedded

masonry
in the

piers to

securely

masonry-work.
"

Rivets. The than

All of

rivets to be rivets
the

of mild
never

before steel, as less than from

i

specified.
nor

pitch

shall

be

\\"

more

6", while

minimum of material An
excess

distance shall be of

the No

centre

of any
to

rivet to the used

in
or

edge

J".
cent

rivets

be

in tension.

25 per

shall be allowed may be

proportioning
drilled, but

field-rivets.
not

Rivet-holes
more

punched
than

must

be

than

-fa" larger

UNIT-STRAINS"

SPECIFICA

TIONS.

2OQ

diameter
as

of rivet.

Rivet-holes for

must

be

accuratelyspaced,
The rivets concentric

will drift-pins

be allowed fill the

assembling only.
full heads with the

shall with

completely
the

holes, with

rivets,and

in full contact

surface

of the

material.

SPECIFICATIONS

FOR

BRICKWORK,

ETC.

(Extractsfrom

for the Fort Dearborn Masonry Specifications " Mundie, Architects.)

Building. Jenney

This
red
on

contractor

will furnish and

not

and

set all that

part colored

the brick

drawings,
or

shown be the the

or

specified for
character of

pressed
common

terra-cotta

; to

best best

brickwork,
sound hard
on

laid

up

with

merchantable,
to architects,

good,

bricks, acceptable
all the make

to

the

lines and

levels

sides,in lime
bricks
a

mortar,
well

all

joints being place and

laid in

filled carefully

and
to

rubbed solid be

into
When The

pounded

down

small will

joint.

dry, warm
all outside
to

weather, bricks
common

laid wet.

jointsof
not

brick, and
be
"

of all interior brickwork and cleaned down. and

be

shall plastered, Work.

neatlystruck
The
contractor

Pressed-brick all that shown

will

furnish
and

set
or

part colored
to

red

on

the

drawings
to

marked

be

work, pressed-brick
the best character and

include

all returns

into

openings, with
even

of

pressed-brick facing of
hereinafter and
entrances

color All

and

of the kind

character

fied. speciin be in
to-

exposed
to be
same

brickwork finished in
character All All

of

areas

fronts faced the be

an

marked

work pressed-brick

shall
as

with

the

of

pressed

brick

used

adjacentparts. neatly rodded.

outside
to

in joints

the

work pressed-brick
to

work pressed-brick
mortar true.

be laid brick. brick

from
All each

scaffold in
be

the In is to

color

of the

courses

gauged
the

laying pressed
be buttered The and
returns

edge and
to joints

down

middle

all vertical of

be filled from

front to back.

pressed-

210

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

brick

work

must
or

be

dovetailed carefully

into

the

common

brickwork
In the

banded

by

solid

headers.
must

piersonly solid
is to be will
contractor

headers

be the

used.

sample

of

pressed brick
This

deposited with
furnish and
set

architects.
terra-cotta not to
or

the

tile copings to salt-glazed

stone
or

all masonry The

to

walls
are

covered be
2

by

metal the

copings.
wall and

copings

inches
to

wider be
set

than

have

lapped joints. Copings

and the of
set

in Portland
"

cement. contractor

Concrete. foundations
concrete

This
or

will furnish
on

all concrete All

concrete

shown filling

drawings.
stone

shall and

consist

of

equal parts
The The
wet

Portland broken

cement,
is to

mortar, be that

broken
egg
stone
to

stone.

size of
mortar

of small the

coal.
to cut
to

is to be

thoroughly
mortar. to cement. water

mixed, and
The
concrete

be

before twice.

mixing
No
more

with

be

over

be

used
All be

than
concrete

is necessary
to

moisten

every

particleof

be used in

immediately after mixing,

the
water

and the

shall

pounded
Cement

hard

place until
The

stands

on

top

of the

concrete.

Plastering.
"

outside the with

of all masonry
shall be
coat

walls

that

will

come

in contact this

with

earth
a

smooth of

tered plas-

by
cement

contractor

surface

Portland from the

mortar

of

an

average

thickness

of

" inch

lower

footings to
"

the

top of finished
contractor

grade.

Protection. work
at

This

will

carefullyprotect
up when cold. work He

his

by

all necessary bad

bracing,and
at

by covering
all times
storms
or

all walls is will with

night, in

weather, and

liable to be

interrupted either by
from other material

protect all masonry-work

manure or

frosts

by covering
the shall

to satisfactory

architects. be taken

The down

top of all walls

injured by
at

the

weather

by
work.

this contractor

his

expense

before

ing recommenc-

UNIT-S

TRA

INS"SPE

C I PICA

TIONS,

2 1 1

Footings.
"

Concrete

footings shall
to

be

enclosed All is

by
water

2-inch is to

plank curb,
be baled
out

said

plank

be

left in the

place.
concrete

of trenches

before

put in.

SPECIFICATIONS

FOR

FIRE-PROOFING.

(Extracts from

Fire-proofing Specificationsfor the

Fort

Dearborn

Building.

Jenney The all the

"

Mundie,

Architects, Chicago.)

include specifications followingsteel in the in the filling building, the

the

of fire-proofing
the beams

between the
same

forming floors,and
of the the

concreting
the

over

to the

top

and floor-strips,

projectionsof
columns,
in the both

the

beams

below

arches. Also the

covering

of

all

those

standing
tile vaults.

clear

and

those the

partlyincased
all tile the

walls. the the and

Also Also brick

on

building of

and partitions

the

building of
Also the

party-wallsover
roof

present

old

walls. roof. work

tile floor of the

pent-houses

the All

shall be lime
mortar

laid in mortar and

i

composed
time of

of

parts of
cement,
lime clean

best

fresh

part best
at

Louisville

thoroughly
mortar

mixed be

together
composed
of

using. Said
lime and

shall sand in

fresh burned suited

all
to

sharp

proportionsbest
shall and

this work.

This
mortar

contractor

furnish

material, including the

all his
own

for
set

setting the
work
to

same,

will do

hoisting
and manlike work-

and

all the
manner

in the

thoroughly
be of
a

substantial

satisfaction of the
shall and
rooms

superintendent
on

Floors.

"

All the

floors beams the

supported shape
that below.

flat arches
shall

set

in between flat The shall be beam

give a
and

form uni-

in ceiling

bottoms

and

projectionsof

all beams of tile every

or

girders
be

protected by projectingparts
In

by separate

slabs.
over

laying the

floor arches

jointshall
bottom.

filled full

its entire

surface,from

top

to

212

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

Floor
are

arches, ten

days
stand

after
a

they are
of
a

laid and

before

they
face,
in

concreted, shall
loaded
so as

test

roller,15 inches
over

and any

to

weigh

1500

pounds, rolled
with and made column

them

direction.
All columns shall both be covered tile held

by

metal column

clamps

in horizontal

vertical
as

joints.

These the

shall protections

be

so

to

conform

with

city ordinance.
Roof.
the
"

The

roof

shall be

supported
be

in the

same

way

as

floors, only the soffits may

Partitions.
"

segmental.
in the several subdivision thick
in the

All the

shown partitions
cross

plans

are

to
are

be

built
to

includingall
of hollow 3 inches hail

and

partitions.
first and for stories thick.

All

be

tile 4 inches

second

stories, and

thick

in all other

All cross-partitions. In than

to partitions

be 4 inches all

the glazed partitions the sash and frames be

set

lower

parts and
of tile.

parts other

shall be

The metal All

tiles shall ties

or

and breaking joints,

be

tied with

clamps.
shown
on

vaults

plans
walls

above

second

story

to

be

built with

vestibules,as shown.
"

Furring.

The

outside furred

in the

basement, in the part

as

for rent, will be

and All All serious in
a

with

so 3-inch tile,

to form

tical ver-

true

surface

for

plastering.
true.

tilework tilework cracks and

or

shall be shall be

straightand

thoroughly
or

burned

and and

free

from

checks

other

damages,

shall be laid

proper No All

workmanlike
to

manner.

centres

be

lowered
on

until the the wind

mortar

has the

set

hard.

structural in any

steel way,

which

strength of

building
be protected

depends

including

bracing, shall

covering. by fire-proof

Concreting.This
"

contractor

shall fillin

on

top of the tile

of

arches

with

dry

cinder

concrete,

composed

reasonably

UNIT-S

TRA

INS"SPECIFICA

TIONS.

2 1

clean

soft-coal cinders,
beams
or

to

be

levelled
after

off at

the

top of the
set

highest
to

girders,and
said
and

the

are floor-strips

be

filled in between hard the

stripswith

said

dry cinders,
floor
be

presseddown
\ inch below
laid without All
are

a surface leavingreasonablyuniform

so tops of the strips,

that the

can

disturbing the
to

cinders.
to

damages
laid.
"

tilework

be

repaired before
the

the

ders cin-

Party-ivalls.Above
south sides
cement

the

present walls
shall furnish and

on

west

and said aforeSaid

this contractor and lime

layin
wall

the

mortar

hard-burnt
6-inch of

tile.

wall and

to

be

composed
three in the

of two

tile between

columns,
gether to-

elsewhere both

thicknesses
across

4-inch tile clamped

the wall. The face

length and
the

of

the outside

tile shall be

guaranteed
completion
tile

to

stand

weather
; the

for five
tor contrac-

years,

dating from
to

of said

wall

agreeing
either in winter

replace any
or summer

injured by
said vertical and

the

weather

during
wall, both
over

period.
horizontal,
with be the

Every joint in
shall
mortar

this

be

thoroughly filled
before mentioned. workmanlike and

its entire outside

surface

All
manner.

joints to

struck

in

neat

TERRA-COTTA

SPECIFICATIONS.

Material. called the for

on

"

This

contractor

shall furnish
to

and

set

wherever
in color detail

drawings

terra-cotta

exactly match
with

sample submitted,
Material

all in strict accordance

to be

drawings.

for ail terra-cotta after

selected carefully uniform in with

or

clay,left
color. mould

in

perfect condition
pieces to
be size where be of

burning,and
No

All

straightand perfectly
continuous. This
as

true, and

of uniform

warped

colored dis-

pieces will
a

allowed.

contractor

to furnish

sufficient number

so over-pieces,

to avoid

all

delay.
skilled

Modelling.
"

All work

shall be

modelled carefully

by

214

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

workmen,
models work will be

in

strict be

accordance for

to

detail

drawings,
approval
such

and

shall

submitted No the work

architects' without unless

before

is burned.

burnt

approval

accepted by
All shall

architects

tory. satisfacperfectly

Mortar. work used for

"

mortar

used

for

exposed joints
composed
"

in

cotta terramortar

correspond in
"

every

particularwith

work. pressed-brick with Pecora

"

It shall be
or
"

of

lime
;

putty, colored
colors
to

Peerless

mortar

stains

be selected

by

the

architects.

Ornamental shall
courses,

Fronts, Belt
and
as

Courses, Bands.
all ornamental
on

"

This

tor contrac-

furnish and

set

terra-cotta,
or

belt

bands,

shown

elevations

sections,or
with
to

where

otherwise
All

indicated, in strict accordance

terra-cotta

detail work iront-

drawings.
iron

work
manner,

to

be

secured

the
w

in the most
or

approved

with

substantial bedded

rough

copper All
courses

anchors, and
horizontal
to
courses

thoroughly
to

in cement jecting pro-

mortar.

have
on

lap joints. All

the under side.

have

drips formed
"

Caps
as

and

Jambs,

Sills. will be All

All

caps

and

jambs

where

cated indi-

terra-cotta

constructed sills and

in strict accordance belt

courses

with

detail

drawings.
cement

to

have

counter-sunk
All

as joints

directed
have

by

the

ent. superintendon

projecting sills
all sills shall be

to

drips formed

under shall

side, and
be

raggled for hoop iron, which

in cement ornamental
mortar.

bedded

by

this contractor Mullions.

"

Terra-cotta
to

All metal

mullions

of terracotta
manner,

be

secured and

to

uprights in approved
with
cement mortar.

and

well

bedded
"

slushed

Cornice. accordance

This with

contractor

shall construct with

cornice

in strict

detail

drawings,

sufficient
to the

projection
to

through
make
same

walls

and

approved anchorage
secure,

metal-work
to
as

thoroughly
anchors.

this

contractor

furnish shown

all for

necessary

Form

raggle

in cornice

CHAPTER

XII.

BUILDING

LAWS.

THE

building

ordinances
are

of

the

cities

of

New

York,

Chicago, and
and

Boston

all of
no one

comparatively recent
of them still and
or one

tion, adopto to

though perhaps
model

may

lay claim
expect
in

being

building law,
practice
one

might

find much
construction Some head follows of
:

of the best

experience
all of these

building
under the
as

incorporated in
more

laws.

of the

important subjects coming Engineering

FLOOR LOADS.

Architectural

may

be

compared

The

requirements for
over

live loads the

per

square

foot
of the

on

the

floor-beams,
are: itself,

and

above

dead

weight

floor

(a) Includes
(d) Includes Called (":)
"l

hotels

and
of

apartments
and

in New
and

York.

apartments

boarding

lodging-houses
York. these loads

in

Chicago.

places
stables
may

(d) Includes (e) Allowances

foundations.

public assembly" in Chicago.

be made for

in New in

reduction

on

columns

and

It load is

will 70

be

seen

that square
40

these foot

three for

laws

agree

in

live This

of

Ibs. per

private dwellings.
square foot

undoubtedly
216

high,

Ibs. per

being

about

BUILDING

LAWS.

217

the

average

in This

use

by
wooden

the

best

engineers and
with the in the Boston has been the have

consulting
value

architects. for the

requirement,
beams

taken

given

strengthof
of far

tates law, necessi-

timbers

larger size
as

than

practiceof
been shows built that

the best architects, or and

used

in houses

which

occupied from
loads in

thirty to fifty years.

23 Ibs. per

Kidder

actual average The

seem

etc., dining-rooms, parlors (includingpiano),

square foot of the whole
area.

only

14 to

excessiveness
to

of the load indicated

for classes for these

of 70 Ibs. for

dwellings would
same

be further laws

by
2

the and

use

of the
New

load and

in

the

Chicago
are

3.

York

ton BosIbs. is

about for

alike

two

classes ; but

if 70

sufficient

office and

why require it for public buildings,

all floors for

lighterprivatedwellings?
In class 4 each

citylaw requiresthat
be the

houses, ware-

etc., must
intended
use,

computed, according carefully capacityof

the
more

to the in

and

such

floors be
The New

posted
York

conspicuous places about

building.
on explicit

and
is
quired re-

Chicago
the Boston

laws

are

much

this

point than
leaves the

law, while

the

Chicago
of the

ordinance
or

load to the the load

cases,

judgment
New

architect

engineer with
The small minimum in many hard
to

approval of
of
1

the

Building Commissioner.
York
law is far too

50 Ibs. in the
the loads best

but

for these

types of
care

buildingsare
competent

and classify, under L. B.

are

left to the of the

to

of

designers
Mr. W.

the

approval
had

building departments.
estimate
Field " the loads

Jenney
warehouse

occasion

in the wholesale the

of Marshall
average
area,

Co. in

Chicago, and
foot
was

low surprisingly for the total load writer

of 50 Ibs. per

square

found The

floor
on sees

including all
areas
reason

passage-ways.
to

maximum The

limited
no

was

found

be

57 Ibs.

for

changing
under

the
a

previous
discussion

recommendations

of live

loads, as
:

given

of the floor system,

namely

218

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

40 80

Ibs. per
to

square

foot

for

dwellings;

90 Ibs. for

devotional, places of public gatherings,

;

educational, or
40 80

amusement

Ibs. for the Ibs. for the

upper lower

floors of office floors of office

buildings ;
buildings;

and

from

150

to

450 Ibs. for

placesof manufacture, storage,

machinery, etc.
WROUGHT IRON: STRESSES IN POUNDS PER

SQUARE

INCH.

STEEL:

STRESSES

IN

POUNDS

PER

SQUARE

INCH.

As
most

may

be

seen

from

these the

tables,the Boston

law is

is the

comprehensive, while
in of the

Chicago
even

ordinance somewhat

larly singu-

and deficient in unit-stresses,

some

tory contradicthe head-

few values

given.

Thus

under

BUILDING

LAWS.

ing
inch while

of

fibre plate girders,

10,000

stresses

of 13,500 Ibs. per

square

for steel and

in
a

Ibs. for
"

wrought
all

iron

are

allowed,

preceding
trusses
"

section
are

girders,beams, corbels,
of

brackets, and
for

allowed

fibre stresses iron.

16,000 Ibs.
latter
to
tion sec-

steel, and
does
not

12,000

Ibs. for the

use

wrought
of these

This

limit

unit-stresses
the

either

rolled

or

built

members,

thus

clashingwith
fibre
or

ments requireare

for called

plate girders.
the Ibs. per No

Still different

stresses

for under
14,000

requirements for
square values

rail

beam
11,000

tions, foundaIbs. for

and inch for steel,

are

wrought
The

iron.

given
the

for

bearing.
be estimated
the

New

York
"

law, under
no

provisionsfor plategirders,
shall
as

that specifies

part of the web

than web'' the

flangearea, girder

nor

more

J of that portion of
As the

angle-iron
of the of
seem

ivhich lies against the is limited the

to

effective
between

depth
the

distance this be

centres

gravity of flangearea,
whole

flange areas,
If the web proper
can

requirement

would

quite unnecessary.
and

the neglected as affecting made for used. the rivet-holes,

deductions very

angle areas

properly be

COLUMNS.

The

New

York

and

Boston

laws

both the

call

for

putations com-

by
12,000

Gordon's
square

formula,
inch No than

using
is to

constants

of

Ibs.

per

for
column

steel, and

10,000

Ibs. for
an

wrought-iron
to

columns.
more

have

ported unsup-

length of
nor

30 times

its least lateral dimension, in thickness.

have

metal law

less than the

""
use

The Ibs. per

Chicago
square

allows for

of the

constant
or

of 12,000

inch

wrought-iron columns,
/, and ija,
are
r

i2,ooo#

-f-

(i -J-g
two

all in inches.

For

steel columns

formulae

given :

22O

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

S and
r

17,000

"

\") for columns

The formula

more

than

60 radii in

length,

S=: in

13,5000 for columns

under

60 radii in

length (/ and
60 radii in

both

inches).
about 66.

for columns square

over

length gives
in which
-

13,000

Ibs. per

inch

for

column

CAST

COLUMNS.

The
cast

New

York

law

that specifies

the

computations
inch. of All

for

columns the

shall be made of
a

by

the

use

of Gordon's

formula,
cast

with

constant to

16,000 Ibs. per square

average
not
more

columns
an

have

minimum

thickness than
20

"", with

unsupported length of
The law

times

their least

lateral dimensions.

Chicago
cast

gives formulas
For
\

for both
cast

round
:

and

tangular rec-

columns.

round
/
=

columns column

(I*
I

length of
diam. sectional

in
in

in.;
in.;

4- ^" TT2 ^^ /
columns

d-=
a
=

of columns
area

col. in in.

For

rectangular cast /

/ and /'
,
'

as

before

; d
or

the the of

side least other

V
law

55577

of square horizontal columns.

column,
dimension

The square

Boston
cast

provides
STONE.

tables

for

both

round

and

columns.

THE

USE

OF

STONE

FOR

WALLS,
IN

FACINGS,
TONS
PER

PIERS, SQUARE

RCHES, FOOT.

ETC.,

is

THUS

SPECIFIED,

The those

safe loads recommended

given

in the

Boston while

law the

are

about

double

by Baker,

Chicago require-

BUILDING

LAWS.

221

ments,

using -fa of

the

average
tons
on

ultimate

strengths given
tons
on

by

Prof. and The

Baker, allow
24
tons
on

38

granite, 30
square wall

stone, lime-

sandstone masonry
"

per in

foot.

use
:

of ashlar law
:

facingsis
thickness

limited
of

as

follows ashlar walls

Boston

In

reckoning the
unless
or

walls
In of

shall not

be included
to

it be at least 8" thick.

over

required

be

16" thick

the full thickness 16"

the ashlar half the

shall be allowed of the

; in walls

less than be

thick, only
Ashlar

thickness

ashlar

shall

included. metal

shall be at least
to

4" thick, and

properly held by
to
as

clamps
walls

the

backing,or properly bonded

la w
:
"

the

same." brick

Chicago
under the bond in

Stone

may

be used
:

facingfor

followingconditions
courses,

If the

out facingis ashlar, withcourses

and

the bond

individual
stones

thereof

ure meas-

height
to

between

more

than ashlar

six times

the

thickness be
to

of the ashlar,then
the

each with
at

piece of
iron least

facingshall
at

united
each

brickwork

anchors,
8"
over

least two the brick brick

piece, and
hooked Wherever be counted into

reaching
the
stone

wall, and

facing as
before

well

as

the

backing.
shall not of the wall
"

ashlar, as
as

described, is used, it
of the

forming part
the

bearing-surface
thickness of of

wall, and

the brick

backing shall
with bond the of

be of the

herein If stone
not

for specified

different kinds
courses

building.
at
a

facing is used
more

distance

apart of
and the the where

than width

six times of

thickness the bond the

of the
courses

ashlar,
upon of

the

bearing
is at

backing

of such
in
no

ashlar
case

least twice

thickness
such of the
not

ashlar, and
shall total
to

less than
as

8", then

ashlar

facing
and the

be

counted

forming part
and for specified

wall,
be of
quired re-

thickness
more

of wall herein

facing shall

be

than

walls

the

different New

classes York

of law

buildings."
"

All stone

used
not

for

the

facing of

any

building,and

known

as

ashlar,shall

be less than

4" thick.

222

A R CHITECTURA

ENGINEERING.

Stone

ashlar be

shall be anchored of such thickness

to

the
as

backing,and
make the the

the

ing back-

shall

to to

walls

pendent (indethe

of the

ashlar)conform,
of this ordinance."

as

with thickness,

requirements
Dimension for than

stones,

as

in specified be

the

Chicago
a

ordinance
of
more are are

foundations, shall
10

not

subjected to
If the beds

load

tons

per

square

foot.

of

the stones
stones

dressed
set to

and

levelled
cement

off to uniform

surface, and the

may
be

in Portland

mortar, foot.

this load

increased

25 tons

per

square
ALLOWABLE

BRICKWORK:

PRESSURES
FOOT.

IN

TONS

PER

SQUARE

(a) Isolated
(b) The
walls.

brick

loads

piers shall permitted for

25 shoved."
cent

not

exceed

12

times be

their least dimensions.

25 per
cent

brick

piers shall
may
be

less

than

in

In
A

walls
further

an

additional
or
"

per

cent

allowed
be

if made

brickwork
if walls

is thoroughly

grouted
20

per

additional

allowance
bricks

may
are

are

built may

of
be

sewer

brick 30

only,
cent.

or,

if vitrified paving the

used,
12

this

allowance
the

made

(c) In
these
mortars
as

per brick

piers

in which
are

height is
to

from and

6 to 7

times

sion, least dimenfor

pressures above given.

reduced

13, 10,

tons

respectively

the

BEARING GIVEN
IN

POWER
PER

OF
OR PER

PILES

AND FOOT

SOILS.
ON

POUNDS

PILE,

SQUARE

FOOTINGS.

It would the size of

seem certainly

quite
fail to

remarkable

that unit

city of
for

Boston

should

specifyany

loads

224

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

loads

they

will have
not to

to

carry

in the
or

completed

and

occupied
of

and building,
"

theoretical

occasional

loads." either the lowing folcrete conor

Foundations
:

shall be
cement

constructed concrete,
dimension
or

of

Portland steel
or

Portland

cement
sewer

and

iron, or

stone,
with alone

or

ing pavber, tim-

brick, or
or a

timber

pilescovered
oak shall level timber
not

grillageof
; it

oak

grillageof
that timber
at
a

being, however,
connection with

provided
any
"

be

used

in

foundation
Where

higher than citydatum."

are

pilefoundations
to

used, borings of the

the

same

shall

first be made
stratum

determine

positionof
the

the

lying underbe

of hard
to

clay or
reach
to reach to

rock, and
hard the
to

pilesshall
and such The

made

long enough
driven loaded down
more

clay or rock,
and each

they
of

shall be
not

same,

pilesshall
heads

be

than

25 tons

pile.
the with

the

are piles

to

be

while protected against splitting after

they are
to

being driven,
be sawed

and

having

been

driven

are piles an

off

to

uniform

level and

covered in the

oak

ber timof bers timIbs.

so grillage,

proportioned
the

that

transmission strain in the

1200

strains

from

pileto pilethe
inch." other

extreme not

fibre be

composing
to

shall grillage

more

than

the The

square

bearings on

materials
cement

than
to

are piles

then in
on one

given,

as

in

previous table.
not

The

be
cent

used fine
to
one

concrete

footings"shall
sieve, and
when

be

less than
one

90

per

8o-mesh

mixed

part of
into

cement

part

of

clean, sharp sand, moulded

cross-section, shall
than 275 225 Ibs. tensile
not

briquettesof
seven

square

inch
at

break
nor

when
at

days
at

old

less

strain,

thirty days

less than

Ibs. tensile In view

strain." many
note

of the

discussions the

at

the

present
for the

day

it

will be
or

to interesting

requirements

coating

paintingof
The Boston

rails law

or

beams

in foundations. "all metal foundations and

requires that

BUILDING

LAWS.

22$ shall be
two

all constructional from

ironwork

underground
in addition the

protected
of red

dampness
other York the

by concrete,
material law
"

to

coats

lead, or
New used with

approved by
When crib

inspector."
or

footingsof iron
shall be other When

steel

are

below

water-level,the

same

coated entirely

varnish, or coal-tar, paraffine

suitable

preparation
iron
or

before
steel

being placed in position.

for columns
are

footings of
the

placed below
for

water-level, they

shall be The
concrete

coated similarly

against rust." preservation requires

iron rails be
a

Chicago only :
the
"

ordinance
If steel
or

perfect covering
or

of
as

beams

are

used

parts of foundations, they

a

must

thoroughly embedded
must
mass

in

concrete,

of ingredients the

which

be

such be

that after

proper cavities.

ramming
The and

interior of the
or

will

free from
in

beams around

rails must

be

entirely enveloped
surfaces

concrete,
concrete cement

the

exposed
must
one

external be
a

of such Portland

foundations
mortar
not

there less than

coating of

inch thick.

WIND

PRESSURE.

No
either law

mention the New

is made York
or

of the wind Boston

pressure

to

be

figuredin
to

law, except that the former

square

requires a live
The

load of 50 Ibs. per

foot

be

taken

for all roofs.

Chicago
horizontal
pressure,

law

provides as
of which

follows
is
more

"

In

the

case

of

all

buildingsthe height
which

than shall

i| times their
be made
30

least wind for

dimension, allowances
shall not be

for Ibs.

figuredat
surface. may

less than The take of

each

square

foot of

exposed

precautions
the form of
to

againstthe
any wind
"

effects of wind
all of the
:

pressure

one

or

following factors
of structure,

resistance

pressure
First.

Dead

weight

in especially

its lower

parts.

226

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

"

Second.
Third.

Diagonal Rigidity

braces. between

"

of connections

vertical

and

horizontal
"

members.

Fourth.
as

By constructing
pass

iron

or

steel with

pillarsin

such

manner

to

through

two

stories

joints breaking

in alternate

stories."

ALLOWABLE

HEIGHT

OF

BUILDINGS.

The

New

York that
"

law

sets

no

limitation

on

the

height of

buildingsin
Boston

city.
No

law

building or

other be

structure

hereafter
ing exceedthe is
a

erected, except 2" times

church width

spire,shall
of the

of

height
on

the

widest

street

which
street

building public
passage

or

structure
or

stands, whether
or
a

such way

street

place
or

private

existing at
as

the

of this

act

thereafter
feet in

approved
any
case;

provided by
width
to to structure

law,

nor

exceeding 125
from
street

such

be the width the of the

the
on

face of the
the width other
to

building or
side, or
be the the

line of the
uneven

if the

street

is

width, such
of
the
street

average

width
or

of

part

opposite
"

building

ture." struc-

Chicago
sidewalk
walls.

ordinance of
to

No

buildingshall

be erected

in the the

city of Chicago
level And shall dimension. be
more

greater height than

the

160

feet from

highest point
no

of external
skeleton

bearing,
tion construc-

the be

height of
than
no

buildingof
times masonry
as

more

three

its least

horizontal shall

And than

buildingof
times
as

construction its least

four

high
been

horizontal

dimension."
The in

buildingswhich
were

have

termed passage
were

"

sky-scrapers
of this before nance, ordithe

"

Chicago
or on

all built

before

the

buildingpermits
effect.

which

issued

law

went

into

APPENDIX

TABLE.

227

22S

ARCHITECTURAL

ENGINEERING.

INDEX.

PAGE

Anchors

for

terra

cotta

work

104 215
228

for specifications Ashland

Block,

data

about

wind-bracing
Athletic Club

in
about
. .

148
228 13, 75
20

Building,

data

fire in

.-

of columns fire-proofing

Auditorium,

data

about

227 of
of

foundations settlement Auditorium

190 191

Annex,

data

about of

228
107
112

Bay windows,

construction floors and

ceilingsin
for

framing
Masonic

of,

Reliance

Building Building
"

109 109

Temple
Reliance

spandrel sections,
Beam

112

footings, calculation
foundations

of

180

178
82
loo

Beams

in floor system

spandrel
for specifications Book-tile

206

164
for

Borings
Boston

foundations Law
"

171 allowable floor loads foundations loads loads

on

Building

height

of

buildings

226 216
222

brick- work
masonry

222 220

on

strength of columns wrought-iron

Box columns and steel

219,

220

218 124,

126,

131

of fire-proofing

134
228

Boyce Building,
Brackets for bay

data

about

windows Reliance

108

Building
229

H2

230

INDEX.

PAGE

Brick, hollow, used

Brick-work
"

for

fire-proofing
pressure
on

134
201 220

allowable

building laws
for specifications

209
216

Building

Laws brick-work
cast

222 220

columns

columns foundations

219
222

height of buildings
stone, wind

226
220

walls, piers,etc
pressure and steel

225
218 160

wrought-iron
Built sections
vs.

rolled

beams

Caissons" Cantilever Cast

pneumatic
girders

198 186, 198

220

columns"

building laws
disadvantages
of

114 114 208 206

jointsfor Castings"
Cast-iron Caxton
"

for specifications for specifications

"

Building
"

data
. .

about

227

Ceilings suspended.
Cement

165
210

plastering
"

for specifications
"

Champlain

Building

data

about

227 39

of floor-plan

Chicago Building Law

"

allowable

height of buildings
defined columns columns

226
1 1

construction fire-proof of exterior fire-proofing interior floor arches floor loads

95 135 74
216
222

foundations loads
on

brick-work masonry

222 220

mill construction skeleton

defined defined defined 219,

18

construction

94
16
220

slow-burning strength
wind

construction

of columns

pressure and

225

wrought-iron
Chicago Chicago Chicago Chicago
Construction

steel

218 91 194

Library
Office Stock

"

pile foundations
data
data about about

Buildings" Exchange
"

227,

228 227 26

descriptionof
Clearance Columbus
between

floor-beams, girders
"

and

columns

85
228

Building

data

about

232

INDEX.

PAGE

Combined

footings, calculation
of

of

186

Compression
Concrete

clay

under

foundations

176 66, 69, 71 184

floor-arches in foundations for. specifications

. .

210

Connection-angles
Connections
Court Dead
"

"

standard

85
208 107

for specifications

walls loads
on

76
floor system of Fort
on

go

Dearborn

Building

82

foundations

176

Deflection

of floor-beams

84
due
to

framework,
Detail

wind

160

plans
"

for steelwork

43
206

Drawings

for specifications
"

Earthquakes
Eccentric

provisions for
"

156
of
126 124 166

loading

calculation
on

columns

Elevator Erection

enclosures of steel-work
cost
cranes

46
of

46
used in

46
46 46

time

required for

Field Fire

connections loss in United States

"

Fire-proof

construction

comparative
definition
of

cost

of

10 u 21

Fire-proof ducts
vaults

for

piping
"

structures

requirements

of
1

16

65

efficiencyof Fire-proofing,
in Tremont
materials methods of of columns for

131
22 12

Temple,
of

Boston

-.,

15
20,

132

stairways

and

elevator

shafts.

.,

19
211

specificationsfor
Fire
test

of

fire-proofbuilding
brick

13 54

Floor

arches,

Chicago

Building Law
costs

for

74 74
54

comparative corrugated
Guastavino hollow
in tile

of

iron

type

73
54

Equitable Building
Insurance

56
....

in Home
in Montauk

Building

56 56

Building

INDEX.

233
PAGE

Floor

arches, Melan

system

67
72
68

segmental
steel
test

straps

and

concrete

by fire
of

75 system 7"

test

Metropolitan
of

.wire

mesh

69 84
82

Floor-beams,

calculation

Chicago

practice
for of
.
.

connections deflection economical

necessary

85 84 83 85
"-

arrangement
clearance

of

Floor-girders
length of
Floor-loads.. Fort Dearborn Field

86 86

76

Building
Building
Laws

81
80 81 216

Marshall
Old

requirements
"The Fair"

Colony Building of Building Building

data about

177
211

Floors,
Fort

for specifications

Dearborn

Building
"

227

descriptionof
floor and unit column
on

38
loads columns

81, 82
203 155
i

strains

wind-bracing
Foundations Auditorium
beam

?i

190
1

78

Building
calculation

Laws
of beam

222

footings footings

180 186 179 194

combined rail

footings

Chicago Library
combined
concrete

footings
in

185
184

Great

Northern

Hotel

179 173

independent piers
loads
on

176 Building
Life
Insurance 186
,

Manhattan

Building, New

York

197

Marquette Building
masonry
-vs.

184
173

raft

Old

Colony
raft

Building

178
192

pile
pile vs.
rail..

196
197

pneumatic

178

234

INDEX.

PAGE

Foundations,

Rand-McNally
Schiller Theater
of

Building Building

186 193 I9i

177

settlements
"The

Fair"

Building
Central

Wisconsin

Depot

193
39
;

Framing plans

economical for Furring, specifications tile Girder loads

"

83
212

165
Fort Dearborn

Building

82

Girders, cantilever
for floor system

186, 198
86
101

spandrel for specifications Gray column,

Great Northern details of
about

207 125 228

Hotel, data
,

foundations Guastavino Hartford floor arches

of

179 73

Building, data
of

about

228 226 54

Height
Hollow

buildings

"

building laws
of

tile

advantages
floor arches

15

56
62

sustaining power used for furring

used Home Insurance
in

165 163
97 about of

partitions

Building
data settlement

227

191
205 218 227 154

for Inspection,specifications laws Iron, wrought, building Isabella

Building, data

about

wind-bracing

Jackscrews Johnson's patent J oints,

open

used

in foundations tile-arch

185
61 90

Knee-braces,

calculation
"

of

153
155 154
121 1

Knee-bracing
Larimer

Fort

Dearborn

Building

Isabella columns
"

Building
of

connections
tests

23

Lee

tile-arches

58
about 227 50
vs.

Leiter Lime

Building, data
vs.

cement

Limestone

Live

loads

"

pillars Chicago practice

defined discussion

steel

columns

131

79

76

of, for office buildings

77

INDEX.

235

Live

loads

on

foundations

176
Francisco 79 79
227

in Mills

Building, San Building

about

in Venetian

Manhattan

Building,
Life

data

foundations Insurance

of

186

Building, New
about

York,

foundations

of

197
227 26

Marquette Building,data

description of
foundations Marshall Field of
about

184
228 80 124

Building, data
box

floor loads Masonic

Temple,

columns

in in

column-sheets
data

169
228

about

mechanical

plants in
in in

33 90

piers in

specialfeatures
two-story columns
on

36

158
202

unit strains

columns
in

wind-bracing
Masonry
Mechanical Melan
"

143
220

building laws piers

features, installation
of

88
21

floor-arches floor-arches

67 69
18 about of due
to

Metropolitan
Mill Monadnock

construction

Building, data

227,

228 igi

settlement vibrations

wind.

161

wind-bracing
Mortar, colored
Mullions,
connections of

in

152
214
lor

Newberry
New York

for specifications data about Library, of Building Laws fire-proofing

"

214

228 columns

96
216
222 222 220

floor

loads

foundations loads
on

brick-work masonry

protectionof
strength
Life Insurance
of

steel-work 219,
steel

53
220

columns
and

New

York

wrought-iron Building, data

time

218
227

about of

description
column data connections about

38
erection

required for

46
128 227

Old

Colony Building
"

floor loads

81

236

INDEX.

PAGE

Old

Colony

Building
"

foundations

178
152 228

wind-bracing
Owings
Pabst

Building, Building
"

data

about

column
work
,

connections for specifications

159
206

Painting
Panelled Partitions

of metal beams
"

58
per

load

square

feet

on

floor system

80
212

specifications for
types of
used

163 136
50 228

in wind-bracing construction
about

Permanency
Phoenix

of skeleton

Building, data
columns,

connections

of

128 134 125

of fire-proofing with Piers

"

pintle-plates
type Field

exterior

"

Chicago
Marshall Masonic

91

Building

89
90

Temple

Monadnock
treatment

Building
of

98
88 192

Pile foundations

Chicago Library
tests

194 194
222

of

Piles

"

building laws
tile-arches used
as

Pioneer Plaster

58
135
208

fire-proofing

for Plates, specifications Pneumatic caissons foundations Pontiac

198
197
about 227

Building,data
tile in

deflections Porous Portal

due

to

wind

162 134

fire-proofing bracing, calculation of

Old

148
152 72

Colony Building

Poulson

floor-arches
for work, specifications

Pressed-brick Rail

209
1

footings, calculation
foundations

of

79

178
179
data about 228

Rails, properties of

Rand-McNally
Reliance

Building,

foundations

of

186 228

Building,

data

about of
.

description

26

splicesin
Rivets, specificationsfor

columns
of

159

wind-bracing steel,specifications for

Rods
for

156
208 205

wind-bracing

148

INDEX.

237

Roof

construction
for specifications

164
212

Roofs,

Rookery
Schiller

Building,
Theater

data

about data about of

227 227 193 228 72

86

Building,

foundations

Security Building,data

about

Segmental
Separators

floor-arches

Settlement, allowance

for

172 Office
1

Chicago

Post

72

of exterior

walls

89
191

of foundations
use

of

jackscrews in
earliest

185
94 of

Skeleton

construction, defined example

of

96
50 57, 58
16

permanency Skew-backs in tile-arches construction

"

Slow-burning Spandrel

sections

Ashland

Block

101

bay
Fort

windows for Reliance Dearborn Field

108

Building

112 101

Building Building

Marshall

107
105 109

Marquette Building
Masonic

Temple,
court

bay windows

through

walls

107
100

Spandrels, defined for Specifications

brick-work

209
211

fire-proofing
structural
terra-cotta

steel-work

204 213 166

Stairways
Steel
"

requirements

of building laws of

218 50

Steel-work, deterioration
in walls,

protectionof

95 53
51

painting of protectionof
Boston
law law

53
53

Chicago
New for specifications time
with

York

law

53 204

required for
cement
mortar mortar

erection

46
52 50
220

with Stone
Struts
"

lime

building laws
"

wind-bracing in Venetian
calculation

Building

147
140

Sway-rods,

of, for wind-pressure

of

typicalcalculation

143

238

INDEX.

PAGE

Tacoma

Building, data
for

about.

...

227 104 16

Terra-cotta, anchors
enamelled

for exterior

walls

91
213

for specifications used for column

fire-proofing

133 205
228 227

Tests

of steel-work, specificationsfor

Teutonic
"

Building,

data

about about

The

Fair"

Building, data

foundations floor loads loads

on

177
177

columns of
on

177

settlement unit

191 columns
in

strains

203 144
62

wind-bracing
Tie-rods for floor-arches
for roofs necessary
tests tests

Tile-arches

164
for

63
59

of
most

types

used

61

weights
Tile Tile

of

59 of

floor-arches, construction floors, calculation

vs.

56 64
133

of

Tile, hard
Title and Tremont Unit

porous

Trust

Building,data

about

228
22 201

Temple, Boston,
on

in fire-proofing

strains

columns data
about

202

Unity Building,

228

erection

of steel-work

46 165
102

Vaults, fire-proof
Veneer Venetian
construction

Building, column
data

sheets
about

in

169
227 79

floor loads
unit

strains

on

columns

203 144
201

wind-bracing
W allowable ills, pressure of
on

compression
exterior

89
88

Chicago
thickness
with
court

type
of
.

91

98
101

spandrel girders

107

settlement

of exterior

89
88
of settlement

solid masonry, Western Bank-note

"

objectionsto
Building,
of knee-braces

191 153

Wind-bracing

calculation